/ 


\ 
PREFACE  TO  THE  ENGLISH  EDITION. 


The  value  and  importance  of  the  study  of  Geography  are  so  obvious,  and  indeed 

so  universally  acknowledged,  as  to  require  little  illustration.     Nothing  can  be  more 

interesting  to  man,  or  more  gratify  his  thirst  for  knowledge,  than  a  survey  of  the 

earth  which  he  inhabits,  peopled  as  it  is  by  beings  of  the  same  nature  with  himself 

To  visit  and  observe  tbrei^n  climes  and  regions  is  an  object  of  general  desire,  and 

forms  one  of  the  most  effectual  means  of  enlarging  and  enlightening  the  human 

mind.    This  wish,  however,  unless  in  the  case  of  a  few  individuals,  can  be  gratified 

N  only  to  a  very  limited  extent,  and  in  none  can  embrace  more  than  a  small  portion 

^  of  the  vast  variety  of  interesting  objects  which  the  earth  comprises.  This  necessary 

)C  defect  of  personal  observation  may,  however,  be  in  a  great  measure  supplied,  by 

^  collecting  the  reports   and  narratives  of  those  intelligent  individuals  who   have 

explored  and  described  its  various  regions,  and  forming  out  of  these  a  general 

description  of  the  world  and  its  inhabitants. 

Works  of  this  class  have  always  possessed  a  peculiar  attraction.  Even  in  ancient 

times,  when  the  extent  of  the  known  world,  and  the  information  with  respect  to 

the  inhabitants  and  productions  of  its  remoter  regions,  were  comparatively  limited, 

the  geographical  descriptions  of  Herodotus,  Strabo,  Pomponius  Mela,  and  Pliny, 

rank  among  the  most  valuable  productions  of  the  classic  ages.     But  in  modern 

tiines,  and  particularly  in  the  present  age,  Geograpliy  has  acquired  a  much  more 

prominent  place  among  the  departments  of  human  knowledge.     The  discovery  of 

N         America  in  the  fifteenth  century  awakened  a  spirit  of  enterprise,  and  a  desire  to 

^  explore  unknown  regions,  that  have  continued  to  gain  new  strength.     During  the 

V         last  half  century  more  especially,  the  most  civilised  nations  of  Europe  havebeen 

contending  with  each  other  for  the  glory  of  discovery ;  and  there  is  now  scarcely  a 

v^        shore  however  remote,  or  the  interior  of  a  continent  however  barbarous  or  difficult 

of  access,  which  has  not  been  .surveyed  and  described.     Materials  have  thus  been 

provided  for  a  much  more  complete,  interesting,  and  authentic  description  of  the 

earth,  than  could  have  been  drawn  up  at  any  former  period. 

The  extensive  discoveries  thus  recently  made  have  thrown  a  wonderftil  light  on 
the  structure  and  productions  of  the  earth,  and  affoi'ded  large  contributions  to  all 
^       the  departments  of  natural  history     They  have  also  displayed  man  in  every  varied 
'>\       condition,  from  the  highest  refinement  of  civilised  society,  to  the  rudest  and  most 
abject  condition  of  savage  life.     These  representations  are  not  only  interesting  in 
\        themselves,  but  throw  light  on  the  history  of  past  ages.     Communities  are  still 
»  I      found  exactly  similar  to  some  of  those  described  in  the  earliest  records  of  antiquity. 
r\i      The  tent  of  the  Arab-  sheik  differs  little  from  that  which  Abraham  pitched  on  the 
plains  of  Mamre  ;  many  of  the  Tartar  tribes  are  a  people  exactly  similar  to  those 
who  roamed  in  early  ages  over  the  plains  of  Scythia  ;  and  the  splendid  courts  of 
Babylon  and  Persepolis  have  their  representatives  in  the  existing  world.     We  may 
thus,  in  fact,  trace  back  man  to  an  earlier  and  ruder  stage  thanany  represented  in 
the  ancient  records;  for  these  convey  only  faint  andfabulous  notions  of  what 
^    mankind   had  been  at  a  very  early  period.     But  the  wilds  of  America,  and  the 
t    shores  of  the  Pacific,  exhibit  the  state  of  savage  simplicity,  which  doubtless  existed 
^    in  Europe  before  the  light  of  authentic  history  had  begun  to  dawn.     Hence  it  is 
\V    that  Geography,  in  its  present  extended  range,  not  only  shows  man  as  he  actually 
^  exists,  but  delineates,  as  it  were,  the  progressive  history  of  the  species. 
_^         Besides  the  gratification  thus  afforded  to  a  liberal  curiosity,  the  knowledge  of 
"    even  the  remotest  regions  has,  through  recent  events,  become  an  object  of  the 
utmost   practical   importance.     In    many   of  these,   colonies   have   been   founded, 
political  relations  formed,  and  a  commercial  intercourse  with  them  opened,  by  the 
civilised  nations  of  Europe,  and  particularly  by  Britain.     Regions  the  most  distant 
to  which  a  ship  can  sail  form  integral  portions  of  her  dominion,  and  have  their 
ports  crowded  with  her  vessels.     There  are  thousands  in  this  country  who  have  a 
more   intimate   connection   with  Calcutta  or  Sydney,  than  with    towns  in   their 
immediate  vicinity.     The  manufacturer  labours  to  supply  the  markets  of  countries, 
the  very  existence  of  which,  fifty  years  ago,  was  unknown ;  the  circumnavigation 
of  the  globe  is  now  an  ordinary  trading  voyase.     The  knowledge  of  Geography 
has  thus  become  a  necessary  qualification  for  the  pursuits  of  commerce  and  indus- 
try, and  fir  much  of  the  ordinary  and  current  business  of  life.     A  great  proportion 
of  the  youth  of  Britain  are  trained  for  employments  in  countries  which  lie  fai 
beyond  the  limits  of  Europe. 

3 


IV  PREFACE    TO    THE    ENGLISH    EDITION. 

The  same  causes  have,  moreover,  given  to  the  knowledge  of  distant  countries  a 
peculiar  hold  on  the  domestic  and  social  affections.  There  are  few  amongst  us 
who  have  not  a  near  relation,  perhaps  a  brother  or  a  child,  residing  in  another 
hemisphere.  Oceans  now  separate  us  from  those  to  whom  we  are  united  by  the 
tenderest  ties ;  the  objects  of  our  affection  have  their  abode  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ganges,  or  the  shores  of  tlie  Pacific ;  and  many,  whose  hearts  are  knit  in  the  closest 
friendship,  are  divided  from  each  other  by  half  the  earth.  In  this  situation,  a 
description  of  the  place  in  which  our  friend  or  relative  dwells,  the  objects  which 
meet  his  eye,  the  society  in  which  he  mingles,  must  afford  peculiar  gratification, 
and  soothe  tlie  mind  under  this  painful  separation. 

Deeply  impressed  with  a  sense  of  the  great  extent  and  difficult  execution  of  a 
complete  geographical  work,  the  Editor,  during  nearly  ten  yeais  in  which  he  has 
been  engagedupon  it,  has  used  the  utmost  exertion  to  procure  from  every  quarter 
information  and  aid.  He  has  studiously  collected  the  most  recent,  authentic,  and 
accurate  accounts  of  the  extent,  natural  features,  poi)uIation,  productions,  industry, 
political  constitution,  literature,  religion,  and  social  state  of  the  various  regions  of 
the  globe,  with  the  leading  details  as  to  their  districts  and  cities.  The  sciences 
connected  with  the  natural  history  of  the  earth  have,  however,  attained  to  such  an 
extent  and  importance,  that  a  thorough  knowledge  of  them  can  only  be  possessed 
by  individuals  who  have  specially  devoted  themselves  to  one  particular  branch. 
The  Editor,  therefore,  consiilercd  it  essential  to  procure  the  co-operation  of  writers 
who  had  risen  to  acknowledged  eminence  in  the  departments  of  Geology  and 
Mineralogy,  Zoology  and  Botany.  He  c~onsidered  that  he  had  fully  succeeded, 
when  Professor  Jameson  undertook  to  delineate  the  geological  structin'e  of  the 
globe,  and  the  distribution  of  minerals  over  its  surface;  Mr.  Swainson  to  explain 
the  distribution  of  animals,  and  the  most  remarkable  of  those  found  in  each  particu- 
lar region;  and  Dr.  Hooker  to  perform  the  same  task  in  regard  to  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  Professor  Wallace  has  illustrated  the  relations  of  the  earth  as  a  planet, 
the  trigonometrical  surveys,  the  construction  of  maps,  and  other  subjects  connected 
with  mathematical  science.  These  tasks  have  been  executed  in  a  manner  which, 
it  is  hoped,  will  fully  support  the  high  reputation  of  their  respective  authors.  In 
preparing  the  sections  relating  to  commerce,  the  editor  derived  much  assistance 
from  Mi\  M'Cullocli's  Dictionary  of  Commerce,  and  he  is  also  indebted  to  that 
gentleman  for  many  valuable  communications.  Various  parts  relating  to  remote 
countries  have  been  revised  by  gentlemen  recently  returned  from  them. 

The  Maps,  which  are  so  numerous  as  to  form  a  complete  Atlas,  have  been 
executed  from  drawings  by  Hall ;  artd  having  been  carefully  revised  by  the  Editor, 
they  will,  it  is  hoped,  be  found. to  be  accurate,  and  to  include  all  the  most  recent  dis- 
coveries. Notwithstanding  the  smallness  t)f  the  scale,  they  are  illustrated  by  the 
letter-press  in  a  manner  which  enables  them  to  comprise  equal  information  with 
others  of  much  larger  dimensions. 

The  other  Wood  Engravings  are  mostly  original,  or  have  been  carefully  selected 
from  the  most  fixithful  representations  of  the  objects  described ;  and  they  are  exe- 
cuted in  the  best  style  by  the  eminent  artists  who.se  names  appear  on  the  title-page. 
They  exliihit  the  most  remarkable  plants  and  animals,  the  chief  cities,  public  build- 
ings, natural  curiosities,  and  picturesque  scenery,  with  the  characteristic  figures 
and  costumes  of  the  natives,  in  the  countries  described.  It  is  not  believed  that  any 
work  of  this  kind  is  similarly  embellished,  at  least  to  nearly  the  same  extent. 
These  representations  are  by  no  means  introduced  for  the  sake  of  mere  ornament; 
they  will  be  found  of  the  greatest  utility,  conveying  an  infinitely  better  i  lea  of  the 
objects  than  could  be  derived  from  the  most  laboured  description. 

Notwithstanding  all  these  efforts,  it  is  impossible  to  lay  this  volume  before  the 
Public  without  the  painful  reflection,  that,  in  a  subject  involving  such  an  infinite 
number  and  variety  of  details,  many  of  which  are  often  very  difficult  to  procure, 
not  a  few  imperfections  and  even  errors  must  inevitably  occur.  M.  Balbi,  whose 
exertionsto  collect  the  most  recent  geographical  information  are  well  known,  and 
to  whose  labours  the  present  volume  is  much  indebted,  candidly  observes : — "  One 
of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  be  surmounted  in  the  composition  of  an  elementary 
treatise  of  Geography  is  the  want  of  contemporary  docvunents.  Geography  is 
almost  neces.sarily  a  compound  of  things  which  are,  with  things  which  have  ceased 
to  be.  How  can  one  be  informed  of  all  the  changes  that  take  place  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years,  even  in  the  capitals  of  Europe,  still  more  in  those  of  Asia,  Africa, 
and  America?  To  compose  a  Geography  which  should  exhibit  a  complete  picture 
of  the  globe  at  a  particular  peiiod,  it  would  be  necessary  to  have  authentic  docu- 
ments, all  of  the  same  date  and  that  a  recent  one ;  which  never  has  been,  and 
never  can  be." 


ADVERTISEMENT 


AMERICAN    EDITION 


The  object  and  plan  of  the  Encyclopedia  of  Geography  have 
been  very  fully  set  forth  in  the  Preface  to  the  English  Edition,  and 
the  names  of  the  editor  and  his  collaborators  are  sufficient  vouch- 
ers for  its  value.  It  is  due,  however,  to  the  American  reader,  to 
inform  him  in  what  respects  these  volumes  differ  from  the  original. 
The  whole  of  the  English  work  is  here  given,  with  the  single  ex- 
ception, that  the  description  of  Great  Britain,  which  occupied 
more  than  one-third  of  the  Book  devoted  to  Europe,  and  con- 
siderably more  than  the  space  given  to  the  whole  of  America,  has 
been  somewhat  abridged ;  but,  it  is  believed,  without  the  omission 
of  any  thing  of  importance.  The  text  has  been  carefully  revised 
and  corrected  throughout,  and  in  most  cases  more  recent  statis- 
tical  details  have  been  substituted  for  those  of  the  original.  The 
additions  to  the  first  volumes  are  not  considerable  in  amount,  but 
are  generally  such  as  have  been  required  by  changes  in  onr  know- 
ledge or  in  the  condition  of  thinsfs.  The  Book  relating  to  America 
has  been  enlarged  as  far  as  the  limits  of  the  work  would  allow, 
principally  by  the  addition  of  local  details ;  the  condition  of  the 
new  American  states  is  too  unsettled  to  render  it  worth  while  to 
fill  much  space  with  accounts  of  their  political  relations,  which 
might  be  entirely  changed  before  these  pages  met  the  eye  of  the 
reader.  The  Chapter  which  treats  of  the  United  States  has  been 
written  anew,  the  original  being  extremely  imperfect  and  incorrect, 
as  all  European  treatises  on  the  subject  are. — Our  growth  is  so 
rapid,  the  increase  of  our  population,  wealth,  commerce,  manufac- 
tures, and  otiier  industrial  resources,  so  amazing,  the  creation  of 

new  towns,  cities,  nay,  states,  is  continually  making  such  a  change 

1*  5 


Vi  ADVERTISEMENT  TO  THE  AMERICAN  EDITION. 

in  the  face  of  things,  pubhc  works  are  conceived,  planned,  and 
executed  on  so  great  a  scale  and  with  such  promptitude,  that  it  is 
not  at  all  surprising  that  a  distant  writer  should  be  entirely  baffled 
in  his  attempts  to  describe  the  country  as  it  is.  The  Zoological 
section  has  alone  been  retained,  but  it  has  been  much  enlarged, 
chiefly  from  a  later  work  of  Mr.  Swainson's ;  and  some  general 
remarks  upon  the  shells  of  the  United  States  have  been  added. 
For  the  account  of  the  Geology  of  our  country,  the  reader  is 
indebted  to  Prof.  Rogers,  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  The 
Botanical  section  has  also  been  prepared  by  a  gentleman  of  high 
reputation  in  the  scientific  world.  The  Editor  is  painfully  sensible 
of  the  imperfection  of  the  other  parts  of  this  Chapter,  but  he  trusts 
that  the  difficulties  of  the  subject  will  obtain  for  him  the  indulgence 
of  the  reader. 

Philadelphia,  October  1st,  1836. 


CONTENTS  OF  VOL.  I. 


fREFACE  TO  THE  ENGLISH  EDITION lli 

PREFACE  BY  THE  AMERICAN  EDITOR ▼ 

INTRODUCTION 9 


PART    I. 

HISTORY   OF    GEOGRAPHY. 


BOOK  I. 

ANCIENT  GEOGRAPHY. 
CHAP.   I. 

Hebrew  and  Faoenician  Geography Page  10 

I.  Patriarchal  A?es 10 

II.  Ki  rigdom  of  Israel 11 

III.  Cominefce  of  Tyre 11 

IV.  Tlie  World  according  to  the  Hebrews 12 

1.  Tarshish 12 

2.  Ophir 14 

3.  The  Isles 15 

4.  Sheba  and  Dedan 16 

5.  Countries  on  the  Euphrates 17 

6.  Gog,  Magog,  and  the  North 17 

CHAP.  II. 
Ancient  Voyages  of  Discovery 18 

I.  Circumnavigation  of  Africa  under  Necho 18 

II.  Voyage  of  Sataspcs 19 

III.  Voyage  of  Hanno 19 

IV.  Voyage  of  Eiidoxus 22 

V.  Voyage  of  Pytheas 23 

VI.  Voyage  of  Nearchus 24 

VII.  Periplus  of  the  Erylhrean  Sea 27 

CHAP.  III. 
Greek  Geography  before  Alexander 30 

I.  Geography  of  Homer 30 

II.  Poetical  Geography 31 

III.  School  of  Miletus 32 

IV.  Geography  of  Herodotus 33 

1.  Europe  of  Herodotus 34 

2.  Asia  of  Herodotus 34 

3.  Africa  of  Herodotus 36 

CHAP.  IV. 
First  Alexandrian  School.    Eratosthenes  and  Strabo  37 

I.  Expedition  of  Alexander 37 

II.  Expedition  of  Seleucus 38 

III.  Eratosthsnes .T8 

rV.  Hipparchus 39 

V.  The  World  according  to  Eratosthenes  and  Strabo  39 

1.  Europe 40 

2.  Asia 43 

3.  Africa 43 

CHAP.  V. 
Roman  Geography 43 

I.  Mela 45 

II.  Pliny 48 

III.  Itineraries— Peutingerian  Table 49 

CHAP.  VI. 
Second  Alexandrian  School 51 

I.  Marinus  of  Tvre 51 

II.  Ptolemy ." 52 

1.  Europe 53 

2.  Asi a 56 

3.  Africa 59 


BOOK  II. 

GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGEa 

CHAP.  I. 
Arabian  Geography ......60 

I.  General  System 61 

II.  Asia 62 

III.  Africa 63 

CHAP.  II. 
European  Geography  during  the  Dark  Ages 63 

CHAP.  III. 
Geographical  Knowledge  derived  from  the  Crusades.  64 

CHAP.  IV. 
Tartar  Geography .".....  65 

CHAP.  V. 
Venetian  Geography 67 


BOOK  III. 

MODERN  GEOGRAPHY. 
CHAP.  I. 

Discovery  of  America  and  the  East  Indies 69 

CHAP.  II. 
Early  System  of  Modern  Geography 70 

CHAP.  III. 
Modern  Astronomical  Geography 71 

CHAP.  rv. 

Modern  Critical  Geography 72 

CHAP.  V. 
Modern  Descriptive  and  Statistical  Geography 73 

CHAP.  VI. 
Modern  Geography  of  Asia 74 

CHAP.  VII. 
Modern  Geography  of  Africa 71 

CHAP.  VIII. 
Modern  Geography  of  America 76 

CHAP.  IX. 
Modern  Geography  of  the  Austral  Seas  and  Islands.  77 


PART    II. 

PRINCIPLES     OF     GEOGRAPHY. 
BOOK    I. 

ASTRONOMICAL  PRINCIPLES. 


CHAP.  I. 

General  View  of  the  Phenomena  of  the  Heavens, 
apparent  Motions,  fixed  Stars,  Planets,  &c 1 


CHAP.  II. 

The  Heavens,  as  seen  through  the  Telescope. 


Approximation  to  the  Figure  and  Magnitude  of  the 
Earth 83 


VUl 


CHAP.  IV. 

Doctrine  of  the  Sphere 

CHAP.  V. 

Rotation  of  the  Sun,  Moon,  and  Plai^pts  on  their 

Axes— their  Figure 86 

CHAP.  VI. 
Distances  and  Magnitude  of  the  Heavenly  Bodies. .    87 

CHAP.  VII. 
Rotation  of  the  Earth 89 

CHAP.   VIII. 
Apparent  Annual  Motion  of  the  Sun.    Vicissitude 
of  Seasons 90 

CHAP.  IX. 

Division  and  Measure  of  Time 94 

CHAP.  X. 
Proper  Motion  of  the  Moon.    Her  Phases.    Eclipses 
of  the  Sun  and  Moon 97 

CHAP.  XI. 
Motion  of  the  Planets  round  the  Sun 108 

CHAP.  XII. 
Motion  of  the  Earth  round  the  Sun 110 

CHAP.   XIII. 
Orbits  of  the  Planets 113 

CHAP.  XIV. 
Comets 114 

CHAP.  XV. 
Law  of  Universal  Gravitation 116 

CHAP.  XVI. 
Figure  and  Constitution  of  the  Earth  deduced  from 
the  Theory  of  Gravitation 124 


CONTENTS. 
..    84 


CHAP.  XVII. 

The  Tides li>G 

CHAP.  XVIII. 
General  View  of  the  Solar  System 133 

CHAP.  XIX. 
Figure  and  Magnitude  of  the  Earth 135 

CHAP.  XX. 
Determination  of  Latitude  and  Longitude 147 

CHAP.  XXI. 
Representation  of  tlie  Earth 152 


'  BOOK  II. 

GEOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLES. 
CHAP.  I. 

Meteorology 168 

CHAP.  IL 

Hydrology 186 

CHAP.  in. 
Geognosy 207 


BOOK  III. 

GENERAL     PRI-NCIFLES     OF     GEOGRAPHY    UNDER    ITS 
RELATION   TO    ORGANISED  AND  LIVING  BEINGS. 
CHAP.   L 
Geographvconsidered  in  relation  to  the  Distribution 

of  Plants 236 

CHAP.  II. 
Geography  considered  in  relation  to  the  Distribution 

of  Man  and  Animals 254 

CHAP.  IIL 
Geography  considered  in  relation  to  Man  in  Society  275 


PART  III. 

GEOGRAPHY  CONSIDERED  IN  RELATION  TO  THE  VARIOUS  REGIONS  OF  THE  GLOBE. 


BOOK  I.— EUROPE. 
CHAP.  L 

Genfral  Survey  of  Edrope 289 

I.  Natural  Features 2t)0 

ir.  Inhabitants 291 

III.  Botany 294 

IV.  Zoology 298 

V.  Languages 306 

CHAP.  II. 
England 312 

I.  Geographical  Outline 317 

II.  Natural  Geography 319 

III.  Historical  Geography 341 

IV.  Political  Geography 342 

V.  Productive  Industry 351 

VL  Civil  end  Social  State 357 

VII.  Local  Geography 362 

1.  Southern  Counties 364 

2.  Eastern  Counties 368 

3.  Central  Counties 371 

4.  Northern  Counties 383 

5.  Western  Counties 391 

fi.  Wales 396 

CHAP.  IIL 
Scotland 401 

I.  Geographical  Outline 401 

II.  Natural  Geography 402 

III.  Historical  Survey 408 

IV.  Political  Constitution 409 

V.  Productive  Industry 410 

VL  Civil  and  Social  State 413 

VII.  Local  Geography 415 

1.  The  Ijowland  Counties 415 

2.  The  Hiffhland  Counties 423 

3.  Tlie  Scottish  Islands • 428 

CHAP.  IV. 
iRELANn 432 

I.  General  Outline  and  Aspect 432 

II.  Natural  Geography 433 

HI.  Historical  Geography 440 

IV.  Political  Constitution , 441 

V.  Productive  Industry 442 

VI.  Civil  and  Social  State 446 

VII.  Local  Geography 450 

CHAP.  V. 
Denmark 463 

I.  General  Outline  and  Aspect 405 

II.  Natural  Geography 471 

HI.  Historical  Geography 471 

IV.  Productive  Industry 471 

V.  Political  Geography 472 

VI.  Civil  and  Social  State 472 

VII.  Local  Geosraphy ^■"-  473 


CHAP.  VL 
Sweden  and  Norway .'....  476 

I.  General  Outline  and  Aspect 476 

II.  Natural  Geography 476 

HI.  Historical  Geography 481 

IV.  Political  Geography 481 

V.  Productive  Industry 482 

VI.  Civil  and  Social  State 484 

VH.  Local  Geography 486 

1.  Sweden 486 

2.  Norway 491 

3.  Lapland 493 

CHAP.  VIL 

Holland  AND  Belghi.m 

I.  General  Outline  and  Aspect 

H.  Natural  Geography 

HI.  Historical  Geography 

IV.  Political  Geography. 


495 

495 

498 

498 

502 

V.  Productive  Industry 503 

VI.  Civil  and  Social  State 505 

VII.  Local  Geocxaphy 508 

1.  Belgium 509 

2.  Holland 511 

CHAP.  VIIL 
France 518 

I.  General  Outline  and  Aspect 519 

II.  Natural  Geography 520 

HI.  Historical  Geography 530 

IV.  Political  Geography 532 

V.  Produrtive  Industry 534 

VI.  Civil  and  Social  State 540 

VII.  Local  Geography 543 

CHAP.  IX. 
Spain .■  ■  558 

I.  General  Outline  and  Aspect 558 

H.  Natural  Geography 559 

HI.  Historical  Geography 568 

IV.  Political  Geography 570 

V.  Productive  Industry 571 

VI.  Civil  and  Social  State 572 

VII.  Local  Geography 575 

VIII.  Republic  of  Andorra 589 

CHAP.  X. 

Portugal 590 

L  General  Outline  and  Aspect 590 

II.  Natural  Geography 590 

HI.  Historical  Geography 591 

IV.  Political  Geography 591 

V.  Productive  Industry 592 

VI.  Civil  and  Social  State 593 

VII-  Local  Geography 593 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Geography  consists  in  the  description  and  delineation  of  the  Earth.  It  considers  that 
planet  in  respect  to  its  form,  its  connexion  with  other  bodies  in  the  universe,  the  various 
parts  into  which  it  is  divided,  tlieir  relations  to  each  other,  and  the  objects  with  which 
each  is  respectively  filled.  Geography  indeed  could  not  attempt  a  scientific  analysis  of 
all  these  objects,  without  seeking  to  comprehend  within  itself  a  complete  circle  of  science. 
It  views  only  their  obvious  and  visible  characters,  and  chiefly  those  features  which  are 
peculiar  to  each  respective  country  and  region  on  the  face  of  the  globe. 

The  great  importance  of  this  branch  of  knowledge  must  be  sufficiently  obvious.  It 
embraces  a  vast  variety  of  those  objects  which  are  most  interesting  in  themselves,  and 
with  which  it  most  concerns  man  to  be  conversant.  It  enables  the  navigator,  the  merchant, 
the  military  commander,  to  carry  on  their  respective  operations.  Geography  is  moreover 
essential  to  tlie  clear  understanding  of  every  branch  of  the  history  botli  of  man  and  nature. 
The  transactions  of  bordering  states  are  unintelligible  without  a  knowledge  of  their  rela- 
tive extent  and  position,  and  of  the  theatre  on  which  the  great  events  of  their  history  are 
acted.  Every  foi-m,  both  of  animal  and  vegetable  nature,  is  modified  in  the  most  striking 
manner  by  the  climate  or  the  country  in  which  it  is  placed.  Still  more  intimate  is  its  re- 
lation with  geology  and  other  sciences,  Avhich  investigate  the  materials  composing  the 
substance  and  crust  of  the  earth.  None  of  these  branches  of  knowledge  can  be  distinctly 
imderstood,  or  viewed  under  its  proper  relation  and  arrangement,  without  a  previous  know 
ledge  of  geography. 

This  important  and  extensive  subject  seems  to  divide  itself  naturally  into  three  parts. 

The  First  Part  treats  of  the  "  History  of  Geography ;"  the  origin  and  progress  of  the 
Science ;  and  the  steps  by  which  man,  who  seemed  fixed  by  nature  in  a  local  and  limited 
position,  has  made  himself  acquainted  with  the  immense  circuit  of  the  globe.  This  Part 
is  divided  into — I.  Ancient  Geography ; — II.  Geography  of  the  Middle  Ages ; — IE.  Modern 
Geography. 

The  Second  Part  comprises  the  Principles  of  the  Science.  These  are — I.  Mathemati- 
cal :  those  which  relate  to  the  form  of  the  earth,  its  movements,  its  place  in  the  Solar 
System,  the  great  circles  by  which  it  is  divided,  the  operations  by  which  it  is  surveyed, 
and  the  modes  in  which  its  spherical  outline  can  be  represented  on  the  plane  surface  of  a 
map.  II.  Physical :  those  which  treat  of  the  substances  which  cover  the  earth's  surface, 
the  elements  which  compose  and  surround  it ;  rock,  earth,  water,  air,  as  they  appear  under 
the  various  fornis  of  mountain,  plain,  river,  sea,  and  present  all  the  changing  phenomena 
of  the  atmosphere.  III.  Geography  may  be  considered  in  its  relation  to  other  objects  and 
sciences.  1.  To  Zoology,  or  the  distribution  of  animals  over  the  globe.  2.  To  Botany,  or 
the  diffusion  of  vegetable  productions.  3.  To  the  human  race,  and  the  various  branches 
into  which  it  has  been  formed,  considered  in  relation  to  numbers,  wealth,  political  union, 
social,  intellectual,  and  moral  condition. 

The  Third  Part  considers  Geography  in  detail,  as  it  applies  to  the  various  quarters  and 
countries  into  which  the  world  is  divided,  the  outline  and  extent  of  each,  its  natural  fea- 
tures, the  revolutions  through  which  it  has  passed,  its  political  constitution,  the  industry 
and  wealth,  the  civil  and  social  condition  of  its  inhabitants.  The  description  of  each 
country  will  conclude  with  a  local  and  topographical  survey  of  its  districts,  cities,  and 
towns. 

This  Part  will  divide  itself  into  five  general  heads: — I.  Europe.  II.  Asia.  III.  Afi-ica. 
TV.  Australia.     V.  America. 

An  Index  will  be  added,  which,  being  extremely  copious,  and  containing  references  to 
all  the  places  mentioned  in  the  work,  will  answer  in  a  great  degree  the  purposes  of  a  Geo- 
graphical Gazetteer, 

VOT,    I  B 


PART    I. 

HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  History  of  Geography  may  be  divided  into  three  books : — I.  Ancient  Geonfraphy. 
]  I.  Geography  of  the  middle  ages.     III.  Modern  Geography. 


BOOK    I. 

ANCIENT    GEOGRAPHY. 


The  Geography  of  the  Ancients  may  be  considered  under  the  heads  of,  I.  Hebrew 
and  Phoenician  Geography ;  the  principal  features  of  which  may  be  found  in  the  Jewish 
Scriptures.  II.  Greek  Geography,  in  its  early  state,  before  the  expedition  of  Alexander. 
III.  The  first  Alexandrian  school  formed  by  Eratosthenes.  IV.  The  Roman  school,  formed 
chiefly  by  Mela  and  Pliny.     V.  The  second  Alexandrian  school,  formed  by  Ptolemy. 


CHAPTER  I. 

HEBREW  AND  PHCENICIAK  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  Sacred  Records,  in  addition  to  their  higher  claims  on  the  attention  of  mankind, 
possess  the  important  secondary  advantage,  tliat  they  enable  us  to  trace  human  existence, 
and  the  forms  of  society,  back  to  a  mucli  earlier  period  tlian  tlie  information  derived  from 
any  other  source.  They  w'ere  long  anterior  in  this  respect  to  the  classic  story  of  Greece 
and  Rome ;  the  faintest  light  even  of  wliose  fabulous  history  cannot  be  traced  back  to  the 
period  when  Abraham  was  driving  his  flocks  over  the  seatsoffutureempireontheEuphrat.es. 
Among  Abraham's  contemporaries  we  discern  the  germ  of  the  great  monarchies  which 
first  changed  the  face  of  human  affairs.  Nimrod,  the  founder  of  Babylon,  almost  like  an 
Iroquois  chief,  is  mainly  celebrated  for  his  activity  and  success  in  the  chase.  Modern  dis- 
covery has  indeed  made  us  acquainted  with  tribes  existing  in  a  still  ruder  form ;  but  tliere 
is  no  narrative  in  which  we  can  trace  so  distinctly  the  gradual,  yet  somewhat  rapid,  transi- 
tion made  in  these  favoured  regions,  firom  the  hunting  and  pastoral,  to  tlie  commercial  and 
agricultural  states  of  society. 

Sect.  I. — The  Patriarchal  Ages. 

In  the  early  patriarchal  records  we  discover  first  the  rich  IVIesopotamian  plain,  not  yet 
covered  with  cities  and  harvests,  but  standing  as  an  open  common,  over  which  the  sons  of 
Terah  drove  unmolested  their  flocks  and  herds.  In  these  favourable  circumstances,  and 
surrounded  by  simple  and  rural  plenty,  the  flocks  and  tlie  shepherds  multiplied  in  an  extra- 
ordinai-y  manner.  The  heads  of  the  families  became  petty  princes,  and  were  as  such  at 
once  respected  and  feared.  As  they  went  on  increasing,  the  land  became  "not  able  to 
bear  them ;"  and  the  most  intimate  fi-iends  were  able  to  prevent  dissension  among  their 
adherents  only  by  an  entire  thoug^h  painful  separation ;  nay,  even  by  striking  into  routes  so 
opposite,  as  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  a  fiiture  union.  This,  however,  was  rather  a 
palliation  than  a  cure  for  the  evil ;  for,  in  whatever  quarter  each  directed  his  course,  he 
came  into  contact  with  other  families.  The  difficulty  was  still  augmented,  when  all  the 
more  fertile  tracts  began  to  be  cultivated  by  a  fixed  population,  subject  to  regular  govern- 
ment. The  first  regions  which  came  under  these  circumstances  appear  to  have  been  Lower 
Egypt  and  Gerar,  on  the  coast  of  Pliilistia,  along  the  Mediterranean.  In  the  latter  we  find 
Isaac  attempting  to  settle  and  cultivate  the  ground ;  but  the  king,  though  evidently  afi-aid 
to  offend  so  potent  a  tribe,  insisted,  in  a  determined  though  courteous  manner,  tipon  their 
(Quitting  his  territory.  The  flimily  were  therefore  obliged  finally  to  cstablisli  themselves 
in  the  vicinity  of  Hebron,  collecting  the  somewhat  scanty  herbage  which  grew  amid  the 
rugged  mountains  to  the  west  of  the  Dead  Sea.  It  was,  therefore,  an  auspicious  cliange 
when  they  were  transported  into  the  Land  of  Goslien,  a  rich  pastoral  district  of  Egypt. 
The  circumstances  attending  the  captivity  of  Joseph  enable  us  already  to  observe  the 
activity  of  that  interior  caravan-trade,  which  afterwards    on  so  great  a  scale,  traversed 

10 


Book  I.  HEBREW  AND  PHCENICIAN  GEOGRAPHY.  11 

Arabia,  Two  caravans,  destined  for  the  supply  of  Egypt,  appear  meeting  each  other  in 
opposite  directions ;  and  that  cruel  trade,  of  which  men  were  the  object,  is  already  c£jried 
on  in  the  same  remorseless  manner,  and  by  the  same  unjust  means,  by  which  it  has  ever 
since  been  conducted. 

Sect.  II. — The  Kingdom  of  Israel. 

The  Israelites,  after  being  established  in  Egypt  for  more  than  two  centuries,  were 
led  back  into  the  promised  land,  so  long  the  seat  of  their  ancestors.  Every  thing  there, 
since  the  patriarchal  age,  had  assumed  quite  a  different  aspect:  it  presented  walled  cities, 
and  high  cultivation,  accompanied  with  that  gross  superstition  and  dissolute  voluptuousness 
which  are  the  too  common  attendants  of  early  wealth.  The  guilty  inhabitants  of  Canaan 
with  their  country  were  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  Israelites ;  and  the  territory  being 
divided  among  the  ten  tribes,  gave  occasion  to  a  very  careful  topographical  survey ;  but 
nothing  yet  occurred  to  attract  the  views  of  the  nation  beyond  these  limits,  or  towards  the 
world  in  general.  Still  less  could  this  take  place  during  the  subsequent  period,  when  they 
were  forsaken  of  heaven,  and  reduced  to  servitude  under  the  neighbouring  nations.  It 
was  raider  the  favoured  reign  of  David  that  Israel  finally  triumphed  over  all  her  ene- 
mies. That  great  prince  left  to  Solomon,  either  as  subject  or  tributary,  a  territory  extend- 
ing from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Mediterranean  and  the  borders  of  Egypt,  forming  the  most 
powerful  state  then  in  western  Asia.  Solomon,  by  the  terror  of  his  father's  name,  and  of 
the  powerftil  army  transmitted  to  him,  was  enabled  to  preserve  the  whole  of  this  king- 
dom, during  a  long  reign,  m  peaceful  submission.  This  accomplished  prince  devoted  him- 
self to  the  arts  of  peace,  to  the  extension  of  commerce,  to  the  culture  of  science,  and  to 
the  improvement  and  embellishment  of  his  dominions  in  every  direction.  By  the  alliance 
with  Hiram,  he  was  enabled  to  accomplish  voyages  more  remote  than  had,  perhaps,  been 
ever  undertaken  under  any  former  sovereign.  His  alliance,  and  even  his  society,  were 
courted  by  distant  princes ;  and  the  observation  of  the  Jews  began  to  extend  over  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  globe. 

The  separation  of  the  kingdoms  after  the  death  of  Solomon,  was  a  fatal  blow  to  the 
greatness  of  the  house  of  Israel.  Their  divided  power  could  no  longer  maintain  numer- 
ous tributaries  in  submission,  nor  was  it  adequate  to  distant  and  extensive  enterprises.  All 
the  states  beyond  the  Jordan  shook  off  tlie  yoke ;  the  attempts  to  navigate  the  Red  Sea 
were  abandoned ;  and  all  distant  regions  in  a  great  measure  lost  sight  of.  Their  view, 
however,  was  enlarged  by  unexpected  and  unwelcome  events  from  another  quarter. 

The  successive  invasions  of  Assyria  and  Babylon,  which  terminated  in  the  downfall  of 
both  the  kingdoms,  forced  upon  the  Israelites  a  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  these  proud 
and  powerful  empires.  At  the  same  time,  the  colossal  grandeur  of  Egypt,  the  only  power 
capable  of  contending  with  them,  was  brought  into  prominent  notice.  Ample  materials 
were  thus  afforded  for  tliose  lofty  and  awftil  images,  those  pictures  of  the  shaking  of  the 
world  and  the  downfall  of  nations,  which  abound  in  the  writings  of  the  prophets  during 
the  regal  times.  Anotlier  and  nearer  object  attracted  wonder,  and  afforded  the  means  of 
knowledge  respecting  regions  still  more  distant.  This  was  Tyre,  the  earliest  seat  of 
commerce,  in  whose  markets  were  found  collected  the  tin  of  Britain,  the  gold  of  Africa, 
the  cotton  of  India,  and,  perhaps,  the  silks  of  China.  This  forms  so  grand  a  feature,  and 
the  descriptions  of  it  tend  so  much  to  illustrate  early  geograpliy,  that  it  must  claim  some 
separate  notice. 

Sect.  III. — Commerce  of  Tyre. 

Tyre,  which  under  Solomon  was  already  great  and  flourishing,  continued  to  increase 
till,  with  the  exception  of  one  of  its  own  colonies,  it  became  the  most  splendid  emporium 
of  the  ancient  world.  It  appears,  indeed,  truly  wonderftil  that,  at  this  early  period  of  arts 
and  history,  when  Rome  yet  consisted  only  of  a  few  straw-thatched  cottages,  merchants  in 
Tyre  should  vie  with  the  pomp  of  kings.  So  magnificent  v/as  the  scene,  that  the  prophet, 
in  announcing  the  divine  intention  to  destroy  Tyre,  considers  it  as  implying  a  purpose  "  to 
stain  the  pride  of  all  glory,  and  to  bring  into  contempt  all  the  honourable  of  the  earth." 
(Isai.  xxiii.  9.)  Perhaps,  however,  commerce  in  its  earlier  efforts  lias  a  particular  ten- 
dency to  concentrate  itself  in  one  point,  where  alone  it  finds  'protection,  information,  and 
rerfular  channels ;  while  in  the  advance  of  society  its  streams  begin  to  be  more  widely 
diffused. 

In  the  Lnterestmg  picture  of  Tyrian  commerce  drawTi  by  Ezekiel,  the  foundation  of  the 
intercourse  with  Damascus  and  other  contiguous  districts,  is  stated  to  be  "  the  multitude 
of  the  wares  of  her  making;"  that  is,  it  consisted  in  tlie  exchange  of  her  manufactured 
produce  for  the  raw  produce  of  tliese  rich  agricultural  districts.  There  is  little  specifica- 
tion of  the  Tyrian  manufactures,  but  the  returns  were  all  made  in  natural  products,  of  the 
first  quality  which  tlie  soils  of  Judea  and  of  Syria  afforded;  from  Judea,  the  finest  -wheat, 
honey,  oils,  and  balsam ;  from  Syria,  white  wool,  and  the  wine  of  Helbon.  No  situation 
could  be  more  fortunate  than  that  of  Tyre  for  the  formation  of  a  navy,  with  the  magnifi- 


12  fflSTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  I. 

cent  forests  of  Lebanon,  Senir,  and  Bashan,  rising  immediately  behind.  The  timbers,  it 
appears,  were  constructed  of  fir ;  the  cedar  supplied  masts ;  while  the  oak  was  used  for 
tliose  long  and  powerful  oars,  whicli  were  then  the  chief  instruments  of  navigation.  The 
vessels  appear  to  have  been  fitted  up  with  a  luxury  unknown  to  modei-n  times.  The 
benches  were  of  tlie  finest  cypress  wood,  inlaid  with  ivory ;  the  fine  linen  of  Egypt, 
adorned  even  with  embroidery,  was  spread  out  in  sails.  Tyro,  like  Carthage,  appears  to 
have  adopted  the  policy  of  employing  mercenary  troops,  which  she  drew  even  irom  the 
mountainous  districts  of  Persia  and  the  upper  Euphrates.  The  immediate  guard  of  the 
city,  however,  was  intrusted  to  its  neighbours  of  Arvad  and  Gammadin,  who,  standing 
round  the  walls  in  brilliant  armour,  are  said  to  have  "  made  its  beauty  perfect." 

With  regard  to  the  distant  commerce  of  Tyre,  the  quarters  to  wliich  it  was  carried  on 
must  become  the  subject  of  some  discussion,  in  the  course  of  which  we  sliall  introduce  the 
interesting  particulars  given  by  the  prophet. 

Sect.  IV. — The  World  according  to  the  Hebrews. 

No  system  of  Geography  can  be  traced  in  the  sacred  wTiters,  who,  occupied  with  higher 
objects,  do  not  even  allude  to  any  such  as  existing  among  the  Hebrews.  The  ideas  of  that 
people  with  regard  to  the  structure  and  boundaries  of  the  earth  may,  however,  be  inferred 
from  the  genealogical  chapters  {Gen.  x.,  repeated  1  Chron.  i.),  which  contain,  in  fact,  a 
view  of  the  known  divisions  of  the  earth,  agreeing  in  some  striking  particulars  with  the 
records  of  profane  history ;  also  from  the  accounts  of  the  commerce  of  Tyre,  and  from 
various  detached  notices  in  the  historians  and  prophets. 

The  Hebrews  obviously  never  attempted  to  form  any  scientific  theory  respecting  the 
structure  of  the  earth.  The  natural  impression,  which  represents  it  as  a  flat  surface,  with 
the  heaven  as  a  firmament  or  curtain  spread  over  it,  is  found  universally  prevalent.  Be- 
neath was  conceived  to  be  a  deep  pit,  the  abode  of  darkness  and  the  shadow  of  death.  In 
one  place  we  find  the  grand  image  of  the  eartli  being  hung  upon  nothing ;  but,  elsewhere, 
the  pillars  of  the  earth  are  repeatedly  mentioned ;  and  sometimes  the  pillars  of  lieaven. 
In  short,  it  is  evident,  that  every  writer  caught  the  idea  impressed  on  his  senses  and  im- 
agination by  the  view  of  these  grand  objects,  without  endeavouring  to  arrange  them  into 
any  regular  system.  Althougii,  however,  the  Jews  never  indulged  in  speculative  geogra- 
phy, yet  there  are  copious  examples  of  minute  and  careful  topography  for  practical  pur- 
poses. Our  object,  however,  is  not  to  mark  the  divisions  of  Judea,  but  to  trace  the  ideas 
of  the  Jews  respecting  tlie  extent  and  boundaries  of  the  known  world.  We  shall  at  the 
same  time  be  able  to  collect  all  that  is  now  to  be  known  of  the  Phoenician  Geography  ;  for 
it  is  evident  that  Ezekiel  visited  Tyre,  as  Herodotus  did  Babylon,  with  the  eye  of  an  in- 
telligent observer ;  and  he  would  doubtless  hold  intercourse  with  the  best  informed  men  in 
that  great  school  of  commerce  and  navigation.  The  objects  always  alluded  to,  as  placed 
at  the  ferthest  limits  of  their  knowledge,  are  Tarshish ;  Ophir ;  The  Isles ;  Sheba  and 
Dedan ;  The  River ;  Gog,  INIagog,  and  the  north.   {Fig.  1.) 

SuBSECT.  1. — Tarshish. 

Tarshish  is  the  name  which,  in  the  annals  of  Jewish  and  Phcenician  navigation,  occurs 
most  fi-equently,  and  ranks  next  to  Tyre ;  yet  nothing  has  been  found  more  difficult  than 
to  fix  that  name  to  any  precise  place.  The  peculiar  difficulty  is  this ;  that  there  are  two 
voyages  from  Tarshish :  one  up  the  Mediterranean,  bringing  iron,  silver,  lead,  and  tin,  the 
produce  of  Spain  and  Britain  (Ezek.  xxvii.  12.) ;  the  other  up  the  Red  Sea,  bringing  gold, 
ivory,  and  apes,  the  produce  of  tropical  Africa  (1  Kings,  x.  22.).  How  these  two  voyages 
can  be  from  the  same  place,  appears  at  first  sight  to  baffle  research. 

Various  places  have  been  suggested,  among  which  I  should  not  think  it  necessary  to 
mention  Tarsus,  in  Cilicia,  were  it  not  supported  by  such  names  as  Volney  and  Malte 
Brun.  Except  the  resemblance  of  name,  it  has  not  a  single  feature  which  can  be  recon- 
ciled to  the  Tarshish  of  Scripture.  Besides,  the  name  Tarsus  is  evidently  of  Greek  origin 
(See  Steph.  Byzant.  in  v.  Strabo,  1.  14.  BocharVs  Phaleg.,  and  WetsteinHs  Nov.  Test. 
vol.  ii.  p.  511.  and  608.),  whereas  Tarshish  is  manifestly  of  oriental  derivation,  and  is 
doubtless  of  Phcenician  origin.  Indeed,  Malte  Brun  admits  it  to  be  tenable  only  on  the 
clumsy  and  improbable  supposition  of  there  being  two  places  of  the  name  of  Tarshish. 
Tartessus  or  Cadiz  is  certainly  more  plausible,  and  agrees  with  the  Mediterranean  voyage  ; 
but  the  distance  is  too  great,  and  notice  might  have  been  e.xpccted  to  be  taken  of  not  a 
few  intermediate  objects,  particularly  of  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar.  It  is  altogetlier  foreign 
to  the  voyage  by  the  Red  Sea.  This  last  objection  appears  also  to  hold  against  Carthage, 
which,  in  every  other  respect,  seems  preferable  to  Tartessus,  and  of  which  more  will  be 
eaid  in  the  sequel. 

To  solve  the  problem  of  the  two  voyages,  the  only  attempt,  so  far  as  I  know,  has 
been  in  the  ingenious  hypothesis  of  Gosselin :  Tarshish,  according  to  him,  signifies  the 
great  or  open  sea,  as  distinguished  even  from  the  largest  of  its  inclosed  gulfs.  The  name 
may  tlien  be  applied  equally  to  the  Atlantic  and  the  Indian  Ocean ;  and  the  voyage  to  aad 


EooK  L 


HEBREW  AND  PIICENICIAN  GEOGRAPHY. 


13 


Fig.  ].— GEOGRAPHICAL  SYSTEM  OF  THE  HEBREWS. 

20  30  40  60 

•         ■ I 


^^    .  House  of 

^  Ar  Togirmah  ^°^ 


from  Tarshish  may  equally  be  by  the  Red  Sea  or  the  Mediterranean.  But  though  this 
hypothesis  be  supported  by  the  signification  of  an  old  Hebrew  term,  and  though  it  solve 
the  great  problem,  I  think  any  one,  who  attentively  traces  the  various  occasions  on  which 
Tarshish  is  mentioned  in  Scripture,  will  be  satisfied  that  it  has  a  sense  quite  different  from 
the  loose  and  vagvie  one  here  ascribed  to  it.  Let  us  only  read  the  following  verse  : — "  But 
Jonah  rose  up  to  flee  into  Tarshish  from  the  presence  of  the  Lord,  and  went  down  to  Joppa, 
and  he  found  a  ship  going  to  Tarshish;  so  he  paid  the  fare  thereof,  and  went  down  into  it, 
to  go  with  them  into  Tarshish  from  the  presence  of  the  Lord."  Do  not  these  words  una- 
voidably suggest  a  precise  port,  to  which  there  was  a  regular  packet,  with  a  fixed  rate  of 
fare? — not  a  mere  vague  setting  out  into  the  wide  and  open  sea.  If  the  following  expres- 
sions can  be  reconciled  to  INI.  Gosselin's  hypothesis,  it  is  only  by  very  strained  interpreta- 
tions : — "  The  kings  of  Tarshish  ; — the  merchants  of  Tarshish  ; — pass  ye  over  to  Tarshish ; — • 
Tarshish  was  thy  merchant : — with  silver,  &c.  they  traded  m  the  fairs ; — silver  in  plates 
is  brought  from  Tarshish,  and  gold  from  Ophir ; — the  daughter  of  Tarshish,"  &c.  Lr  tlie 
genealogical  chapters,  Tarshish  is  intrednced  as  one  of  the  sons  of  Javan.  But  the  other 
three  sons,  and  every  other  name  mentioned  in  these  chapters,  are  tlie  fathers  of  a  country 
and  nation ;  and  it  would  be  quite  singular  if  Tarshish  alone  should  have  had  only  the  sea 
for  his  offspring.  What  a  strange  idea  to  call  the  sea  one  of  the  sons  of  Javan !  Indeed, 
this  is  so  glaringly  improbable,  that  M.  Gosselin  has  recourse  to  the  hypothesis  of  inter- 
polation— a  supposition  very  unlikely  in  regard  to  books  held  so  sacred,  and  in  respect  to 
these  chapters  among  a  people  so  fond  of  genealogy,  and  altogether  a  most  unsound  prin- 
ciple, as  applied  to  the  sacred  volume.  Finally,  I  thmk  it  very  evident,  from  the  general 
tenour  of  Hebrew  writers,  that  they  had  no  distinct  notion  of  the  Mediterranean  as  an 
inclosed  sea,  and  of  an  ocean  beyond  it.  The  expression,  "  the  sea,"  used  in  that  vague 
and  wide  sense,  wall,  I  apprehend,  be  always  found  to  signify  the  Mediterranean,  the  Red 
Sea  being  designated  by  that  particular  term.  Thus,  there  appears  to  be  no  motive  for 
adopting  M.  Gosselin's  hypothesis,  except  the  want  of  any  other  by  which  the  problem  of 
the  two  voyages  can  possibly  be  solved.  But  if  anotlier  can  be  stated,  which  shall  solve 
that  problem,  and  at  the  same  time  make  Tarshish  the  very  place  it  might  be  expected  to 
be,  this  great  question  may,  perhaps,  be  considered  as  settled  m  a  more  satisfactory  manner 
than  heretofore. 

That  Tarshish  must  be,  fundamentally,  Carthage,  cannot,  I  think,  admit  of  a  moment's 
doubt.  The  strongest  argument  is,  that  if  it  be  not,  then  that  grand  emporium  of  Medi- 
terranean trade,  the  colony  of  Tyre,  the  place  of  all  others  with  which  Tyre  held  always 
the  closest  intercourse,  must  never  have  been  named  by  the  prophets,  who  give  such  copious 

Vol.  I.  2 


14  HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  I. 

and  detailed  accounts  of  Tyrian  commerce.  When  Ezekicl  was  enumerating-  every  place, 
even  tlie  most  obscure,  with  which  Tyre  held  intercourse,  can  it  be  supposed  that  this,  the 
chief  of  all  others,  would  have  been  totally  omitted !  But  if  Tarshish  be  Carthage,  then 
that  celebrated  city  holds  exactly  the  prominent  place  which,  according  to  every  circum- 
stance, it  ought  to  have  held  in  relation  to  Tyre.  This  general  negative  argument  does 
appear  to  me  quite  irresistible.  The  details  are  equnlly  conformalde.  Carthage  in  her 
glorj'  monopolized,  almost  entirely,  the  commerce  of  Spain  and  Britain.  She  even  took 
the  "most  violent  measures  to  prevent  any  maritime  power  from  penetrating  to  the  west  of 
Sicily.  There  appears  no  trace  of  the  Tyrians  ever  proceeding  further.  They  found, 
apparently,  in  Carthage,  a  complete  assortment  of  the  commodities  of  all  the  countries  to 
the  west,  and  on  the  ocean — silver,  iron,  lead,  and  tin,  which  were  thus  naturally  viewed 
by  the  Jews,  and  perhaps  by  the  Tyrians  themselves,  as  Carthaginian  Commodities.  With 
regard  to  the  name,  considering  that  both  Tarshish  and  Cartilage  are  corruptions  of  the 
original  Phoenician  term,  they  have  tliat  rude  resemblance  which  might  be  expected.  The 
connexion  is  rendered  stronger  by  Carchedon,  the  Greek  name  of  Carthage,  which  forms 
a  sort  of  middle  term  between  them. 

The  voyage  from  Tarshish  by  the  Red  Sea,  however,  which  forms  the  grand  difficulty, 
remains  yet  unaccounted  for ;  and  it  can  only,  I  think,  be  solved  in  the  following  manner : 
I  conceive  the  name  of  this  great  African  metropolis  must  have  been  generally  extended 
to  the  whole  of  the  continent  of  Africa.  All  the  names  of  the  continents,  we  may  observe, 
were  originally  derived  from  one  of  their  remarkable  and  frequented  districts.  The  name 
of  Asia  was  extended  by  the  Greeks  from  a  tract  of  that  name  immediately  opposite  to 
their  shore,  including  Troas,  Ionia,  and  some  other  of  the  more  eastern  districts  of  Asia 
Minor.  With  the  Romans,  Africa  derived  its  name  from  the  very  district  now  in  question, 
called  always  Africa  Propria,  being  the  finest  on  that  coast,  and  including  Carthage.  It 
appears,  then,  quite  natural  that  a  place  so  very  prominent,  with  which  Tyre  held  such 
close  and  constant  intercourse,  apparently  the  only  place  much  frequented  by  her  on  the 
coast  of  Africa,  should  be  associated  in  her  conception  with  the  \\'hole  continent  in  which 
it  was  situated.  On  any  other  supposition,  the  Jews  and  Phoenicians  must  have  had  no 
name  for  Africa,  which  is  not  very  probable.  It  is  observable  that  Tarshish  evidently  does 
not  comprehend  either  Egypt  or  Upper  Ethiopia,  which  countries,  in  fact,  were  never  by 
the  ancients  considered  as  decidedly  African,  that  continent,  according  to  their  conception, 
having  the  Nile  for  its  eastern  boundary.  If  we  admit  Tarshish  to  be  Africa,  the  whole 
difficulty  respecting  the  two  voyages  at  once  disappears.  As  the  voyage  to  the  northern 
coast  was  by  the  Mediterranean,  so  that  to  the  eastern  coast  was  of  course  by  the  Red  Sea, 
It  is  in  favour  of  this  solution  that  Jerome,  in  fact,  calls  the  voyage  to  Tarshish  "  an  Afri- 
can voyage."  The  Jews,  unacquainted  with  mtermediate  countries,  had  probably  a  \ery 
inadequate  conception  of  the  distance  between  these  coasts ;  at  all  events,  they  justly  con- 
sidered them  as  parts  of  the  same  vast  expanse  of  continent. 

SuBSECT.  2. —  Ophir. 

The  name  of  Ophir,  combined,  as  it  always  is,  with  the  most  precious  of  metals,  and 
the  most  coveted  of  all  commodities,  ranks  among  the  distant  coimtries  known  to  the 
Jews,  almost  superior  in  splendour  to  Tarshish,  though  not  equal  in  greatness  and  com- 
mercial importance.  The  voyages  of  Solomon  to  Ophir  for  gold,  form  the  greatest  naval 
enterprise  in  which  the  kingdom  of  Judea  was  ever  engaged.  Yet  this  name  has  been 
attended  with  little  less  difficulty,  and  produced  scarcely  less  controversy,  than  that  of 
Tarshish. 

The  belief  that  Ophir  was  in  Arabia  has  certainly  not  a  little  to  urge  in  its  favour.  In 
the  genealogical  chapters  it  is  always  combined  with  Sheba,  or  Sabea,  which  was  undoubt- 
edly situated  at  the  south-west  angle  of  Arabia.  It  was  from  Sheba  that  gold  (doubtless, 
the  gold  of  Ophir,)  was  regularly  brought  to  Judea  and  Phoenicia.  Even  Bochart,  who 
thinks  himself  obliged  to  seek  in  India  a  more  distant  Ophir,  clumsily  compounds  the 
matter  by  making  another  Opliir  in  Arabia.  He  is  followed  by  M.  Malte  Brun.  M.  Gos- 
selin,  with  his  usual  zeal  to  restrict  ancient  knowledge,  insists,  that  there  never  was  any 
Ophir  except  the  Arabian,  and  places  it  in  the  modem  interior  district  of  Dofar. .  There 
appear  to  me,  I  confess,  vast  improbabilities  in  this  Arabian  Ophir.  As  an  interior  district, 
it  must  have  been  nearer,  or  certainly  as  near,  to  Judea  as  Sheba  ;  and  it  appears  strange, 
that  no  direct  land  communication  should  ever  have  been  opened  with  it.  Let  us  consider 
the  mighty  operations  of  Solomon ;  his  utmost  efforts  combined  with  those  of  Hiram ;  the 
materials  of  shipbuilding  conveyed  by  land  over  a  vast  desert ;  the  most  skilftil  workmen 
transported  to  Ezion  Gcber ;  a  fleet  composed  of  large  vessels,  called  ships  of  Tarshish,  at 
last  formed,  and  undertaking  a  series  of  voyages,  in  each  of  which  three  years  were 
employed.  What  a  waste  of  labour  and  expenditure  to  obtain  a  commotlity  which  could 
have  been  conveyed  across  Arabia  in  two  months  on  the  backs  of  camels !  Yet  the  repe- 
tition of  the  voyage  shows  that  the  article  was,  in  fact,  procured  on  better  terms  than  by 
tlie  usual  channel.     In  the  voyage  from  Ophir,  also,  we  find  new  articles  never  mentioned 


Book  I.  HEBREW  AND  PHCENICIAN  GEOGRAPHY.  15 

in  relation  to  Slieba  or  Arabia,  but  characteristic  of  equatorial  Africa — ivory,  apes,  and 
peacocks.  With  regard  to  the  close  combination  in  which  Sheba  and  Ophir  are  always 
found,  it  will  appear  natural  enough,  when  we  consider  that,  unless  during  the  short 
expedition  of  Solomon,  Slieba  appears  to  have  been  the  charaiel  by  wliich  the  gold  of 
Ophir  was  transmitted  to  Judea  and  Phoenicia.  This  circumstance  might  readily  lead  the 
inhabitants  of  those  countries  to  consider  the  two  as  closely  connected,  though  Opliir 
might  be  beyond  Sheba,  and  even  be  separated  from  it  by  seas  and  territories  of  consider- 
able extent. 

The  hypothesis  which  places  Ophir  in  India,  though  supported  by  great  names,  appears 
quite  untenable.  The  trade  of  Ophir  bears  not  the  least  resemblance  to  an  Indian  trade. 
It  does  not  include  the  fine  manufactures  and  rich  spices  which  India  has  always  furnished ; 
and  its  staple  is  gold,  which  never,  at  any  time,  was  an  article  of  export  from  that  quarter 
of  Asia.  India  has,  on  the  contrary,  always  demanded  a  large  balance  of  specie,  and  has 
formed  a  gulf  in  which  the  gold  of  the  west  has  been  absorbed.  If  we  reject  India,  we 
shall  not  certainly,  with  some  savans,  travel  as  far  as  Peru  in  quest  of  our  object,  notwith- 
standing the  slight  resemblance  of  name,  and  the  attempt  to  eke  it  out  by  the  expression 
"  gold  of  Parvaim,"  which  has  some  appearance  of  being  synonjTuous. 

The  eastern  coast  of  Africa  is  the  quarter  to  which  all  the  indications  appear  very  clearly 
to  point.  In  the  voyage  to  Tarshish  by  tiae  Red  Sea,  its  name  and  that  of  Ophir  are  al- 
>vays  combined ;  nay,  tlie  voyage,  which  in  the  Book  of  Kings  is  called  the  voyage  to 
Tarshish,  in  the  Chronicles  is  called  the  voyage  to  Ophir;  so  that  it  is  evident  the  two  are 
one  and  the  same  voyage;  and,  if  Tarshish  was  Africa,  Ophir  must  clearly  be  in  Africa. 
There  is,  however,  on  this  coast  no  abundant  supply  of  gold  till  we  reach  as  far  south  as 
Sofala  ;  thus  implying  an  extent  of  navigation  which  is  certainly  somewhat  startling.  M. 
Gosselin  particularly  urges,  that  in  the  time  of  Alexander  there  was  no  longer  any  know- 
ledge of  eastern  Afi'ica ;  and  that  even  the  Romans  never  appear  to  have  penetrated  beyond 
Cape  Delgado.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  to  be  considered  tliat  the  alliance  of  Hiram  and 
Solomon  united  advantages  which  never  existed  again  m  an  equal  degree.  The  wealth, 
naval  skill,  and  ample  materials  which  those  great  princes  could  command  were  scarcely 
equalled,  even  by  the  Ptolemies.  Afler  the  death  of  Solomon,  the  kingdom,  split  into  two, 
and  weakened  by  continued  dissention,  abandoned  entirely  these  distant  commercial  enter- 
prises. A  solitary  attempt  to  renew  the  trade  was  made  by  Jehoshaphat,  but  the  vessels 
prepared  for  tliat  purpose  were  WTecked  in  the  very  mouth  of  the  port  of  Ezion  Geber ; 
after  which  the  undertaking  was  entirely  given  up.  In  the  calamities  which  afterwards 
befel  Israel  and  Judah,  and  the  revolutions  which  subverted  tlie  whole  political  system  of 
western  Asia,  it  is  not  wonderflil  that  every  trace  of  this  distant  intercourse  should  have 
been  obliterated ;  and  that  the  successors  of  Alexander  should  have  had  to  enter  on  a  new 
field  of  discovery.  In  support  of  the  supposition  of  Sofala,  there  may  also  be  noticed  a 
certain  resemblance  of  name ;  and  the  duration  of  the  voyage,  stated  at  three  years,  would 
afford  very  ample  time  to  reach  the  Zambese,  even  under  all  the  imperfections  of  ancient 
navigation. 

SuBSECT.  3. — TJie  Isles, 

The  Isles,  a  term  which  occurs  much  in  Scripture,  might  be  supposed  to  describe  gene- 
rally those  portions  of  the  globe  which  come  under  this  description ;  yet  a  careftil  compa- 
rison of  the  different  passages  in  which  the  word  occurs  will  probably  show,  that  it  is  used 
in  a  much  more  precise  and  determinate  sense,  and  is  applied  to  a  wide  and  connected 
range  of  territory.  The  whole  of  the  southern  coasts  of  Europe,  consisting  either  of  real 
islands  or  of  peninsular  tracts,  appears  by  the  Jews  and  Phoenicians  to  have  been  viewed 
as  a  long  range  of  islands.  Besides,  the  terms  t'j;To;  and  insula  were,  in  periods  of  remote 
antiquity,  applied  loosely  to  peninsulas  as  well  as  islands  proper.  Among  many  examples 
which  might  be  adduced,  one  will  suffice — Peloponnesus.  The  isles,  relative  to  Tyre, 
appear  to  have  ranked  only  second  to  Tarshish  as  a  source  of  wealth,  and  in  respect  of 
close  and  ultimate  intercourse.  Tyre  is  called  expressly,  "  a  merchant  of  many  isles :" 
and  the  consternation  wliich  shook  the  isles  at  the  sound  of  her  fall ;  the  dismay  of  their 
kings,  who  are  said  to  have  then  cast  off  tlieir  robes,  and  sat  on  the  ground, — all  point  out 
the  extent  and  importance  of  this  commerce.  Tarshish,  Elisha,  Chittim,  and  Dodanim 
are  named  in  the  genealogical  chapter  as  the  four  who  divided  among  tliem  the  isles  of 
the  Gentiles;  but,  though  Tarshish  is  so  often  named  in  combination  with  "the  isles" 
among  the  most  distant  maritime  territories,  tliere  is  never  any  indication  as  if  it  were 
itself  an  island.  The  combination  is  probably  produced  by  the  extensive  possessions  and 
commerce  of  the  Carthaginians  in  tlie  western  islands  and  coasts  of  Europe.  These,  in- 
cluding the  southern  point  of  Italy,  were,  as  already  observed,  probably  considered  as  insu- 
lar, and  were  distin!juished  by  the  appellations  of  the  "  isles  afar  off,"  and  "  the  distant 
isles  of  the  sea."  The  "  isle"  in  particular,  which  Isaiah  mentions  in  such  close  connex- 
ion with  Tarshish,  and  which  the  merchants  of  Sidon,  "  by  passing  over  tiie  sea,  had 
replenished,"  can  scarcely  be  any  other  than  Sicily,  an  island  almost  Garthasrinian,  and 


16  fflSTORY  OF  GEOGRArHY.  Part  I. 

containing  so  many  flourishing  cities.  With  regard  to  the  isles  of  Elisha,  they  are  evidently 
Hellas,  tlie  Greek  name  of  Greece.  The  only  distinctive  characteristic,  indeed,  that 
of  furnishing  Tyre  with  the  blue  and  purple  dye,  docs  not  recall  to  us  any  of  tlie  features 
under  which  we  have  been  accustomed  to  recognize  that  celebrated  region.  But  Greece 
was  not  yet  the  seat  of  arts  and  anus ;  and,  had  she  been  so,  the  Tyrian  merchants  might 
still  have  viewed  her  only  as  she  served  their  purpose.  Bochart  has  collected  ample  testi- 
monies to  sliow  that  the  murex,  the  shell  which  yielded  those  celebrated  dyes,  was  found 
in  peculiar  abundance  on  the  coast  of  Laconia.  Cliittim  appears  very  evidently  Cyprus, 
and  its  early  capital  of  Citiu-a  The  alarm  being  given  tlience  of  the  approach  of  the 
king  of  Babylon,  and  its  being  ',onsidcred  as  the  natural  place  of  reflige  for  the  inhabitants 
of  Tyre,  where  yet  they  would  not  be  fully  secure,  mark  a  pro.ximity  wiiich  belongs  to  no 
other  island.  Tlie  name,  indeed,  is  in  one  instance  given  to  Greece,  and  in  anotlier  to 
Italy;  but  this  seems  merely  to  be,  that,  as  the  nearest  known  island,  its  name  is  some- 
times thus  vaguely  extended  to  the  whole  of  that  territory  considered  by  the  Jews  as  insu- 
lar. The  attempts  of  Bocliart  to  find  the  name  of  Chittim  in  Italy  have  been  wholly  abor- 
tive; for  we  cannot  consider  as  worthy  of  notice  the  observation  that  it  and  Lntium,  in  the 
respective  Greek  and  Latin  languages,  both  signify  "  to  hide."  In  regard  to  Dodanim, 
convertible  into  Rodanmi(l  and  T  being  perpetually  interchanged  and  confounded),  though 
it  is  mentioned  only  once,  we  seem  justified  in  fixing  on  Rhodes,  already  flourishing  and 
commercial,  though  not  yet  become  the  rival  of  kings.  Bochart  seems  to  go  much  too  far, 
when  he  seeks  for  it  on  the  Rhone  or  the  Ebro. 

SuBSECT.  4. — Sheba  and  Declan. 

Of  the  internal  trade  of  western  Asia  during  the  early  ages,  the  most  extensive  and 
important  was  that  carried  on  across  Arabia.  It  consisted,  not  so  much  in  the  productions 
of  the  region  itself,  as  in  those  of  India  and  Africa,  which  found  their  way  by  this  channel 
to  Judea  and  Phoenicia. 

Sheba,  among  the  Arabian  states,  holds  the  most  prominent  place,  being  undoubtedly 
the  same  with  the  Sabaea  or  Arabia  Felix  of  the  classic  writers.  Its  imports  were  the 
precious  commodities  of  gold  and  incense :  the  latter  anciently  in  most  extensive  demand 
for  the  purpose  of  sacrifice.  These  articles  appear  to  have  been  brought  to  Judea,  not  by 
any  maritime  channel,  but  in  crowded  caravans.  The  "  companies  of  Sheba"  are  mentioned 
even  in  Job.  Isaiah  speaks  of  the  "  multitude  of  camels ;"  and  of  "  all  they  fi-om  Sheba." 
Yet  the  incense,  it  is  now  certain,  must  have  come  chiefly  fi'om  the  opposite  African  coast  of 
Berbera ;  and  tlie  gold,  we  have  some  reason  to  think,  must  liave  been  derived  frem  a  still 
more  remote  part  of  that  continent. 

The  commerce  of  Dedan  rivalled  that  of  Slieba,  being  carried  on  from  the  opposite  or 
eastern  coast.  The  mention  of  "many  isles"  in  combination  with  Dedan,  seems  to  fix  it 
to  that  point  at  the  entrance  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  which  is,  in  fact,  bordered  by  numerous 
islands.  One  of  these,  Ormuz,  became  afterwards  the  seat  of  a  kingdom,  which,  from  a 
situation  and  commerce  similar  to  that  of  Dedan,  derived  a  splendour  wiiich  made  it  the 
pride  of  the  East.  The  imports  from  Dedan — "  ivory  and  precious  cloths" — point  out  the 
source  of  this  prosperity.  These  were  the  commodities  of  India,  brought  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Persian  Gulf,  and  thence  transported  across  the  desert  to  the  western  regions.  The 
caravan  trade  of  Dedan  appears  to  have  been  most  extensive ;  insomuch  that  the  prophet,  in 
denouncing  the  judgment  upon  Arabia,  mentions  the  "  travelling  companies  of  Dedanim"  as 
its  most  conspicuous  feature.  In  the  prophets,  Edom  and  Dedan  are  almost  universally  named 
together,  and  the  same  judgments  represented  as  affecting  both.  Hence  they  are  usually 
considered  as  parts  of  the  same  country,  and  the  ordinary  maps  include  Dedan  as  a  district 
of  Edom.  Even  Bocliart,  whose  learning  showed  him  that  there  must  be  a  more  distant 
Dedan,  adopts  the  hackneyed  scheme  of  supposing  that  there  were  two  Dedans.  There  is 
no  occasion  for  so  unskilful  a  theory  to  explain  the  intimate  connexion  between  these  two 
states.  When  caravans  came  across  Arabia  from  the  Persian  Gulf,  it  was  at  Edom  or  Idumea 
that  they  first  touched  on  the  civilized  world.  A  depot  was  thus  naturally  formed  there  of 
the  commo'lities  in  which  tliey  traded.  This  traffic  raised  Idumea  and  its  capital,  Petra,  to 
a  high  pitch  of  wealth  and  importance.  So  close  a  connexion  necessarily  caused  Dedan  to 
be  deeply  affected  by  any  calamity  which  desolated  Edom,  and  rendered  her  no  longer  the 
channel  through  which  this  commerce  could  flow.  But  these  disasters  are  by  no  means 
represented  as  touching  her  so  closely  or  so  deeply  ;  and  while  Edom  is  represented  as  utterly 
spoiled,  and  converted  into  a  waste  and  reproach,  the  inhabitants  of  Dedan  are  merely  warned 
to  "  turn  back  and  dwell  deep ;"  (Jer.  xlix.  8.)  and  the  expression,  "  they  of  Dedan  shall  fall 
by  the  sword,"  is  more  correctly  interpreted  in  the  margin,  "  they  shall  fall  by  the  sword 
unto  Dedan."  These  circumstances  appear  to  mark,  along  with  an  intimate  connexion,  a 
complete  distance  and  separation  between  these  two  great  Arabian  states. 

Raamah  is  mentioned  among  other  nations  of  Arabia,  along  with  Sheba,  as  producing  the 
game  articles,  but  as  a  much  less  remarkable  country.  It  appears  to  be  the  modern  Had 
yamuth,  neither  situated  so  commodiously  as  Sheba  for  the  African,  nor  as  Dedan  for  the 


Book  I.  HEBREW  AND  PHCENICLAN  GEOGRAPHY.  17 

Indian,  trade.  Some  of  the  best-watered  districts  probably  of  the  Nedsjed,  appear  to  have 
composed  the  kingdom  of  Kedar,  enriched  by  the  breeding  of  numerous  sheep  and  goats, 
with  which  it  supplied  even  Tyre,  and  rose  to  such  prosperity,  as  to  make  it  be  considered 
a  miglity  catastrophe  "  wlien  all  the  glory  of  Kedar  should  fail." 

SuBSECT.  5. — Countries  on  the  Euphrates. 

The  river  (for  such  is  the  unport  of  the  term)  presents  itself  as  a  grand  feature  of  the 
landscape  after  passing  across  the  wide  Syrian  desert,  towards  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
knov/n  world.  This  name,  in  preference  even  over  the  Nile  and  tlie  Jordan,  was  always 
applied  to  the  Euphrates,  which,  holding  so  immense  a  course  through  kingdoms  the  most 
celebrated  in  history,  was  considered  as  one  of  the  grand  boundaries  of  the  earth.  The  great 
empires  and  capitals  of  Assyria  and  Babylon  gave  to  it  a  lustre,  which  was  scarcely  divided 
by  the  Tigris,  whose  name  was  little  known  to  the  Jews  before  the  captivity.  Along  this 
line  of  territory  Ezekiel  enumerates  a  number  of  cities,  Haran,  Canneh,  Eden,  Ashur,  &c., 
from  which  great  caravans  proceeded  to  Tyre  with  cloths  and  other  articles  of  the  most 
valuable  description.  In  such  early  accounts,  however,  the  country  from  which  commodities 
last  came  is  seldom  distinguished  from  their  original  seat.  I  therefore  entirely  agree  with 
Dr.  Vincent,  that  they  must  have  been  brouglit  by  a  long  overland  voyage  across  Asia; 
that  these  chests  of  rich  apparel,  so  careflilly  bound  with  cords,  came,  probably,  by  interior 
caravans  from  Hindostan,  and,  perhaps,  already  from  the  frontier  of  China. 

Of  the  countries  beyond  the  Euphrates,  only  some  broken  fragments  of  knowledge  appear 
to  have  reached  Judea  before  the  captivity.  Elam  is  particularly  noticed ;  the  residence  of 
a  warlike  people,  occupying  the  long  mountainous  tract  east  of  tlie  Tigris.  Media  and 
Persia  are  also  named  on  a  few  occasions,  but  so  as  to  prove  that  they  were  only  contem- 
plated in  dim  and  obscure  distance.  At  a  vague  and  indefinite  distance  beyond,  the  ends 
of  the  earth  were  imagined  to  exist.  The  early  Greeks  and,  after  them,  the  Arabians,  viewed 
the  habitable  earth  as  an  island,  surrounded  on  every  side  by  water.  Ptolemy,  on  the  con- 
trary, places  at  every  extremity  of  his  map  a  vague  expanse  of  unlcnown  land.  The  He- 
brews combined  in  some  measure  these  two  views  of  the  subject.  To  the  west,  the  remotest 
object  for  them  was  the  sea,  studded  with  numerous  and  distant  isles ;  but  to  the  east,  where 
land  was  seen  indefinitely  extending,  they  formed  the  idea  of  an  inland  termination,  without 
being  able  to  attach  to  it  any  precise  limits.  Such  a  boundary  was  apparently  supposed  to 
exist  in  various  directions,  since  "  all  the  ends  of  the  earth"  is  an  expression  frequently 
occurring.  It  was  to  the  east,  however,  that  this  idea  peculiarly  attached  itself;  and  "from 
the  river  to  the  ends  of  the  earth,"  is  the  farthest  pomt  to  which  the  figurative  kingdom 
of  the  Messiah  is  made  to  extend. 

SuBSECT.  G. —  Gog,  Magog,  and  the  North. 

The  north  quarter  is  the  only  part  of  the  circuit  of  the  geographical  knowledge  of  the 
Jews  which  remams  to  be  surveyed.  It  presented  features  of  peculiarly  rude  and  formi- 
dable aspect.  Ezekiel,  in  anticipating  an  approaching  inroad,  draws  the  most  gloomy  feature 
of  the  hordes  which  it  poured  forth :  Gog,  with  all  his  bands,  coming  like  a  storm  or  a 
cloud  to  cover  the  land ;  Gomer  with  all  his  bands ;  the  house  of  Togarmah,  from  the  north 
quarter :  "  a  great  company  and  a  mighty  army,"  directing  their  course  against  those  nations 
which  "  were  at  rest,  dwelt  safely,  and  had  gotten  cattle  and  goods ;"  and  with  the  eager 
purpose  "  to  take  a  prey,  to  carry  away  their  silver  and  gold,  to  take  a  great  spoil."  This 
picture,  these  hostile  and  tumultuous  crowds,  "  all  riding  upon  horses,"  with  their  wide- 
roaming  and  predatory  habits,  has  always  suggested  the  idea  of  Scythian  invasion ;  and 
the  Arabin.n  geographers  have  placed  the  castle  of  Gog  and  Magog  at  the  remotest  extremity 
of  Tartary.  On  looking  narrowly  into  the  matter,  however,  we  shall  find  it  difficult  to 
suppose  this  inroad  to  have  proceeded  from  any  part  of  those  unbounded  plains.  The  fact 
is,  we  have  no  occasion  to  look  so  far ;  for  the  high  table-lands  in  the  interior  and  north  of 
Asia  Minor,  Phrygia,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  and  Papklagonia,  have  always  presented  the 
same  rude  pastoral  aspect,  and  have  bred  tribes  of  migratory  shepherds  and  warriors,  very 
Similar  to  those  of  Scythia  itself  These  tracts,  in  fact,  continue  still  to  pour  forth  vast  bodies 
of  irregular  cavalry,  which  form  the  main  strength  of  the  Turkish  armies.  This  view  of 
the  subjpct  appears  completely  fixed  by  the  account  of  the  commercial  intercourse  main- 
tamed  by  these  nations  with  Tyre.  The  prophet  mentions  Meshech  and  Tubal,  elsewhere 
completely  identified  with  Go?,  Vv'ho  is  called  their  "  chief  prince."  There  never  has  been 
the  least  doubt  as  to  the  position  of  these  countries  in  Upper  Armenia,  and  on  the  southern 
border  of  Caucasus.  There  the  classical  writers  mention  in  the  Moschi  and  the  Tibareni, 
which  are,  perhaps,  the  same  names.  The  imports  into  Tyre  are  stated  to  be  "  vessels  of 
brass,  and  persons  of  men."  This  somewhat  curious  combination  is,  however,  altogether 
characteristic  of  the  region  in  question,  which  was,  in  ancient  time,  highly  distinguished 
for  the  copiousness  and  excellence  of  its  copper  and  iron,  which  last  is  not  wholly  excluded 
by  the  term  used  in  tlie  original.  Tiie  skill  with  whicli  it  was  worked  into  steel  by  the 
Chalybes,  a  people  of  this  region,  caused  their  name  to  be  generally  given  to  this  product. 

Vol.  I.  2*  C 


18  HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  •  Part  I. 

Even  in  the  present  state  of  neglect,  the  ncighbourliood  of  Trebisond  supplies  with  excel- 
lent copper  all  the  Lesser  Asia.  The  other  article,  also,  is  but  too  descriptive.  The 
expression,  "  persons  of  men,"  marks  the  trade  in  slaves,  with  which  it  has  always  been 
the  fate  of  Caucasian  countries  to  supply  the  East.  Horses  and  mules  are  reported  as 
brought  by  the  "  house  of  Togarmah."  Horses  have  always  been  a  boast  of  Tartary  ;  and 
an  alliance  has  been  imagined  between  this  name  and  that  of  the  Turcomans,  who  still 
furnish  the  finest  horses.  But  there  was  a  race  called  Trogmi,  in  the  upland  tracts  of 
Paphlagonia,  a  region  celebrated  for  its  horses,  and  also  for  its  mules,  in  which  last  respect 
it  has  a  decided  advantage  over  Tartary,  to  which  this  last  breed  is  a  stranger.  Thus  we 
seem  justified  in  finding  Gog,  with  all  his  rude  and  terrible  appendages,  in  the  nortliern 
extremity  indeed  of  the  civilized  and  classical  world  of  Asia,  but  still  far  distant  from  those 
boundless  wastes  which  composed  the  ancient  Scytiiia  and  the  modem  Tartary. 

Javan,  which  is  described  as  fiirnishing  the  same  objects  of  trade  with  Meshech  and 
Tubal,  but  not  as  having  any  concern  in  the  desolating  invasion  of  Gog,  is,  in  fact,  the 
same  word  with  Ion,  or  Ionia,  an  extensive  appellation,  which  comprehended  all  the  western 
part  of  the  Lesser  Asia.  The  Jews  and  Phoenicians,  overlooking  the  long  range  of  narrow 
straits  which  separated  it  from  Europe,  not  yet  recognised  as  a  separate  continent,  appear 
to  have  extended  the  name  to  Thrace,  and  the  interior  of  continental  Greece.  Alexander 
tlie  Great  is  in  one  place  called  king  of  Javan.  That  a  similar  extension  was  recognised 
in  the  early  ages  of  Greece  itself,  appears  by  the  celebrated  ancient  inscription  at  the 
Isthmus  of  Corinth.  "This  is  Peloponnesus,  not  Ionia."  The  Javan  slaves  were  probably 
drawn  from  Thrace,  whose  barbarous  regions  amply  supplied  the  ancient  markets  with  tliis 
cruel  species  of  commodity. 


CHAPTER  IL 

ANCIENT  VOY.\GES  OF  DISCOVERY, 


The  early  voyages  of  discovery  formed  the  most  important  materials  for  those  delineations 
of  the  globe  which  were  made  by  the  geographical  schools  of  Greece  and  Rome  in  their 
more  advanced  and  perfected  state.  Before  proceeding,  therefore,  to  consider  the  systems 
of  these  schools,  it  may  be  proper  to  take  a  survey  of  the  exploratory  voyages  performed 
by  ancient  navigators.  These  do  not  appear  very  considerable  in  the  eyes  of  a  modern 
mariner.  There  is  not  one  of  them,  perhaps,  which  the  captain  of  a  tolerably  appointed 
merchant-vessel  would  not,  in  the  course  of  his  ordinary  business,  be  ready  to  undertake. 
But  in  steering  along  an  unexplored  coast,  in  vessels  which  could  scarcely  rank  above  boats, 
without  the  use  of  the  compass,  or  any  correct  means  of  astronomical  observation,  even 
these  limited  voyages  were  fraught  with  peril  and  adventure.  The  record  of  them  is, 
however,  involved  m  much  mystery  and  controversy.  They  were  not  reported  to  the  world 
in  those  regular  narratives  with  which  the  modern  press  teems.  The  ancient  narratives 
are  always  meagre,  and  in  many  cases  we  have  only  fi-agments  of  hearsay  testimony,  col- 
lected by  careless  or  prejudiced  writers.  A  learned  investigation,  therefore,  is  usually 
necessary,  to  discover  along  what  coast  the  navigator  sailed,  to  what  point  of  it  he  readied, 
and  sometimes  whether  he  ever  sailed  along  any  coast.  In  several  cases  the  most  skilflil 
disputants  are  still  divided  on  questions,  which,  sunk  in  the  deep  abyss  of  time,  must  probably 
remain  for  ever  undecided.  Faint  and  dubious,  however,  as  are  these  records,  they  will 
lead  us  over  some  of  the  most  interesting  problems  of  antiquity,  and  will  enable  us  to  trace, 
in  some  degree,  the  infant  steps  of  maritime  enterprise. 

Sect.  I. — Circumnavigation  of  Africa  under  Necho. 

To  perform  the  circuit  of  the  coast  of  Africa  was  the  favourite  object  of  ancient  maritime 
enterprise,  as  it  continued  to  be  of  that  of  modern  times,  till  tlie  era  of  its  final  happy 
accomplishment.  The  manner  in  which  its  coasts,  beyond  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Red 
Sea,  begin  to  converge,  suggested  the  idea  of  a  peninsula,  the  circumnavigation  of  which 
might  be  effected,  even  by  the  limited  resources  of  ancient  navigation.  The  wide  sphere, 
both  of  knowledge  and  trade,  which  such  a  discovery  would  open  to  the  enterprising  mari- 
time nations  round  the  Mediterranean,  was  sufficiently  obvious.  The  first  attempt  of  this 
description  originated  in  a  quarter  which  had  usually  been  accustomed  to  keep  aloof  from 
every  species  of  naval  enterprise. 

Egypt  had  long  held  itelf  as  a  country  strictly  agricultural ;  but  Necho,  who,  next  to 
Sesostris,  raised  its  military  glory  to  the  greatest  height,  appears,  like  other  conquerors, 
to  have  been  animated  by  an  active  spirit,  which  exerted  itself  in  every  direction.  Not 
possessing  fit  instruments  among  his  own  subjects,  he  engaged  some  Phoenician  navigators 
1o  descend  the  Red  Sea,  and  endeavour  to  find  their  way  back  to  the  Mediterranean,  by 
the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  The  narrative  is  so  very  short,  that  we  may  easily  give  it  in  the 
words  of  Herodotus:  "The  Phoenicians,  setting  sail  fi-om  the  Red  Sea,  made  their  way  into 
the  southern  sea ;   when   autumn  approached,   they  drew  their  vessels  to  land,  sowed  a 


Book  I.  VOYAGES  OF  SATASPES  AND  HANNO.  19 

crop,  and  waited  till  it  was  grown,  when  they  reaped  it,  and  again  put  to  sea.  Having 
Bpent  two  years  in  this  manner,  in  the  third  year  they  reached  the  Pillars  of  Hercules, 
and  returned  to  Egypt,  reportuig  what  does  not  find  belief  with  me,  but  may,  perhaps, 
with  some  other  person ;  for  they  said  that  in  passing  Africa  they  had  tlie  sun  on  their 
right  hand  (i.  e,  the  north).     In  this  manner  Libya  was  first  known." 

The  authenticity  of  this  narrative  has  been  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  object  of  learned 
curiosity,  and  has  produced  a  mass  of  controversy,  greater,  perhaps,  than  its  short  and 
vague  nature  is  well  able  to  admit.  The  arguments  appear  to  have  been  exhausted  on 
the  believing  side  by  Rennell,  on  the  sceptical  by  Gosselm  and  Vincent.  Formidable  as 
the  achievement  was,  it  does  not  seem  to  involve  any  absolute  impossibility,  since  the 
whole  voyage  might  be  performed  without  losing  sight  of  the  shore,  or  launching  into  the 
open  sea,  through  which  the  ancients  had  no  means  of  guiding  tlieir  course ;  and  their 
smaller  vessels,  keeping  close  to  the  shore,  might  even  possess  some  advantage  over  our 
larger  ones,  obliged  to  stand  out  to  sea,  and  encounter  the  stormy  waves  of  the  Atlantic. 
Herodotus  seems  mclined  to  credit  the  information,  unless,  on  the  ground  of  one  general 
statement,  which,  being  the  very  thing  tlrat  sliould  have  happened,  and  disbelieved  only 
through  his  ignorance,  strongly  fortifies  our  inclination  to  credit  the  story. 

Sect.  II. —  The  Voyage  of  Sataspes. 

The  Persian  monarchs,  after  their  sway  was  established  over  the  eastern  coasts  of  the 
Mediterranean,  found  the  exploration  of  Afi-ica  in  some  degree  their  peculiar  province. 
This  nation,  however,  laboured  under  an  aversion  and  dread  of  the  sea,  greater,  perhaps, 
than  that  of  the  other  orientals.  The  only  eflbrt  of  theirs  on  record  was  one  which  arose 
in  a  singular  and  rather  casual  manner. 

Sataspes,  a  Persian  nobleman,  having  committed  a  heinous  offence,  was  condemned  by 
Xerxes  to  a  cruel  death.  His  friends,  however,  persuaded  the  monarch,  that  by  com- 
muting this  sentence  into  that  of  a  voyage  round  Africa,  he  would  inflict  sufferings  scarce- 
ly less  severe,  and  might  render  a  national  benefit.  They  prevailed,  and  Sataspes,  having 
procured  in  Egypt  a  vessel  and  crew,  passed  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  bent  his  course 
southwards.  He  is  represented  as  havmg  beat  about  for  several  months,  at  the  end  of 
which  he  probably  reached  the  coasts  of  the  Sahara.  The  view  of  those  frightful  and 
desolate  shores,  and  of  the  tempestuous  ocean  which  dashed  against  them,  might  well 
intimidate  a  navigator  bred  in  the  luxurious  indolence  of  the  Persian  court.  Sataspes  was 
struck  with  a  panic,  and  measured  back  his  course  to  the  straits.  Yet,  hoping  that 
time  and  the  degree  in  which  he  had  accomplished  his  mission  might  efface  the  im- 
pression, both  of  former  offence  and  of  present  failure,  he  again  presented  himself  before 
Xerxes.  In  giving  an  account  of  his  voyage,  he  merely  related,  that  wherever  he  landed 
he  had  seen  little  men  wearing  a  Phoenician  dress,  who  immediately  fled  into  the  moun- 
tains; but  his  people  had  done  them  no  injury,  beyond  carrying  off  the  cattle  of  which 
they  stood  in  need.  The  failure  of  the  ultimate  object  of  the  expedition  he  imputed  to 
the  occurrence  of  an  insurmountable  obstacle,  the  nature  of  which  has  not  been  satisfac- 
torily explained.  Xerxes,  however,  accustomed  to  expect  that  all  nature  should  be  sub- 
servient to  his  will,  would  listen  to  no  excuse,  and  ordered  the  original  sentence  to  be  im- 
mediately executed. 

Sect,  HI. —  Voyage  of  Hanno. 

The  Carthaginians,  as  the  greatest  maritime  and  commercial  people  of  antiquity,  might 
have  been  expected  to  make  earlier  and  furtlier  progress  in  the  discovery  of  Africa  than 
any  oilier  nation.  In  general,  however,  a  veil  of  deep  mystery  shrouded  all  the  proceed- 
ings of  that  powerful  and  aspiring  people.  It  is  even  asserted  that  they  considered  as  ex^ 
clusively  theirs  the  whole  Mediterranean  west  of  a  line  drawn  across  to  Sicily,  and  that 
they  captured  all  the  vessels,  and  put  to  death  the  crews,  that  were  found  navigating 
within  these  forbidden  precincts.  The  Romans,  on  the  other  side,  animated  by  inex- 
tinguishable enmity,  are  said  to  have  industriously  destroyed  all  the  records  of  the 
literature  and  history  of  their  fallen  rivals.  The  only  fragment  that  escaped  is  the 
Periplus  of  Hanno,  which,  notwithstanding  the  scepticism  of  Dodwell,  its  editor,  the 
learned  world  are  now  generally  agreed  in  considering  as  ancient  and  authentic.  This 
celebrated  document  is  so  short,  that  we  may  find  space  here  for  a  complete  translation 
of  it. 

"  It  pleased  the  Carthagmians  that  Hanno  should  sail  beyond  the  Pillars  of  Hercules, 
and  should  found  cities  of  the  Liby-Phoenicians.  He  set  sail,  therefore,  with  a  fleet  of 
sixty  vessels,  each  of  which  was  impelled  by  fifty  oars.  They  carried  with  them  men  and 
women  to  the  number  of  thirty  thousand,  with  provisions  and  supplies  of  various  kinds. 
We  sailed  two  days  beyond  the  straits,  and  founded  a  city  overlooking  an  ample  plain,  and 
which  we  called  Thyiniate'-ium.  Thence  we  proceeded  westward  to  Soloe,  a  promontory 
of  Libya,  thickly  shaded  with  trees,  where  we  founded  a  temple  to  Neptune ;  tlien  turning 
eastward  for  half  a  day's  sail,  we  cams  into  a  lake  not  far  from  the  sea,  overgrown  with 


20         '  HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  I. 

numerous  and  high  reeds,  and  on  whose  banks  elepliants  and  a  number  of  wild  animals 
were  feeding.     Having  passed  this  lake  in  the  course  of  a  day's  sail,  we  founded  cities  on 
the  sea  coast,  Caricum-Teichos,  Gytte,  Acra,  Melissa,  and  Arambys.     Then  setting  sail, 
we  made  our  way  to  the  great  river  Lixus,  which  flows  from  Libya.     On  its  banks  the 
Lixitje,  a  pastoral  race,  led  their  flocks ;  with  whom  we  formed  ties  of  IVicndship,  and  spent 
a  short  interval.     The  country  above  them  was  inhabited  by  inhospitable  Ethiopians,  lillcd 
with  wild  beasts,  and  traversed  by  very  high  mountains,  whence  the  Li.xus  is  said  to  descend  ; 
and  it  was  added,  that  these  mountains  were  inliabited  by  men  dwelling  in  •  caves,  of  a 
strange  appearance,  who  outran  even  horses  in  tlie  chase.  Having  received  interpreters  from 
the  LLxitie,  we  proceeded  along  a  desert  coast  till  the  middle  of  the  second  day ;  when  we 
sailed  one  day  to  the  eastward,  and  in  the  recess  of  a  little  bay  found  a  small  island,  five 
stadia  in  circuit.    We  left  inhabitants  there,  and  named  it  Cerne.    This  island,  on  taking  an 
account  of  our  course,  we  conjectured  to  be  opposite  to  Carthage ;  for  the  navigation  fi'om 
Carthage  to  the  Pillars,  and  from  tlie  Pillars  to  Cerne,  corresponded.     Then  we  carne  to  a 
lake  through  which  flows  a  great  river  called  Chretes.     That  lake  contained  three  islands 
greater  than  Cerne ;  by  these,  in  the  course  of  a  day's  navigation,  we  reached  the  interior 
shore  of  the  lake,  where  very  great  mountains  impended  over  it,  inhabited  by  a  rough  people 
dressed  in  skins  of  wild  beasts,  who  by  throwing  stones  repelled  us,  and  prevented  us  from 
landing.     We  then  sailed  into  another  river,  large  and  broad,  fi^ill  of  crocodiles  and  river 
horses.     We  then  returned  to  Cerne.     From  Cerne,  renewing  our  course  to  the  south,  we 
passed  for  twelve  days  along  a  shore,  the  whole  of  which  was  in  the  possession  of  tlie  Ethi- 
opians, who  showed  a  trembling  dread  of  our  aspect,  and  spoke  a  language  unknown  to  our 
Lixite  interpreters.     On  the  last  day,  we  came  to  high  mountains  covered  with  trees,  the 
wood  of  which  was  odoriferous  and  variously  tinted.     Passing  round  these  mountains  by  a 
navigation  of  two  days,  we  came  to  an  immense  opening  of  the  sea,  bordered  by  plains  in 
which  we  saw  fires  of  different  magnitude  glittering  at  intervals  from  every  spot.     Having 
watered  tliere,  we  proceeded  five  days  along  the  shore,  till  we  came  to  an  immense  bay, 
which  the  interpreters  called  the  Western  Horn.  In  it  was  a  large  island,  and  in  that  island 
a  salt  water  lake,  in  which  again  there  was  another  island.     Entering  tliis  lake,  we  saw  in 
the  day  nothing  but  forest;  but  in  the  night  there  were  many  fires  burning;  and  we  heard 
various  sounds  of  musical  instruments,  and  the  cries  of  numberless  human  beings.     Being 
terrified  by  these  objects,  and  the  prophets  also  exhorting  us  to  quit  the  island,  we  made  off, 
and  reached  next  the  fiery  region  of  Thymiamata,   whence  torrents  of  flame  poured  down 
into  the  sea.     Here  the  heat  of  the  earth  was  such,  that  the  foot  could  not  tread  upon  it. 
We  therefore  took  our  speedy  departure  from  this  place,  and  after  four  days'  fiirther  sail,  saw 
the  earth  in  the  night  full  of  flames.     There  appeared  also  in  the  midst  of  them  one  lofty 
fire  greater  than  the  rest,  which  seemed  to  reach  to  the  very  stars;  this,  when  seen  by  day- 
light, proved  to  be  a  very  lofty  mountain,  called  the  ciiariot  of  the  gods.    Thence  by  a  navi- 
gation of  three  days,  having  passed  these  fiery  torrents,  we  came  upon  another  bay,  called 
the  Southern  Horn.     In  its  inmost  recess  was  an  island  similar  to  that  formerly  described, 
which  contained  in  like  manner  a  lake  with  another  island,  inhabited  b)^  a  rude  description 
of  people.     The  females  were  much  more  numerous  than  the  males,  and  had  rough  sl;ins : 
our  interpreters  called  them  Gorilla.     We  pursued  but  could  take  none  of  the  males ;  they 
all  escaped  to  the  top  of  precipices,  which  they  mounted  with  ease,  and  threw  down  stones ; 
we  took  three  of  tlie  females,  but  they  made  such  violent  struggles,  biting  and  tearing  their 
captors,  that  we  killed  them,  and  stripped  off  the  skins,  which  we  carried  to  Carthage :  being 
out  of  provisions,  we  could  go  no  furtlier." 

Such  is  the  entire  narrative  of  this  most  celebrated  of  the  ancient  voyages ;  but  it  would 
be  impossible  to  comprise  within  the  same  limits  even  a  sketch  of  the  commentaries  to  which 
it  has  given  rise  among  the  learned. 

Three  leaduig  hypotheses  have  been  formed-;  one,  that  of  Bougainville,  who  conceives 
Hanno  to  have  reached  the  Gulf  of  Benin ;  another,  of  Major  Rennell,  who  carries  his 
course  only  to  Sherbro  Sound,  a  little  beyond  Sierra  Leone ;  while  M.  Gosselin  insists 
upon  terminating  it  about  the  river  of  Nun.  {Fis^.  2.)  When  we  reflect  that  the  first 
of  these  courses  is  upwards  of  three  tliousand  miles,  and  the  last  under  seven  hundred,  an 
idea  may  be  formed  of  the  extremely  vague  nature  of  these  data,  where  all  the  names  are 
changed,  and  no  one  point  fixed  with  such  certainty  that  the  others  can  rest  upon  it. 

Bougainville  contends  that  his  assigned  limits  do  not  exceed  what  may  reasonably  be 
supposed  to  have  been  passed  over  by  the  most  skilful  navigator  of  antiquity;  in  fact, 
the  period  of  thirty-eight  days  is  precisely  the  time  employed  by  the  squadron  sent  in 
1641  to  found  the  Portuguese  fort  of  Elmina.  All  the  grand  features  of  man  and  nature 
described  by  Hanno  are  to  be  found  in  tropical  Africa  only ;  Ethiopians  or  Negroes ; 
Gorilla?,  who  are  evidently  apes  or  orang-outangs ;  rivers  so  large  as  to  contain  croco- 
diles and  hippopotami.  The  great  conflagrations  of  the  grass,  and  the  music  and  dancing 
prolonged  through  the  night,  are  phenomena  which  have  been  observed  only  in  the 
negro  territories. 

Major  Rennell's  system  retains  all  the  arguments  by  which  tliat  of  Bougainville  is  sup 


Book  1.  VOYAGE  OF  HANNO. 

Fig.  2— MAP  ILLUSTRATING  THE  VOYAGE  OF  HANNO. 


21 


BUsagpIs.- 


Sierra  teone 


ported,  at  the  same  time  that  it  avoids  tlie  extravagant  supposition  of  ancient  vessels  hav- 
ing- made  a  course  of  seventy  geographical  miles  in  the  day.  The  Gulfs  of  Bissago  and 
Sherbro  present  those  numerous  islands  described  by  Hanno,  and  not  found  on  any  other 
part  of  the  coast;  and  even  their  form  seems  to  correspond  to  the  appellation  of  Horn, 
applied  by  him  to  these  great  gulfs.  If,  then,  Hanno's  career  reached  central  Africa,  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  Major  Rennell's  hypothesis,  or  something  near  it,  exhibits  his  real 
progress. 

M.  Gosselin  restricts  the  voyage  v%-ithin  mucli  narrower  limits.  It  was  impossible,  he 
urges,  that  the  course  could  be  otherwise  than  slow  in  a  voyage  of  discovery  upon  an  un- 
known sea,  where  the  mariner  could  sail  only  by  daylight,  with  constant  precautions,  and 
minutely  examining  every  part  of  the  coast.  The  motions  of  Hanno  were  clogged  also  by 
the  large  and  incumbered  fleet  of  which  he  was  the  escort.  Destitute  of  the  compass,  and 
without  the  power  of  standing  out  to  sea,  he  could  never,  it  is  alleged,  have  doubled  Cape 
Bojador,  which  so  long  baffled  the  eiforts  of  tlie  Portuguese.  With  regard  to  the  features 
supposed  to  be  exclusively  characteristic  of  tropical  Africa,  ]M.  Gosselin  conceives  that 
Morocco,  yet  in  no  degree  civilized  or  subdued,  but  in  the  full  possession  of  rude  native 
tribes,  would  bear  a  much  more  similar  aspect  than  now  to  the  interior  portions  of  the  con- 
tinent. The  ape  tribe  and  the  wild  river  ampliibia  might  probably  fill  a  region  unoccupied 
by  man,  thougli  now,  it  is  supposed,  expelled  by  culture  and  a  more  crowded  population. 
The  term  Ethiopians  has  been  applied,  not  to  negroes  only,  but  to  all  nations  of  a  dark 
colour.  He  conceives,  therefore,  that  Hanno's  course  could  never  pass  much  beyond  the 
frontier  of  Morocco,  and  could  have  reached  only  a  very  little  further  than  the  estuary  of 
the  river  of  Nun. 

To  decide  a  point  on  which  such  learned  men  so  widely  disagree,  is  what  we  do  not 
feel  very  forward  to  undertake ;  and  really  the  difficulties  appear  very  gTeat  in  any  view  of 
the  subject     Tlie  detail  of  the  positions  would,  on  the  whole,  lead'  us  to  prefer  the  most 


22  ~        fflSTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  I. 

liniited  space.  Of  these  positions  the  island  of  Ceme  forans  the  key ;  and  tlic  identifying  of 
it  with  Arguin  is  essential  to  the  support  of  the  two  remote  hypotheses.  But  thougli  it  is 
evident  that  the  whole  of  the  sailing  period  to  Cerne  is  not  given,  the  time  heing  omitted 
during  which  the  five  cities  were  founded,  yet  the  general  tenour  seems  hardly  consistent 
with  so  great  a  way  being  made  along  such  a  difficult  and  unknown  shore.  Tlie  defect  is 
in  some  degree  supplied  by  an  ancient  nautical  guide  of  some  authority,  called  the  Peri- 
plus  of  Scylax,  in  wliich  the  sail  fi'om  the  straits  to  Cerne  is  given  at  twelve  days,  a  period 
which  Major  Rennell  admits  to  be  wholly  insufficient  for  reaching  Arguin.  Ptolemy,  indeed, 
carries  Cerne  to  almost  a  tropical  latitude ;  but  as  he  keeps  it  still  nortli  of  the  Canaries,  his 
graduation  here  is  manifestly  erroneous,  and  his  authority,  on  the  whole,  is  in  favour  of  re- 
taining Cerne  within  the  limits  of  IMorocco.  The  details  of  Hanno  do  not  appear  to  be 
always  very  satisfactory ;  but  perhaps  they  might  prove  more  so,  did  we  possess  a  more 
accurate  survey  of  this  coast  than  has  yet  been  taken.  On  the  whole,  tlien,  the  great  ques- 
tion is,  whether  M.  Gosselin's  solutions  can  account  for  the  aspect  of  nature  and  life  being 
so  different  from  that  of  Morocco,  and  so  like  that  of  a  negro  coast :  perhaps  here,  too,  some 
light  might  be  obtained  from  a  careful  observation  of  tiie  ruder  borders  of  the  former  empire. 

Sect.  IV. —  Voyages  of  Eiidoxus. 

The  ambition  of  performing  the  circuit  of  Africa,  the  grand  maritime  problem  of  an- 
tiquity, was  not  solely  confined  to  princes  and  states.  Even  private  adventurers,  animated 
by  the  ambition  of  achieving  so  great  an  enterprise,  and  hoping,  perhaps,  to  combine  with 
it  opportunities  of  lucrative  commerce,  are  found  in  the  list  of  the  explorers  of  Africa. 
Eudoxus  was  the  most  memorable  of  these  adventurers,  whose  story,  however,  lias  come 
dowTi  to  us  through  a  very  clouded  medium.  In  ancient,  still  more  than  in  modern  times, 
there  existed  men  whose  habit  it  was  to  treat  with  doubt  and  derision  all  narratives  of  dis- 
covery that  extended  beyond  the  ordinary  limits.  At  the  head  of  this  sceptical  band  stands 
Strabo,  one  of  the  greatest  geographers  whose  works  survive,  and  who  forms  the  chief 
medium  by  which  these  narratives  have  reached  our  time ;  a  most  unfortunate  circumstance 
to  the  fame  of  these  early  discoverers.  However,  in  many  instances,  nature  herself  has 
stood  forth  as  their  vindicator;  and  our  more  extended  knowledge  has  enabled  us  to  detect 
the  fallacy  of  the  arguments  by  which  Strabo  has  endeavoured  to  refute  them.  This  is  not 
particularly  the  case  with  regard  to  Eudoxus ;  but  really,  in  Strabo's  notices  respecting  the 
adventurous  life  of  the  bold  navigator,  we  cannot  see  any  thing  which  tends  to  controvert 
the  general  belief  of  antiquity,  that  he  had  made  repeated  and  spirited  attempts  to  explore 
the  unknown  coasts  of  the  African  continent. 

According  to  the  narratives  of  Strabo,  Eudoxus  was  a  native  of  Cyzicus,  sent  on  a  mission 
to  Alexandria,  then  the  groat  seat  of  maritime  enterprise  and  geographical  knowledge. 
His  ardent  mind  was  strongly  imbued  with  the  spirit  which  reigned  there ;  and  he  offered 
himself  to  Ptolemy  Evergetes,  the  reigning  king,  as  a  zealous  instrument  to  be  employed  in 
any  expedition  having  these  objects  in  view.  There  was,  at  first,  some  talk  of  ascending 
the  Nile,  and  endeavouring  to  reach  its  unknown  sources ;  but  their  views  received  a  new 
direction  from  the  arrival  of  a  person  who  was,  or  professed  to  be,  a  native  of  India, 
escaped  alone  from  the  wreck  of  his  vessel  near  the  foot  of  the  Arabian  Gulf  Ptolemy  im- 
mediately fitted  out  a  naval  armament,  with  which  Eudoxus  proceeded  on  this  destination. 
He  appears  to  have  made  a  prosperous  voyage,  and  to  have  returned  with  a  cargo  of  aroma- 
tics  and  precious  stones,  which  last  had  either  been  washed  down  by  the  rivers,  or  dug  out  in 
a  concrete  state.  It  is  scarcely  probable,  however,  that  Eudoxus  ever  reached  the  real  shores 
of  India,  or  went  beyond  the  southern  shore  of  Arabia,  and,  at  farthest,  the  Persian  Gulf. 
Of  tliis  wealth,  Evergetes  appears  to  have  plundered  him ;  which  Strabo  insinuates  was  in 
resentment  of  some  dishonest  conduct  on  his  own  part.  We  cannot,  in  these  days,  attempt 
to  judge  between  the  two  parties.  However,  Evergetes  dying,  his  widow  Cleopatra  took 
Eudoxus  again  into  favour,  and  sent  him  on  a  fresh  voyage.  He  was  now  driven  by  unfa- 
vourable winds  to  the  coast  of  Ethiopia,  where  he  was  well  received  by  the  inhabitants,  and 
carried  on  some  advantageous  trade.  His  return  to  Alexandria  was  again  unfortunate. 
Cleopatra  was  dead ;  and  her  son,  who  succeeded,  treated  him  as  ill  as  Evergetes  had  done. 
Eudoxus  brought  with  him,  however,  one  trophy  from  the  extremity  of  his  voyage— the 
prow  of  a  vessel,  said  to  have  come  from  the  westward  as  a  portion  of  a  wreck,  and  on 
which  was  sculptured  the  figure  of  a  horse.  This  prow  being  exhibited  by  Eudoxus  on  the 
harbour,  some  mariners  from  Cadiz  declared  it  to  be  the  very  form  peculiar  to  a  species  of 
large  ves.sel  which  went  from  that  port  for  purposes  partly  of  trade,  and  partly  of  fishing, 
to  the  coast  of  Mauritania.  Eudoxus  listened  witii  enthusiastic  credulity,  and  determined 
now  to  renounce  the  deceitful  patronage  of  courts,  and  to  fit  out  a  new  expedition  from  the 
commercial  city  of  Cadiz.  He  proceeded  thither  by  way  of  Massilia  and  other  maritime 
stations,  where  he  loudly  proclaimed  his  hopes,  and  invited  all  who  W'ere  animated  with  any 
spirit  of  enterprise  to  accompany  him.  He  accordingly  succeeded  in  equipping  an  expedition 
on  a  considerable,  and  even  magnificent  scale.  He  had  one  ship  and  two  large  boats,  on 
board  of  which  he  carried,  not  only  goods  and  provisions,  but  artisans,  medical  men,  and  even 


Book  L  VOYAGE  OF  PYTHEAS.  23 

players  on  musical  instruments.  A  crew  so  gay,  and  filled,  probably,  with  extravagant  hopes, 
were  ill  fitted  to  encounter  the  hardships  of  African  discovery.  They  took  fright  at  the 
swell  of  the  open  sea,  through  which  Eudoxus  was  anxious  to  conduct  them,  and  insisted, 
according  to  the  usual  timid  system,  on  being  brought  near  to  the  shore.  Tliis  led  to  the 
disaster  which  Eudoxus  had  foreseen :  the  ships  were  stranded,  and  the  cargo  with  difficulty 
saved.  The  most  valuable  articles  were  then  put  on  board  one  vessel  of  a  lighter  construc- 
tion, and  he  prosecuted  the  voyage  till  he  came  to  a  race  of  people  who  appeared  to  him  to 
speak  the  same  language  with  those  wliom  he  had  met  on  the  opposite  shore  of  tlie  conti- 
nent. Conceiving  himself  to  have  thus  ascertained  the  object  of  his  voyage,  he  returned, 
and  endeavoured  to  procure  the  barbaric  aid  of  Bocchus,  king  of  Mauritania ;  but,  suspecting 
that  monarch  of  a  treacherous  design  against  him,  he  again  betook  himself  to  Spain.  Here 
he  succeeded  in  equipping  a  fresh  expedition,  consisting  of  one  large  vessel  fitted  for  the 
open  sea,  and  another  of  smaller  dimensions  for  exploring  the  coast.  Here,  unfortunately, 
the  narrative  breaks  off,  referring  to  the  Spaniards  and  Gaditanians,  as  likely  to  know  more ; 
but  as  notliing  more  is  stated  on  any  authority,  we  fear  that  this  last  expedition  must  have 
had  an  unfortunate  issue.  Such  is  the  narrative  given  by  Strabo,  upon  information  which 
seems  to  have  been  originally  obtained  from  Eudoxus  himself;  and  we  see  nothing  in  it  un- 
worthy of  belief,  or  which  might  not  very  well  be  accomplished  by  a  man  of  bold  and  enthu- 
siastic character,  possessed  of  science  and  talent,  and  devoted  with  such  ardent  zeal  to  the 
cause  of  discovery.  Eudoxus  cannot  be  made  responsible  for  the  fables  whicli  antiquity  has 
put  into  his  mouth.  He  is  represented  by  some  as  having  actually  made  the  circuit  of  Africa ; 
by  others  as  having  come  to  one  nation  that  was  dumb,  and  another  whose  mouth  was  entirely 
closed,  and  which  received  food  through  an  orifice  in  the  nose.  But  none  of  these  fables 
are  found  in  the  report  of  Eudoxus  hunself,  as  coming  through  the  medium  of  Strabo  his 
enemy. 

Sect.  V. —  Voyage  of  Pytheas. 

The  voyage  of  Pytheas,  the  Massilian  navigator,  is  of  peculiar  interest,  as  it  is  the  only 
one  described  in  any  detail,  having  Europe,  and  particularly  the  British  Isles,  for  its  object. 
It  comes  to  us,  however,  still  more  deeply  tinged  by  the  same  dim  and  discoloured  medium 
through  which  that  of  Eudoxus  has  passed.  It  is  known  almost  solely  by  tlie  hostile  quo- 
tations of  the  sceptical-  Strabo,  adduced  for  the  purpose  of  proving  Pytheas  to  be  "  a  liar 
of  the  first  magnitude."  Yet,  the  nature  of  the  grounds  on  which  this  conclusion  is  made 
to  rest,  is  such  as  to  place  in  the  clearest  light  Strabo's  own  ignorance,  and  the  superior 
information  of  Pytheas.  This  last  will  become  more  conspicuous,  if  we  suppose,  as  seems 
probable,  that  the  errors  of  the  geograplier  were  transmitted  to  liim  from  Massilia  itself;  in 
which  case,  Pytheas  being  found  possessed  of  knowledge  of  which  his  countrymen  were 
destitute,  there  appears  no  mode  in  which  he  could  have  obtained  it,  except  the  actual  per- 
formance of  the  voyages. 

The  following  are  statements  on  whicli  Strabo  rests  his  refutation  of  Pytheas.  That  navi- 
gator stated,  that  the  Calbium  Promontoriitrn,  the  extremity  of  Bretagno,  pointed  to  the 
west,  while  Strabo  affirms  it  to  be  perfectly  notorious  that  its  direction  was  to  the  north. 
This  last  strange  idea  was  connected  with  what  we  shall  find  to  be  the  general  error  of  this 
school,  which  allowed  to  France  a  southern  coast  only,  and  not  a  western  one.  Again, 
Pytheas  represented  Britain  as  having  one  of  its  sides  much  longer  than  five  hundred  miles, 
whereas,  his  adversary  maintains  this  to  be  the  dimensions  of  its  longest  side,  which,  accord- 
ing to  him,  is  that  opposite  to  and  seen  from  the  shores  of  Gaul.  Finally,  Pytheas  asserts 
that  his  Ultima  Thule  was  farther  north  than  Ireland ;  whereas,  all  well-informed  persons, 
knowing  Ireland  to  be  four  hundred  miles  north  from  Britain,  and  scarcely  habitable  on  ac- 
count of  the  cold,  considered  it  as  forming  on  that  side  the  extreme  boundary  of  the  in- 
habited earth.  Tlius  far  it  is  necessary  only  to  name  the  charges  against  Pytheas,  to  make^ 
him  sliine  conspicuous  above  his  enemies. 

There  are  other  statements,  it  must  be  confessed,  which  appear  at  first  sight  a  little  start- 
ling.' Pytheas  describes  the  longest  side  of  Britain  not  only  as  more  than  five  hundred  miles 
in  length,  but  as  exceeding  two  thousand.  It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that  while  Strabo 
described  Britain  as  a  triangle,  having  its  longest  side  opposite  to  Gaul,  Pytheas  conceived 
it  to  have  only  tioo  sides,  one  of  which,  consequently,  reached  from  the  Land's  End,  or  the 
Lizard  Point,  to  the  extremity  of  Scotland.  If  we  consider  this  vast  extent  of  coast,  with 
BO  many  winding  shores  and  deep  bays,  all  the  sinuosities  of  which  an  alicient  navigator  was 
obliged  to  follow,  the  estimate  will  appear  not  very  extravagant.  Again  Pytheas  described 
the  coast  of  Kent  as  several  days'  sail  from  that  of  Gaul.  But  the  term  by  wliich  Strabo 
designates  Gaul,  is  KinXtixTq  (Celtica) ;  and  it  appears  from  Cfesar,  that  Celtica  formed  only 
one  of  the  three  parts  into  whicli  Gaul  was  divided,  and  was  bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
Seine.  Pytheas  probably  used  the  term  in  this  restricted  and  more  proper  sense  ;  when  the 
distance  assigned  became  strictly  correct.  He  moreover  described  the  coast  of  Spain  as 
inliabited  by  Gallic  nations ;  it  would  even  seem,  that  he  considered  the  Calbium  Promon- 
torium  as  Spanish.     Here  lie  was  clearly  in  the  wrong ;  but  the  error  will  probably  be 


24  HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  P.vrt  I. 

found  to  have  rested  not  in  his  observations  and  facts,  but  in  mbcing  them  with  an  errone- 
ous theory  prevalent  at  Massilia,  according'  to  which,  France  liad  not  a  western  coast,  nor 
one  facing  the  Atlantic ;  such  a  coast  belonged  to  Spain  only.  Under  this  impression, 
Pytheas,  so  long  as  he  sailed  along  the  western  coast  of  Gaul,  and  till  he  came  to  that 
opposite  to  Britain,  would  naturally  imagine  that  he  was  sailing  along  the  coast  of  Spain. 

Strabo  at  last  traces  Pytlicas  to  Thule,  and  '"  lior  utmost  isles,"  when  he  does,  certainly, 
present  a  narrative  assuming  somewhat  of  a  fabulous  aspect.  The  most  daring  navigator, 
as  he  approached  the  dreary  boundaries  of  earth  and  ocean,  and  saw  only  tiie  liigh  billows 
of  the  North  Sea  dashing  against  a  rocky  and  misty  shore,  might  become  liable  to  some 
sinister  impressions.  Pytheas,  it  seems,  said,  that  beyond  Thule  there  commenced  what 
was  neither  earth,  sea,  nor  air,  but  a  confused  blending  of  all  the  three,  similar  to  the  sub- 
stance called  pnlmo  lyiarimis  (a  species  of  medusa  common  on  our  shores).  He  added,  that 
this  substance  was  the  basis  of  the  universe,  and  that  in  it,  air,  earth,  and  sky  hung  as  it 
were  suspended.  If  we  place,  ourselves  in  tiie  situation  of  Pytheas,  seeing  before  him  the 
northern  sea,  overhung  by  thick  and  gloomy  mists,  shrouded  in  twilight,  and  darkened  by 
tempest,  we  may  sup[X)se  him  very  easily  persuaded,  that  wliat  he  beheld  v.-as  a  confused 
blending  of  all  the  elements,  not  very  dissimilar  even  to  that  thick  viscid  animal  substance 
to  which  it  was  compared.  Nor  can  we  feel  much  wonder,  if,  after  this  long  and  difficult 
navigation  through  so  many  perils,  he  should  lend  somewhat  of  a  ready  car  to  a  report 
which  represented  him  to  have  reached  that  farthest  boundary  of  nature,  beyond  wliich  it 
was  no  longer  possible  for  mortal  sail  to  penetrate.  Another  report  of  Pytheas  was,  that 
at  Thule  the  phenomenon  took  place  which  belongs  only  to  the  polar  circle, — a  summer  of 
one  long  day,  and  a  winter  of  one  long  night.  Antiquity  is  somewhat  full  of  rumours  of 
this  phenomenon,  which  science  had  pointed  out  as  likely  to  take  place  at  a  certain  latitude  ; 
and  there  was  a  general  disposition  in  those  who  had  made  any  progress  northwards  to  an- 
ticipate the  term.  Considermg  the  loose  way  in  which  rumour  then  spread,  it  may  easily 
be  supposed,  that  the  partisans  of  this  idea  might  support  it  by  an  exaggerated  representa- 
tion of  the  real  statements  of  Pytheas.  One  of  these  (Geminius)  merely  reports  him  as 
saying  that  the  nights  appeared  to  him  to  last  only  for  two  or  three  hours,  a  statement 
which  at  midsummer  would  be  quite  correct.  Indeed,  we  have  been  assured  by  persons 
who  have  resided  in  the  Siietland  islands,  tliat  at  that  season  there  was  scarcely  any  sen- 
sible term  of  darkness.  A  foreigner,  then,  visiting  the  islands,  might  very  readily  imagine 
he  had  arrived  at  that  point  on  the  globe  where  the  summer  was  one  uninterrupted  day. 

The  theories,  which  would  make  Thule  any  other  place  than  Shetland,  seem  not  to 
require  much  discussion,  though  there  are  not  wanting  learned  partisans  in  favour  of  each. 
Iceland  would  imply  too  great  an  extent  of  open  sea  for  an  ancient  navigator ;  and  the 
period  of  five  days'  sail  from  the  continent  would  be  very  inadequate.  Some  Scandinavian 
writers  have  claimed  Thule  as  belonging  to  their  own  region ;  Rudbeck  for  Sweden  ;  Saxo 
Grammaticus,  and  Schocnning  for  the  Norwegian  Tellemach ;  Make  Brun  for  Jutland. 
These  theories  seem  sufficiently  refuted  by  the  single  consideration,  that  Pytheas  invariably 
considered  Thule  as  British,  and  expressly  calls  it  the  "farthest  of  the  Britains."  But 
Jutland  or  the  Baltic  he  could  have  only  reached  by  a  long  navigation  along  the  coasts  of 
Germany,  which  could  never  have  been  performed  without  the  clear  perception  of  having 
left  far  behind  him  every  thing  belonging  to  Britain, 

Sect.  VI. — The  Voyage  of  Nearclius, 

Alexander  the  Great  was  animated  beyond,  perhaps,  any  other  ancient  monarch  or  sage, 
with  an  ardent  zeal  for  discovery  His  expedition  became  almost  as  mucli  one  of  explora- 
tion as  of  conquest.  Its  course  was  in  general  by  land,  and  through  the  interior  of  tJic 
continent;  but  his  mind  was  not  less  deeply  fixed  upon  commerce  and  maritime  discovery. 
On  reaching,  therefore,  the  banks  of  the  Indus,  and  being  obliged  by  the  mutiny  o.f  his 
troops  to  fix  there  the  termination  of  his  career,  lie  was  seized  with  a  desire  to  explore  the 
lov.'cr  course  of  that  river,  and  afterwards  the  southern  coasts  of  Asia ;  a  long  range  com- 
pletely unknown  to  tlie  Greeks.  The  prospects  of  this  voyage,  however,  v.'ere  such  as  to 
appal  the  most  enterprising  of  his  naval  officers.  The  perils  of  tempest  and  shipwreck  on 
this  wide  and  unknown  ocean,  with  those  of  being  driven  upon  a  barbarous  and  desert 
coast,  appeai'ed  almost  to  preclude  the  hope  of  reaching  by  this  long  circuit  tlie  destined 
station  of  the  army  on  the  banks  of  the  Eu])hratos.  The  inferior  officers  variously  excused 
themselves  from  so  heavy  a  task ;  and  the  enterprise  appeared  ready  to  fail  for  lack  of  instru- 
ments, when  Nearchus,  the  admiral  of  the  fleet,  came  forward  and  proffi^red  his  own  ser- 
vices. Alexander  unwillingl}'  committed  this  task  to  an  officer  so  high  in  rank,  and  hi.3 
intimate  fiiend ;  but  tlie  earnestness  of  Nearchus,  and  the  backwardness  of  all  the  others, 
left  him  at  length  no  alternative. 

The  voyage  down  the  Indus  was  brilliant.  Alexander  conveyed  his  army  in  a  crowded 
fleet  of  two  thousand  vessels.  The  sound  of  the  numberless  oars,  echoed  by  the  surroimd- 
ing  woods,  as  they  floated  down  this  majestic  stream,  excited  the  admiring  gaze  of  tlie 
jjatives,     Alexander  even  accompanied  his  admiral  down  the  Delta  of  the  Indus,  and  took 


Book  I, 


VOYAGE  OF  NEARCHUS. 


25 


a  view  of  the  ocean,  after  which  he  returned,  to  lead  his  army  by  a  most  perilous  and  diffi- 
cult route  through  Gedrosia  and  Karamania  to  Babylon. 

Nearchus  now  began  his  arduous  naval  route  {Fig.  3.), after  the  usual  antique  preparation 

Fig.  3— MAP  OF  THE  VOYAGE  OF  NEARCHUS.    ■ 

45                                  50                                   65                                   60  65  70 
1 \ ' 


of  sacrifices  and  games.  At  the  mouth  of  the  river  appeared  a  most  fomnidable  obstacle ,  a 
rock  barring  the  passage,  and  against  which  the  waves  broke  with  ftiry.  This  was  sur- 
mounted by  cutting  a  canal  across  the  softest  part  of  the  rock,  through  which  the  vessels 
were  able  to  pass  at  full  tide.  He  then  passed  the  sandy  island  of  Krokali  (Corachie,) 
and  Mount  Eirus  (Cape  Monze,)  when,  being  now  in  the  open  ocean,  a  series  of  gales 
began,  so  heavy  and  continued,  as  obliged  him  to  seek  the  shelter  of  an  excellent  harbour 
formed  by  an  island  called  Bibacta.  The  crews  here  landed,  threw  up  an  entrenchment 
to  defend  themselves  against  the  natives,  and  remained  for  twenty-three  days,  subsisting 
chiefly  on  shell-fish.  The  wind  having  abated,  they  set  sail,  and  came  to  a  coast  where 
water,  of  which  they  appear  to  have  needed  almost  daily  supplies,  was  only  to  be  got  by 
going  several  miles  up  into  the  country.  They  then  passed  between  a  range  of  rocks,  so 
close  to  each  other,  that  the  oars  struck  against  them  on  each  side.  After  sailing  a  con- 
siderable space,  partly  in  a  narrow  channel  between  a  wooded  island  and  the  shore,  they 
came  to  the  river  Arabius  (the  modern  Pooralee).  It  gave  name  to  a  numerous  people, 
inhabiting  all  the  territory  between  this  river  and  the  Indus.  On  the  other  side  was  the 
coast  of  the  Oritae.  In  proceeding,  however,  Nearchus  met  with  a  dreadfiil  tempest,  in 
which  three  of  his  vessels  perished,  though  the  crews  were  saved  by  swimming,  and  he 
with  difficulty  brought  his  shattered  vessels  to  the  coast.  Here  he  found  Leonatus,  whom 
Alexander  had  detached  to  open  a  communication  with  him,  which  he  obtained  only  by 
very  hard  figliting.  Nearchus  Jiere  spent  some  time  in  refitting  his  shattered  vessels,  and 
exchanged  those  of  his  crew  who  had  proved  themselves  less  efficient,  for  fresh  men  out 
of  the  Greek  army.  Having  laid  in  corn  for  ten  days,  they  sailed  with  a  prosperous  wind, 
and  reached  the  rapid  stream  of  Tomerus  (the  modern  Wudd).  Here  the  natives,  six 
hundred  strong,  were  drawn  up  to  oppose  their  landing;  a  barbarous  race,  armed  witli 
lances  six  cubits  long,  pointed  not  with  iron,  but  with  wood  hardened  in  the  fire.  Near- 
chus caused  a  band  of  his  light  troops  to  swim  on  shore,  and  to  make  no  movement  till 
they  were  drawn  up  in  a  triple  line,  then  suddenly  to  raise  a  general  shout,  and  pour  in 
clouds  of  darts  and  missiles.  This  sudden  attack,  their  shouts,  and  the  glitter  of  their 
armour,  produced  instant  and  total  rout  on  the  part  of  the  natives.  They  are  described  as 
presenting  an  aspect  almost  incredibly  savage,  being  covered  m  a  gTeat  measure  with  hair, 
and  having  long  nails  like  the  claws  of  wild  beasts.  Their  dress  consisted  in  the  skins  of 
animals  and  of  large  fishes. 

The  expedition  now  steering  out  to  sea,  and  taking  a  southerly  course,  observed  pheno- 
mena belonging  to  the  midsummer  of  the  tropic,  the  novelty  of  which  struck  them  with 
surprise.  When  the  sun  was  in  the  meridian  no  shadow  was  projected,  and  when  there 
came  to  be  a  little  shadow,  it  declined  to  the  southward.  Stars,  which  were  wont  to  be  seen 
high  in  tlie  heavens,  were  now  little  above  the  horizon.  At  Bagaziri  (Cape  Arrubah)  they 
left  the  coast  of  the  Oritee,  and  entered  that  of  the  Ichthyophagi,  or  fish-eaters,  a  food  which 
is  said  to  have  so  remarkably  abounded,  that  even  the  flesh  of  the  cattle  savoured  of  fish, 
from  their  making  it,  like  sea-birds,  their  daily  food.  The  people  were  hospitable,  but  could 
give  only  fishes  and  goats.  It  was  not  till  the  Greeks  had  sailed  a  considerable  distance  that 
at  Barna  they  found  some  palms,  gardens,  and  verdure.     After  passing  Cophantse  (Guadel,) 

Vof.  I.      ■  3  D 


26  HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  I. 

where  they  obtained  a  supply  of  fine  water,  and  Cyzia  (Gwuttcr)  on  a  desert  and  rocky 
shore,  they  came  to  a  small  town  on  a  hill  a  little  inland  (probably  Churbar,)  where  it 
appeared  probable  that  a  supply  of  grain  might  be  obtained.  To  possess  himself  of  this, 
Nearchus  had  recourse  to  measures  that  harmonized  much  more  with  the  character  of  a  buc- 
caneering freebooter,  than  with  that  of  an  officer  of  the  first  prince  in-  the  world.  The 
people  met  him  in  the  most  kindly  manner,  and  presented  to  him  roasted  fish  and  other  vic- 
tuals. Meeting  their  friendly  advances,  he  expressed  a  wish  to  visit  their  city,  and  being 
cordially  admitted,  his  first  step  was  to  take  military  occupation  of  it,  and  command  the 
natives  to  lay  open  to  him  all  their  stores  of  grain.  The  poor  citizens  at  first  flew  to  arms, 
but  having  no  means  of  effectual  resistance,  were  obliged  to  yield.  It  proved,  however, 
that  they  had  little  except  dried  fish  reduced  to  powder,  and  Nearchus  could  get  only  a  very 
small  stock  of  grain.  In  sailing  now  along  an  almost  desert  coast,  the  stock  of  provisions 
became  excessively  scanty ;  and  they  obtained  only  a  poor  supply  by  landing  and  cutting  off 
the  leaves  of  wild  palm-trees.  The  pressure  became  so  extreme,  and  was  so  impatiently 
borne  by  the  crews,  that  Nearchus  did  not  think  it  safe  to  land  at  night,  lest  they  should  all 
take  flight  into  the  interior.  In  one  place  he  found  a  paltry  village,  all  the  inliabitants  of 
which  fled ;  but  the  Greeks  found  seven  camels,  which  they  killed  and  eagerly  devoured. 
The  same  distress  continued  to  press  upon  them  so  long  as  they  sailed  along  tlie  coast  of  the 
"  fish-eaters."  Notwithstanding  this  name,  few  of  them  were  fishers,  or  had  even  boats. 
They  procured  this  food  by  immense  nets,  sometimes  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long,  formed  out 
of  the  fibrous  bark  of  the  palm  tree.  These  they  placed  at  high  tide  across  the  mouth  of 
little  bays,  so  that  when  the  waters  receded,  the  nets  retained  all  the  fish  which  had  been 
carried  up  with  the  tide.  The  houses  of  the  rich  were  built  with  the  bones  of  whales  cast 
ashore,  those  of  the  poor  with  the  back-bones  of  smaller  fishes.  Nearchus  descried  a  number 
of  whales,  whose  presence  was  at  first  made  sensible  only  by  the  quantity  of  water  thrown 
up  into  the  air,  and  tossed  as  in  a  whirlpool,  a  spectacle  which  struck  the  sailors  with  terror, 
and  made  the  oars  drop  from  their  hands.  The  commander,  however,  on  being  informed  of 
the  cause,  made  his  crews  raise  the  loudest  possible  sound  by  shouts,  tnimpets,  and  dashing 
of  oars,  which  at  once  kept  up  their  own  spirits,  and  was  supposed  to  induce  these  monsters 
of  the  deep  to  replunge  into  their  abysses. 

The  coast  of  Caramania  was  next  reached  by  Nearchus,  after  passing  the  fabulous  abode 
of  a  Persian  Circe,  who,  according  to  report,  was  accustomed  to  seduce  the  navigator  by 
voluptuous  pleasures,  and  then  convert  him  into  a  fish.  Nearchus  now  found  his  distresses 
nearly  at  an  end,  as  the  soil  was  tolerably  productive  in  grain  and  fi'uits,  and  there  was  plenty 
of  good  water.  After  passing  Capes  Jask  and  Bombareek,  they  came  in  view  of  a  liuge  pro- 
montory, stretching  far  into  the  sea,  called  Cape  Maceta  (Mussendoon),  and  forming  the 
entrance  of  the  Persian  Gulf  The  great  body  of  the  sailors,  and  even  Onesicrotus,  an  officer 
high  in  command,  weary  of  this  long  navigation,  earnestly  proposed  to  land,  and  march  on  foot 
to  Babylon.  Nearchus  justly  and  strongly  insisted  that  this  was  in  no  degree  to  ftilfil  the 
intention  of  Alexander,  whose  injunction  it  was,  to  survey  every  coast,  every  harbour,  and 
every  bay,  between  India  and  the  Euphrates ;  and  that  besides  they  incurred  great  hazard  of 
being  involved  in  those  arid  and  bummg  deserts,  ot  which  Arabia  in  a  great  measure  con- 
sists. This  wise  opinion  prevailed,  and  in  ascending  the  Persian  Gulf  they  found,  for  the 
most  part,  a  fertile  and  beautifhl  coast.  In  tlie  delightftil  country  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Anamis  (the  modern  Minab)  they  landed,  and  began  to  refi'csh  themselves  after  so  many 
hardships.  Nay,  a  party  having  proceeded  to  some  distance  into  the  interior,  met,  with  tears 
of  surprise  and  joy,  a  man  in  a  Greek  dress,  and  speaking  the  Greek  language.  This  proved 
to  be  a  soldier  who  had  straggled  from  the  army  of  Alexander,  vv-hich  he  reported  to  be  at  a 
distance  of  only  five  days'  journey.  On  receiving  this  intelligence,  Nearchus  caused  the 
ships  to  be  drawn  on  shore,  a  rampart  to  be  formed  round  them,  and  the  crews  to  take  rest 
and  refreshment,  while  he  and  Archias  set  out  alone  for  the  camp.  On  their  arrival  they 
presented  an  aspect  so  haggard,  pale,  and  squalid,  that  the  persons  they  met  did  not  know 
them,  but  on  being  told  their  name,  hastened  to  carry  the  first  tidings  to  Alexander.  They 
added  (a  hasty  conclusion  formed  fi-om  appearances,)  that  the  fleet  and  the  army  had  per- 
ished. Alexander  received  Nearchus  with  a  kindness  mingled  with  sorrow,  and  aft.er  the 
first  salutations,  began  to  ask  particulars  of  the  catastrophe  of  his  fiivourite  armament ;  but 
when  Nearchus  replied,  "  O  king !  thy  ships  and  men  are  safe,"  the  conqueror  burst  into  a 
flood  of  tears,  and  swore  by  Jupiter  Ammon,  that  he  derived  more  pleasure  from  this  event 
than  from  the  entire  conquest  of  Asia. 

The  rest  of  the  navigation  of  Nearchus,  when  he  had  with  some  difficulty  regained  the  fleet, 
was  easy,  care  being  taken  tliat  he  should  find  on  the  coast  every  kind  of  supply.  They 
passed  the  barren  and  desert  rock  of  Organa,  afterwards  so  celebrated  under  the  nnme  of 
Ormuz,  the  large  and  fertile  Oaracta  (the  modern  Kishme).  Soon  after  they  quitted  the 
coast  of  Caramania  and  entered  that  of  Persia  proper  (the  modern  Fars,)  which  they  follow- 
ed till  its  termination  at  the  river  Arosis  (the  modern  Endian  Tab,)  which  appeared  to  them 
tlie  largest  they  had  seen  since  they  had  left  the  Indus.  They  were  now  in  Susiana,  and 
Boon  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Tigris,  wliere  the  vovarre  terminated. 


Book  I.  PERIPLUS  OF  THE  ERYTHREAN  SEA.  27 

The  circumnavigation  of  Arabia,  and  the  opening  of  a  communication  between  the  Red 
Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  formed  to  Alexander  an  object  of  almost  equal  ambition.  He 
accordingly  appears  to  have  sent  expeditions  down  both  seas,  in  the  hope  of  accomplishing 
this  object.  Those,  however,  who  went  from  Persia  were  never  able  to  double  that  formidable 
promontory  (the  Mussendoon)  which  Nearchus  had  passed  at  the  entrance  of  the  gulf;  while 
those  who  went  from  Egypt,  after  making  a  certain  progress,  were  always  obliged  to  return 
for  want  of  water.  The  narrator  chose  to  conclude  with  inferring,  that  such  an  achieve- 
ment must  be  beyond  human  skill  or  power,  otherwise  the  daring  curiosity  of  Alexander 
would  certainly  have  accomplished  it.  He  reinforces  this  argument  by  observing,  that  as 
caravans  which  crossed  Arabia  were  able  to  travel  only  during  the  night  and  in  the  day 
were  unable  to  bear  the  intense  heat  of  the  sun,  it  was  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  a  region 
still  farther  to  the  south  should  be  at  all  habitable. 

Sect.  VH. — Periplus  of  the  Erythrean  Sea. 

The  complete  establishment  of  the  dominion  of  Rome  produced  a  long  period  of  compara- 
tive peace.  The  encouragement  of  industry  and  commerce  never  formed  part  of  the  policy 
of  that  powerfial  empire ;  but  the  demand  for  luxuries  of  every  description  in  its  overgTown 
capital,  where  the  wealth  of  the  world  was  collected,  and  to  procure  which  the  remotest 
extremities  of  the  earth  and  sea  were  ransacked,  powerfully  stimulated  mercantile  enterprise. 
Alexandria  continued  still  the  great  nautical  school,  by  whose  mariners  the  obstacles  which 
in  the  time  of  Alexander  had  been  deemed  insurmountable  were  completely  overcome. 
Regular  voyages  were  established  across  to  India,  and  for  a  considerable  extent  along  the 
eastern  coast  of  Africa.  The  course  of  this  commercial  voyage  is  related  by  Arrian,  not 
the  historian  of  Alexander,  but  a  merchant  of  Alexandria ;  and  though  not  so  much  a  voyage 
of  discovery  as  a  coasting  guide,  it  is  founded,  probably,  upon  personal  observation,  and  will 
enable  us  to  complete  the  survey  of  tlie  great  naval  routes  of  the  ancient  world. 

The  voyage  down  the  west  coast  of  the  Red  Sea  began  with  Berenice,  founded  by  the 
Ptolemies,  and  the  site  of  which,  after  being  long  sought  for  in  vain,  seems  to  have  been 
nearly  fixed  by  Belzoni.  The  coast  on  the  African  side  was  wild,  and  occupied  only  by  a 
few  rude  Imts  of  barbarous  Nubians.  The  small  port  called  Ptolemais  Theron  was  the 
only  place  where  refreshments  could  be  obtained.  At  length,  the  navigator  came  to  Aduli, 
a  great  emporium,  whose  site  Mr.  Salt  seems  to  have  ascertained  in  the  vicinity  of  Arkeeko. 
Here  was  a  profusion  of  excellent  ivory,  collected  and  sent  down  from  Axum,  the  metropo- 
lis, about  eight  days'  journey  in  the  interior.  In  return  for  this  single  staple  of  Ethiopia 
was  exchanged  that  variety  of  showy  colours,  suited  to  a  rude  taste ;  pottery  and  glass 
vessels,  the  manufacture  of  Diospolis ;  brass  for  vessels  and  ornaments,  iron  for  pointing 
lances,  arms,  and  cutting  instruments.  Some  fine  clotlis,  and  ornaments  of  gold  and  silver, 
were  brouglit  as  presents  or  tribute  to  the  king.  Farther  down,  apparently  in  the  Gulf  of 
Zeyla,  was  the  kingdom  of  Zosiiales,  a  prince  who  is  described  in  glowing  terms  as  adorned 
with  every  virtue,  and  eminently  skilled  in  Grecian  literature ;  but  these  seeds  of  civiliza- 
tion, if  they  ever  existed,  did  not  ripen  in  so  migenial  a  climate.  The  coast  now  turns 
eastward  to  the  Indian  Ocean. 

A  view  of  the  passage  down  the  opposite  or  eastern  coast  of  the  Red  Sea  must  now  be 
taken.  Navigators  do  not  seem  to  have  ventured  across  the  breadth  of  that  sea  from  Berenice, 
but  went  by  Myos  Hormus,  along  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  touching  at  Leitke  Kome, 
tlie  fair  village,  which  formed  the  port  of  the  great  commercial  capital  of  Petra.  The  coast 
downwards  was  most  unfavourable  to  navigation,  "  fiill  of  danger,  without  harbours,  beset 
with  rocks,  everywhere  fiall  of  horror;"  and  such  the  whole  of  the  Red  Sea  is  described  to 
be  by  modern  navigators.  If  a  vessel  was  driven  too  near  the  shore,  it  was  immediately 
plundered  by  the  barbarous  inhabitants,  and  all  who  survived  carried  into  slavery.  At  length 
they  came  to  the  Burnt  Island,  which  seems  to  be  Gebel  Tor,  on  the  coast  of  Yemen,  where 
tliey  found  a  fine  country  and  a  fi-iendly  people.  The  emporium  of  this  coast  was  Moosa, 
near  the  modern  Mocha,  said  to  be  inhabited  by  a  race  skilled  in  maritime  affairs.  The 
imports  were  of  the  same  description  as  at  Aduli,  but  of  finer  quality,  including  a 
considerable  quantity  of  dye-stuffs.  Tlie  exports  were  myrrh,  gum,  alabaster  (no  mention 
yet  of  coffee).  They  then  proceeded  downwards,  and  passed  the  straits  now  called  Bab  el 
Mandel. 

The  southern  coast  of  Arabia  formed  the  next  object  of  navigation.  Ocelis  (the  modern 
Ghella)  was  a  good  harbour,  though  with  little  trade;  but  Arabia  Felix,  which  seems. to 
have  been  near  the  site  of  Aden,  had  been  a  most  flourishing  port,  forming  a  depot  in  which 
the  mercliants  of  Alexandria  found  all  the  commodities  of  India.  It  had  lately,  however, 
been  destroyed  by  the  Romans.  In  coasting  along  Arabia,  they  found  Kane  (the  modern 
Macculla) ;  the  Gulf  of  Sachalites,  in  which  is  found  4lie  modern  Sahar ;  and  Syagros,  de- 
scribed as  the  largest  promontory  in  tlie  world,  usually  supposed  to  be  Ras  el  Had,  but 
which  Vincent  appears  clearly  to  fix  in  the  much  more  westerly  position  of  Cape  Fartash. 
This  region  is  described  as  yielding  a  considerable  quantity  of  incense,  but  as  extremely 
meist  and  unhealthy.     They  now  passed  Mosca  (Morebat),  Asichone  (Hasec),  the  islands 


28 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  I, 


Fig.  4. — Periplus — Coast  of  I.\dia. 


of  Zenobius  (Curia  Muria),  and  came  to  Ras  el  Had,  where  the  coast  turns  northward  to 
the  Persian  Gulf.  The  writer  observes,  and  truly,  that  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  is  bordered 
by  very  lofty  and  rugged  mountains;  he  mentions  the  celebrated  pearl  fishery  on  its 
western  shore,  and  Apologos,  otherwise  called  Oboleh,  then  the  emporium  of  the  Euplirates. 
He  does  not  dwell,  however,  on  these  details,  and  passes  also,  with  very  slight  notice,  the 
southern  coast  of  Persia,  which  the  observations  of  Nearchus  had  shown  to  be  destitute  of 
any  materials  for  commerce. 

The  coast  of  India  {fig.  4.)  now  commences,  and  forms  the  most  important  era  in  tlie 
voyage.  He  reaches  the  mouth  of  tlie 
great  river  Sinthus,  by  which  name  he 
designates  the  Indus.  It  is  represented 
as  entering  the  sea  by  seven  mouths,  only 
one  of  which  is  navigable,  and  on  which 
is  situated  a  place  called  Emporium  Bar- 
baricum,  subject  to  the  interior  metropolis 24 
of  Minnagara,  which  last  is  described  as  a 
Scythian  city.  The  idea  of  Scythia  at- 
tached to  this  part  of  India  could  only  be  22 
suggested  by  the  rude  pastoral  manners 
of  the  people,  and,  combined  with  tlie  cir- 
cumstance of  its  being  included  in  the 
Parthian  empire,  points  out  Minnagara  as  20 
belonging  to  what  is  now  called  the  king- 
dom of  Caubul,  to  which,  in  fact,  the  Del- 
ta of  the  Indus  is  still  subject.  The  mer- 
chants were  obliged  to  go  up  to  ]\Iinna-  '^ 
gara,  and  to  negotiate  with  the  prince 
himself  After  passing  the  Indus,  navi- 
gators found  successively  the  gulfs  of  le  ■] 
Eirin(Cutch)  and  of  Barygaza  (Baroacii). 
The  narrator  here  remarks  the  dangers 
of  every  kind  with  which  these  gulfs  are 
beset,  shallows,  concealed  rocks,  narrow 
and  difficult  entrances,  but  above  all,  the 
extraordinary  occasional  violence  of  the 
tide ;  in  consequence  of  wliich,  unexpe- 
rienced navigators  often  saw  their  vessels 
either  sunk  or  driven  on  sliore.  Frequent- 
Iv,  when  they  were  sailing  in  perfectly 
smooth  water,  a  sound  was  heard  as  of  an 
advancing  army  ;  and  soon  the  tide  rushed 
on  with  such  force,  that  no  anchor  could  secure  the  vessels.  Barygaza  was  a  very  great 
emporium,  at  which  were  found  the  same  commodities  as  at  Emporium  Barbaricum,  with 
mucli  finer  clotlis,  and  a  quantity  of  long  pepper.  Ozene  (Ougein)  was  a  great  interior 
capital,  the  prince  of  which  it  was  necessary  to  propitiate,  by  sending  up  handsome  presents 
of  the  very  best  wine,  rich  unguents,  cloth,  and  beautiful  female  slaves. 

The  region  of  Dachinabades  (the  Decan,  i.  e.  the  South,  for  Arrian  remarks,  Aaxavo^ 
xa.Xiito.i  0  j'oroj  tri  avti^v  y%co(sar;')  extended  to  the  south  of  Barygaza,  and  is  described  as 
combining  "many  regions,  deserts,  Imge  mountains,  wild  beasts  of  every  kind,  and  finally, 
many  great  and  populous  nations."  It  had  two  large  interior  capitals,  Plithana  and  Tagara ; 
the  one  twenty  days'  journey  south  from  Barygaza,  the  other  ten  days  farther.  The  gran- 
deur of  both  has  sunk  under  the  changes  to  which  eastern  cities  are  subject ;  but  the  site 
of  the  former  seems  recognised  in  Piltanah  on  the  Godavery,  that  of  the  latter  in  Deoghir, 
now  Dowlatabad,  in  whose  vicinity  are  tlie  magnificent  sculptured  temples  of  Ellora.  A 
number  of  ports  are  now  described,  which  cannot  be  very  precisely  determined ;  but  Kal- 
liena,  mentioned  as  the  seat,  though  with  some  interruptions,  of  a  very  great  commerce,  is 
pretty  clearly  recognised  at  or  near  the  modern  Bombay.  Afterwards  we  may  know  the 
Concan  by  the  mention  of  pirates.  At  length  the  Greeks  reached  Limyrike,  a  fine  port, 
and  the  seat  of  a  great  trade.  The  three  chief  emporia  were  Tyndis  (Barcelore),  Moosiris 
(Mangalore),  and  Nelkmida  (Nelisuram).  This  last,  wliich  has  sunk  into  a  place  of  very 
secondar)'^  importance,  was  then  the  chief  southern,  as  Barygaza  was  the  chief  northern, 
emporium  of  western  India.  Tlie  larger  Greek  vessels  had  even,  by  availing  themselves 
of  the  monsoon,  been  enabled,  with  a  daring  course  very  foreign  to  the  usual  habits  of 
ancient  navigation,  to  steer  directly  across  from  the  mouth  of  tlie  Red  Sea  to  Nelkunda. 
The  grand  staple  then,  as  now,  was  pepper ;  to  which  were  added  pearls,  and  precious 
stones  of  various  descriptions,  among  which  were  diamonds  and  hyacinths,  cotton  clotlis, 
tortoise-shell,  and  betel-leaf,  from  the  interior.     Among  the  imports,  according  to  the  usual 


Book  I. 


PERIPLUS  OF  THE  ERYTHREAN  SEA. 


29 


course  of  Indian  trade,  stood  foremost  "  much  money,"  a  little  cloth,  and  a  little  wine ;  but 
a  considerable  quantity  of  metals  and  toys,  brass,  lead,  tin,  glass,  coral,  stibium  for  painting 
the  eyes,  orpiment,  and  cinnabar.  There  is  much  appearance  that  Nelkunda  was  the  far- 
thest point  to  which  the  Greek  navigators  actually  penetrated,  and  tliat  they  found  there  a 
supply  of  the  commodities  produced  in  tJie  more  eastern  regions. 

All  beyond  Nelkunda  is  faint  and  tinctured  with  fable.  We  recognise,  however,  Comar 
(Cape  Comorin),  Taprobane  (Ceylon),  and  its  great  pearl-fishery.  The  Coromandel  coast 
is  nearly  a  blank,  till  we  arrive  at  Masalin,  which,  witli  the  great  abundance  of  its  cotton 
cloths,  speaks  clearly  Masulipatan.  In  proceeding  northwards,  navigators  came  to  a  strange 
and  barbarous  people,  with  visages  sometimes  of  enormous  length,  at  others  resembling 
those  of  horses,  and  some  eating  human  flesh :  an  exaggerated  picture  of  the  fierce  preda- 
tory races  who  occupy  the  mountain  and  jungle  tracts  of  Orissa.  Arrian  describes  accurately, 
however,  the  direction  to  the  east  which  the  coast  of  the  ocean  takes,  before  it  receives  the 
mighty  flood  of  the  Ganges.  At  its  niouth  there  was  then,  it  seems,  a  great  emporium 
bearing  the  name,  which  no  city  now  does,  of  the  river  itself  The  staple  was  "  superla- 
tively fine  cotton  cloths,  called  Gangetic,"  and  which  still  exist  in  the  superb  fabrics  of 
Dacca  and  Moorsliedabad. 

In  the  regions  beyond  Ganges  the  author  of  the  Periplus  gropes  almost  in  total  darkness. 
Mention  is  made  of  an  island,  the  farthest  part  of  the  world  to  the  east,  and  wliich  is  richly 
stored  with  the  most  precious  productions  of  the  countries  that  lie  on  the  shore  of  the  Red 
Sea.  This  cannot  seemingly  be  any  other  than  Sumatra,  though  erroneously  placed  near 
the  Ganges.  The  only  ulterior  position  is  Thinse,  a  great  interior  city,  situated  opposite  to 
Pontus  and  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  near  to  wliere  the  Palus  Mceotis  flows  into  the  ocean.  This 
strange  site  we  shall  afterwards  find  reason  to  consider  as  a  combination  of  some  actual 
rumours  with  the  theory  formed  by  the  first  Alexandrian  school  respecting  the  form  and 
dimensions  of  the  continent  of  Asia.  There  seems  some  reason,  however,  to  conclude  with 
Dr.  Vincent,  that  this  Thinae,  wlience  caravans  came  by  way  of  Bactria  to  Barygaza,  must 
have  obscurely  indicated  the  capital  of  China.  Nor  can  we  be  easily  persuaded  that  in 
the  malabathrum,  though  most  usually  applied  to  betel-leaf,  some  confused  idea  of  tea  is  not 
involved.     Its  being  so  strictly  characteristic  of  China,  and  being  brought  by  persons  of  a 


Fig.  5. — Periplus — African  Coast. 


broad  forehead,  short  body,  and  flat  nose, 
features  decidedly  Mongol  and  Chinese, 
seem  all  in  favour  of  this  supposition,  and 
inconsistent  with  that  which  would  make 
it  merely  betel-leaf,  a  product  of  Indostan ; 
though  there  is  doubtless  a  great  and  mani- 
fest confusion  between  the  two  substances. 
We  must  now  look  back  to  the  Straits 

IP  of  Bab-el-Mandel,  and  follow  our  author 
along  the  Afirican  coast.  {_Fig.  5.)  From 
those  straits  vessels  proceeded  eastward 
along  the  shore  opposite  to  Arabia,  the 
modern  Berbera.  Its  ports,  Avalites,  Mo- 
syllum,  Mundos,  Daphnon,  and  others, 
cannot  be  easily  identified  on  a  coast,  with 
respect  to  which  we  have  scarcely  any 

0  modern  data.  The  imports  were  nearly 
the  same  as  at  Adulis ;  the  exports  were 
myrrh,  frankincense,  a  species  of  cinna- 
mon called  casia,  some  other  aromatics, 
slaves,  and  a  little  ivory.  At  length  they 
doubled  the  promontory  of  Aromata  (Guar- 
dafui),  when  they  came  to  a  coast  stretch- 
ing to  the  southward  and  facing  the  Indian 

10  Ocean.  Here  was  a  port,  the  seat  of  a 
considerable  trade,  but  by  no  means  secure ; 
however,  when  the  north  wind  began  to 
blow  with  dangerous  violence,  die  vessels 
found  shelter  in  the  neighbouring  promon- 
tory and  port  of  Tabai.  Proceeding  on- 
wards, they  found  Opone,   Apokapa   the 

^  less  and  greater,  JVicon,  Serapion,  seven 
successive  rivers,  with  anchorages  at  the 
mouth  of  each.  Soon  after,  at  the  distance 
of  about  three  hundred  stadia  from  the 
continent,  there  occurred  a  low  wooded  is- 
land, bearuij  the  very  expanded  name  of 


30  HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  I. 

Eitcnediom-menouthesias,  which  other  WTiters  wisely  contract  into  Menuthias.  It  contained 
no  wild  animals,  hut  abounded  in  fish,  particularly  tortoises,  which  the  inhabitants  were  very 
diligent  in  catcliing.  Two  days'  voyage  farther  brought  them  to  Rhapta,  a  promontory  and 
port,  find  the  seat  of  a  great  trade.  Beyond  this  point,  the  ocean  was  not  yet  explored  ;  but 
it  turned  to  the  west  and  south,  and  was  supposed  to  continue  in  that  direction  till  it  joined 
the  Atlantic.  The  exports  from  this  coast  were  ivory  in  gi"eat  abundance,  but  not  equal  in 
quality  to  that  of  Aduli  ;  tortoise-shell,  superior  to  every  other  except  that  of  India;  and  a 
number  of  valuable  slaves,  chiefly  destined  for  the  Egyptian  market.  The  territory  was 
governed  by  a  numbe>  of  petty  kings,  all  owning  the  supremacy  of  Mopliarites,  who  was 
himself  tributary  to  IVIoosa,  by  the  vessels  of  which  great  commercial  state  the  trade  of  this 
coast  was  almost  entirely  carried  on. 

The  extent  of  coast  thus  described  by  the  author  of  the  Periplus  has  been  the  subject  of 
considerable  controversy.  Dr.  Vincent  fixes  Rhapta,  its  fartliest  point,  at  Quiloa,  thus 
allowing  a  navigation  of  upwards  of  fifteen  hundred  miles ;  while  tlie  rigid  scepticism  of 
M.  Gosselin,  placing  it  at  Brava  near  the  mouth  of  the  Doara,  allows  a  good  deal  less  than 
half  that  distance.  Dr.  Vincent  here,  however,  appears  to  carry  the  question  triumphantly, 
by  means  of  his  seven  mouths  of  rivers,  of  which  M.  Gosselin  admits  that  no  trace  can  be 
found  within  his  limits.  They  are  clearly  presented  by  the  estuaries  of  the  Quillimanci, 
on  which  are  the  important  harbours  of  Patte,  Melinda,  and  Mombaza.  But  we  cannot,  with 
Dr.  Vincent,  pass  by  Pcmba  and  Zanzibar,  to  find  in  the  little  island  of  Monfia  tlie  Menu- 
thias of  Arrian.  Zanzibar,  from  its  size  and  its  proximity  to  the  coast,  appears  a  feature 
which  it  was  impossible  to  overlook,  and  its  position  is  in  much  better  bearing  with  the 
seven  estuaries  previously  passed.  The  next  cape  must  then  be  Rhapta,  and  this  will  be 
that  opposite  to  which  is  situated  the  small  group  of  the  Hinagie  Islands.  Beyond  it  for 
a  considerable  distance  the  coast  runs  in  the  direction  of  south-west,  which  does  not  at  all 
admit  the  placing  Rhapta  bc3'^ond  Quiloa,  nor,  indeed,  on  any  other  part  of  the  coast  till 
after  we  pass  Mosambique. 


CHAPTER  m. 

GREEK  GEOGRAPHY  BEFORE  ALEXANDER. 

Greece  is  regarded  by  all  civilized  nations  as  their  instructress  in  the  sciences,  many  of 
the  most  brilliant  of  which  she  carried  to  the  utmost  perfection.  In  that  of  geography, 
however,  little  progress  was  made  until  the  formation  of  the  Greek  kingdom  in  Egypt 
under  the  Ptolemies.  Neither  extensive  commerce  nor  distant  conquest  characterised  the 
Grecian  states,  otherwise  so  illustrious  for  all  the  arts  of  peace  and  war.  It  was  not  till 
the  conquering  career  of  Alexander,  that  the  survey  of  the  Greeks  was  extended  over  the 
wide  circuit  of  the  ancient  world.  Engaged  before  that  era  in  the  glorious  defensive  war 
against  Persia,  and  the  contests  with  each  other  for  pre-eminence,  they  confined  their  views 
very  much  within  the  limits  of  Greece  and  its  neighbouring  coasts  and  islands. 

The  first  traces  of  Greek  geography  are  found  among  its  poets,  whose  brilliant  fancy  has 
i?pread  its  lustre  over  all  the  regions  with  which  Greece  ever  held  mtercourse.  Homer 
took  the  lead,  and  his  high  authority  gave  to  the  geogTaphy  of  the  Greeks  a  poetical  cast, 
which  they  transmitted  to  the  nations  whom  they  taught,  and  of  which  the  traces  are  not 
entirely  obliterated. 

Sect.  I. — Geography  of  Homer. 

It  is  in  Homer  that  we  find  the  first  trace  of  the  widely-prevalent  idea,  that  the  earth  is  a 
flat  circle,  begirt  on  every  side  by  the  ocean.  This  was  indeed  a  natural  idea  in  a  region  so 
entirely  insular  and  peninsular,  nowhere  presenting,  like  Judea,  a  vast  tract  stretching  so 
far  as  to  give  the  idea  of  immeasurable  distance.  The  circular  shape  was  suggested  by  that 
of  the  visible  horizon ;  and  until  science  demonstrated  the  globular  form  of  our  planet,  the 
very  natural  opinion  prevailed  that  the  earth  was  a  flat  circle,  with  the  vault  of  heaven  above, 
darkness,  and  the  abode  of  departed  souls  beneath. 

Homer,  like  Hesiod  and  the  ancient  poets  generally,  delights  in  topogi-aphical  detail,  and 
ecarcel}'^  allows  a  city  or  natural  object  to  pass  without  applying  to  it  some  characteristic 
epithet.  It  was  only,  however,  within  a  very  limited  range  that  he  could  give  these  distinct 
and  animated  notices.  The  Greek  islands,  beautifiil  and  fertile  spots,  which  seem  to  have 
been  the  first  cradle  of  European  civilization,  were  the  central  point  fi-om  which  his  know- 
ledge emanated.  He  knew  well,  and  had  probably  visited,  on  one  side  Peloponnesus,  Attica, 
and  the  regions  immediately  adjoining;  on  the  other,  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
the  banks  of  the  beautiftil  rivers  by  which  it  is  watered.  Perhaps  scarcely  any  other  tract 
on  the  globe  presents  witliin  the  same  compass  such  a  variety  of  grand  and  beautiftil  objects 
to  rouse  the  imagination.  Beyond  this  circuit  the  world  of  Homer  was  soon  involved  in 
mysterious  obscurity.  Some  grand  and  distant  features,  discernible  tlirough  the  gloom,  were 
exaggerated  and  distorted  by  ignorance  and  superstition.     Thebes,  the  mighty  capital  of 


Book  I.  GEOGRAPHY  OF  HOMER.  31 

Egypt,  when  that  kingdom  was  in  its  greatest  gloiy,  is  celebrated  for  its  hundred  gates,  and 
th'e  hosts  of  warriors  which  they  sent  forth  to  battle.  Beyond  lay  the  Ethiopians,  deemed 
the  remotest  of  men,  dwelling  on  the  farthest  verge  of  the  earth,  and  to  whose  distant 
confines  Jupiter  repaired  to  hold  an  annual  festival.  In  the  western  part  of  the  same  conti- 
nent the  stupendous  ridges  of  Atlas  had  excited  in  Grecian  fancy  the  image  of  a  gigantic 
deified  bemg,  to  whom  was  intrusted  the  support  of  the  heavens.  Even  farther  to  the  west, 
the  exploits  and  wanderings  of  the  great  Grecian  demigod  had  conveyed  a  tradition  of  the 
strait  leading  into  the  ocean,  and  of  the  rocks  on  each  side,  celebrated  under  the  denomination 
of  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  On  the  east,  Colchos  was  distinguished  by  its  early  wealth  and 
commerce ;  it  was  considered  a  city  on  the  ocean,  with  which,  tiierefore,  the  Black  Sea 
must  have  been  confounded ;  and  being  supposed  to  contain  the  palace  of  tlie  Sun,  where 
during  the  night  he  gave  rest  to  his  coursers,  and  whence  in  the  morning  he  drove  his 
chariot  to  its  diurnal  career,  Colchos  must  have  been  regarded  by  Homer  as  placed  on  the 
most  eastern  verge  of  the  earth.  On  the  north,  Rhodope,  under  the  name  of  theRiphsean 
Mountains,  was  considered  a  chain  of  indefinite  extent,  closing  m  the  northern  limits  of  the 
world.  The  poet,  however,  had  heard  a  vague  report  of  the  Scythians,  under  the  description 
of  a  people  subsisting  on  mares'  milk.  The  vessels  which  conveyed  the  Grecian  army  to 
Troy  were  evidently  little  better  than  large  boats ;  and  all  distant  voyages,  or  those  in  which 
land  was  lost  sight  of,  were  considered  as  fiaught  with  the  extremest  peril.  A  navigation 
to  Africa  or  to  Sicily  took  place  only  through  tempest,  terminating  usually  in  shipwreck ; 
and  a  return  from  these  sliores  was  esteemed  almost  miraculous.  In  regard  to  Sicily,  indeed. 
Homer  has  largely  communicated  his  ideas,  having  made  it  tlie  theatre  of  the  woes  and 
wanderings  of  the  hero  of  the  Odyssey.  Making  every  allowance  for  poetical  license,  we  see 
evident  traces  of  the  terrified  and  excited  state  of  mind  in  tlie  navigators  who  returned  from 
tliese  shores.  Monsters  of  strange  form  and  magnitude,  who  watched  for  the  destruction  of 
the  mariner,  and  even  fed  upon  his  quivering  limbs ;  delusive  syrens,  who  lured  but  to  destroy  ; 
imprisonment  under  tlie  transformed  shape  of  wild  beasts ;  these,  probably,  are  only  a  highly- 
coloured  repetition  of  the  terrific  rumours  brought  by  the  few  whose  bark  had  been  wafted 
to  those  as  yet  savage  coasts. 

Sect.  U. — Poetical  Geography. 

An  ideal  and  poetical  character  was  communicated  to  the  science  of  geography  itself  by 
the  fables  with  which  Homer  thus  tinged  his  narrative.  This  tendency  indeed  did  not  rest 
solely  upon  Homeric  influence,  but  proceeded  from  certam  secret  workings  of  the  human 
heart.  There  exist  in  man  ideas  and  wishes  for  which,  in  the  sphere  of  his  actual  existence, 
he  can  find  no  corresponding  objects ;  these  he  creates  for  himself  in  that  dim  boundary 
which  separates  the  known  from  the  unknown  world.  There  involuntarily  arises  in  his 
breast  a  longing  after  a  more  exalted  state  of  existence  than  the  world  before  him  presents — 
bright  scenes,  which  he  seeks  but  never  finds  in  the  circuit  of  realities.  In  a  newly-discovered 
region,  however,  wliicli  possesses  any  share  of  beauty,  imagination  soon  heightens  the  colours 
of  nature,  till  they  appear  to  fulfil  its  fond  anticipations.  Such  were  those  brilliant  spots 
celebrated  by  the  poets  under  the  title  of  the  Gardens  of  the  Hesperides — the  Fortunate 
Islands — the  Isles  of  the  Blest — for  which,  when  knowledge  had  dispelled  the  first  illusion, 
and  brought  them  down  to  the  ordinary  level,  a  place  Vvas  still  found  in  some  more  distanif 
extremity  of  the  globe.  Northern  Africa,  as  it  stretched  westward,  was  peculiarly  adapted, 
by  its  striking  and  brilliant  contrasts,  to  excite  these  illusions.  The  first  site  of  the  Hesperian 
gardens  was  at  the  frontier  of  Cyrene,  wliere  they  are  described  by  Scylax  as  forming  a- 
luxuriant  grove,  in  which  the  lotus  and  the  palm  were  mingled  with  the  finest  trees  of 
Europe.  Other  and  more  western  sites  were  successively  found,  both  for  them  and  the 
Fortunate  Islands,  which  last  were  finally  fixed,  probably  on  very  imperfect  observation,  at 
the  Canaries.  These  islands  have  not  altogether  lost  the  appellation  ;  and  they  are  painted 
by  Ho'-ace  in  glowing  colours  as  a  refuge  still  left  for  mortals  from  that  troubled  and  imper- 
fect existence  which  they  experience  in  every  other  quarter  of  the  globe.  Independent, 
however,  of  this  bright  and  romantic  enjoyment,  there  are  otlier  objects  of  fond  desire  to  tlie 
human  heart.  In  this  agitated  world  it  sighs  s.fter  peace — a  scene  of  profound  repose,  exempt 
from  the  tumults  of  passion  and  the  corrosion  of  care.  Such  a  scene,  indeed,  would  never 
fulfil  the  liopcs  thus  formed ;  yet  these  hopes  spring  from  a  natural  illusion,  to  flatter  whicli 
Grecian  poetry  conjured  up  a  fabled  race,  the  Hyperboreans,  seated  in  the  recesses  of  the 
North,  and  sheltered  by  vast  mountains  from  the  rage  of  the  elements.  They  were  repre- 
sented as  exempted  from  all  ills,  physical  and  moral,  the  change  of  seasons,  sickness,  and 
even  from  death.  The  original  seat  assigned  to  them  was  behind  the  Riphaean  Mountains, 
which  seem  to  have  been  originally  Rhodope,  the  northern  boundary  of  the  Homeric  world. 
Tiie  Greeks  liaving  soon  acquired  knowledge  sufficient  to  ascertain  that  no  such  people  was 
there  to  be  found,  sought  them  next  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube;  but  every  thing  there  was 
remote  from  that  tranquil  aspect  under^wliich  the  poets  had  painted  the  Hyperborean  world. 
Some  traditions  carry  them  westward ;  but  their  seat  was  finally  fixed"  in  that  northern 
extremity  of  Asiatic  Russia  whicli  the  ancients  never  explored.     They  even  carried  witii 


32  HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  1. 

them  the  Riphaean  Mountains,  which  became  thus  an  ideal  chain,  delineated  in  modern  maps 
as  extending  along  the  extreme  frontier  of  Europe.  Impressions  of  gloomy  darkness,  and 
even  of  the  termmation  of  existence,  are,  in  other  moods  of  the  liuman  mind,  associated  with 
images  of  distance  and  obscurity.  These  influences  gave  birth  to  the  Cimmerians,  a  people 
who  dwelt  in  perpetual  darkness,  and  were  never  illumined  by  the  ciioorfiil  rays  of  tlie  sun. 
Their  favourite  seat  was  on  the  straits  at  the  mouth  of  the  peninsula  of  Taurida,  the  farthest 
point,  probably,  of  which  rumour  had  spoken  in  the  poetical  ages,  and  which  was  called  the 
Cimmerian  Bosphorus.  It  was  probably  fi-om  similitude  of  name  that  tiiey  were  afterwards 
confounded  with  the  people  called  Cmibri.  The  learned,  however,  have  found  traces  of 
Cimmerians  m  the  extremities  both  of  tlie  east  and  the  west ;  and  the  idea  of  the  earth  as 
terminated  by  a  boundary  of  darkness,  being  founded  on  natural  impressions,  has  very  gene- 
rally prevailed.  Park  mentions"  it  as  the  reigning  belief  among  the  Mandingos  at  this  day  ; 
and  the  world,  in  the  system  of  the  Arabian  geographers,  was  enclosed  by  a  sea  of  darkness. 
Other  fabulous  creations,  springing  from  those  of  Homer,  continued  long  to  hold  a  place  in 
geography.  The  one-eyed  Cyclops  appears  under  the  name  of  Arimaspian  on  the  frontier 
of  India,  and  in  the  remotest  extremity  of  Africa.  The  Pigmies  multiplied  still  more  exten- 
sively ;  they  had  seats  on  the  Strymon,  the  Hebrus,  in  India,  and  the  north  of  Europe. 
According  to  Strabo  they  were  spread  over  the  whole  southern  border  of  the  earth ;  and  this 
representation  even  induced  Banier  to  suspect  that,  on  that  side,  they  have  been  confoimded 
with  the  monkeys. 

Sect.  III. — School  of  Miletus . 

The  astronomical  schools  of  JMiletus  and  Samos  appear,  so  far  at  least  as  there  is  any 
precise  record,  to  have  made  the  first  attempts  to  form  geography  into  a  system,  and  to  apply 
to  it  the  lights  derived  from  astronomy.  These  and  other  cities  of  Asia  Minor  rank  liigh 
among  the  early  seats  of  commerce,  and  they  established  colonies  in  various  quarters  of  tlie 
Mediterranean  and  the  Euxine.  \Vliile  they  continued  independent  they  were  very  wealthy 
and  prosperous,  and  the  sciences  were  cultivated  with  ardour  and  success.  To  a  commercial 
people  practical  mathematics,  and  especially  those  branches  subservient  to  geography  and 
navigation,  must  have  peculiarly  recommended  themselves.  Thales,  Anaximander,  Anaxi- 
menes,  and  Pythagoras,  are  celebrated  by  tlieir  countrymen  as  the  inventors  of  all  the  pro- 
cesses by  which  the  phenomena  of  the  globe  are  calculated.  The  gnomon  or  sundial,  for 
ascertaining  the  progress  of  the  sun  from  tropic  to  tropic,  and  finally  the  latitude  of  particu- 
lar places,  the  division  of  the  year  into  365  days,  and  into  four  seasons,  are  represented  as 
having  originated  in  this  school.  It  appears  doubtful,  however,  whether  these  discoveries 
were  due  to  their  own  exertions  or  borrowed  from  the  Egyptians  and  Chaldeans,  wliose  fame, 
amid  the  dim  traditions  of  antiquity,  stands  pre-eminent  for  astronomical  observation. 

The  first  rude  mode  of  forming  a  division  of  tlie  earth  was  into  climates,  determined 
by  the  species  of  animals  and  plants  produced  in  each.  Thus  the  negro,  the  rhinoceros,  the 
elephant,  were  considered  as  cliaracteristic  of  the  torrid  zone.  This  very  loose  method  gave 
place  to  another,  formed  by  observing  at  each  place  the  length  of  the  longest  and  shortest 
days.  This  could  only  be  done  with  accuracy  by  a  gnomon  or  dial,  erected  on  a  horizontal 
plane,  and  showing,  by  the  length  or  shortness  of  its  shadow,  the  elevation  of  the  sun  above 
the  horizon.  There  is  much  reason  to  think  that  this  simple  instrument  was  employed  by 
the  Egyptians,  especially  in  the  operation,  which  they  undoubtedly  perfoi  led,  of  adding  five 
days  and  a  quarter  to  360,  the  number  originally  supposed  to  form  a  complete  year.  It  has 
even  been  imagined  by  some,  tliat  the  pyramids,  those  enormous  structures  by  which  this 
people  excited  the  astonishment  of  the  world,  were  only  huge  sundials;  and  though  it  might 
doubtless  be  extravagant  to  conclude  this  to  have  been  their  sole  object,  yet  it  really  appears 
that,  being  placed  in  the  direct  position  of  the  cardinal  points,  they  are  perfectly  fitted  for 
being  thus  employed.  But,  though  it  is  clear  that  Thales  and  his  disciples  had  largely  drawn 
fi'om  these  early  sources,  they  probably  made  considerable  additions  to  the  information  thence 
derived.  Two  books,  one  on  the  tropic,  and  tlie  other  on  the  equinoxes,  are  reported  to 
have  been  written  by  Thales  himself.-  The  degree  of  knowledge  thus  attained  enabled  liim 
to  discover  the  error  of  the  ^'ulgar  in  supposing  the  earth  to  be  a  plane  surface;  but  he  could 
not  reach  the  precise  idea  of  its  globular  form.  Anaximander  viewed  it  as  a  cylinder ;  some 
compared  its  form  to  thac  of  a  boat ;  others  to  that  of  a  lofty  mountain.  The  details  jof  the 
Pythagorean  cosmography  have  not  reached  us ;  but  tlie  fact  that  they  placed  the  sun  in  the 
centre  of  the  systein,  with  the  earth  moving  round  it,  indicates  at  that  infant  era  attainments 
which  were  lost  during  many  ages,  and  only  recovered  at  a  far  more  advanced  stage  of 
modern  science. 

The  map  must,  as  soon  as  geography  was  cultivated,  have  occurred  as  the  best  and 
most  perspicuous  form  of  embodying  its  results.  Anaximander  is  the  first  who  is  reported  to 
have  constructed  a  map  of  the  world,  embracing  that  limited  sphere  of  objects  which  were 
then  comprehended  under  that  term.  But  tlie  most  celebrated  production  of  this  nature  was 
that  employed  by  Aristagoras,  the  prince  of  jMUetus,  to  induce  Cleomenes,  the  Spartan  king 
to  undertake  the  conquest  of  Persia.     He  entered,  it  is  said,  the  presence  of  that  monarch, 


Book  I.  GEOGRAPHY  OF  HERODOTUS.  33 

holding  in  his  liand  a  tablet  of  brass,  on  which  were  inscribed  "  the  whole  circuit  of  the  earth, 
the  sea,  and  all  the  rivers."  Under  this  pompous  description,  however,  was  probably  included 
little  more  than  a  route  from  the  Ionian  sea  to  Susa,  which  was  specially  pointed  to  as  that 
by  which  the  Spartan  prince  might  lead  his  victorious  troops  to  the  Persian  capital.  Even 
of  this  line,  respecting  which  he  was  so  deeply  interested,  the  short  detail  of  Herodotus 
shows  him  to  possess  by  no  means  complete  information.  Beyond  Cilicia  his  descriptions  are 
very  indistinct.  He  has  omitted  Media  altogether,  and  has  given  to  Armenia  quite  an  undue 
extension. 

The  continental  Greeks,  during  the  era  of  their  greatest  power,  did  not  cultivate 
systematic  geography,  nor  indeed  any  sciences  dependent  upon  mathematical  principles, 
with  much  activity ;  indeed,  they  did  not  even  keep  them  up  to  the  state  in  which  they  had 
been  received  from  the  Ionian  cities.  One  solitary  observation  of  latitude  is  recorded  as 
having  been  made  at  Athens,  by  Meton  and  Eudemon,  432  years  A.  C.  The  different  states, 
in  the  course  of  their  extensive  wars,  must  have  acquired  a  great  portion  of  that  topographi- 
cal knowledge  which  is  indispensable  for  military  operations.  .Engrossed  by  these  internal 
objects,  their  attention  was  little  directed  to  the  general  system  of  tlie  world.  One  individual 
alone,  by  extensive  travels  and  diligent  enquiries,  procured  an  ample  accession  to  the  science 
of  history  and  of  historical  geography. 

Sect.  IV. — Geography  of  Herodotus. 

The  system  of  geography  included  in  the  great  historical  work  of  Herodotus  is  as 
complete  as  could  be  formed  from  the  materials  within  his  reach.  It  comprises  a  general 
summary  of  all  that  he  could  learn  respecting  the  human  race,  and  the  regions  which  they 
inhabited.  His  information  was  obtained  not  solely  or  chiefly  from  books,  but  mostly  by 
travelling,  the  only  mode  in  which  at  that  era  geographical  knowledge  could  be  effectually 
collected.  He  assures  us  that  he  had  visited  Persia,  Assyria,  Egypt,  Thrace,  Scythia,  and 
all  the  distant  regions  which  he  describes.  He  viewed  them,  however,  only  as  tracts  of  ter- 
ritory, the  abode  of  men,  and  did  not  attempt  to  combine  them  into  any  system  of  the  earth ; 
nor  did  he  possess,  or,  at  least,  apply  any  of  the  mathematical  or  astronomical  principles  of 
the  Milesian  school.  He  even  derides  some  of  its  conclusions ;  as  that  of  the  earth  being 
round  and  encompassed  by  the  ocean.  His  strange  statement,  that  the  sun  in  India  was  ver- 
tical in  the  morning  instead  of  at  midday,  is  evidently  a  misunderstood  report  of  what  he  had 
been  informed  respecting  the  difference  of  time  in  the  different  parts  of  the  earth's  circum- 
ference. His  knowledge,  however,  such  as  it  is,  consisting  of  plain  facts,  untinctured  with 
theory,  is  both  solid  and  extensive. 

The  division  of  the  earth  into  three  quarters,  or  continents,  was  by  this  time  completely 
formed.  Sea,  or  at  least  water,  seems  to  have  been  the  principle  of  separation,  though  not 
required  to  be  altogether  complete.  Setting  out  from  Europe,  for  the  origin  of  which  appel- 
lation we  have  nothing  but  the  fable  of  Europa,  the  Greeks  seem  to  have  named  the  other 
continents  from  the  districts  immediately  beyond  the  intervening  sea.  Homer  already  men- 
tions the  name  of  Asia  as  applied  to  a  large  and  fine  tract  on  the  coast  of  Ionia.  Thence  it 
spread  through  tlie  spacious  peninsula  of  which  it  forms  part,  and  which  Europeans  con- 
tinue to  call  Asia  Minor ;  but  soon  passing  these  limits,  it  was  vaguely  extended  through  the 
boundless  regions  of  the  East,  till  it  finally  embraced  entirely  the  largest  of  the  three  conti- 
nents. On  the  other  side,  directly  to  the  south,  the  Greeks  first  landed  on  the  coast  of  Libya  ; 
and  the  name  of  Libya  was  by  them  applied  to  the  entire  continent.  With  the  Romans,  on 
the  contrary,  ^vhose  position  and  political  relations  attached  them  entirely  to  the  district 
of  Africa  proper,  in  which  Carthage  is  situated,  the  name  of  Africa  soon  prevailed  over 
every  other. 

These  grand  divisions  of  the  ancient  world  were  already  known  to  Herodotus ;  but  he 
has  astonished  European  readers  in  an  extraordmary  degree  by  the  assertion,  that  Europe  is 
longer  and  of  greater  extent  than  Asia  and  Africa  united.  The  severe  judgment  of  M. 
Gosselin  pronounces  such  an  assertion,  made  in  the  midst  of  the  nations  which  carried  on 
the  most  extensive  navigation,  to  be  a  proof  that  they  had  not  formed  the  least  idea  of  the 
distance  which  their  vessels  sailed  along  the  Mediterranean.  Before  pronouncing  so  severe 
a  sentence,  we  must  consider  attentively  what,  in  the  conception  of  Herodotus,  was  Europe, 
and  what  was  Asia.  He  mentions  two  boundaries :  one  formed  by  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
Don,  which,  though  it  does  not  form  a  very  appropriate  boundary  of  a  continent,  continues 
still  to  prevail,  being  connected  with  the  Northern  Ocean  by  the  mountain  chain  of  the 
Urals.  But  in  the  other,  which  is  that  preferred  by  Herodotus,  the  Black  Sea  is  continued 
by  the  Caspian ;  the  boundary  line  being  carried  along  the  north  of  that  sea,  and  thence 
indefinitely  eastward.  Taking  Europe  in  this  sense,  we  find  it  in  the  west  co-extended  with 
the  opposite  coast  of  Africa,  which  the  ancients  necessarily  considered  as  marking  the  length 
of  that  continent,  while,  in  the  east,  however  far  Asia  might  be  prolonged,  Europe  was  still 
regarded  as  co-extensive.  With  regard  to  the  boundaries  of  Africa,  too,  there  was  an 
extreme  want  of  precision.     Our  limit  of  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  is  certainly  the  most  accurate  ; 

Vol,  I,  E 


34  fflSTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  I. 

but  the  ancients,  who  could  not  readily  admit  the  notion  of  a  continent  bounded  by  any  thing 
but  water,  attached  themselves  more  to  the  Nile,  and  did  not  well  Icnow  whether  to  consider 
Egypt  as  Asiatic  or  African. 

SuBSECT.  1. —  The  Europe  of  Herodotus. 

Scythia  was  the  extremity  of  Europe,  beyond  Greece,  with  which  Herodotus  appears 
to  have  been  most  familiar,  and  wliich,  in  fact,  he  knew  better  than  almost  any  other  ancient 
writer.  This  name,  which  became  ultimately  Asiatic,  was  restricted  by  him  to  the  tracts 
that  now  form  the  southern  provinces  of  the  Russian  empire.  These  regions  were  then, 
and  in  a  great  measure  still  are,  possessed  by  the  same  description  of  rude  Nomadic  and 
pastoral  people,  who  have  always  occupied  tlie  central  plains  of  Asia.  The  attention  of  the 
historian  was  specially  called  to  them  by  the  rash  and  daring  expedition  of  Darius  into  a 
region  secured  by  its  natural  barriers,  and  the  wandering  and  untamed  character  of  its 
people,  against  every  form  of  regular  subjection.  Darius,  crossing  the  Hellespont,  marched 
along  the  southern  shore  of  the  Euxine,  reached  the  banks  of  the  Volga,  and  after  the  fi-uit- 
less  labour  of  erecting  there  several  fortresses,  returned  by  a  more  inland  route,  in  which 
Major  Rennell  even  supposes  him  to  have  passed  the  site  of  Little  Novogorod.  The  know- 
ledge acquired  by  this  expedition,  however,  did  not  enable  Herodotus  to  avoid  great  errors 
in  the  delineation  of  European  Scythia.  He  imbibed  a  most  exaggerated  idea  of  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  Palus  Moeotis,  wliich  he  calls  the  "  mother  of  the  Euxine."  This  appears  to 
have  arisen  chiefly  from  tlie  false  orienting  of  the  side  which  faces  Russia,  and  wliicli  is 
made  to  stretch  almost  due  north,  instead  of  west,  while  the  sea  itself  is  represented  as 
forming  the  eastern  boundary  of  tliat  great  space  of  four  hundred  miles  square,  within  which 
Herodotus  comprises  Scythia.  The  southern  boundary  was  formed  by  the  Euxine,  and  the 
other  two  by  the  land,  so  that  he  does  not  connect  it  in  any  shape  with  the  Northern 
Ocean. 

The  details  of  this  extensive  region  are  given  by  Herodotus  with  considerable  accu- 
racy. Of  its  rivers,  after  tlie  Danube,  which  he  ranks  second  to  tlie  Nile,  he  mentions  the 
Tyres  or  Dniester,  the  Hypanis,  or  Bog  (and  even  describes  the  close  approach  of  these 
rivers  to  each  other  in  the  upper  part  of  their  course),  the  great  channel  of  the  Borysthenes, 
or  Dnieper,  and  the  Tanais  or  Don.  Between  the  last  he  mentions  several  streams,  the 
Panticapes,  Hypacyris,  and  Gerrhus,  which  not  being  recognized  by  modem  geography, 
Major  Rennell  supposes  to  be  creeks  or  branches  of  the  greater  rivers. 

Milesian  colonies  had,  by  the  active  enterprise  of  that  commercial  people,  been 
already  formed  even  on  these  rude  shores.  One,  called  the  port  of  the  Borysthenes,  is 
described  as  the  centre  of  the  trade  of  Scythia.  On  the  banks  of  this  great  river  dwelt  a 
people,  bearing  the  rare  character  of  the  ploughing  Scythians,  who  renouncing  tlie  almost 
imiversal  habits  of  their  race,  raised  crops  of  grain  in  this  fertile  district,  which  still 
flimishes  to  the  ports  of  Taganrog  and  Odessa  those  supplies,  which  render  them  the 
granary  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  Milesians  had  also  a  colony  established  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Danube. 

The  northern  interior  countries  of  Europe,  which  lay  beyond  the  limits  of  tlie  Scythia 
explored  by  the  expedition  of  Darius,  were  covered  for  Herodotus  with  a  veil  of  dim  obscu- 
rity. On  the  Scythian  frontier,  along  the  heads  of  the  Dniester  and  Borysthenes,  he  repre- 
sents several  nations ;  the  Melanchleni,  "  men  clothed  in  black ;"  the  Androphagi,  "  men 
eaters ;"  the  Neuri,  "  once  a  year  converted  into  foxes."  These  Greek  names,  and  partly 
fabulous  attributes,  show  the  very  imperfect  nature  of  the  notices  collected  on  the  subject. 
The  regions  beyond  the  Danube  are  expressly  stated  to  be  occupied  by  nations  to  him 
unknown.  Two  precious  commodities,  the  amber  from  the  coast  of  Prussia,  and  the  tin  of 
the  Cassiterides,  under  which  last  name  a  vague  idea  of  the  British  Islands  seems  to  be 
included,  communicated  the  knowledge,  that  there  was  a  great  ocean  in  the  north,  but 
witliout  the  means  of  ascertaining  its  extent  and  limits.  On  the  east,  however,  as  already 
observed,  he  had  attached  to  Europe  a  vast  extent  of  territory  which  has  been  entirely 
severed  from  it  in  subsequent  systems.  The  expanse  of  northern  and  even  middle  Asia, 
which  the  ancients  afterwards  called  Scythia,  and  which  fonns  tlie  modern  Tartary,  inha- 
bited by  races  exactly  similar  to  the  Scythians  already  described,  appeared  to  Herodotus 
decidedly  European.  It  jvas  bounded  by  the  Phasis,  the  Caspian,  the  Aral  (not  distinctly 
recognized),  and  the  J.ixartes.  The  Mussageta*,  celebrated  for  tlieir  contest  with  Cyrus, 
gave  name  with  Herodotus  to  all  the  wandering  tribes  in  this  eastern  part  of  Europe ;  but 
they  were  afterwards  merged  into  the  prevailing  appellation  of  Scythians, 

SuBSECT.  2.  Asia  of  Herodotus. 
Asia,  according  to  the  conception  of  it  formed  by  Herodotus,  will  appear,  from  what  has 
been  said,  to  include  only  a  small  portion  of  the  vast  continent  to  which  we  assign  that 
name.  On  the  north  it  had  the  same  seas  and  rivers  just  enumerated  as  the  boundaries  of 
eastern  Europe ;  to  the  east  it  terminated  with  India ;  while  even  to  the  south,  a  largo  por- 
tion of  the  desert  tracts  of  Arabia  were  not  yet  believed  to  exist.    When  tliis  great  historian 


Book  I. 


ASIA  OF  HERODOTUS. 


35 


wrote,  all  the  various  kingdoms  and  petty  states,  into  which,  in  the  infancy  of  the  world, 
Asia  liad  been  partitioned,  were  absorbed  into  one  vast  empire.  The  Persians  claimed  Asia 
as  their  own,  and  had  distributed  it  into  twenty-four  satrapies,  which  have  been  illustrated 
in  a  very  learned  manner  by  Major  Rennell.  They  included,  with  the  exception  of  the 
northern  part,  which  he  considered  as  European,  all  of  Asia  that  was  known  to  the  Greeks. 
In  collecting  therefore  from  Major  Rennell's  investigation  the  following  table  of  those 
satrapies,  we  exhibit  not  only  the  outline  of  that  great  empire,  but,  with  the  somewhat 
dubious  exception  of  a  small  part  of  Greece,  the  whole  of  the  civilized  world.  The  tribute 
paid  in  talents  of  silver  will  exhibit  their  relative  wealth  and  importance. 

TABLE  OF  THE  DIVISION  OP  ASIA  INTO  SATRAPIES, 


Ionia,  Magnesia,  Caria,  iEolia,  Lycia,  Pamphylia  (the  west  and  south  coast  of  Asia  Minor) 

Mysia,  Lydia,  &c.  (the  western  interior) 

Phrygia,  Paplilagonia,  Cappadocia,  &c.  (the  north  coast  and  the  great  interior  table-land  of  Asia  Minor) 

Cilicia  (including  part  of  Syria,  and  reaching  to  the  Euphrates) 

Phoenicia,  Palestine,  and  Cyprus  (which  furnished  also  a  third  part  of  the  naval  force  of  the  empire) 

Egypt,  including  Cyrene  and  Barca  (half  of  the  tribute  paid  in  grain) 

Babylon  and  Assyria,  including  Syria,  and  furnishing  also  500  eunuchs 

Susiana,  or  Southern  Persia 

Media,  (Northern  Persia) .... 

The  Caspians,  P.-esics,  Pantimathi,  and  Daritse  (the  Caspian  provinces  of  Persia) '. '. . 

The  Matieni,  Saspires,  &c.  (Aderbijan  and  the  Armenian  provinces) , 

Armenia 


The  Mosynocci,  Tibareni,  Moschi,  &;c.  (the  Western  Caucasus,  Georgia,  Mingrelia,  as  far  as  Trebi- 
sond) 

The  Sagartians,  Sarameans,  &c.  (Seistan,  Caramania,  Lar,  and  other  territories  along  the  Indian 
Ocean,  and  the  eastern  part  of  the  Persian  Gulf) 

The  Parthians,  Choasmians,  Sogdians,  and  Arians  (Khorasan,  Herat,  Candahar) 

The  Gandarii,  the  Dadicse,  &c.  (Margiana,  the  country  on  the  Murghab,  between  Khorasan  and'the 
Oxus 


Bactria  (Balk) 

The  Sacie  and  Caspics(ICashgar,  Pamer,  and  other  tracts  of  mountainous  country  about  the  head  of 

the  Oxus) 

The  Paricanii  and  Ethiopians  of  Asia  (Mekran,  including,  perhaps,  Caubul,  and  the  Delta ' of  tlie 

Indus) _' 

India,  the  largest  of  all,  being  3G0  talents  in  gold,  which  amounts  in  silver  to .' .' 


400 
500 
3fi0 
500 
360 
1400 
1000 
300 
450 
200 
200 
400 

300 

600 
300 

170 
360 

250 

400 
46S0 


Some  tracts  of  this  vast  empire,  not  formed  into  regular  satrapies,  were  privileged  to 
furnish  only  presents,  or  gifts,  under  an  appearance  of  voluntary  homage.  Among  these 
were  ranked  the  Persians  proper,  inhabiting  the  modern  Ears,  who  obtained  this  distinction 
as  the  conquering  people  by  whom  the  empire  was  originally  founded.  The  Southern 
Arabians,  and  the  Ethiopians  above  Egypt,  derived  the  same  immunity  from  the  difficult 
access  to  those  rude  regions  in  which  they  dwelt.  The  Southern  Arabians  are  said  to  have 
propitiated  the  favour  of  the  great  king  by  the  present  of  a  thousand  talents  of  incense.  The 
Colchians,  and  the  occupants  of  the  neighbouring  heights  of  Caucasus,  were  also  numbered 
among  the  "  givers  of  gitls ;"  while  the  inhabitants  of  the  northern  parts  of  that  great  range, 
secure  in  their  mountain  fastnesses,  are  said  to  have  cared  very  little  about  the  mighty  ruler 
of  Persia. 

These  delineations  of  Asia  display,  upon  the  whole,  a  surprising  accuracy  and  extent  of 
knowledge;  yet  several  remarkable  errors  occur  with  regard  to  points  of  which  the  investi- 
gation does  not  appear  very  difficult.  Thus  the  breadth  of  Asia  Minor  was  reduced  almost 
a  half;  that  between  Babylon  and  the  capital  of  Egypt  was  underrated  at  least  a  fourth ; 
and  the  country  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian  was  placed  in  the  same  meridian 
with  the  Persian  Gulf,  while  it  is  really  four  degrees  to  the  westward.  These  errors  are 
the  more  remarkable,  as  the  distances,  instead  of  being  in  excess,  according  to  almost  every 
otlier  ancient  example,  fall  short  of  the  truth.  The  early  travellers  exaggerated  every  space 
over  which  they  actually  passetl ;  but  it  sometimes  happened  that  two  points  were  ap- 
proached from  different  quarters,  and  then  united  to  each  other  by  a  hypothetical  line,  which, 
as  men  usually  undervalue  what  they  know  nothing  of,  was  made  generally  too  small.  It 
would  not  appear  that  any  regular  route  had  been  formed  across  the  high  and  rugged  table- 
land in  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor  from  Cilicia  to  Trebisond.  These  two  points,  being 
approached  respecti.vely  along  the  southern  and  northern  coasts  of  the  peninsula,  might  be 
supposed  nearer  to  each  other  than  they  really  were.  Egypt  was  approached  througlf  Syria 
and  Palestine,  and  Babylon  by  descending  the  Euplirates ;  but  the  direct  line  between  them 
lying  across  the  Arabian  desert,  was  scarcely  known  or  frequented,  and  therefore  became 
an  ideal  line  in  the  view  of  Herodotus.  The  line  from  Armenia  to  the  Persian  Gulf  was 
of  course  measured  along  the  Euphrates,  the  general  course  of  which  was  south ;  and  as 
the  ancients  oriented  all  their  lines  to  a  cardinal  point,  they  overlooked  the  gradual  but 
constant  bend  which  that  river  takes  to  the  eastward. 

The  ideas  of  Herodotus  concerning  the  extent  of  Asia,  even  including  all  that  portion 
of  it  which  he  assigned  to  Europe,  could  not  fail  to  be  defective.  He  knew  nothing  of 
India  beyond  the  Ganges,  Thibet,  China,  Eastern  Tartary,  or  Siberia,  more  than  half  the 
superficial  extent  of  the  continent.     Even  his  notions  concerning  India  were  most  imper- 


86  HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  I. 

feet.  He  describes  it  as  bounded  on  tlie  east  by  sand,  stretcliing  into  an  unknowii  and 
measureless  desert.  From  this  statement  it  clearly  appears  that  his  India  comprehended 
merely  the  western  part  watered  by  the  Indus  and  its  five  tributaries ;  he  knew  notliing  of 
its  widest  and  richest  regions,  the  Gangetic  provinces,  Deliii,  Bengal,  and  the  Deccan ; 
large  portions  were  also  cut  off  from  tlie  southern  coasts  of  Asia,  which  were  supposed  to 
be  washed  by  an  ocean  called  the  Red  or  Erythrean  Sea,  without  any  distinction  of  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  very  little  of  that  which  we  now  call  the  Red  Sea. 

SuBSECT.  3. — Africa  of  Herodotus. 

In  his  inquiries  respecting  Africa,  Herodotus  appears  to  have  been  equally  diligent  as 
concerning  the  other  regions  of  the  globe ;  but  as  he  never  proceeded  be3'^ond  Egypt,  and 
as  the  formidable  barriers  which  nnture  opposes  to  him  who  attempts  to  penetrate  tlie  inte- 
rior had  been  very  imperfectly  overcome,  much  in  what  he  collected  is  obscured  witli  mys- 
tery or  perplexed  with  conjecture. 

Egypt  is  described  with  great  accuracy,  and  under  some  features  whicli  no  longer  exist ; 
for  the  Tanitic  and  Pelusiac  branches  of  the  Nile,  of  which  little  more  than  tlie  channels 
can  now  be  traced,  were  then  in  full  flow.  It  appears,  however,  tliat  considerable  confusion 
prevailed  respecting  the  quarter  of  the  world  to  which  Egypt  was  to  be  adjudged.  As 
water  formed  the  basis  of  the  division  into  continents,  the  sandy  isthmus  of  Suez,  believed 
to  be  broader  than  it  really  was,  appeared  very  ill-fitted  to  form  such  a  limit.  The  Nile, 
therefore,  in  the  opinion  of  all  the  Greeks,  was  the  boundary  of  the  continents :  all  to  the 
east  was  Arabia ;  all  to  the  west  Libya ;  but  a  difficulty  here  arose  in  fixing  the  lot  of  Egypt 
itself  The  Greeks,  it  appears,  considered  nothing  as  Egypt  beyond  the  Delta ;  but  this 
opinion  is  ridiculed  by  Herodotus,  who  observes,  that  in  that  case  there  must  formerly  have 
been  no  Egypt  at  all,  since  this  its  lower  branch  was  evidently  produced  by  the  gradual 
alluvial  depositions  of  the  Nile.  He  contends  reasonably,  that  all  the  banks  of  the  Nile  as 
far  up  as  Elephanta,  which  was  inhabited  by  Egyptians,  was  clearly  Egypt.  He  accuses 
the  Greeks  of  referring  the  Delta,  or  their  Egypt,  neither  to  Asia  nor  Libya.  If  we  rightly 
understand  his  own  idea,  it  is  that  the  middle  or  Sebennytic  branch  was  the  proper  point 
of  division  between  those  continents. 

In  trating  the  Nile  above  Egj'pt,  Herodotus  states  a  line  of  two  months'  journey  partly 
along  the  banks,  partly  in  boats  which  were  dragged  by  ropes  along  the  current  through 
the  rocky  channel.  At  the  end  of  this  journey  they  came  to  Meroe,  the  capital  of  Ethiopia 
above  Egypt,  an  ancient  and  celebrated  kingdom,  whose  monuments  were  viewed  with 
almost  religious  veneration,  and  whose  monarchs  had  repeatedly  conquered  Egypt  and 
founded  dynasties.  Two  months'  journey  farther  was  the  country  of  tlie  Egyptian  exiles, 
a  numerous  body,  who,  having  revolted  from  Psammeticus,  sought  the  protection  of  the 
king  of  Ethiopia,  and  were  cantoned  by  him  in  this  remote  district,  which  may  be  Sennaar, 
or  rather,  perhaps,  the  branch  of  the  Bahr-el-Abiad  opposite  to  it ;  for  Herodotus  shows  his 
knowledge  of  this  last  stream  by  observing  that  it  comes  from  the  west. 

The  long  tract  of  desert  to  the  west  of  Egypt  is  also  described  by  Herodotus  in  some 
detail,  though  apparently  only  from  hearsay.  The  most  conspicuous  objects  here  are  the 
oases,  particularly  that  which  contains  the  ancient  and  venerated  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon, 
and  which  has  been  identified  with  the  modern  Siwah.  To  the  west  he  gives  the  names 
of  a  succession  of  wandering  and  pastoral  tribes,  such  as  still  roam  over  these  arid  and  sandy 
regions,  deriving  from  the  soil  only  the  produce  of  the  date-tree.  Many  of  them  stand 
charged  with  morals  peculiarly  shameless  and  dissolute,  the  females  indulging  openly  in 
the  most  irregular  conduct,  and  making  even  a  boast  of  the  number  of  their  paramours. 
Probably  there  may  be  scandal  mixed  in  these  very  evil  reports  of  the  African  ladies.  An 
exception  to  this  rude  pastoral  character  existed  on  the  coast  of  Cyrenaica,  where  the 
Greeks  established  flourishing  colonies,  which  could  be  approached,  however,  only  by  the 
dangerous  route  of  the  Syrtis  or  quicksand,  proverbial  in  ancient  times  as  the  scene  of  dis- 
astrous shipA\Teck. 

The  Nasamones,  the  most  westerly  as  well  as  the  most  numerous  of  the  wandering 
tribes,  in  general  drove  their  herds  along  the  sea-coast,  but  in  summer  repaired  to  the  Oasis 
of  TEgila  (Augila)  to  collect  the  dates  produced  in  that  district.  A  tribe  among  this  people 
were  called  tlie  Psylli,  or  devourers  of  serpents ;  and  in  fact  appear  to  have  had  a  peculiar 
power  of  charming  those  noxious  reptiles  with  which  their  deserts  abound.  Within  their 
borders,  on  the  side  of  Gyrene,  where  verdure  first  began  to  adorn  the  waste,  Herodotus 
has  fixed  the  fabled  site  of  the  Hesperian  gardens. 

The  Garamantes,  to  the  south-west  of  Augila,  and  the  Nasamones,  are  represented  by 
our  historian  as  inhabitants  of  a  region  infested  by  wild  beasts,  and  of  a  timid  character, 
flying  the  view  and  intercourse  of  other  men,  destitute  of  arms,  and  unacquainted  with  war. 
These  characters  do  not  apply  to  the  people  of  modem  Fezzan,  which,  however,  is  undoubt- 
edly the  tract  pointed  out.  To  the  north-west  were  the  Gindanes  (the  modern  Gadamis), 
among  whom  the  license  of  public  morals  had  risen  to  a  greater  height  than  among  all  the 
wandering  tribes  of  Libya.    Still  proceeding  north-west,  the  traveller  came  to  the  lake  Tri- 


Book  I.  THE  EXPEDITION  OF  ALEXANDER.  37 

tonis,  celebrated  in  ancient  fable  as  the  birth-place  of  Minerva,  who,  according  to  one  legend, 
was  sprung  from  Neptune  and  the  nymph  of  the  lake.  This  lake  forms  the  western  limit 
of  the  long  range  of  nomadic  tribes.  Beyond  it,  Herodotus  gives  us  the  Maxyes,  who  cul- 
tivated the  ground.  He  had  now  reached  that  fine  range  of  territory  belonging  to  Carthage, 
stretching  along  the  coast,  watered  and  enriched  by  streams  from  the  Atlas.  It  is  very 
remarkable,  however,  that  he  should  pass  by  entirely  that  mighty  and  celebrated  state, 
which  was  not  only  the  most  powerful  in  Africa,  but  was  also  the  centre  of  industry  and 
commerce  with  respect  to  the  ancient  world.  Major  Rcnnell  has  suspected  that  this  arose 
from  a  national  feeling  of  enmity  on  account  of  their  alliance  with  tlie  Persians;  but  when 
we  consider  that  no  such  feeling  has  prevented  the  fullest  account  from  being  given  of  the 
Persians  themselves,  it  can  scarcely  be  supposed  that  the  being  merely  friends  to  the  Per- 
sians would  exclude  so  great  a  people  from  his  notice.  It  seems  really  very  difficult  to 
conjecture  his  motive,  unless,  according  to  the  suggestion  of  a  learned  friend,  we  suppose  that 
Herodotus,  writing  almost  entirely  to  illustrate  what  was  obscure,  or  communicate  know- 
ledge on  points  respecting  which  the  world  were  in  ignorance,  might  think  it  superfluous  to 
describe  what  must  have  been  well  known  to  the  bulk  of  his  readers,  for  the  same  reason 
that  he  has  given  no  regular  description  of  Greece.  In  reference  to  the  transactions  of  this 
people  with  other  nations,  he  takes  repeated  occasion  to  mention  them,  so  that  the  omission 
could  not  arise  from  absolute  ignorance. 

Atlas  and  the  desert  border  behind  it  next  engage  the  attention  of  our  historian ;  a  tract 
reaching  as  far  as  the  straits,  wliich  he  calls  the  high  forehead  of  Africa.  He  describes 
Atlas  as  a  long  and  lofty  range,  \vhose  highest  pinnacles  are  wrapped  in  perpetual  clouds ; 
and  he  ascribes  to  the  natives  the  origin  of  the  belief  adopted  by  the  Greeks,  which  made 
it  the  pillar  of  heaven.  Even  in  this  extreme  boundary  of  the  continent,  he  mentions  some 
peculiarities  that  really  exist : — the  enormous  size  and  formidable  character  of  the  serpent 
tribe;  oxen  with  large  and  crooked  horns;  houses  of  salt  which  would  melt  away  if  a  single 
shower  were  to  interrupt  the  continued  drought.  When  he  begins,  however,  to  speak  of 
people  with  horses'  heads,  and  others  without  heads  at  all,  it  is  time  to  take  our  leave ; 
though  some  learned  writers  suppose  this  to  be  a  mere  exaggerated  description  of  some 
animals  of  tlie  desert.  We  must  still  follow  him,  however,  to  the  western  coast  beyond  the 
straits,  where  the  Carthaginians,  he  was  informed,  carried  on  trade  with  the  natives  in  a 
peculiar  manner.  The  parties  did  not  see  each  other,  but  after  a  signal  made  by  smoke,  one 
laid  down  his  proffer,  went  away,  and  left  room  for  the  other  to  do  the  same ;  when  the  first 
came,  and  either  accepted  or  rejected  the  bargain,  till  the  terms  were  adjusted.  There 
have  been  reports  in  various  quarters  of  this  mode  of  traflic,  but  all,  we  suspect,  exaggerated 
representations  of  the  timid  manner  in  which  civilized  traders  make  their  approaches  to 
those  savage  people  who  possessed  any  valuable  commodities.  The  product  sought  upon 
this  shore  was  gold :  and,  as  it  does  not  exist  in  any  latitude  north  of  the  Senegal,  Major 
Rennell  concludes  that  the  trade  of  Carthage  extended  to  that  distant  river.  A  sceptic 
might  surmise  that  the  gold  was  brouglit  across  the  desert  to  the  coast  of  Barbary ;  yet, 
considering  the  formidable  character  of  this  desert,  it  seems  doubtftil  if  at  so  early  a  period 
a  commercial  route  across  it  could  have  been  opened. 

The  interior  of  Africa  could  not  fail  deeply  to  attract  tlie  curiosity  of  Herodotus.  The 
part  already  noticed  as  described  by  him  forms  only  a  belt  along  its  northern  coast,  and 
includes  none  of  the  vast  inland  tracts.  On  this  subject,  however,  he  has  only  one  tale  to 
tell.  Several  Nasamonian  youtlis  of  distinction,  seized  with  that  desire  to  penetrate  the 
continent  which  has  prevailed  throughout  all  ages,  departed  on  an  expedition  to  the  south- 
ward. They  traversed  three  successive  belts ;  first,  the  cultivated,  or  at  least  verdant  and 
inhabited  tract  along  the  sea-shore  ;  tlien,  another  occupied  only  by  wild  beasts ;  and,  lastly, 
a  region  arid  and  desolate.  Here,  while  plucking  fruits,  they  were  surprised  by  some 
men  of  small  stature,  who  carried  them  by  the  way  of  very  great  lakes,  to  a  city  inhabited 
by  black  inhabitants,  and  situated  on  a  large  river  flowing  from  west  to  east.  This  river 
Herodotus,  naturally  enough,  judges  to  be  the  Nile.  IMajor  Rennell  conceives  it  to  be  pro- 
bably the  river  of  Tombuctoo,  which  Europeans  call  the  Niger ;  but  we  think,  since  the 
late  discoveries,  there  can  scarcely  be  any  hesitation  in  fixing  it  as  the  Yeou,  the  river 
which  rolls  through  Bornou,  while  the  Tchad  may  be  identified  with  the  great  lakes 
along  which  the  expedition  was  conducted. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

FIRST  ALEXANDRIAN  SCHOOL.-ERATOSTHENES  AND  STRABO. 
Sect.  I. —  The  Expedition  of  Alexander. 

The  geograpliy  of  the  Greeks  became  little  more  than  a  topographical  delineation  of 
military  routes,  after  the  intestine  wars  in  which  they  were  involved  caused  them  to  lose 
siffht  of  the  more  distant  resions  of  the  earth.     Besides,  as  they  never  cultivated  matlie- 

VoL.  I.  ^  4 


_ ..  \J 


0  P  "  '-^  4 

\J  ^  !i}  '1.3  ^ 


38  fflSTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  I. 

matical  science  with  any  care  or  to  any  extent,  they  had  not  the  power  of  arranging 
even  these  limited  materials  into  a  systematic  form. 

The  expedition  of  Alexander  gave  a  much  greater  degree  of  expansion  to  the  human  mind. 
That  monarch  transferred  the  seat  of  war  into  the  Persian  empire,  and  carried  his  victorious 
arms  into  the  remotest  regions  of  the  East.  Wliatever  miglit  be  the  faults  and  follies  with 
which  his  career  was  stained,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  an  enlightened  curiosity  animated 
all  his  proceedings.  Wherever  he  went,  he  was  accompanied  by  skilful  surveyors,  Diogne- 
tus  and  Baton,  who  measured  the  length  and  direction  of  every  route  over  which  the 
army  p;issed.  Alexander  himself  carefully  inspected  these  itineraries,  employed  all  prac- 
ticable means  for  obtaining  the  best  materials,  and  his  letters  are  even  quoted  by  Pliny  as 
authorities  for  many  geographical  statements.  These  itineraries  are  said  to  have  been 
afterwards  published  by  Baeton,  under  the  title  of  "  the  Marches  of  Alexander."  From  the 
defective  state  of  the  science,  however,  which  that  prince  could  not  remedy,  all  these 
materials  were  necessarily  imperfect.  They  could  include  nothing  beyond  meciianical 
measurement,  nor  is  there  any  record,  throughout  this  long  career,  of  a  single  attempt  to 
fix  the  position  of  any  spot  by  celestial  observation.  Imperfect  as  they  were,  however, 
these  documents  did  not  the  less  form  a  completely  new  era  in  geographical  science.  After 
the  death  of  Alexander,  they  passed  through  the  hands  of  Seleucus  into  those  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  who  spared  no  efforts  to  render  Alexandria  the  greatest  seat  of  learning  and 
science  in  the  ancient  world ;  and  among  the  sciences  there  cultivated,  geography  and 
astronomy  held  the  most  distinguished  place. 

The  progress  of  Alexander  led  him  at  first  through  Syria,  Egypt  and  Persia,  but  did  not 
bring  the  Greeks  to  the  knowledge  of  any  countries,  of  whose  existence  and  limits  they 
were  not  already  fully  apprised.  But  after  he  began  the  pursuit  of  Bessus,  who  had  carried 
off  Darius  into  Bactriana,  his  march  became  a  sort  of  exploratory  route.  In  his  vain  pur- 
suit of  the  Scythian  armies  he  reached  the  banks  of  the  Jaxartes,  though  he  did  not  fully 
trace  the  course  either  of  that  river  or  of  the  Oxus.  On  his  way  thence  to  India,  he  had 
to  penetrate  the  narrow  passes  overhung  by  the  snowy  ramparts  of  the  Hindoo  Coosh,  and, 
with  much  difficulty  and  many  hardships  to  his  troops,  learned  to  appreciate  the  magnitude 
of  that  great  inland  barrier  of  Asia.  In  India,  Alexander  could  not  penetrate  beyond  the 
region  watered  by  the  five  rivers.  Yet  he  did  not  consider  it  as  the  boundary  of  the 
earth ;  he  learned  the  existence  and  beauty  of  the  fine  regions  on  the  Ganges,  whither  lie 
in  vain  attempted  to  persuade  his  fatigued  and  refractory  troops  to  follow  him.  He  consoled 
himself  by  conveying  his  army  in  pomp  down  the  Indus,  to  view  the  entrance  of  that  great 
stream  into  the  ocean,  and  with  instructions,  as  we  have  already  seen,  to  trace  the  shores 
of  Asia  round  the  Persian  Gulf  He  himself,  upon  very  bad  information,  undertook  to  lead 
back  his  a.Tmy  through  Gedrosia  and  Caramania,  the  greater  part  of  which  he  found,  as 
modern  travellers  have  done,  to  be  a  desert  of  the  most  dreary  and  formidable  character,  in 
which  his  army  was  with  difficulty  saved  from  total  destruction. 

Sect.  II. — Expedition  of  Seleucus. 
Seleucus,  on  the  partition  of  the  empire  of  Alexander,  succeeded  to  the  dominion  of 
Syria  and  the  East.  Neither  that  prince  nor  his  successors  were  either  learned  or  patrons  of 
learning ;  but  as  the  owner  of  extensive  dominions,  and  aiming  at  farther  conquest,  he 
cherished  the  natural  wish  to  be  acquainted  with  wliat  lie  possessed  or  hoped  to  obtain.  He 
employed  his  admiral,  Patrocles,  to  make  a  survey  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  whicli  had  not 
entered  into  the  line  of  Alexander's  route ;  but  the  information  gained  by  this  voyage  must, 
as  we  shall  see,  have  been  far  from  complete.  It  would  also  seem  as  if  he  had  employed  the 
same  admiral  in  an  attempt  to  circumnavigate  Asia ;  but  the  assertion  which  obtained  credit 
in  that  age,  that  he  had  sailed  round  from  India  to  the  Caspian,  sufficiently  attests  the  failure 
of  the  enterprise.  Seleucus,  also,  finding,  probably,  tliat  the  inroad  of  Alexander  into  India 
had  been  of  very  transient  result,  undertook  a  military  expedition,  the  details  of  which  are 
little  known,  and  which  enabled  him  to  establish  no  permanent  footing  in  the  country ;  but 
he  collected  some  further  materials  for  the  geographer,  and  the  record  of  his  marches  appears 
to  have  been  of  important  service  to  Pliny.  He  sent  also  an  embassy  under  Megasthenes 
to  Palibothra,  capital  of  the  great  Indian  kingdom  situated  on  the  Ganges,  from  which  the, 
ancients  derived  a  more  accurate  knowledge  of  these  eastern  parts  of  the  world  than  they 
had  previously  possessed. 

Sect.  III. — Eratosthenes. 
Eratosthenes  at  length  succeeded  in  reducing  geography  to  a  system  under  the  patronage 
of  the  Ptolemies,  which  gave  him  access  to  all  the  materials  collected  by  Alexander,  his 
generals,  and  successors,  and  to  the  immense  mass  of  documents  assembled  in  the  Alexan- 
drian library.  The  astronomical  observations  made  in  this  school  were  now  sufficient  to 
prove  the  globular  form  of  the  earth.  Eratosthenes,  proceeding  upon  this  principle,  made  it 
his  study  to  adjust  to  it  all  the  kno\\'n  features  of  the  globe.  He  did  not,  however,  attend 
to  the  grand  original  divisions  of  the  equator,  the  pole,  or  even  the  tropics.     The  line  which 


Book  I.      WORLD  ACCORDING  TO  ERATOSTHENES  AND  STRABO.  39 

formed  the  basis  of  his  geography,  and  generally  of  that  of  the  Alexandrian  school,  was  a 
parallel  drawn  across  the  Mediterranean,  and  thence  prolonged  through  Asia.  It  was 
formed  in  a  very  rough  manner,  upon  no  actual  observation,  and  comprising  all  leading 
positions  which  came  nearly  though  not  strictly  witliin  its  sphere.  It  was  called  generally,  the 
parallel  of  Rhodes.  The  most  westerly  point  was  the  Sa,cred  Cape  of  Iberia  (Cape  St.  Vin- 
cent), atler  which  followed  the  "  Strait  of  the  Pillars"  (of  Hercules).  The  next  point  was 
the  Strait  of  Sicily,  erroneously  considered  to  be  under  the  same  meridian  with  Rome  and 
Carthage.  Then  came  Rhodes,  tlie  centre  of  the  line.  Issus,  celebrated  as  the  site  of  the 
victory  of  Alexander,  was  witli  little  ditficulty  brought  within  the  limit.  Next  followed  the 
somewhat  doubtful  position  of  the  Caspian  gates,  and  the  line  was  extended  along  the  chain 
of  Mount  Taurus,  supposed  to  divide  Asia  into  two  parts,  till  it  terminated  at  the  remote 
city  of  ThinfB,  situated  on  the  eastern  ocean.  This  entire  length  of  the  habitable  world,  as 
it  was  called,  amounted  to  about  70,000  stadia,  or,  according  to  his  estimate,  one  hundred 
degrees,  not  quite  a  third  of  the  circuit  of  the  globe. 

In  determining  a  meridian  to  exhibit  his  breadth  of  the  habitable  world,  Eratosthenes 
laboured  under  still  greater  difficulties.  On  the  extreme  south  was  "  the  limit  of  the  habitable 
earth ;"  for,  according  to  this  school,  a  certain  tract  around  the  equator  was,  from  the 
excess  of  heat,  unfit  for  human  habitation.  The  uninhabitable  zone  was  supposed  to  extend 
8,300  stadia,  or  about  twelve  degrees  to  the  north  of  the  equator.  Under  the  next  parallel 
were  included  the  "  Isle  of  the  Exiles,"  in  or  near  Sennaar ;  the  cinnamon-bearing  region, 
which  appears  to  be  Berbera,  and  Taproban,  or  Ceylon.  Next  comes  Meroe,  the  capital  of 
Ethiopia,  which  was  supposed,  though  with  great  error,  to  correspond  as  to  latitude  with 
the  southern  extremity  of  India :  thence  descending  the  Nile  the  geographer  marks  the 
celebrated  position  of  Syene,  which  was  concluded  to  be  immediately  under  the  tropic, 
since  there  was  a  well,  in  the  depth  of  which  at  noon-day,  at  the  precise  time  of  the  vernal 
equinox,  the  disk  of  the  sun  was  seen  reflected  entire.  The  observation  was  very  nearly 
correct.  Next  came  Alexandria,  of  which,  as  the  centre  of  all  these  observations,  the 
position  as  to  latitude  was  very  closely  approxunated.  Then  followed  Rhodes  in  the  centre 
of  the  great  parallel  already  described  as  exhibiting  the  length  of  the  habitable  globe. 
Continuing  northward,  though  not  upon  the  same  line,  were  found  the  Hellespont,  Byzan- 
tium, the  mouth  of  the  Borysthenes,  and  passing  over  the  vast  obscurely-known  tracts  of 
Germany,  Gaul,  and  Britain,  the  farthest  Thule,  which,  on  the  report  of  Pytheas,  Eratos- 
thenes regarded  as  the  extreme  northern  boundary  of  the  earth.  As  the  same  authority 
placed  Thule  under  the  Arctic  circle,  or  at  sixty-six  degrees  of  latitude,  the  interval  be- 
tween that  position  and  the  limit  of  the  habitable  earth  on  the  side  of  the  equator  amounted 
to  about  fit\y-four  degrees,  or  according  to  his  estimate  38,000  stadia,  which  formed  thus 
the  supposed  breadth  from  north  to  south  of  the  habitable  earth. 

Sect.  IV. — Hipparchus. 

Hipparchus,  carrying  still  farther  the  system  adopted  by  Eratosthenes,  subjected  the 
whole  science  of  geography  to  astronomical  principles.  His  labours  in  numbering  the  stars, 
and  arranging  them  according  to  their  place  in  the  heavens,  were  such  as  appeared  mar- 
vellous to  the  ancients,  and  are  esteemed  by  Pliny  as  achievements  that  would  have  been 
arduous  even  for  a  god.  In  this  career,  however,  he  had  been  preceded  by  Timocharis  and 
Aristillus,  who,  more  than  a  century  before,  had  made  some  observations  which  paved  the 
way  for  the  present  extended  discoveries.  Hipparchus  appears  to  have  first  conceived  the 
idea  of  transferring  the  observed  latitudes  and  longitudes  of  the  stars  to  their  correspond- 
ing places  on  the  earth's  surface,  thus  fixing.the  latter  with  a  precision  which  no  itinerary 
measurements  could  ever  attain.  He  made  a  considerable  number  of  observations  of  lati- 
tude, in  addition  to  the  very  few  previously  existing,  and  he  pointed  out  the  mode  in  which 
the  longitudes  might  be  ascertained  by  observing  the  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon.  It  does 
not  appeiT  to  what  extent  he  carried  the  difficult  operations  requisite  for  this  investigation ; 
but  he  is  said  to  have  calculated  the  eclipses  for  six  hundred  years,  including  the  moments 
of  their  appearance  at  different  places ;  a  performance  which  seems  to  indicate  a  Imow- 
ledge  of  their  astronomical  position.  Thus  Hipparchus  distinctly  perceived  all  the  prin- 
ciples upon  which  an  accurate  system  of  geography  might  be  founded,  and  made  some 
progress  m  their  application ;  but  these  important  principles,  like  others  which  were  beyond 
the  comprehension  of  the  age  in  which  they  were  made,  remained  for  a  long  time  dormant 
or  misapplied,  and  were  not  brought  into  full  practical  application  until  a  much  more 
advanced  period  in  the  progress  of  science. 

Sect.  V. — The  world  according  to  Eratosthenes  and  Strabo. 
The  application  to  the  different  parts  of  the  earth's  surface  of  the  principles  according 
to  which  the  globe  was  to  be  delineated,  formed  a  task  stili  more  arduous  than  that  of  the 
first  establishment  of  those  principles.  The  longitudes  and  latitudes  of  the  ancients  are 
both  erroneous ;  more  especially  the  longitudes,  to  which  astronomical  observation  was 
never  very  extensively  apolied ;  hence  it  is  not  wonderful  tliat  the  errors  should  be  great ; 


40  HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  I. 

but  the  regular  and  rapid  manner  in  which  tlicy  accumulate  appears  very  surprising. 
They  begin  from  tlie  Sacred  Cape  of  Iberia  (Cape  St.  Vincent),  whicii  the  ancients  made 
their  first  meridian,  and  continue  regularly  increasing  as  we  proceed  eastward.  To  the 
Pillars  of  Hercules  were  assigned  more  than  two  degrees  beyond  the  truth  ;  to  Alexandria, 
nearly  seven  ;  to  Issus,  ten  ;  to  tlie  Caspian  gates,  fourteen  ;  to  Pattalena,  or  the  Delta  of 
the  Indus,  twenty-three ;  to  the  mouth  of  tlie  Ganges,  nearly  twenty-seven.  We  have 
already  had  occasion  to  observe,  and  tlie  remark  is  found  in  the  best  ancient  geographers, 
that  merchants  and  travellers  of  that  age  gave  an  exaggerated  report  of  all  the  distances 
over  which  they  passed.  The  windings  of  the  route,  the  hardships  and  obstacles  encoun- 
tered by  them,  the  desire  to  magnify  tlieir  own  achievements,  all  concurred  in  inducing 
them  to  view  and  present  this  particular  through  an  amplified  medium.  All  the  itineraries 
continued  along  the  line  upon  which  Eratosthenes  measured  his  length  of  the  habitable 
globe  being  tlius  unduly  extended,  tlie  degrees  calculated  out  of  them  were  of  course 
equally  in  excess ;  and  this  excess  became  always  the  greater  in  proportion  to  the  length 
to  which  the  line  was  protracted  beyond  its  commencement  at  the  Sacred  Cape.  The  lati- 
tude of  the  principal  places  in  and  round  the  Mediterranean  is  in  general  not  far  from  the 
truth,  probably  because  it  was  determined  by  such  rude  observations  as  were  within  the 
compass  of  Greek  science  at  that  early  period. 

In  tracing  the  outline  of  the  known  world,  and  especially  of  the  continents,  geographers 
still  proceeded  amid  obscurity  and  doubt.  This  school  had  laid  down  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  a  great  circumambient  ocean,  embracing  the  entire  circuit  of  the  three  continents. 
This  idea,  inherited  from  Homer,  was  doubtless  supported  by  facts  to  a  considerable  extent ; 
but  its  application  to  the  world  in  general,  and  especially  to  the  northern  shores  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  was  manifestly  hypothetical.  Eratosthenes,  in  comparing  the  magnitude  of  his 
known  world,  even  under  its  exaggerated  dimensions,  with  the  general  circumference  of 
the  earth,  became  sensible  that  only  a  third  part  of  this  last  was  filled  up.  He  indulges  in 
conjecture  as  to  the  contents  of  this  vast  unknown  region,  which,  he  observes,  might  either 
be  supposed  to  consist  of  one  great  ocean,  the  whole  of  which  he  denominates  the  Atlantic, 
or  of  lands  and  islands  which  might  be  discovered  in  sailing  to  the  westward.  With  a 
degree  of  caution,  however,  not  very  common  in  that  age,  he  declines  to  give  any  decisive 
opinion  on  this  question. — The  system  of  Eratosthenes  may  now  be  considered  in  regard  to 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Europe.    {Fig.  6.) 

The  imperfection  of  ancient  geography  is  often  conspicuous  with  respect  to  countries 
which  were  very  near  and  familiar.  In  regard  to  the  very  centre  of  the  Mediterranean, 
Eratosthenes  committed  a  capital  error.  Following  the  propensity  to  include  all  the  lead- 
ing positions  under  some  one  line  to  which  they  approximate,  he  placed  in  the  same  me- 
ridian Rome,  the  Sicilian  strait  (that  of  Messina),  and  Carthage.  The  mistake  with  regard 
to  the  first  and  last  of  these  points  did  not  much  exceed  a  degree ;  but  the  middle  point  is 
nearly  four  degrees  east  from  Rome,  and  five  from  Carthage.  Such  an  error  could  not  fail 
to  produce  others.  M.  Gosselin  shows  that  it  has  led  to  a  signal  mistake  respecting  the 
position  of  Sicily,  as  the  geographer,  in  order  to  retain  its  relative  position  towards  Carthage, 
necessarily  represented  its  greatest  length  as  from  north  to  south,  instead  of  from  east  to 
west.  The  promontory  of  LilybcEum,  facing  Carthage,  became  the  southern  instead  of 
the  western  extremity  of  Sicily;  while  Cape  Pachynum,  instead  of  the  southern,  became 
the  eastern.  Sicily  being  thus  projected  so  unreasonably  towards  the  south,  Carthage  also 
was  made  to  recede  too  far  in  the  same  direction;  and  the  coast  leading  thither  from  the 
straits  of  Gibraltar  was  supposed  to  bend  to  the  south  instead  of  the  north.  The  same 
erroneous  process,  placing  Sicily  too  far  west,  enlarged  beyond  measure  the  eastern  basin 
of  the  Mediterranean  comprehended  between  it  and  Asia  Minor.  This  deformity  became 
still  more  serious  from  another  application,  to  Alexandria  and  Rhodes,  of  the  system  of 
placing  leading  points  under  the  same  meridian.  As  the  fonner  error  had  made  Sicily  too 
far  west,  this  made  Rhodes  too  far  east,  and  rendered  the  sea  between  these  islands  too 
large  by  at  least  a  half. 

Strabo,  ever  alive  to  the  faults  of  his  predecessors,  detected  the  mistake  of  Eratos- 
thenes with  respect  to  the  relative  positions  of  Rome  and  Carthage.  He  has  been  far, 
however,  fi-om  rectifying  all  the  wrong  positions  established  by  his  predecessor.     He  has 

References  to  the  Map  of  Europe  according  to  Eratosthenes. 

1.  Ga(!e!  11.  Roma  20.  Ehpginm  20.  Pola  d  L,ieer 

2.  Calpe  12.  Ostia  21.  Pcylaciurn  .10.   Kpirfaurus  e  Oaiumna 

3.  CarthaKO  Nova  13.  Oirceii  22.  Thin U  31.   Kiiiilamtius  f  J)uriu3 

4.  Narbo  14.  Puteoli  23.  Tarentum  32.  ApoJIonia  g  Taeua 

5.  Massilia  1.5.  Nenpnlis  24.   Kriindusium  h   Anas 

6.  Aniipolie  Ifi.  Pusiclonia  2.'j.   Sipiis  Rivers  i    Bneiis 

7.  Genua  17.  Velia  96.  Teanum  a  Albis  j    Ibcrua 

P-  I, una  18.  I.aus  27.  Aneona  b  RhPMiis  fc   Rhodanus 

9.  Piipulonmn)  19.  Hipponium  28.  Ariminum  c  Siquana  1    Varus 

10.  Cussa 


Fig.  6. 


EUROPE  ACCORDING  TO  ERATOSTHENES. 


At 


MARE 


ATLANTJCVM 


Vol.  I. 


4* 


P 


42  mSTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  I. 

left  untouched  the  false  orienting  of  Sicily,  and  all  the  errors  dependent  upon  it.  Both  he 
and  Eratosthenes  describe  Italy  as  extending  from  north  to  south,  which,  allowing  for  the 
early  tendency  to  orient  all  lines  towards  a  cardinal  point,  may  be  taken  as  a  pretty  fair 
representation.  M.  Gosselin  has  undertaken  to  show  tliat  such  a  direction  would  be  incon- 
sistent with  the  other  data  given  by  these  geographers,  in  conformity  to  which  Italy  must 
stretch  from  east  to  west.  Considering,  however,  the  imperfect  state  of  geographical  deli- 
neation at  that  period,  it  seems  going  too  far  to  follow  each  error  into  all  its  consequences, 
or  to  suppose  that  all  the  views  given  can  be  brought  into  complete  harmony. 

The  outline  of  the  central  and  northern  countries  of  Europe  drawn  by  these  geogi'a- 
phers  is  excessively  vague.  Strabo  indeed  makes  some  approacii  to  accuracy  in  comparing 
the  Spanish  peninsula  to  a  "  hide  spread  out,"  or  to  a  parallelogram.  Various  countries 
were  by  the  ancients  denominated  from  a  fancied  resemblance  to  some  object  in  nature,  nor 
are  examples  wanting  in  modern  times.  But  the  eastern  side  of  this  figure  is  formed  by 
tiie  Pyrenees,  which  arc  thus  made  to  extend  from  north  to  south,  to  form  the  western 
boundary  of  Gaul,  and  to  be  parallel  to  the  Rhine.  Hence  arises  the  greatest  of  all  these 
errors ;  for  Gaul  is  allowed  to  have  on  the  ocean  only  one  coast,  which  is  that  looking  to 
the  north,  and  every  where  opposite  to  Britain.  Strabo  treats  with  derision  the  report  of 
Pytheas,  that  the  Calhium  promontorium,  the  extreme  point  of  Brittany,  looked  to  the  west, 
and  he  represents  vessels  as  sailing  to  Britain  as  readily  from  the  mouth  of  the  Loire  and 
Garonne  as  from  that  of  the  Rliine  and  the  Seine.  Great  as  these  errors  are,  we  shall  easily 
trace  their  origin  in  considering  the  sources  whence  the  Greeks  derived  their  information 
respecting  these  extremities  of  Europe.  Whatever  may  haA'e  been  the  case  with  regard  to 
the  Carthaginians,  it  is  evident  that  neither  Greeks  nor  Romans  ever  navigated  its  exterior 
seas.  Pytheas  alone  performed  that  daring  voyage ;  but  having  no  witnesses  to  bring  in 
support  of  his  relation,  it  was  denounced  as  fabulous,  in  common  with  others  made  by  early 
discoverers.  The  regular  channel  of  communication  was  Marseilles.  The  merchandise  of 
Britain  being  brought  across  the  British  channel  to  the  mouths  of  tlie  Rhine  and  the  Seine, 
was  conveyed  up  those  rivers,  and  by  land  carriage  to  that  great  emporium  of  Gaul.  Hence 
the  geography  of  Gaul  and  Britain,  in  tliat  age,  was  ruled  entirely  by  Massilian  ideas. 
From  the  causes  stated,  the  Massilians  had  no  communication  with  Britain  unless  by  the 
northern  coast  of  Gaul,  and  by  routes  directed  from  south  to  north  tiirough  that  country. 
Reasoning  only  from  what  they  knew,  they  might  soon  arrive  at  the  conclusion,  that  Gaul 
had  only  a  northern  coast,  and  might  apply  to  it  tlie  wliole  of  the  erroneous  system  now 
described.  The  result  of  this  system  was,  that  the  Cassiterides,  Islands  of  Tin,  in  which 
term  the  Scilly  islands  were  evidently  blended  with  Cornwall,  were  made  to  approach  to 
Spain,  and  came  to  be  considered  as  much  Spanish  as  British.  So  prevalent  was  this  idea, 
that  even  afterwards,  when  the  conquests  of  Rome  had  made  known  the  wide  separation 
between  the  two  countries,  the  Cassiterides  are  found  in  some  maps  still  attached  to  Spain, 
and  at  a  little  distance  from  Cape  Ortegal. 

Britain,  under  this  system,  was  represented  as  a  triangle,  of  which  the  base,  or 
longest  side,  was  that  along  the  channel  and  opposite  to  Gaul.  As  the  coast,  after  passing 
the  two  extremities  of  tliis  line,  begins  on  one  side  to  bend  inward  towards  the  Bristol 
Channel,  and  on  the  other  to  the  Thames,  navigators  then  probably  considered  it  as  continu- 
ing in  these  directions  till  it  came  to  a  point,  far  short  of  its  real  termination.  lerne,  or 
Hibernia,  (Ireland)  appears  in  dim  obscurity.  It  is  said  to  be  situated  four  hundred  miles 
north  from  tlie  centre  of  Britain,  under  a  climate  so  excessively  cold  that  there  could  not 
possibly  be  any  inhabited  country  nearer  to  the  pole.  If  tlie  four  hundred  miles  be  measured 
from  the  centre  of  the  southern  coast,  and  allowance  be  made  for  false  orie^nting,  it  will  not 
be  found  so  very  wide  of  the  truth.  The  rest  of  the  description  was  probably  made  out  by 
confiised  ideas  of  Scotland,  and  particularly  tlie  bleak  mountainous  tracts  in  tiie  north. 
Eratosthenes,  indeed,  has  derived  from  Pytiieas  a  knowledge  of  the  far  northern  limit  of 
Thule,  and  of  its  appendant  islands,  stretching  towards  the  Arctic  sea;  but,  as  the  proud 
scepticism  of  Strabo  rejected  this  statement,  he  was  thrown  back  upon  the  more  imperfect 
information  afibrded  by  the  mercliants  of  Marseilles. 

The  eastern  shores  of  northern  Europe  occasioned  still  more  embarrassment  to  the 
Greeks.  They  had,  in  general,  the  idea  of  this  continent  having  the  sea  for  its  boundary ; 
but  this  seems  mainly  to  rest  upon  the  general  vague  belief  of  a  circumambient  ocean,  and 
an  understanding  that  Germany  had  on  the  north  a  maritime  boundary,  indicated  by  the 
amber  brought  from  the  shores  of  the  Baltic.  Here,  too,  Pytheas,  either  by  personal 
investigation  or  by  careful  inquiry,  had  collected  some  particulars  which  if  Strabo  had  not 
disdained,  he  would  not  have  been  left  in  such  total  darkness.  After  proceeding  far  along 
the  German  coast,  that  navigator,  it  is  said,  came  to  a  great  gulf  (evidently  the  Baltic).  He 
found  Basilia,  a  very  large  island,  the  same  which  Pliny  calls  Baltia ;  being,  in  flict,  tlie 
peninsula  of  Scandinavia,  which,  until  it  was  circumnavigated,  must  have  been  regarded  by 
navigators  as  an  island.  Then,  it  is  said,  he  came  to  the  Tanais,  which  appears,  no  doubt, 
a  very  startling  assertion ;  but  we  must  remember  that,  in  this  school,  the  circumambient 
ocean  was  supposed  to  have  a  coast  only  a  little  north  of  the  Euxine  and  the  Caspian,  and 


Book  I.  ROMAN  GEOGRAPHY.  43 

to  communicate  with  tliese  seas  or  gulfs  (as  they  were  supposed  to  be)  by  narrow  straits, 
one  of  which  was  the  Tanais,  and  the  mouth  of  one  of  the  great  Baltic  rivers  might  very 
easily  be  imagined  to  form  the  termination  of  this  strait. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Asia.     (Fig.  7.  page  44.) 

The  limits  assigned  to  Asia,  already  too  small,  were  contracted  by  the  geographers  of  the 
Alexandrian  school,  notwithstanding  the  additional  sources  of  information  which  they  pos- 
sessed respecting  that  continent.  This  error  arose  partly  from  tlieir  theory  of  a  surround- 
ing ocean,  and  partly  from  their  neglect  of  the  important  information  obtamed  by  Herodo- 
tus respecting  the  countries  along  the  heads  of  the  Euxine  and  Caspian.  The  expedition 
of  Alexander,  indeed,  and  the  embassy  of  Megasthenes,  made  them  acquainted  with  the 
Ganges,  rolling  eastward  through  the  fine  plain  of  Upper  Hindostan.  Seeing  it  pursue 
this  direction  to  the  utmost  limit  of  the  then  known  world,  they  were  led  to  conclude  that 
its  course  continued  eastward,  and  that  it  fell  into  the  eastern  ocean,  which  formed,  on  that 
side,  the  boundary  of  the  continent.  Connecting  this  with  the  Caspian,  the  only  northern 
Asiatic  sea  known  to  them,  they  drew  a  line  from  one  to  the  other,  by  which  tliey  excluded 
nearly  two-thirds  the  extent  of  Asia ;  the  Birman  empire,  China,  the  greater  part  of  Tar- 
tary,  and  the  whole  of  Siberia.  On  the  shore  of  the  eastern  ocean  was  placed  Thinse,  evi- 
dently known  only  by  vague  rumour,  and  which  they  fixed  at  the  extremity  of  the  line 
measuring  the  length  of  the  habitable  globe.  What  may  be  the  import  of  this  mysterious 
name,  and  whether  it  be  the  capital  of  Siam  or  of  China,  is  a  discussion  which  will  be  bet- 
ter reserved  until  we  come  to  the  more  precise  notices  of  Ptolemy.  One  other  grand 
feature  was  known  to  this  school ;  the  cape  of  the  Coliaci  or  Cape  Comorin ;  but  conceiving 
the  coast,  of  Coromandel  to  follow  the  line  of  the  Ganges,  and,  consequently,  to  verge  to- 
wards the  west,  they  made  it  several  degrees  more  easterly  than  even  Thinae. 

Asia  within  and  Asia  beyond  Taurus  were  made  the  grand  divisions  of  that  continent. 
That  great  mountain  chain  arising  in  Asia  Minor  was  supposed  to  be  prolonged  by  tliose 
of  the  Elburz,  of  Khorasan,  and  of  Hindoo  Coosh,  wliich,  in  fact,  there  is  much  reason  to 
believe,  may  form  a  chain  nowhere  wholly  interrupted.  Within  Taurus  were  all  the  fertile, 
populous,  and  splendid  kingdoms  and  countries  of  Asia ;  Syria,  Assyria,  Babylon,  Persia, 
Susiana,  Ionia,  Cilicia ;  beyond,  were  the  ruder  tracts  of  Scythia,  Bactria,  Sogdiana ;  and 
more  westerly,  the  Caucasian  territory,  and  the  part  of  Asia  Minor  situated  along  the  shore 
of  the  Black  Sea. 

SuBSECT.  3. — Africa. 

In  regard  to  Africa,  the  knowledge  of  these  geographers,  though  accurate  in  some  re- 
spects, was  extremely  limited.  They  believed  its  boundary  to  be  the  sea ;  but  this  correct 
judgment  proceeded  rather  from  a  casual  coincidence  with  their  theory  of  an  encircling 
ocean,  than  from  any  actual  l^nowledge  ;  since  Strabo  rejected  even  the  possibility  of  cir- 
cumnavigation. This  scepticism  was  founded  upon  the  hypothesis  of  an  rminhabitable  tor- 
rid zone,  which  formed  an  essential  part  of  the  reigning  system  at  this  period.  It  is  a  be- 
lief manifestly  African,  founded  on  the  observation  of  those  vast  and  burning  deserts,  which 
extend  indefinitely  beyond  the  narrow  inhabited  stripe  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean. 
The  Nile,  then,  being  still  considered  as  the  eastern  boundary,  Africa  became  a  sort  of 
right-angled  triangle,  of  which  the  two  smaller  sides  were  formed  by  that  river  and  the 
Mediterranean,  while  the  hypotenuse,  or  largest  side,  was  the  unexplored  shore.  It  was 
upon  the  Nile  that  Eratosthenes  measured  the  habitable  world  of  Africa ;  yet  he  does  not 
trace  that  river  so  high  as  Herodotus,  his  details  reaching  only  between  three  and  four 
hundred  miles  above  Meroe.  In  these  details,  however,  he  is  very  accurate :  on  the  east- 
ern side,  he  represents  it  as  receiving  two  great  rivers,  the  Astapus  and  the  Astaboras,  the 
former  of  which  flows  from  lakes  in  the  south,  and,  when  swelled  by  the  summer  rains, 
forms  almost  the  main  body  of  the  Nile.  He  describes  also  the  bend  which  the  river  niakes 
in  its  passage  through  Nubia.  The  source,  being  imagined  to  exist  in  regions  rendered  in- 
accessible by  extreme  heat,  could  not  be  considcsed  as  within  the  reach  of  discovery.  The 
idea,  however,  still  prevailed,  that  it  came  from  the  west,  and  Strabo  even  mentions  a  re- 
port, that  its  source  was  in  the  remote  region  of  Mauritania,  south  of  the  Atlas.  This  is 
the  only  statement  made  by  geographers  of  this  school,  which  can  be  considered  as  indi- 
cating any  idea  of  the  existence  of  the  Niger. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ROMAN  GEOGRAPHY. 


The  Roman  geographers  attained  no  proficiency  in  the  mathematical  branch  of  the 
science.  M.  Gossclin  does  not  even  hesitate  to  assert,  that  they  remained  always  strangers 
to  its  very  first  elements.  They  made  no  attempt,  therefore,  to  combine  their  materials  into 
one  harmonious  system,  or  to  fix  their  positions  with  that  strict  accuracy,  which  astronomi- 


u 


THE  WORLD  ACCORDING  TO  ERATOSTHENES. 


Fio.  7 


JooK  I.  ROMAN  GEOGRAPHY.— MELA.  45 

cal  observation  alone  can  reach.  Yet  no  nation  employed  greater  diligence  in  the  opera- 
tions of  practical  survey.  This  was,  indeed,  absolutely  requisite,  with  a  view  to  that  in- 
cessant warfare  in  which  they  were  engaged ;  they  could  not  conquer  the  world  without 
previously  surveying  it.  Their  geographical  researches  were,  however,  held  strictly  sub- 
servient to  this  ambitious  design. 

Itineraries  were  thus  the  only  form  in  which  the  results  of  Roman  investigation 
were  presented.  Vegetius  informs  us  that  when  war  was  to  be  carried  into  any  country, 
the  first  care  was  to  procure  a  complete  set  of  routes,  and  place  them  in  the  hands  of  the 
general.  These  itineraries,  it  is  observed,  ought,  if  possible,  to  contain,  not  merely  the  inter- 
vals, in  paces  and  Roman  miles,  between  one  place  and  another,  but  the  quality  of  the  roads, 
the  surrounding  objects,  mountains  and  rivers,  delineated  with  the  utmost  possible  precision. 
They  were  not  only  to  be  noted,  but  painted,  that  the  commanders  might  not  know  merely, 
but  see  before  their  eyes,  the  route  by  which  they  were  to  proceed.  The  Romans  became 
thus  the  surveyors  as  well  as  the  conquerors  of  the  world ;  and  every  new  war  in  which 
they  engaged,  every  new  conquest  which  their  arms  achieved,  produced  a  fresh  accumula- 
tion of  materials  for  the  use  of  the  geographer.  Even  after  a  country  was  subdued,  the 
necessity  of  accurate  survey  did  not  cease.  The  empire  was  long  held  in  a  state  of  mere 
military  occupation ;  camps  formed  at  proper  distances  were  connected  by  those  excellent 
and  durable  roads,  many  of  which  remain  to  this  day.  An  accurate  acquaintance  with  the 
position  and  intervals  of  these  camps,  and  the  nature  of  the  intervening  territory,  was  essen- 
tial to  the  maintenance  of  their  dominion  over  the  vast  extent  of  their  conquered  countries. 
No  sooner,  therefore,  had  Julius  Csesar  seated  himself  on  the  undisputed  throne  of  the  empire, 
than  he  caused  a  senatus  consultum  to  be  passed  for  a  general  measurement  of  the  Roman 
world.  This  task,  it  is  said,  was  intrusted  to  "  the  most  prudent  men,  adorned  with  every 
endowment  of  philosophy."  The  east  was  assigned  to  Zenodoxus,  the  west  to  Theodotus, 
and  the  south  to  Polycletus.  In  the  course  of  twenty-five  years,  as  we  are  informed  by 
iEthicus,  the  whole  was  completed.  Julius  Csesar,  however,  did  not  long  survive  the  com- 
mencement of  this  great  work,  which  the  civil  wars  probably  suspended.  It  was  apparently 
resumed  and  completed  under  the  reign  of  Augustus  and  the  ministry  of  his  son-in-law 
Agrippa,  to  whom  it  appears,  from  Pliny,  to  have  been  afterwards  ascribed.  The  exact  prin- 
ciples upon  which  this  grand  mearsurement  was  conducted  have  nowhere  been  stated.  The 
reform  of  the  calendar,  effected  by  Caesar,  seems  to  point  out  that  some  elements  of  astro- 
nomy existed  among  those  with  whom  he  consulted. 

Rome,  in  the  most  flourishing  era  of  its  literature,  produced  two  eminent  geographerst 
Mela  and  Pliny. 

Sect.  I. — Mela. 

The  personal  history  of  this  eminent  geographer  is  a  subject  respecting  which 
scarcely  any  particulars  have  transpired.  From  the  allusions,  however,  in  liis  own  writings, 
to  the  conquest  of  Britain  by  Claudius  as  a  recent  event,  made  in  those  flattering  terms 
which  only  a  contemporary  would  have  employed,  it  would  appear  that  his  work  w'as  written 
under  the  reign  of  that  inglorious  prince,  and  is,  consequently,  anterior  to  that  of  Pliny. 

Mela,  in  forming  his  system,  does  not  appear  to  have  possessed  those  extensive  mea- 
surements and  itineraries,  which  were  probably  deposited  in  the  imperial  archives.  Faith- 
ful, however,  to  the  object  of  his  treatise,  "  de  situ  orbis,"  he  discovers  very  considerable 
anxiety  to  determine  the  position  of  the  globe,  and  trace  with  accuracy  its  general  outlines. 
He  adopts  the  general  principles  of  the  school  of  Eratosthenes,  incorporating  into  it  the  new 
features  which  had  been  afforded  by  Roman  conquest.  He  does  not  appear,  however,  to 
have  comprehended  their  idea  of  the  globular  form  of  the  earth,  nor  is  he  very  perspicuous 
in  any  thing  that  he  says  upon  that  subject.  He  begins — "  All  that,  whatever  it  is,  to  which 
we  give  the  name  of  the  woi-ld  and  heaven,  is  one  thing,  and  in  one  circuit  embraces  itself 
and  all  things ;"  vague  and  pompous  expressions,  to  which  no  determinate  idea  can  be 
attached.  We  find  him,  however,  adopting  in  its  fullest  extent  the  belief  of  a  circumam- 
bient ocean ;  and  when  he  speaks  of  "  the  high  earth  in  this  middle  part  of  it,"  and  describes 
the  sea  as  going  under  and  washing  round  it,  we  are  led  to  believe,  that  he  viewed  the  earth 
as  a  sort  of  cone,  or  as  a  high  mountain  raised  by  its  elevation  above  the  abyss  of  waters. 
Having  made  a  vague  division  of  the  world  into  east,  west,  and  north,  he  distributed  it  into 
five  zones,  two  temperate,  one  torrid,  and  two  frigid.     Only  the  first  two  were  habitable ; 


References  to  the  Map  of  the  World 

according  to  Eratosthenes. 

EUROPA. 

2.  Amisus                         15.  Patala 

AFRICA. 

10.  Berenice 

1.  Massilia 

3.  Sinnpe                          16.  Palibolhra 

1.  Lixus 

11.   Syene 

2.  RoTia 

4.  r.phesus 

2.   Carthazo 

12.  Meroe 

3.  Athens 

5.  Ifsus                                         Rivers.              3.  Piolemaia 

13.  Ptolemaia 

4.  Byzantium 

6.  Thapsacus                   a  Oxu9 

4.  Cyrene 

14.  Aduli 

7.  Ninus                           b  Jaxartea 

5.  Berenice 

Rivers. 

8.  Susa                             c  Phasig 

fi.   Alexandria 

Rivers. 

a  Rheniis 

9.  Babylon                      d  EuphratCB 

7.  Canopug 

a  Nilua 

b  Borysthenes 

10.  Rhinocolura               o  Tisria 

8.  Pelusium 

b  Astanua 
c  Astaboras. 

c  Tanaifl 

11.  iTIIana                         f  Indus 

9.  Areinoe 

12.  Gnrra                         g  Ganges 

ASIA. 

13.  Tinis  Insula 

1.  Dioscuiias 

14.  Aiadus  Insula 

46 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 

F^g.  a-SYSTEM  OP  MELA. 


Part 


and  that  on  the  south  was  inaccessihle  to  man,  on  account  of  the  torrid  regions  intervening. 
According  to  tliis  system,  however,  there  was  on  that  side  another  earth,  inhabited  by  people, 
whom  he  calls  Anlichthones,  from  their  opposite  position  with  respect  to  that  part  which  we 
inhabit.  The  form  and  boundaries  of  the  known  and  habitable  earth  are  thus  delineated : — 
The  Mediterranean,  with  its  branches  of  the  Straits,  the  Euxine,  and  the  Palus  Mceotis;  its 
great  tributaries,  the  Nile  and  the  Tanais ; — tliese  combine,  in  his  conception,  to  form  the 
grand  line  by  which  the  universe  is  divided.  The  Mediterranean  itself  separates  Europe 
from  Africa ;  and  these  continents  are  bounded  on  the  east,  the  former  by  the  Tanais,  the 
latter  by  the  Nile ;  all  beyond  or  to  the  east  of  these  limits  was  Asia.     {Fiff.  8.) 

In  drawing  the  outline  of  Asia,  Mela  adheres  very  strictly  to  his  Alexandrian  models. 
He  describes  it  as  bounded  by  an  ocean  on  every  side  except  the  western,  where  it  confines 
with  Africa  and  Europe.  It  presents,  he  says,  a  huge  and  perpetual  front  to  the  eastern 
ocean,  its  shores  being  occupied  by  the  three  farthest  known  nations,  the  Indians  on  the 
south,  the  Seres  in  the  middle,  and  the  Scythians  on  the  north ;  but  the  territory  of  the 
Indians  and  Scythians  is  rendered  in  a  great  measure  uninhabitable  by  the  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold.  The  limited  extent  of  his  accurate  information,  however,  is  apparent  from  the 
representation  he  gives  of  this  ocean,  as  flowing  directly  north  from  the  point  of  Colis  (Cape 
Comorin),  the  Ganges  flowing  into  it,  and  the  Scythians  occupying  its  shores  as  far  as  "  the 
Caspian  Bay.''''  He  even  inclines  to  credit  the  report  of  an  Indian  vessel  having  been  driven 
round  by  stress  of  weather  to  the  coast  of  Germany.  Thus  he  gave  to  Asia  the  same  trun- 
cated form  which  it  had  received  from  the  authors  whorn  he  followed ;  but  he  certainly  ren- 
dered the  dimensions  of  its  eastern  shore  more  ample,  when  he  made  it  to  consist,  not  of  India 
only,  but  also  of  Serica  and  part  of  Scythia.  With  regard  to  the  southern  shores  of  Asia, 
they  were  known  with  sufficient  accuracy,  ever  since  the  expedition  of  Alexander,  and  the 
voyage  of  Nearchus.  He  calls  the  Indian  ocean  the  Red  Sea,  and  recognises  the  Red  Sea 
of  modern  geographers  only  under  the  name  of  tlie  Arabian  gulf;  but  this  is  plainly  a  mere 
nominal  difference. 


Book  I.  ROMAN  GEOGRAPH\'.— MELA.  47 

Europe,  as  described  by  Mela,  extends  from  the  Tanais  to  Cadiz,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  its  eastern  river-limit,  is  bounded  every  where  by  seas  and  oceans.  Its  leading  feature 
is  the  Mediterranean,  joined  to  tlie  Euxine  and  the  Palus  Mceotis,  which  are  considered 
only  as  prolongations  of  that  sea ;  while  the  ^gean,  the  Ionian,  and  the  Adriatic  seas, 
form  its  three  great  gulfs.  The  western  part  he  divides  into  the  Tuscan  and  the  Libyan 
seas.  His  delineation  of  the  exterior  coasts  marks  a  great  advance  of  knowledge.  He 
assigns  to  Spain  a  northern,  and  to  Fran-ce  a  western  coast  of  great  extent,  and  adds  that 
the  Pyrenees,  after  separating  PVance  from  Spain,  enter  the  latter  country  and  penetrate  to 
its  extremity,  when  they  face  the  Atlantic.  Here  the  whole  chain  of  the  Cantabrian  moun- 
tains is  considered,  by  no  very  strained  meaning,  as  Pyrenean.  In  treating  of  these  outer 
shores  of  Europe,  and  the  "huge  and  mfinite  sea"  on  which  they  border,  Mela  relates.  With 
exaggerating  wonder,  the  phenomena,  unknown  to  a  Mediterranean  people,  of  the  tides, 
"  that  mighty  movement  by  which  the  sea  alternately  advances  and  returns  into  itself,  over- 
flowing the  lands,  driving  back  mighty  rivers,  and  sweeping  away  the  strongest  land 
animals."  His  speculations  on  the  cause  are  singular ;  either  the  world  is  a  great  animal 
whose  breathings  excite  in  its  breast  these  alternate  movements ;  or  it  contains  deep  caves, 
into  which  the  waters  are  alternately  absorbed  and  ejected.  He  does,  however,  mention 
the  theory  which  supposes  them  influenced  by  the  moon,  and  remarks  their  correspondence 
with  the  movements  of  that  body.  In  treatmg  of  the  Cassiterides,  or  Islands  of  Tm,  which 
include,  as  already  observed,  the  Scilly  Islands  and  Cornwall,  he  shows  considerable  per- 
plexity, only  observing  that  they  are  "  in  Celticis,"  indicatmg  their  close  alliance  with 
France.  In  regard  to  Britain  itself,  however,  he  confidently  undertakes  to  give  the  world 
better  information,  in  consequence  of  the  victories  of  "  the  greatest  of  princes"  over  nations 
hitherto  unsubdued  and  unknown ;  and  he  certainly  makes  a  great  progress  beyond  the  im- 
perfect notions  of  Strabo.  He  describes  Britain  as  presenting  two  extensive  oblique  coasts, 
one  looking  towards  France,  the  other  towards  Germany ;  the  two  forming  a  great  angle 
nearly  opposite  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine.  The  coasts  then  began  to  bend  inwards,  and 
forui  u  triangle  varied  with  numerous  points  and  angles,  and  somewhat  similar  in  form  to 
Sicily.  The  country  is  described  as  flat,  large,  and  fruitful,  but  contrary  to  what  now  ob- 
tains, more  favourable  to  the  support  of  flocks  than  of  men.  The  natives  were  uncultivated, 
warlike,  and  ignorant  of  wealth ;  they  were  accustomed  to  paint  their  bodies,  and  to  ride  in 
chariots.  Above  Britain  was  Juverna  (Ireland),  nearly  equal  in  size,  and  of  an  oblong  form, 
-its  soil  scarcely  fit  for  the  production  of  grain,  but  its  pastures  so  luxuriant,  that  if  the 
cattle  were  allowed  to  feed  for  more  than  a  short  period  of  the  day,  they  died  of  repletion. 
The  relative  dimensions  assigned  to  Britain  and  Ireland  would  seem  to  show  that  the  former 
was  known  only  in  its  southern  part,  yet  the  writer  discovers  himself  not  unacquainted  with 
the  Scottish  islands.  He  mentions  thirty  Orcades,  in  which  number  the  Shetland  Islands 
are  probably  included. 

In  proceeding  to  the  east  and  north,  Germany  is  described  by  Mela  as  a  region  of  great 
extent,  uitersected  by  many  rivers,  and  covered  in  a  great  measure  with  woods  and  marshes. 
The  inhabitants  v,-ere  tall  and  remarkable  for  courage  and  strength,  continually  exercised 
in  war  and  hard  labour,  eating  raw  flesh,  and  clothed  partly  in  the  bark  of  trees.  Passing 
the  Vistula,  we  enter  into  Sarmatia,  extending  to  the  Danube,  rather  a  \'ague  limit,  but  the 
term  is  evidently  meant  to  comprehend  the  greater  part  of  modern  Poland.  The  people 
are  some  stages  in  barbarism  beyond  even  the  Gcnnans,  having  no  cities  or  even  settled 
abodes,  and  carrying  their  fierceness  to  such  a  pitch,  that  hunting  and  bending  the  bow 
were  considered  the  best  accomplishments  of  their  females,  no  one  of  whom,  the  writer 
even  asserts,  could  enter  the  matrimonial  state  till  she  had  killed  her  man.  On  this  shore 
he  represents  the  Codanus  Sinus,  a  great  bay  filled  with  large  and  small  islands ;  nowhere 
presenting  an  expanse  resemblmg  a  sea,  but  dispersed  and  scattered  in  narrow  channels 
like  rivers;  a  description  very  applicable  to  the  entrance  of  tlie  Baltic  and  the  Dani.sh 
islands.  In  common  with  all  the  ancients,  however,  Mela  appears  to  have  been  ignorant  of 
any  thing  like  a  continent  on  the  other  side  of  this  great  bay. 

The  outline  of  Africa,  drawn  by  this  geographer,  sufficiently  sliows  his  limited  range  of 
information.  This  continent  he  views  as  a  triangle,  the  greatest  length  of  which,  measured 
in  his  system  from  the  Nile  to  the  Atlantic,  is  considerably  less  than  the  length  of  Europe. 
Of  this  triangle,  the  Nile  forms  the  base ;  and  from  thence  the  southern  coast,  or  that  of 
the  Ethiopic  ocean,  continually  approximates  to  the  northern,  till,  beyond  the  Pillars  of  Her- 
cules, it  tapers  almost  to  a  point.  The  origin  and"  course  of  the  Nile  are  to  Mela  a  subject 
of  much  speculation.  One  account,  esteemed  by  him  as  tolerably  credible  {aliqua  credibile) 
identifies  it  with  a  great  Ethiopian  river,  called  in  the  language  of  the  natives  Nuchul ; 
whicli,  wliile  all  other  rivers  tend  towards  the  ocean,  alone  flows  eastward  to  the  central 
region,  and  no  one  knows  where  it  terminates ;  a  strikuig  coincidence  with  the  actual  ob- 
servation of  the  moderns,  respecting  that  celebrated  stream  denominated  the  Niger.  Else- 
where, however,  Mela  propounds  an  hypothesis  of  a  much  more  extraordinary  character. 
He  says,  that  if  tliere  be  another  earth  (on  tlie  south  of  the  equator),  and  Antichthones 
opposite  to  us,  "  it  might  not  be  departing  too  far  from  the  truth"  to  suppose  that  the  Nile 


48  fflSTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  I. 

arose  in  that  earth,  and  reached  our  side  of  the  globe  by  a  channel  beneath  tlie  ocean. 
Thus  it  would  naturally  swell  during  the  summer  solstice,  which,  on  the  side  of  the  world 
from  which  it  came,  was  the  season  of  winter.  Bertius  and  Vincent,  however,  have  per- 
haps dealt  too  hardly  with  the  author,  in  embodying  this  wild  conception  into  a  map,  and 
giving  it  to  the  world  as  the  system  of  Mela,  who  mentions  it  merely  as  a  conjecture.  The 
lower  part  of  the  course  of  the  Nile  he  describes  with  less  accuracy  than  Strabo,  tlic  two 
channels  of  the  Astapus  and  Astaboras  being  made  branches  of  the  Nile  itself,  first  separat- 
ing and  then  re-uniting.  His  ignorance  respecting  even  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea  is 
proved  by  their  being  filled  with  poetical  wonders ;  the  pigmies  waging  their  ancient  war 
with  the  cranes;  the  phoenix,  after  a  life  of  four  hundred  years,  dying,  and  reviving  from 
its  ashes.  Proceeding  to  the  interior  and  remoter  shores  of  Ethiopia,  he  finds  always  new 
wonders,  sphynxes,  birds  with  horns,  flying  horses.  He  refers  to  the  voyages  of  Hanno  and 
of  Eudoxus,  to  whom  he  ascribes  a  variety  of  fables,  by  which  the  reputation  of  that  navi- 
gator has  been  much  and  perhaps  unjustly  tarnished ;  lastly,  he  comes  to  the  Fortunate 
Islands,  of  which  the  soil  produces  all  things  spontaneously,  and  the  fountains  are  possessed 
of  miraculous  virtues.  In  short,  every  thing  that  Mela  says  of  Africa  beyond  the  mere 
Mediterranean  coast  betrays  a  remarkable  ignorance  of  the  mysteries  of  that  continent. 

Sect.  II. — Pliny. 

Pliny,  the  most  learned  of  the  Roman  writers,  devotes  two  books  of  his  extensive  work 
on  natural  history  to  a  system  of  geograpli3\  He  appears  to  have  possessed  a  greater  store 
of  authentic  materials  than  any  former  writer.  From  his  intimate  connexion  with  the 
imperial  family,  and  with  many  of  tlie  most  eminent  commanders,  all  the  military  measure- 
ments, as  well  as  the  general  survey  of  the  Roman  empire,  were  placed  at  his  disposal. 
He  has  introduced,  therefore,  a  multitude  of  itinerary  details,  which  are  generally  very 
accurate  and  valuable.  But  he  employs  no  astronomical  elements,  and  appears  to  have 
taken  no  pains  to  construct  a  regular  system.  All  the  general  ideas  which  we  can  trace  in 
his  delineation  appear  to  be  founded  on  the  same  basis  with  those  of  Mela. 

Pliny  begins  with  Europe,  which  he  considers  as  by  far  the  most  beautiful  and  fruitful  of 
the  three  quarters  of  the  globe ;  and  he  applauds  the  opinion  of  those  who  consider  it  not 
merely  as  a  third,  but  as  a  half  of  the  whole  globe,  separated  from  the  other  half  by  the 
Tanais  and  the  Mediterranean.  This  capital  error,  however,  will  not  appear  so  surprising, 
when  we  consider  that  the  regions  here  compared  with  Europe  weie  Asia  terminated  by 
the  Ganges  and  the  Jaxartes,  and  Africa  extending  only  a  few  hundred  miles  inland  from 
the  Mediterranean.  Europe  had  been  computed  by  Agrippa  at  3440  miles  in  length,  by 
Polybius  at  only  2440 ;  which  last  dimension  is  nearly  correct.  Pliny  discovers  a  clear 
conception  of  the  form  of  Spain,  drawmg  the  Pyrenees  not  from  south  to  north,  but  from 
south-east  to  north-west,  and  observing  that  Spain,  "  where  it  begms  from  them,  is  narrower 
than  France,  and  even  than  itself"  The  position  of  Britain  in  the  map  of  Europe  is  very 
fairly  given ;  though,  to  enumerate  Spain,  with  France  and  Germany,  among  the  countries 
to  which  it  is  opposite,  partakes  too  much  of  antiquated  theories.  He  states  the  belief  of 
Agrippa  that  Britain  was  eight  hundred  miles  in  length,  and  three  hundred  in  breadtli ;  Ire- 
land the  same  in  breadth,  but  shorter  by  two  hundred  miles;  which  is  a  tolerable  estimate, 
the  last  particular  excepted.  His  disposal  of  the  islands  around  Britain  is  not  a  little  con- 
ftised.  He  mentions  the  Orkneys,  seven  JEmodsd,  and  thirty  Ebudaj,  but  without  sliowing 
any  precise  idea  of  how  they  stand.  Not  only  the  Isle  of  Man,  but  that  of  Wight  also,  is 
placed  between  England  and  Ireland.  He  commits  also  a  remarkable  error  when  he  men- 
tions Cassiterim  or  Cattiterim,  where  tin  is  produced,  as  an  island  at  the  distance  of  six 
days'  sail  from  Britain.  To  the  remotest  point,  Thule,  he  assigns  the  attributes  of  a  region 
beneath  the  Arctic  circle,  having  only  one  day  and  one  night  in  the  year ;  and  only  a  day's 
sail  from  tJie  Cronium  or  Concrete  Sea.  Here,  also,  he  mentions  reports  of  other  islands, 
Scandia,  Bergos  (Bergen),  Nerigon,  which  have  intercourse  with  Thule.  These  features 
evidently  belong  to  the  coast  of  Norway. 

In  describing  the  north  of  Europe,  Pliny  begins  from  the  northern  shores  of  the  Euxine, 
and  Palus  Mceotis.  The  latter  receives  the  Tanais,  flowing  from  the  Ripha^an  Mountains, 
and  forming  the  boundary  of  Europe.  Beyond  that  celebrated  and  demi-fabulous  range,  he 
still  finds, the  Hyperboreans,  a  people  screened  from  every  noxious  blast,  leading  a  happy 
life  exempt  from  old  age,  sickness,  discord,  and  grief;  till  at  length,  satiated  with  felicity, 
they  throw  themselves  from  a  rock  into  the  sea.  These  fables  are,  however,  qualified  with 
the  saving  clause,  "  if  we  are  to  believe  them,"  which  shows  that  the  faith  of  Pliny  was 
not  implicit.  The  shores  of  the  ocean,  he  confesses,  are  "  marked  by  uncertainty."  On 
the  authority,  however,  of  Xenophon  Lampsacenus  and  of  Pytheas,  he  reports  Basilia  or 
Baltia  as  an  island  of  immense  magnitude,  three  days'  journey  from  the  Scythian  coast. 
Proceeding  westward,  he  comes  to  the  Cimbric  Chersonese,  and  opposite  to  it  another  island, 
Scandinavia,  of  unexplored  magnitude,  but  which  was  by  many  described  as  forming  quite 
another  world.     Thus  Baltia  and  Scandinavia,  approached  from  different  points,  are  con- 


Book  I.  ROMAN  GEOGRAPHY.— PEUTINGERIAN  TABLE.  49 

sidered  as  two  distinct  insular  territories,  the  vast  extent  of  which,  however,  appears  to  be 
better  apprehended  by  Pliny  than  by  any  other  ancient  writer. 

Asia,  in  Pliny,  is  delineated  according  to  the  general  ideas  of  Strabo  and  Mela.  The 
Caspian  or  Hyrcanian  Sea  is  a  gulf  opening  into  the  northern  or  Scythian  ocean,  which  is 
in  communication  with  that  called  Seric  or  Oriental.  Pliny  seems  to  have  fuller  informa- 
tion of  the  grandeur  and  wealth  of  India  tlian  any  of  his  predecessors.  Its  inhabitants  and 
its  cities  were  innumerable,  and  it  was  reported  on  good  authority  to  form  a  third  of  the 
whole  world.  It  enjoyed  gentle  breezes,  two  summers,  two  harvests,  one  before,  another 
after  the  periodical  winds.  Blessed  witli  these  advantages,  this  happy  people  were  never 
known  to  emigrate  beyond  their  own  territories.  He  describes  the  marches  of  Alexander, 
from  the  measurements  of  Diognetus  and  Bseton,  and  where  these  fail,  he  continues  them 
by  those  of  Seleucus,  and  by  the  embassy  of  Megasthenes,  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the 
Ganges.  These  itineraries  seem  very  good.  In  treating  of  Taprobane,  he  observes,  that 
it  had  been  believed  by  some  to  be  an  opposite  continent  or  earth,  but  that  the  inquiries  of 
Alexander  had  clearly  proved  it  to  be  an  island.  His  report,  however,  that  the  country  of 
the  Seres  was  seen  from  it,  implies  a  most  inadequate  and  erroneous  conception  of  the 
eastern  coasts  of  Asia. 

The  Africa  of  Pliny  does  not  differ  in  its  general  outline  from  that  of  Mela.  His  access, 
however,  to  the  archives  of  the  empire,  and  his  acquaintance  with  some  of  the  Roman 
generals,  enabled  him  to  give  new  details  as  to  some  of  its  most  interior  tracts.  The  region 
of  Atlas  had  been  first  penetrated  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  by  ^Edemon,  an  adherent  of 
the  extinct  family  of  the  Ptolemies,  who  sought  refuge  there.  Suetonius  Paulinus,  with 
whom  Pliny  had  conversed,  found  it  of  immense  height,  covered  with  snow  even  in  summer; 
on  one  side  rising  from  the  sands,  rough,  horrid,  and  bare ;  on  the  other,  covered  with  thick 
groves  of  unknown  species  of  trees,  and  sparkling  with  fountains.  An  account  is  given  of 
a  voyage  along  the  western  coast,  which  Polybius  had  made  by  order  of  Scipio.  Only  the 
names  of  tlie  places  and  the  distances  are  given.  The  former  coincide  in  a  great  measure 
with  those  of  Hanno ;  and  if  Polybius  was  right  in  this  coincidence,  his  report  tends  much 
to  confirm  M.  Gosselin's  view  of  the  limited  extent  of  Hanno's  discoveries.  In  the  time  of 
*  Vespasian,  another  expedition,  under  Cornelius  Balbus,'  penetrated  into  and  conquered  Gara- 
ma  (Germa),  and  Cydamus  (Gadamis).  The  Romans  here  beheld  with  surprise  houses  built 
of  salt,  and  on  digging  to  a  small  depth,  water  sprung  out  of  the  sand.  A  number  of  names 
of  conquered  places  are  here  given,  which  it  is  difficult  to  recognize ;  for  it  seems  too  hasty 
to  identify  Boin  with  Bornou. 

A  theory  of  the  course  of  the  Niger  was  formed  by  Pliny  from  these  materials  with  con- 
siderable pains,  but  very  imperfect  success.  Its  source,  according  to  king  Juba,  existed  in 
IMauritania,  and  it  is  even  said  to  have  been  found  by  Suetonius  Paulinus  after  a  few  days' 
march  to  the  south  of  the  Atlas.  The  Niger  springs  here  from  a  lake ;  but  soon,  indignant 
at  flowing  through  sandy  and  squalid  tracts,  it  passes  under  ground  for  several  days,  and 
-emerges  into  another  lake  of  Mauritania.  After  a  circuit,  however,  of  some  extent,  it  again 
disappears,  and  liaving  pursued  a  subterranean  course  of  twenty  days,  re-appears,  dividing 
Africa  from  Ethiopia.  At  last,  in  its  passage  through  Ethiopia  itself,  it  assumes  the  charac- 
ter of  the  Nile,  first  in  two  channels,  Astusapes  and  Astaboras,  enclosing  the  island  of 
IMeroe,  and  afterwards  uniting  to  form  the  entire  and  proper  Nile.  This  wild  and  absurd 
detail  evidently  includes  the  course  of  several  rivers  belonging  to  different  and  widely  re- 
mote regions  of  Africa.  It  may  even  be  doubted,  if  any  part  belongs  to  what  by  modems 
has  been  considered  the  Niger.  It  seems  very  probable,  however,  that  the  middle  part, 
which  divides  Africa  from  Ethiopia,  has  been  suggested  by  the  river  of  Bornou,  or  the  Yeou, 
as  it  has  been  called  by  our  recent  discoverers. 

Sect.  HI. — Itineraries. — Peutmgerian  Table. 

Of  the  itineraries  composed  by  the  masters  of  the  world,  and  employed  by  them  as  an 
instrument  in  its  conquest,  some  fragments  yet  remain.  The  most  memorable  is  that  which 
bears  the  name  of  Antoninus.  It  has  been  ascribed  by  some  to  Severus,  by  others  to  Theo- 
dosius,  and  in  fact  contains  many  particulars  whicli  could  not  have  been  written  prior  to  the 
era  of  the  last  sovereigns ;  but  it  seems  probable  that  there  were  successive  editions,  with 
such  amendments  and  alterations  as  time  suggested.  It  is  a  mere  skeleton  road-book,  with 
nothing  but  the  names  of  places  and  their  distance  from  each  other.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  the  Jerusalem  Itinerary,  exhibiting  in  great  detail  the  route  from  Bordeaux  to  that 
holy  city. 

The  Peutingerian  Table  (tlie  Italian  portion  of  which  is  exhibited  in  Fig.  9.  p.  50.)  is  a 
more  remarkable  monument,  and  may  be  considered,  probably,  as  a  specimen  of  the  "painted 
roads"  of  the  ancients.  It  forms  a  map  of  the  world,  constructed,  however,  on  the  most 
novel  and  peculiar  principles.  Its  dimensions  being  twenty  feet  in  length  and  one  in  breadth, 
an  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  correctness  with  which  the  proportion  of  the  different  parts  is 
exhibited.  The  high  road  which  traversed  the  Roman  empire  iii  the  general  direction  of 
east  and  west  is  made  the  first  meridian,  and  to  this  every  other  part  is  subjected.     The  ob- 

Voi,  L  5  G 


50 


THE  PEUTINGERIAN  TABLE. 


Fio.  9. 


Book  I. 


SECOND  ALEXANDRIAN  SCHOOL. 


51 


jects  along  this  line  are  minutely  and  faithfully  exhibited ;  of  those  lying  to  the  north  and 
south  of  it  only  some  general  notion  can  be  conveyed:  these  are  all  represented,  of  course, 
most  enormously  extended  in  length  and  reduced  in  breadth. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

SECOND  ALEXANDRIAN  SCHOOL. 


Alexandria  by  her  contributions  to  geography  supplied  to  a  great  extent  the  deficiencies 
of  the  Romans,  who,  amid  the  success  with  which  they  cultivated  history  and  literature, 
never  attained  to  any  eminence  in  this  science.  That  capital,  even  in  its  subject  state, 
retained  still  the  impulse  received  from  the  Ptolemies,  and  continued  to  be  the  second  in 
magnitude,  and  the  foremost  in  learning,  of  all  in  the  empire.  In  the  second  century  there 
was  established,  here  and  at  Tyre,  a  geographical  school,  possessing  more  ample  materials 
and  resources  than  any  that  had  hitherto  existed.  To  the  conquests  and  itineraries  of  Alex- 
ander were  now  added  those  of  Rome,  which,  extending  in  a  different  direction,  embraced 
many  countries  to  tlie  north  and  to  the  west,  Gaul,  Britain,  Germany,  Spain,  and  Maurita- 
nia, respecting  which  the  Greeks  had  possessed  only  confused  and  imperfect  notions.  Thus 
a  greater  portion  of  the  globe  than  at  any  former  period  was  now  united  under  one  govern- 
ment, which,  by  a  standing  army  and  a  regular  system  of  laws,  preserved  the  whole  in  peace 
and  order.  The  terror  of  the  Roman  arms  enabled  travellers  to  penetrate  with  safety  even 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  empire.  Lastly,  the  unbounded  luxury  of  the  great  capitals,  and 
above  all  of  imperial  Rome,  enriched  with  the  spoils  of  the  globe,  fired  the  enterprise  of  the 
merchant,  who  found  his  way  into  those  remotest  markets  of  the  eastern  world,  the  rich 
commodities  of  which  had  hitherto  been  either  brought  by  caravans  or  found  at  intermediate 
stations. 

These  enlarged  materials  were  connected  together  by  a  much  more  accurate  and  scien- 
tific arrangement  than  had  been  adopted  under  the  school  of  Eratosthenes.  The  method 
suggested  by  Hipparchus  of  subjecting  the  whole  of  geography  to  astronomical  principles, 
and  of  fixing  the  position  of  every  spot  upon  the  globe  according  to  its  longitude  and  lati- 
tude, was  now  attempted  to  be  carried  into  full  effect.  The  attempt,  however,  was  made  but 
in  a  very  rude  manner,  and  upon  a  very  narrow  basis  of  observation.  Not  only,  therefore, 
did  it  present  a  very  imperfect  edition  of  the  new  system,  but  involved  errors  which  caused 
it  in  some  respects  to  retrograde  even  from  the  rude  state  to  which  it  had  been  brought  by 
the  former  school  of  Alexandria. 

Sect.  I, — Marinus  of  Tyre. 
No  Tyrian  system  of  geography  has  come  down  to  us,  notwithstanding  the  commercial 
greatness  of  its  people  at  an  early  period.     From  the  Hebrew  writers  we  have  accounts  per- 
haps of  nearly  the  whole  of  the  distant  countries  with  which  the  Tyrians  held  intercourse ; 


References  to  the  Peutingerian  7 

NORTH  PART. 

41.  Ancone 

B  Rubieum 

1.  Siscia 

42.  Casfro-novo 

t  Nelurum 

2.  S^irdona 

4:t.  Aquas  Apollinaris 

u  Maiana 

."<.  Aquinco 

44.  Scileto 

V  Miso 

4.  Brieantio 

5.  .iHcTra 

4.1.  Polentia 

w  Flosis 

46.  Reate 

xTuma 

fi.  Raparfone 

47.  Ca^ipllo  Firmani 

y  Nerninura 

7.  Sahnrio 

48.  Ad  Sum.  Petrum 

z  Anio 

P.  Carnunto 

49.  Ri.ma 

9.  ffloia 

50.  Hnstia 

SOUTH  PART. 

10.  Vindobona 

51.  Pharla^ine 

1.  Ad  Pretorum 

11.  Tursalica 

52.  Utica  Colonia 

2.  Sprvilio 

12.  Kmc.na 

.W.  Aquis 

3.  Ad  Preiorum 

13.  Pola 

54.  Ippiintp  diarito 

4.  Mursa  Major 

14.  Silvo 

5.1.  Capsi  Colonia 

5.  Indenea 

1.5.  Parenlio 

.56.  Ad  Med  era 

6.  Titioburgo 

16.  Fi>ntp-tumaia 

57.  Thele.)le  Col. 

7.  Raeurio 

8.  Siclis,  run. 

17.  Aquileia 

58.  Theneste 

18.  Ovilia 

59.  Sicea-veria 

9.  Sniona 

in.  Altino 

60.  Ad  Aquas  Cssaris 

10.  Epetio 

i20.  Rpffmo 

11.  rnnrnna 

2I.Trid..nte 

Rivers. 

12.  Sirmium 

22.  Plncpiiiia 

a  Danubius 

13.  Narona 

21.  Aqua;  Popnlanie 

b  Drinum 

14.  Tauruno 

24.  Fliirentia  Tuscorum 

c  Savum 

15.  Ad  Matricem 

25.  gpna  Julia 

d  Arsia 

16.  Sin^iduna 

26.  Riiuriba 

e  Frigido 

IT.  Epitauro 

27.  A'.Tona 

f  Licenna 

18.  Slanedi 

28.  Mnnlua 

e  Afesia 

19.  Lissun 

29.  Muiina 

h  rinusis 

20.  Viminatio 

30,  Cosa 

i  Umaiia 

21.  Dyrralio 

31.  AHretio 

j  Padu9 

22.  Aulnna 

32.  Bnnonia 

k  Paala 

23.  Osa  Col. 

33.  Cltisio 

1  Aninio 

24.  Sabrata 

34.  Volsinis 

m  Isex 

2.5.  Rpgio 

3.5.  Aquas  Pasaaria 

n  ITmbro 

2fi.  Caulon 

36.  Ravenna 

o  Pallia 

27.  l.acenium 

37.  Arimino 

p  Armenita 

28.  Castra  Minervto 

38.  Granisca 

q  Marta 

29.  Vibona  Valentia 

39.  Centum  cellis 

r  Tiberis 

30.  Temsa 

40.  Aquas  tuari 

31.T.arento 

32.  Brindisi 

33.  Onatie 

34.  Nerulos 

35.  Salerno 

36.  Nuceria 

37.  Opionlis 

38.  Benevento 

39.  Venusie 

40.  Neapoli 

41.  Capua 

42.  Cumas 

43.  Syllas 

44.  Aeras 

45.  Pretonium  Laucria- 

num 

46.  Siponto 

47.  Esprnie 

48.  Tpano  Sccdicino 

49.  Sinuessa 

50.  Menlurnis 

51.  Fundis 
.52.  Terracina 
53.  Ferentinum 
.54.  Fcbraierie 
.5.5.  Istonum 

56.  Corsinio 

57.  Marriibio 

58.  Tres  Tabernas 

59.  Carsulis 

60.  Ostia  eterni 

61.  Pinna 

62.  Casiro  nova 

63.  Prpnesle 

64.  Roma 
6.5.  Hoetis 

66.  Chartagine 

67.  Maxula 

68.  Ad  Aquas 

69.  Misua  Clipeis 


70.  Gurra 

71.  Ad  Horrea 

72.  Lpp'eminus 

73.  Thiforo  Col. 

74.  Ad  Aquas 

75.  Taparura 

76.  Tacape 

77.  Diepiinig 

78.  Lilyheo 

79.  Aquas  Labodes 

80.  Siracusis 

81.  Aeihna  Mens 

82.  Messana 

Rivers- 
a  Danubius 
b  Drinum 
c  Savum 
d  Margum 
e  Genesis 
f  Hapsum 
e  Tanno 
h  Crater 
i  Silarum 
j  Color 
k  Aveldium 
1  Aufidenus 
m  Larinum 
n  Clocnris 
o  Snnnum 
p  Cumara 
q  Nernum 
r  Arno 
G  Tiberis 
t  Safo 
u  Vulturnua 
V  Himera 
w  Niranua 
X  Ausere 
y  Gerir\ 


62  HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Pakt  I. 

but  if  those  writers  are  supposed  to  have  borrowed  from  them  their  ideas  respecting  tlie 
general  structure  and  boundaries  of  the  earth,  geography  among  the  early  Pha?nicians  will 
not  appear  to  have  passed  its  infancy.  As  Tyre,  however,  even  under  the  Roman  empire, 
remained  still  the  seat  of  an  extensive  commerce,  some  of  her  intelligent  citizens  availed 
themselves  of  the  lights  afforded  by  the  learning  of  Alexandria,  and  auplicd  thcin  to  the 
illustration  of  those  subjects  on  which  the  greatness  and  prosperity  of  ineir  city  depended. 
If  the  mercliants  of  Tyre  had  nothing  left  of  tliat  proud  rule,  and  tliose  monopolizing  profits, 
which  enabled  them  to  rival  the  pomp  of  princes,  their  commercial  relations  probably  ex- 
tended over  a  wider  surface  of  the  globe  than  ever.  They  seem  to  have  been  engaged 
in  that  vast  caravan  route  ^\hich  was  opened  from  Byzantium  across  the  whole  interior 
of  Asia,  conducting  the  merchants  by  a  journey  of  ten  or  eleven  months  to  the  Chinese 
frontier,  whence  they  brought  silk,  the  staple  product  of  that  great  country.  Collect- 
ing these  enlarged  materials,  Marinus,  a  native  of  Tyre,  sought  to  apply  to  them  the 
astronomical  principles  of  Hipparchus,  and  thus  to  arrange  geography  into  a  new  and  more 
accurate  form. 

The  works  of  Marinus  have  perished,  and  are  known  to  us  only  by  the  references  and 
extracts  of  Ptolemy  ;  but  these  are  sufficient  to  show  that  his  system  partook  largely  of  the 
imperfection  of  a  hrst  effort.  Aware  that  the  degree  of  longitude  dimmished  as  it  receded 
from  the  equator,  he  yet  did  not  attempt  to  express  this  difference  by  representing  the  meri- 
dians with  curved  lines  approaching  each  other,  although  this  had  been  already  shown  by 
Hipparchus  to  be  the  proper  course.  He  made  them  parallel  to  eacli  other,  not  at  the  equa- 
torial distance,  but  at  that  which  belonged  to  them  at  the  meridian  of  Rhodes.  Thus  in  the 
part  of  the  globe  which  came  into  his  immediate  observation  he  avoided  any  material  error; 
but  the  meridians,  adjusted  only  to  this  latitude,  became  too  near  each  other  as  they  were 
carried  southward,  and  too  distant  as  they  went  northward.  He  fell  into  a  still  more  per- 
nicious error  in  adopting  the  geodesic  measurement  of  Posidonius,  according  to  which  the 
circumference  of  the  earth  was  made  to  consist  of  only  180,000  stadia,  and  consequently  tire 
degree  to  contain  only  500  stadia.  This  short  degree,  being  calculated  out  of  the  exagge- 
rated ituieraries  upon  which  the  maps  of  those  days  were  constructed,  enormously  amplified 
all  the  dimensions  of  the  globe.  Marinus  appears  also  to  have  admitted  with  excessive  cre- 
dulity the  extravagant  reports  of  the  merchants  who  had  penetrated  across  the  vast  moun- 
tain and  desert  tracts  in  the  east  of  Asia.  The  rugged  and  difficult  character  of  the  region, 
the  circuitous  route  which  they  were  frequently  obliged  to  follow,  and  the  obstacles  often 
encountered  from  the  rude  inhabitants,  caused  this  journey  to  occupy  a  nmch  longer  time 
than  those  performed  through  districts  better  known  ;  and  time,  as  already  observed,  was  tlie 
element  eut  of  which  the  ancients  were  chiefly  accustomed  to  calculate  space.  Ptolemy 
also  accuses  the  merchants  of  vain-glorious  propensities,  which  led  them  to  magnify  beyond 
truth  the  extent  and  vastness  of  the  regions  which  they  traversed.  Hence  the  great  line 
upon  which  Marinus  measured  the  length  of  the  habitable  globe,  instead  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty-nine  degrees  given  to  it  in  the  measurement  of  Eratosthenes,  is  swelled  out  to 
two  hundred  and  twenty-five  degrees,  not  much  less  than  two-thirds  of  the  globe ;  whereas 
the  actual  length,  placing  ThinsE  even  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  China,  is  not  much  more 
than  one  third.  The  exaggeration  is  enormous  chiefly  with  respect  to  the  country  beyond 
India,  wliich  is  made  to  comprise  one  hundred  degrees.  This  being  probably  a  new  route 
opened  through  the  Himaleh,  and  across  tlie  vast  deserts  of  Eastern  Tartary,  had  been 
affected  by  all  the  sources  of  amplification  in  a  remarkable  degree. 

Sect.  II. — Ptolemy. 

Ptolemy,  the  last  and  greatest  of  the  geographers  of  antiquity,  and  equally  illustrious  as 
an  astronomer,  instituted  a  complete  reform  of  the  science,  and  undertook  to  purify  it  from 
all  the  false  elements  with  which  it  had  been  alloyed.  The  principles,  in  fact,  which  he 
adopted  were  strictly  correct ;  for  though,  as  an  astronomer,  his  theorj^  of  the  universe  was 
substantially  false,  yet,  in  admitting  the  globular  form  of  the  earth  and  tlie  revolution  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  he  admitted  all  the  elements  which  Avere  requisite  for  the  less  lofty  sphere 
of  earthl}'  delineation.  He  adopted  the  system  of  Hipparchus  in  its  utmost  extent,  subject- 
ing every  spot  on  the  known  globe  to  astronomical  data,  and  constructing  his  tables,  never 
according  to  itinerary  distance,  but  according  to  the  supposed  latitude  and  longitude  of  each 
place.  He  saw  and  corrected  the  error  of  Marinus  in  making  the  degrees  of  longitude  equal 
under  every  latitude.  Thus,  though  Ptolemy  did  not  actually  introduce  any  new  principle 
into  geography,  he  was  the  first  who  combined  together  all  the  sound  views  of  his  prede- 
cessors, and  foi-med  out  of  them  a  just  and  harmonious  delineation.  Yet  he  was  far  from 
reaching  his  aim  of  forming  a  perfect  system.  He  still  retained  the  erroneous  measurement 
of  the  degree  formed  by  Posidonius,  and  of  which  Marinus  had  made  so  unfortunate  a  use. 
Hence,  while  he  felt  the  extravagance  of  the  distances  assigned  by  his  predecessor,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  adoption  of  the  degree  of  500  stadia,  he  extricated  himself  but  partially 
from  the  same  error.  All  his  longitudes,  extended  along  the  length  of  the  known  world, 
present  a  similar  accumulation  of  errors,   only  somewhat  diminished   in  amount.     These 


Book  I.  PTOLEMY— EUROPE.  53 

errors,  beginning  from  Cape  St.  Vincent,  constantly  increase  till,  in  India,  they  amount  to 
upwards  of  forty  degrees.  M.  Gosselui  has  even  accused  him  of  an  error  which,  as  he  justly 
observes,  would  mark  a  strange  departure  from  ever\'  principle,  and  a  neglect  of  what  ought 
to  be  the  first  care  of  a  geographer.  This  consists  in  giving  to  his  degrees  of  latitude  a 
diflerent  dimension  from  that  of  the  degrees  of  longitude,  and  retaining,  with  regard  to  the 
former,  Eratosthenes's  standard  of  700  stadia.  I  suspect,  however,  that  M.  Gosselin  has 
been  somewhat  precipitate  in  advancing  so  serious  a  charge  against  the  first  geographer  of 
antiquity.  The  ground  on  which  he  proceeds  seems  to  be,  that  while  Ptolemy  has  changed 
materially  all  the  longitudes  of  Eratosthenes,  the  latitudes  along  the  great  line  continue 
unaltered  and  generally  con-ect.  The  real  cause  of  this,  however,  appears  to  be,  that  the 
latitudes  of  Rhodes  and  several  other  leading  points  of  this  great  line  were  determined  by 
observations  which,  though  not  perfect,  at  least  approached  to  the  truth,  while  the  longitudes 
were  calculated  merely  out  of  the  itineraries.  This  central  line,  therefore,  bisecting  the 
breadth  of  the  known  world,  weis  fixed  upon  sound  data,  and  the  errors  could  accumulate 
only  to  the  north  and  south  of  it.  In  fact,  we  shall  find  that  they  did  accumulate  as  rapidly 
afi  in  the  longitudes,  when  the  spliere  of  obsen^ation  was  passed,  which  was  bounded  by 
Syene  on  the  south,  Marseilles  and  Byzantium  on  the  north.  The  mouth  of  the  Seine  is 
placed  one  degree  too  far  north ;  that  of  the  Rhine,  nearly  two  degrees ;  that  of  the  Elbe, 
more  than  two  degrees ;  York  is  three  degrees ;  and  the  farther  accumulation  is  only  pre- 
vented by  that  singular  conformation  which  we  shall  find  given  by  Ptolemy  to  tlie  northern 
part  of  Britain.  To  the  south,  again,  Axum  is  placed  three  degrees  too  far  south ;  Cape 
Aromata  (Guardafui),  nearly  six  degrees ;  and  from  that  point  the  errors  continually  become 
greater.  Thus  it  appears,  that  as  soon  as  Ptolemy  quits  the  sphere  of  observation,  his  lati- 
tudes are  calculated  exactly  as  his  longitudes,  out  of  itineraries,  and  exliibit  the  same  accu- 
mulation of  errors. 

The  manuscripts  of  Ptolemy  are  clearly  shown  by  M.  Gosselin  to  have  reached  us 
in  a  very  imperfect  state.  In  collating  with  care  the  diflierent  editions,  that  learned  writer 
has  found  a  greater  number  of  variations  than  in  those  of  almost  any  other  ancient  writer. 
These  variations  were  of  course  very  likely  to  occur  in  copying  cyphers  where  there  was 
no  connexion  of  sense  to  check  the  copyist.  The  manuscripts  and  the  maps  appear  to  have 
been  copied  by  different  hands,  holding  no  communication  with  each  other;  and  accordingly 
these  two  parts  of  the  same  work  do  not,  in  many  instances,  correspond.  Lastly,  the  work 
of  Ptolemy  appears,  for  several  centuries,  to  have  been  carried  about  as  a  guide  by  mariners 
and  travellers,  who,  wherever  they  found  any  feature  which  did  not  agree  with  their  obser- 
vations, altered  the  writing  or  the  map  accordingly.  This  process  appears  in  the  numerous 
variations  of  the  Latin  copies  with  regard  to  the  western  part  of  the  Alediterranean,  and  of 
the  Greek  w^ith  regard  to  the  eastern.  The  alterations  thus  made  would  often,  and  indeed, 
most  generally,  be  improvements;  but  the  great  discrepancies  which  they  introduced  into 
the  different  copies,  must  have  greatl)'^  bewildered  the  public. 

In  delineating  the  geographical  system  of  Ptolemy,  we  can  only  consider  the  general 
outline,  which  is  pretty  much  the  same  in  all  the  editions.  Ptolemy  begins  with  rejecting 
the  theory  of  his  predecessors,  from  Homer  to  Strabo  downwards,  who  represent  the  whole 
earth  as  enclosed  by  a  circumambient  ocean.  Mercantile  caravans,  especially  in  the  east 
of  Asia,  had  now  proceeded  considerably  beyond  the  line  of  coast  which,  according  to  the 
last  school,  had  marked  the  eastern  bounding  ocean.  They  had  passed  that  line  without 
reaching  the  distant  corresponding  one  by  which  the  Pacific  and  Arctic  seas  were  actually 
drawn  around  this  vast  continent.  The  eastern  Atlantic,  and  the  Northern  Oceans  were, 
therefore,  effaced  from  the  delineation  of  Asia,  and  an  indefinite  expanse  of  terra  incognita 
(unknown  land)  was  substituted  as  the  boundary  of  tlie  world.  This  proceeding  must 
certainly  be  considered  as  more  precise  and  philosophical  than  the  gratuitous  theoretical 
one  for  which  it  was  substituted.  Men,  however,  seldom  know  exactly  where  to  stop: 
Ptoleni3%  having  once  formed  the  idea  of  a  bounding  terra  incognita,  extended  it  round 
nearly  the  entire  circuit  of  the  known  world.  All  the  reports  of  the  circumnavigation  of 
Africa  were  rejected ;  that  continent  was  represented  as  stretching  indefinitely  south,  and 
it  was  even  carried  round  to  join  the  east  of  Asia,  and  form  the  Erythrean  or  Indian  sea 
into  a  vast  basin.  Thus  the  whole  system  and  structure  of  these  two  continents  underwent, 
in  the  hands  of  Ptolemy,  a  complete  transmutation. 

ScBSECT.  1.  Europe.  {Fig.  10.) 
In  regard  to  all  the  remoter  boundaries  of  Europe,  Ptolemy  displays  an  advancement 
in  knowledge,  truly  wonderful,  considering  the  short  period  which  had  elapsed  since  the 
days  of  Strabo.  The  facts  which  we  have  stated  under  the  head  of  Roman  geography 
show  the  vast  additional  mass  of  information  derived  from  the  conquests  of  Caesar,  and  from 
the  imperial  surveys.  This  having  been  incorporated  into  the  writings  of  Mela  and  Plinj^  a 
century  before  the  age  of  Ptolemy,  would  easil}^  through  these  and  other  channels,  reach 
his  know'ledge.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  cnide  delineation  of  the  exterior  coasts  of 
Europe  under  the  Strabonic  system  should  have  been  materially  amended ;    that  Spain 

5* 


54 


THE  WORLD  ACCORDING  TO  PTOLEMY. 


Fig.  10. 


Book  I. 


PTOLEMY— EUROPE. 


55 


should  have  now  a  southern,  and  Gaul  a  western  coast ;  and  that  the  Bay  of  Biscay  should 
appear  clearly  under  the  appellations  of  the  Cantahrian  Ocean  and  the  Aquitanian  Sea.  In 
regard  to  Britain,  also,  or,  at  least,  England,  a  great  reform  had  been  effected.  Its  coast, 
alter  passing  the  promontory  of  Kent,  bends  inward  toward  the  estuary  of  the  Thames, 
called  here  Idumanus.  Still  more  decided,  on  the  opposite  side,  is  tlie  "  Sabrina  esh(ariv7n" 
(the  estuary  of  the  Severn),  a  very  appropriate  appellation  for  the  Bristol  Ciiannel.  The 
projection  of  Wales,  and  its  entire  outline,  appears  then  drawn  in  a  very  unexceptionable 
manner.  With  regard  to  Ireland,  Ptolemy  has  not  been  able  wholly  to  shake  off  the  errone- 
ous impressions  of  the  first  Alexandrian  school,  according  to  which  that  country  lay  to  tlie 
north  of  Britain.  He  makes  it  west,  indeed,  but  at  the  same  time  greatly  too  far  north,  its 
southern  coast  being  on  a  line  with  that  of  Lancashire,  or,  at  least,  with  the  north-western 
point  of  Wales.  The  consequence  is,  that  the  island  of  Mona  (Man)  is  placed  off  the  south- 
eastern point  of  Ireland,  not  far  from  Wexford.  Having  pointed  out  this  great  error,  we 
must  add,  that  the  whole  form  and  circuit  of  Ireland  is  given  with  a  correctness  which  ap- 
pears very  surprising,  when  contrasted  with  so  great  a  mistake  as  to  its  relative  position. 
Again,  the  eastern  coast  of  England  proceeds  correctly  till  it  reaches  the  vicinity  of  York, 
when  an  aberration  takes  place  of  the  most  extraordinary  nature.  The  rest  of  the  English 
coast,  with  the  whole  of  that  of  Scotland,  instead  of  ranging  from  north  to  south,  runs  from 
west  to  east.  The  eastern  coast  becomes  thus  the  southern,  the  western  becomes  the 
northern ;  and  the  coast  of  Germany  appears  opposite  and  parallel  throughout  its  wliole 
extent.  The  most  northerly  extremity  of  Britain  is  thus  fixed  at  a  point  which  Mr.  Pinker- 
ton  supposed  to  be  the  Mull  of  Galloway,  but  which  seems  more  probably  to  be  some  point 
near  Port  Patrick,  which  might  be  supposed  the  most  westerly,  for  the  west  is  here  the 
north.  It  is  part  of  this  arrangement,  that  the  .^budse  (Hebrides)  are  placed  in  the  Deuca- 
ledonian  Ocean,  which  washes  the  western  coast  of  Scotland,  made  here  the  northern ;  and 
the  Orkneys  are  in  the  same  ocean;  for,  instead  of  following  the  line  of  the  main  land,  they 
are  placed,  as,  indeed,  they  ought  to  be,  north,  becoming  thus  at  right  angles  to  that  line. 

To  account  for  this  strangely  distorted  form  of  northern  Britain,  M.  Gosselin  has  formed 
a  very  ingenious  theory.  The  southern  extremity  of  the  island  being  in  lat.  52°  N.,  and 
Thule,  the  remotest  extremity,  in  63°,  Ptolemy  could  not,  within  these  limits,  find  space 
for  that  vast  expanse  of  coast,  which  the  itineraries  represented  to  him  as  belonging  to 
Britain.  To  make  out  this  space  he  had  no  alternative  but  to  give  to  the  northern  part  the 
form  it  actually  bears  in  his  maps,  and  under  which  the  latitude  is  augmented  only  by  the 
breadth  of  Scotland,  a  much  smaller  dimension  than  the  length.  The  question,  however,  is, 
by  what  circumstance  Ptolemy  was  checked  in  his  latitude  of  Thule,  and  why  he  should 
not  have  driven  it  out  to  the  north  as  far  as  his  itineraries  seemed  to  require.  We  at  one 
time  thought  it  possible  that  this  grand  boundary  point  might  have  been  fixed  by  some  rude 
observation  which  was  not  applied  to  the  intermediate  points.  But  it  appears  very  improba- 
ble, that  any  expedition  which  should  have  made  an  observation  of  latitude  at  Shetland, 
should  not  have  done  the  same  in  the  southern  and  much  more  accessible  parts  of  Britain. 
I  rather  incline  to  adopt  the  following  solution.  We  have  seen,  that,  in  the  ideas  of  the 
Roman  navigators,  Thule  was  in  a  great  measure  separated  from  Britain,  and  attached  to 
the  east  of  Germany,  or  rather  to  Scandinavia ;  whether  its  existence  was  made  known  to 
them  by  Scandinavian  navigators,  or  whether  a  part  of  the  coast  of  Norway  was  actually 
fixed  upon  by  them  instead  of  Shetland  for  this  most  northern  limit  of  the  earth.  This  idea, 
which  attached  Thule  to  Scandinavia,  appears  to  have  been  combined  in  Ptolemy's  mind 
with  that  of  Pytheas,  who  made  it  the  remotest  extremity  of  Britain.  Such  a  combination 
could  be  accomplished  only  by  stretching  Scotland  across  the  German  ocean  in  that  strange 
direction. 

The  details  of  Scotland,  if  we  pass  over  this  radical  error,  are  given  in  a  manner  much 
more  tolerable  than  could  have  been  expected  in  a  country  unsubdued  by  the  Romans,  and 
with  their  imperfect  navigation.  Thule,  in  Ptolemy,  is  not  a  cluster  of  islands,  like  those 
of  Shetland,  but  one  large  island,  upwards  of  a  hundred  miles  in  length :  this  circumstance 
more  and  more  strengthens  the  suspicion  that  Norway,  to  a  considerable  extent,  entered 
into  the  idea  attached  to  that  celebrated  name. 


References  to  the 

Map  of  the  World  according  to  Piolemy. 

EUROPA. 

2.  Sinope 

in.  Bararura 

d  Polytimetus 

5.  Gyrene 

1.  Partliaso  Nova 

3.  Amisus 

20.  Bcsynea 

e  .Tnxartes 

fi.  Alexandria 

2.  Massilia 

4.  I«SU3 

21.  Rarabas 

f  CEchardes 

7.  Heniopolis 

3.  Genua 

.■5.  r.lana 

2-2.  Taenia 

g  Baiiiisus 

8.  Syeiie 

4.  Roma 

fi.  7, naram 

23.  Sahana 

h  Senu5 

!).  Plolemais 

5.  Atlipnae 

7.  Mnsa 

24.  (^atieara 

i  Gansea 

10.  Meroe 

6.  Byzantium 

8.  Gona 
9  TereHon 

2.5.  ThinfE 
26.  Aspiihra 

j  Indus 

11.  Adulis 

Rivers. 

10.  Babylon 

27.  Tcmaia 

Tnprobana  Insula. 

Rivers 

a  Rhrniis 

11.  Niniis 

2S.  Pinila 

a  Ganges 

a  Slachir 

b  <!liesinu8 

12.  Dioscuriaa 

29.  Daiiina 

b  Daratus 

c  Tanaia 

13.  Gagara 

30.  Sem 

MBYA  VEL  AFRICA 

.  c  Nigir 

dRha 

14.  Susa 

1.  Nicira 

dGir 

e  Borysthcnos 

1.5.  Persepolis 

Ririers. 

2  Gira 

e  Nilus 

Ifi.  Ractra 

a  Euphrates 

3.  Carthago 

f  A.stapus 
g  Astaboras 

ASIA. 

17.  Patala 

b  Tierie 

4.  Phycus 

1.  Ephesus 

18.  Palibothra 

c  Oxus 

5(5  HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  1. 

Under  the  heads  of  great  Germany  and  of  Sarmatia,  Ptolemy  has  given  all  the  knowledge 
he  had  acquired  of  the  north  and  east  of  Europe,  which  was  not  inconsiderable.  The  line 
:jf  the  Gennan  coast  is  very  well  formed,  and  the  Arnasius  or  Ems,  the  Visurgis  or  Weser, 
the  Albis  or  Elbe,  the  Vedra  or  Oder,  arid  the  Visula  or  Vistula,  appear  in  regular  succes- 
sion, and  almost  under  their  modern  names.  Jutland  appears  as  the  Cimbric  Chersonese, 
and  the  southern  coast  of  the  Baltic  is  carried  on  very  correctly ;  but,  in  regard  to  Scandi- 
navia, he  fails  entirely.  Evidently  ignorant  tliat  the  Baltic  is  an  enclosed  gulf,  he  calls  it 
"the  Sarmatic  Ocean,"  and  places  in  it  four  islands.  Three  of  these,  close  to  the  Cimbric 
Chersonese,  are  clearly  recognised  in  the  islands  of  Denmark ;  but  the  other,  of  greater 
extent,  farther  to  the  east  and  opposite  to  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula,  is  probably  part  of  Swe- 
den, and  perhaps  Gothland.  It  is  clear,  that  navigators  had  not  then  rounded  Jutland,  and 
passed  through  the  Skagerrack  or  Cattegat,  otherwise  they  must  have  noticed  these  straits, 
and  the  great  extent  of  continent  opposite  the  Cimbric  Chersonese.  The  Aloecian  islands, 
however,  situated  off  the  northern  extremity  of  Jutland,  must  have  been  suggetted  by  some 
partoftlie  Norwegian  coast,  as  there  are  no  islands  in  that  quarter.  The  more  northern 
part  of  the  Norwegian  coast  was  probably,  as  already  observed,  identified  with  Thule. 

The  coast  of  Sarmatia  is  described  by  Ptolemy  on  passing  the  Vi-stula,  and  he  traces  with 
accuracy  the  great  bend  which  it  takes  northward  to  the  gulf  of  Riga.  Four  rivers  are 
given,  which  cannot  be  recognised  by  their  names,  but  which  M.  Gosselin  conceives  to  be 
the  Pregel,  the  Niemen,  the  Windau,  and  the  Dvvina.  Beyond  this  he  places  "  the  end  of 
the  sea  of  the  known  land,"  and  immediately  commences  that  boundary  of  terra  incognita 
which  he  carries  around  the  whole  of  Asia. 

In  regard  to  the  south  of  European  Russia,  Ptolemy  recovers  much  of  the  knowledge 
which  had  been  wholly  or  partially  lost  under  Strabo.  He  appears  indeed  to  have  gone  back 
in  a  great  measure  to  Herodotus,  whom  he  imitates  in  giving  most  unreasonable  extension 
to  the  Palus  Mteotis.  There  is  little  room  for  complaint  as  to  the  Tanais,  the  Borysthenes, 
and  the  other  great  rivers  which  fall  into  the  Euxine.  In  this  remote  and  wild  extremity 
of  Europe,  however,  he  has  found  a  place  for  certain  poetical  and  historical  fictions,  which 
experience  had  banished  from  better  known  quarters,  but  whicli  could  not  find  a  place  here 
with  any  propriety; — the  grove  of  Diana,  the  race-course  of  Achilles,  tiie  altars  of  Csesar 
and  of  Alexander ;  neither  of  whom  ever  carried  their  arms  into  this  part  of  the  ancient 
Scythia. 

In  tracing  the  Mediterranean,  Ptolemy  improves  considerably  upon  the  labours  of  his  pre- 
decessors. Sicily,  in  particidar,  is  much  better  constructed,  and  the  straits  of  Messina  are 
placed  nearly  in  their  true  latitude.  He  still,  however,  merits  deep  reproach  for  the  utterly 
barbarous  form  which  he  has  given  to  Italy,  that  ruling  country,  which  must  of  all  others 
have  appeared  to  him  the  most  interesting,  and  for  which  he  must  have  possessed  the  most 
ample  materials.  Yet  Italy,  with  the  exception  of  a  slight  bend  at  its  extremity,  is  oriented 
almost  entirely  east  and  west,  having  the  Adriatic  for  its  northern,  and  the  Tyrrhenian  for 
its  southern  boundary.  I  cannot  find  any  account  of  an  error  so  strange,  except  by  supposing 
that  Ptolemy  must  have  been  led  into  it  by  one  of  those  itinerary  maps  whicli,  like  the 
Peutingerian,  made  everything  subservient  to  the  direction  of  the  Roman  high  road,  and 
drew  it  in  a  straight  line  from  one  extremity  to  the  other.  It  is  easy  to  suppose  that  he 
might  not  comprehend  the  very  odd  principle  upon  which  this  map  was  constructed,  and 
might  conceive  that  being  made  with  regard  to  Italy,  a  country  so  near,  and  so  completely 
within  reach,  it  might  be  implicitly  relied  on.  This  suspicion  is  strengthened  when  we 
find,  after  passing  Dyrrachium,  tlie  port  of  embarkation  for  Greece,  this  being  the  direction 
of  the  great  road  of  the  empire,  that  the  coast  of  Italy  suddenly  resumes  its  just  form,  and 
the  peninsula  of  Campania  makes  even  too  abrupt  a  bend  to  the  south. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Asia. 
In  regard  of  Asia  also,  important  discoveries  had  been  made  since  the  time  of  Eratos- 
thenes. Immense  territories,  included  by  that  geographer  within  the  domain  of  the 
ocean,  were  known  to  Ptolemy  as  occupied  by  the  wandering  hordes  of  Scythia,  or  by  the 
peaceful  and  industrious  nation  of  the  Seres  or  Chinese.  This  advantage  might  be  partly 
due  to  the  military  itineraries,  especially  that  of  Trajan  in  his  victorious  expedition  into 
Parthia.  The  grand  source,  however,  evidently  was  that  bold  spirit  of  commercial  enter- 
prise, to  which  an  impulse  was  given  by  the  vast  consumption  of  Rome,  when  the  wealth  of 
the  world  centred  in  that  mighty  and  voluptuous  capital.  Tlic  East  was  the  region  mainly 
resorted  to  for  the  supply  of  the  boundless  wants  which  arose  in  that  artificial  and  luxurious 
state  of  society.  The  merchants  soon  learned  to  trace  routes,  both  by  land  and  sea,  much 
longer  and  more  adventurous  than  had  been  achieved  by  their  predecessors  at  any  former 
period.  Under  the  narrative  entitled  "  the  Periplus  of  the  Ery threan  Sea,"  we  have  followed 
the  maritime  career  by  which  the  merchants  of  Alexandria  were  led  to  the  coast  of  Mala- 
bar. Whether,  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy,  the  Greek  navigators  had  actually  proceeded  farther, 
it  may  be  difficult  to  say  with  certainty.  He  has  certainly,  however  obtained  a  considera- 
ble accession  of  knowledge  with  regard  to  this  eastern  extremity  of  the  known  world.     He 


Book  I.  PTOLEMY— ASIA.  57 

goes  far  beyond  the  mouth  of  tlie  Gang-es,  at  which  we  have  observed  the  termination  of 
all  precise  knowledge  in  the  author  of  the  Periplus.  After  delineating  a  coast,  with  a 
succession  of  ports  whicli  it  is  difficult  to  identify,  he  comes  to  a  grand  feature,  which  he 
calls  "the  Golden  Chersonese,"  formed  by  three  great  estuaries  discharging  their  waters 
into  the  sea.  These  phenomena  are  actually  presented  by  the  mouths  of  the  Irrawaddy  at 
the  southern  e.xtremity  of  Pegu.  This  is  followed  by  an  extensive  feature,  the  Magnus 
Sinus,  or  Great  Bay,  penetrating  far  inland,  and  receiving  some  considerable  rivers.  The 
gailf  of  Malacca  is  not  nearly  so  large  or  so  deep  as  this  Magnus  Sinus ;  but  its  mouth 
being  very  broad,  and  its  shores  very  winding,  it  is  not  very  improbable  that,  in  the  eyes  of 
ancient  and  unskilful  navigators,  it  might  assume  this  e.xaggerated  form  and  dimension. 
Beyond  tiie  DIagnus  Sinus  the  coast,  in  continuity  with  its  eastern  shore,  stretches  due 
south  to  the  farthest  known  extremity  of  the  world.  On  this  coast  the  leading  features  are 
ThinsB,  a  great  interior  metropolis,  and  Cattigara,  its  sea-port  at  tlie  mouth  of  the  river  Cotiaris. 
This  coast,  it  should  seem,  can  only  be  that  of  Malacca  and  the  Isthmus  of  Kraw,  which 
runs  exactly  in  the  direction  here  assigned  by  Ptolemy.  Gosselin  identifies  Thinse  with 
Tenasserin ;  but  there  seems  more  reason  for  acceding  to  Dr.  Vincent's  opinion  that  it  is 
Siam.  This  exposition,  which  is  supported  by  Vossius,  Gosselin,  and  Vincent,  appears  to  me 
undoubtedly  preferable  to  the  more  general  one  supported  by  the  authority  of  d'Anville, 
which  makes  the  coast  of  the  Sinae  extend  along  the  gulf  of  Siam  and  the  sea  of  China. 
Such  a  line  would  involve  Ptolemy  in  the  strange  and  incredible  blunder  of  making  a  coast 
face  the  east  which  really  faces  the  west.  Sum.atra,  indeed,  is  so  land-locked  that  it  might 
easily  enough  have  been  taken  for  a  part  of  the  continent,  and  have  been  called  the  Golden 
Chersonese.  But  it  seems  inconceivable  how  the  straits  of  Malacca  and  of  Sunda,  so  im- 
portant and  so  critical  to  navigators,  and  by  one  or  the  other  of  which  they  must  have 
entered  the  sea  of  China,  could  have  been  overlooked.  On  this  supposition,  indeed,  the 
coasts  are  swelled  very  far  beyond  their  due  dimensions ;  but  we  have  often  remarked  how 
enormously  this  is  apt  to  be  the  case,  in  regard  to  routes,  and  above  all  coasts  which  are 
traversed  for  the  first  time,  and  by  inexperienced  navigators.  Ptolemy,  as  we  have  seen, 
after  retrencliing  the  eastern  itineraries  of  Marinus  one  half,  left  them  still  greatly  too  large ; 
and  he  does  not  mention  any  similar  retrenchment  in  regard  to  the  coasts.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  those  of  Ptolemy  extend  to  the  Chinese  sea  and  to  China,  then,  contrary  to  every 
ancient  example,  he  must  have  immensely  underrated  the  extent  of  these  imperfectly  dis- 
covered tracts ;  an  error  which  would  be  contrary  to  all  precedent : — this,  however,  does  not 
imply  that  there  may  not,  within  this  line  of  positive  knowledge,  have  been  a  confused 
blending  of  features  that  lay  in  reality  beyond. 

The  mcreased  knowledge  of  Ptolemy  respecting  the  eastern  part  of  the  Asiatic  continent  was 
chiefly  derived,  as  we  have  already  remarked,  from  the  great  caravan  which  proceeded  from 
Byzantium,  having  the  country  of  Serica  for  its  ultimate  destination.  This  caravan,  having 
traversed  Asia  Minor,  crossed  the  Euphrates  at  Hierapolis,  and  journeyed  through  Media, 
by  way  of  Ecbatana  (Hamadan),  to  Hecatompylos  (Daumghaun),  the  capital  of  Parthia.  It 
then  advanced  north  to  Hyrcania  (Horkan  or  Jorjan),  thence  south,  to  take  in  the  fine 
province  of  Aria  (Herat).  It  now  again  turned  north,  to  include  the  capital  of  Margiana 
(Meru  Rood),  thence  due  east  to  Bactria  (Balk),  which  then  formed,  as  at  present,  the  maiii 
centre  of  the  commerce  of  interior  Asia.  The  caravan  now  quitted  the  easy  and  level  tract 
through  which  its  route  had  hitherto  led,  and  began  to  ascend  that  vast  and  rugged  mountain 
world  which  fills  the  eastern  interior  of  Asia.  After  accomplishing  the  steep  ascent  of  the 
Monies  Comedorum,  which  seems  to  be  the  chain  of  the  Beloor,  it  reached  a  station  called 
the  "  Stone  Tower,"  which  there  is  nothing  to  identif}',  except  that  the  direction  towards  it 
is  nortii-cast,  and  it  may  be  either  Ladauk  or  Yarcund,  the  great  modern  emporium  of  tliis 
part  of  the  East.  From  the  Stone  Tower  to  the  fi-ontier  of  Serica,  Marinus,  on  the  authority 
of  the  merchants,  reported  a  journey  of  seven  months,  which  Ptolemy  considers  as  monstrous 
and  incredible,  though  he  admits  tliat  the  road  is  exposed  to  the  greatest  hardships  and  diffi- 
culties. The  question,  what  is  the  country  described  by  Ptolemy  and  his  contemporaries  as 
Serica,  is  the  most  curious  in  the  ancient  geography  of  Asia.  The  earliest  modern  opinion 
identified  Serica  with  northern  China,  wliile  the  country  of  the  Sinee  composed  the  southern 
part.  D'Anville,  however,  who  transported  tlie  Sinae  into  the  coast  of  Cambodia,  carried 
westward  also  the  Seres  into  tlio  country  of  the  Igours,  or  Eygurs,  including  in  their  terri- 
tory only  the  small  projecting  portion  of  the  Chinese  province  of  Shensee.  Mr.  Pinkerton 
places  it  still  farther  west,  in  Little  Bucharia.  M.  Gosselin,  followed  generally  by  the 
present  French  school,  contends  that  Serinagur,  in  the  nortli  of  Hindostan,  is  the  real"  Sera 
metropolis  of  Ptolemy.  I  can  see  no  reason  for  altering  tlie  grounds  on  which  I  concluded 
formerly,  and  endeavoured  to  prove,  Serica  to  be  simply  China.  (See  Eflinbvrg  Phil.  Trans. 
vol.  viii.  On  the  ancient  Geography  of  Central  and  Eastern  Asia.)  All  tlie  natives  of  India 
whom  Ptolemy  saw  assured  him  tliat  tlie  Seres  lay  beyond  the  Sina>,  and  China  is  beyond 
Siam.  The  Sina-  (Siam)  had  to  the  nortli  Scythia  "beyond  Imaus,  which  country  had  Serica 
on  the  east.  Serica  is  described  as  traversed  by  two  great  rivers,  flowing  eastward,  as  the 
Hoang-h-^  and  Yang-tse-kiang  actually  do.     Serica,  according  to  Ptolemy's  graduation,  was 

Vol.  L  II 


58  HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  T. 

fourteen  hundred  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  eleven  hundred  from  east  to  west,  a  very- 
close  approach  to  the  dimensions  of  modern  China.  Serica,  then,  in  fonn,  extent,  geogra- 
phical features,  and  relations  to  the  neighbouring  countries,  exactly  corresponds  to  the  mo- 
dern China.  Not  less  conformable  is  the  report  given  of  the  national  character.  The  Seres 
are  represented  as  frugal,  quiet,  sedate,  and  tranquil  beyond  all  other  nations;  as  of  all 
others  the  most  unwarlike,  and  the  most  averse  to  the  use  of  arms ;  as  shunning,  with  the 
most  studious  care,  the  society  and  intercourse  of  strangers,  and  scarcely  ever  allowing 
them  to  enter  tlieir  territory ;  as  carrying  on  trade  at  a  fixed  frontier  station  only,  and  under 
*Jie  strictest  precautions ;  as  selling  their  own  connnodities  without  receiving  the  commo- 
dities of  other  nations  in  return.  Silk  was  the  staple  of  Serica,  and  it  is  of  Cliina.  With 
regard  to  M.  Gosselin's  Indian  theory,  it  must  now,  we  .'suppose,  be  on  all  hands  given  up, 
since  Thibet  and  Northern  India,  instead  of  being  connected  by  the  valley  of  the  Ganges, 
have  been  found  separated  by  the  unbroken  continuity  of  the  loftiest  ridge  of  the  Himmaleh, 
which  can  be  penetrated  only  by  a  few  most  perilous  and  tremendous  passes. 

Respecting  Hindostan,  and  its  limitary  regions,  the  details  given  by  Ptolemy  include  a 
great  mass  of  sound  information.  In  some  important  particulars,  indeed,  his  map  is  decidedly 
superior  to  those  possessed  by  the  moderns,  previous  to  the  late  important  accessions  to  their 
knowledge.  He  describes  the  Ganges  rising,  as  it  really  does,  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
Himmaleh,  and  in  the  outer  limits  of  Hindostan,  while,  prior  to  the  mission  sent  by  Col. 
Colebrooke,  in  1808,  its  origin,  and  a  considerable  part  of  its  early  course,  were  supposed  to 
be  in  Little  Thibet.  The  mission  to  Caubul  first  found  tliat  all  the  great  western  rivers 
emptied  tliemselves  by  one  channel  into  the  Indus,  as  they  had  been  represented  by  Ptolemy, 
wliile  modern  maps  had  exhibited  them  entering  by  two  great  separate  channels.  The 
same  mission  discovered  two  very  considerable  rivers,  western  tributaries  of  the  Indus, 
the  Kaumeh  and  the  Suaut,  of  which  no  trace  had  yet  appeared  in  modern  delineation ; 
but,  on  turning  to  Ptolemy,  we  find  them  accurately  traced  under  the  names  of  the  Coe  and 
the  Suaste.  Thus  we  find  him  delineating  with  success  geographical  features  in  the  most 
secret  recesses  of  Asia,  which  remained  unknown  till  lately  to  the  best-informed  of  modern 
geographers. 

The  site  of  Palibothra  is  one  main  point  in  which,  after  much  discussion,  geographers 
have  in  vain  endeavoured  to  form  an  unanimous  opinion.  It  was  found  by  Megasthenes  the 
proud  capital  of  the  Gangetic  kingdom,  and  the  greatest  city  of  all  India.  Yet  modern 
geographers  have  not  been  able  to  agree  within  several  hundred  miles  upon  this  marked 
and  celebrated  position.  Arrian  states  that  it  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Ganges  with 
the  Erranaboas,  the  third  jiver  of  India  as  to  magnitude,  being  surpassed  only  by  the  Ganges 
and  the  Indus.  This  scale  of  magnitude  suggests  the  Jumna,  and  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Jumna  with  the  Ganges  actually  stands  Allahabad,  a  city  of  great  magnitude  and  high  anti- 
quity, which  is  even  revered  by  the  Hindoo?  as  the  "  king  of  holy  cities."  Upon  this  general 
idea  D'Anville  and,  after  him,  Robertson,  have  considered  Allahabad  as  occupying  the  site 
of  Palibothra.  On  examination,  however,  this  is  found  in  contradiction  to  the  most  positive 
statements  of  Pliny  and  Ptolemy.  Pliny,  in  express  words,  states  Palibothra  to  be  425  miles 
distant  from  the  junction  of  these  two  rivers.  Ptolemy  makes  the  distance  somewhat  greater 
still.  In  considering  Allahabad,  then,  as  Palibothra,  we  abandon  altogether  the  authority  of 
these  two  great  geographers,  a  step  in  which  we  should  be  very  little  justified,  either  by  a 
reference  to  their  general  character,  or  by  our  knowledge  of  their  remarkable  accuracy  with 
regard  to  tlie  other  features  of  central  and  northern  India.  Tlieir  account  of  Palibothra,  too, 
is  given  upon  the  authority  of  Greek  ambassadors,  who  actually  visited  that  capital.  The 
river  ne.xt  in  magnitude  is  the  Gogra  or  Sarayu.  But  the  junction  of  this  river  with  the 
Ganges  is  not  nearly  so  far  from  that  of  the  Jumna  as  the  above  statements  would  require. 
Besides,  Ptolemy  actually  gives  us  the  Sarabus  (Sarayu),  with  its  junction  in  the  due  relative 
position  to  that  of  the  Jumna,  but  Palibotlira  mucli  farther  down.  Major  Rennel  has  made 
choice  of  Patna,  and  considers  the  junction  of  the  Soane,  at  present  thirty  miles  above  that 
city,  as  having  taken  place  formerly  by  a  different  and  nearer  channel.  This  theory  stands 
on  much  higlier  ground  than  the  other;  yet  it  by  no  means  closely  corresponds  with  the 
ancient  data.  Pliny  mentions  botli  the  Sonus  and  the  Erranaboas  as  quite  distinct  tributaries 
of  tlie  Ganges,  and  he  places  tlie  city  considerably  farther  down  than  Patna  is.  Ptolemy, 
also,  in  giving  the  junction  of  tlie  Soa  and  the  Ganges,  places  Palibothra  more  than  two 
hundred  miles  bslow.  Major  Rennell's  theory,  then,  brings  us  considerably  short  of  the 
point  at  which  this  great  capital  ought  to  be  situated. 

Another  point  which  appeared  to  me  to  unite  the  name  and  position  of  Palibothra  has 
been  mentioned  {Discoveries  in  Asia,  v.  i.  p.  491.),  and,  without  being  inclined  very  confi- 
dently to  dogmatize,  it  still  appears  to  me  to  combine  better  the  different  requisites  than 
any  other  yet  named.  The  name  of  Boirlipoor  may  be  considered  identical  with  Paliboor ; 
for,  in  transferring  Indian  terms  into  our  characters,  P  and  B,  O  and  A,  are  always  used 
promiscuously ;  and  the  termination  attached  by  the  Romans  is  evidently  according  to  their 
system  of  harmonizing  foreign  sounds  with  their  own.  A  name  is  of  little  consequence 
wlien  it  is  not  accompanied  with  a  corresponding  position ;  but  here  this  appears  to  coincide 


i?ooK  I.  PTOLEMY— AFRICA.  59 

nearly,  though  not  indeed  quite  exactly,  with  Pliny.  He  makes  Palibothra  430  miles  from 
the  junction  of  the  Ganges  and  Jumna,  and  600  from  Gange,  a  capital  situated  at  the  mouth 
of  the  former.  Boglipoor,  however,  instead  of  being  only  two-fifths  of  the  distance  between 
these  two  points,  is  about  exactly  midway.  The  space  lower  down  the  river,  being  less 
known,  might  more  readily  have  been  exaggerated,  and  Gange  being  on  the  most  easterly 
branch  of  the  Ganges,  might  occupy  nearly  the  position  of  Islamabad.  The  place  assigned 
by  Ptolemy  is  exactly  midway,  and  therefore  coincides  strictly  with  the  position  of  Bogli- 
poor. Near  it  the  Ganges  receives  the  Coosy,  or  river  of  Nepaul,  certainly  not  the  t/iird 
in  India  as  t'^  magnitude ;  but  the  ambassadors  might  not  have  very  precise  means  of  as- 
certaining the  relative  dimensions  of  the  Indian  rivers.  There  is,  therefore,  a  great  weight 
of  evidence,  as  to  name  and  position,  in  favour  of  the  theory  here  proposed.  I  must  confess, 
however,  that  I  find  no  description  of  any  monuments,  such  as  might  be  expected  to  mark 
the  ancient  site  of  so  splendid  a  capital.  Indian  structures,  however,  are  not  usually 
composed  of  materials  sufficiently  solid  to  resist  the  ravages  of  sixteen  centuries.  If  the 
local  data  could  at  all  have  allowed  us  to  fix  upon  the  thrice  ancient  and  holy  Benares,  its 
character  would  have  given  it  at  once  a  pre-eminence ;  but  this  is  impossible.  Ra- 
jemahl,  suggested,  is  not  very  distant  from  Boglipoor ;  but  besides  losing  the  coin- 
cidence of  name,  it  agrees  less  than  the  other  position  with  the  statements  both  of  Ptolemy 
and  Pliny. 

SuBSECT.  3. — Africa. 

In  the  delineation  of  Africa,  Ptolemy,  himself  an  African,  had  obvious  advantages.  Ac- 
cordingly his  delineations  of  several  of  the  most  interior  features  have,  as  in  the  case  of 
southern  India,  proved  to  be  more  accurate  than  those  given  by  modern  geographers  down 
to  a  very  recent  period.  The  course  of  the  Nile,  up  to  its  highest  probable  source  in  the 
central  range  of  the  mountains  of  the  Moon,  has  been  justified  by  recent  inquiry,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  Portuguese  missionaries,  who  drew  it  from  the  mountains  and  lakes  of  Abys- 
sinia. This  original  fountain-head  has  not  yet  been  traced  by  the  daring  foot  of  the  modern 
traveller;  but  the  description  given  to  Brown,  of  its  descent  from  the  great  mountain  chain 
south  of  Darfoor,  corresponds  very  exactly  with  Ptolemy,  making  allowance  only  for  his 
erroneous  graduation.  With  equal  fidelity,  he  delineates  the  Astaboras,  or  Atbara,  the  As- 
tapus,  or  river  of  Abyssinia,  successively  falling  into  it  from  the  east.  He  has,  indeed,  made 
Meroe  an  island,  enclosed  by  branches  of  the  Nile ;  but  modern  discovery  has  shown  it  to 
be  so  very  nearly  insular,  in  consequence  of  the  great  bend  taken  to  the  south,  that  the 
error  cannot  be  considered  excessive. 

In  regard  to  central  Africa,  Ptolemy  had  not  equal  advantages,  on  account  of  the  dis- 
tance, because  no  track  had  yet  been  formed  across  the  vast  ocean  of  desert  which  inter- 
vened. It  appears  to  me  a  matter  of  some  difficulty  to  ascertain  the  precise  extent  of  his 
knowledge  as  to  this  region.  M.  Gosselin  has  not  hesitated  to  assert,  that  he  knew  nothing 
of  Africa  south  of  the  desert,  and  that  all  the  features  which  he  has  assigned  to  interior 
Libya,  and  the  course  of  the  Niger,  belong  in  fact  to  Fezzan  and  that  region  behind  the 
Alias  which  we  call  the  B'led-el-Jereede,  or  Land  of  Dates.  This  opinion  certainly  receives 
much  countenance  when  we  find  the  Garamantes  and  the  Garamantica  vallis  placed  on  the 
same  line  with  the  Niger,  the  lake  of  Nigritia,  and  the  other  leading  central  features.  I 
still,  however,  think  it  probable  that  Ptolemy  might,  by  way  of  the  Upper  Nile,  have  ob- 
tained intelligence  respecting  a  portion  at  least  of  these  vast  regions,  the  approach  to  which 
by  way  of  Dongola  and  Sennaar  was  not  obstructed  by  any  very  insurmountable  barriers. 
Besides  the  agreement  of  several  names,  as  Gana,  Tagana,  Panagra,  the  general  picture 
of  this  region  as  one  of  lakes,  rivers,  and  mountains,  agrees  much  better  with  the  interior 
than  with  the  arid  tract  between  Atlas  and  the  desert.  My  suspicion  therefore  is,  that  Ptol- 
emy, unacquainted  with  any  route  across  the  great  desert,  was  not  aware  of  the  wide  in- 
terval between  the  features  to  the  north  and  those  to  the  south  of  it,  and  linked  them  to- 
gether in  his  description  as  contiguous  and  connected.  As  his  knowledge  of  central  Africa 
was  thus  obtained  only  in  a  westerly  course  from  the  Nile,  it  was  not  likely  to  extend  be- 
yond the  eastern  part  of  the  vast  breadth  between  the  Nile  and  the  ocean.  The  Mons  Man- 
drus,  his  most  western  feature,  with  a  gi-eat  river  flowing  from  it  into  the  lake  of  Nigritia, 
may  perhaps  be  recognized  in  the  mighty  range  of  the  mountains  of  Mandara  and  the  river 
Shary  flowing  from  them  into  the  lake  or  sea  of  the  Tchad.  About  this  quarter  I  should 
conceive  the  knowledge  which  reached  Ptolemy  by  inland  channels  probably  terminated ; 
and  the  Atlantic  coast,  known  to  exist  by  the  voyages  of  Hanno,  Scylax,  and  Polybius,  was 
united  to  these  objects  by  a  merely  hypothetical  construction.  In  regard  to  tlie  course  of 
the  Niger,  it  is  difficult  to  say  very  precisely  what  were  Ptolemy's  views,  and  we  only  per- 
ceive that  he  made  it  an  inland  river,  neither  flowing  into  the  Atlantic,  nor  by  the  Nile  into 
the  Mediterranean. 

Respecting  this  gretrt  central  region  of  Africa,  however,  Ptolemy  had  obtained  some  no- 
tices from  which  he  might  have  estimated  its  magnitude.  Two  Roman  expeditions  had 
been  reported  to  him,  one  made  by  Septimius  Flaccus  from  Garama,  and  the  other  by  Julius 


00  HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  I. 

Matemus  from  tlie  coast  of  Gyrene.  The  former  in  three,  and  the  latter  in  four  months, 
had  penetrated  into  the  country  of  the  Ethiopians.  Ptolemy  expresses  himself  very  scepti- 
cal as  to  the  possible  lengtli  of  this  march ;  nevertheless  he  lays  down  the  country  of 
Af^isymba  as  that  farthest  region  of  interior  Etliiopia  into  which  these  commanders  had 
peiietrated.  Agisymba  we  suspect  to  be  Agadez ;  at  least  as  the  march  comprehends  no 
rivers  or  lakes,  It  cannot  well  have  reached  the  line  of  the  Niger.  Nevertheless  Ptolemy 
places  it  considerably  to  the  south  of  Nigritia ;  which  is  doubtless  in  favour  of  the  limited 
ext-^nt  which  M.  Gosselin  allows  to  his  ^information.  But  we  may  observe  that,  supposing 
Ptolemy  to  have  formed,  in  tlie  manner  above  supposed,  his  idea  of  tlie  plain  of  the  Niger 
as  little  removed  to  the  south  of  Fezzan,  he  must,  in  protracting  marches  of  tliree  or  four 
months,  necessarily  have  carried  the  line  much  farther  to  the  south. 

In  regard  to  the  western  coasts  of  Africa,  Ptolemy's  delineation  is  not  very  luminous,  but 
appears  on  the  whole  to  favour  M.  Gosselin's  views  respecting  the  extent  of  Hanno's  voy- 
age and  of  the  knowledge  of  the  ancients.  He  does  indeed  present  two  rivers,  the  Daradus 
and  tlie  Stachir,  flowing  on  a  line  with  the  plain  of  Nigritia.  But  I  have  no  idea  that 
Ptolemy  could  have  any  precise  information  reaching  across  the  entire  breadth  of  the  con- 
tinent, and  conceive,  as  already  hinted,  that  the  coast  and  interior  were  here  hypothetically 
united.  As  Ptolemy  placed  the  plain  of  the  Niger  much  too  far  north,  he  might  make 
these  rivers  on  a  line  with  it,  without  identifying  them  with  the  Senegal  and  Gambia. 
His  position  of  the  Fortunate  Islands  (Canaries)  opposite  to  their  moutlis,  and  south  of 
Ccrne,  is  not  at  all  in  favour  of  the  opinion  which  carries  these  last  features  deep  into  cen- 
tral Africa, 

On  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  Ptolemy  adds  to  the  line  described  by  the  author  of  the 
Periplus  a  coast  extending  from  the  promontory  of  Rhaptum  to  that  of  Prasum.  At  this 
point  the  coast,  hitherto  running  south-west,  changes  to  south-east.  No  details  are  given 
of  this  coast,  which  is  described  as  rough  and  difficult  to  navigate.  We  can  neither,  with 
M.  Gosselin,  limit  Prasum  to  Brava,  nor  with  Vincent  carry  it  so  far  as  Mosambique.  There 
is  no  part  of  the  coast  to  which  the  direction  assigned  to  it  belongs,  except  from  Quiloa 
to  Cape  Delgado;  and  if  Rhaptum  be  at  or  near  Quiloa,  the  latter,  allowing  for  some  exag- 
geration of  distance  on  a  coast  so  little  known,  will  be  the  promontory  Prasum.  Five  de- 
grees east  and  three  degrees  south  of  this  promontory  is  the  island  of  Menuthias.  The 
Menouthesias  of  the  Periplus  appeared  pretty  plainly  to  be  one  of  the  smaller  islands  near 
the  African  coast,  and  probably  Zanzibar ;  but  none  of  these  could  be  the  Menuthias  of 
Ptolemy,  which  is  manifestly  Madagascar. 


BOOK    II. 

GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 

Under  the  "  geography  of  the  middle  ages  "  may  be  comprehended  that  of  the  Arabian  or 
Saracen  nations,  during  the  period  when  science  was  successftilly  cultivated  among  them ; 
and  the  geographical  ideas  prevalent  in  Europe,  during  that  long  darkness  which  preceded 
the  revival  of  learning,  and  the  commencement  of  maritime  discovery. 


CHAPTER  I. 
ARABIAN  GEOGRAPHY. 


The  Arabs  were  for  some  time  the  most  learned  of  nations.  As  the  mantle  of  science 
dropped  from  the  sages  of  Greece  and  Rome,  it  fell  upon  this  wild  and  strange  race,  sprung 
from  the  bosom  of  bigotry  and  barbarism.  The  fanatic  hordes,  who,  under  the  guidance  of 
their  false  prophet,  rushed  from  the  heart  of  Arabia,  at  first  owned  no  law  but  the  Koran  and 
the  sword.  When  they  had  conquered  half  the  world,  however,  and  founded  splendid  capi- 
tals on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Guadalquivir,  there  arose  a  race  of  humane  and 
polished  princes,  who  studiously  sought  to  relumine  the  almost  extinguished  lamp  of  science. 
Almamoun  above  all,  in  the  ninth  century,  may  rank  among  the  most  distinguished  of  its 
patrons  who  have  ever  filled  a  throne. 

Geography  among  the  Arabian  states,  appears  to  have  been  studied  with  greater  ardour 
than  at  any  other  place  or  country,  except  at  Alexandria.  It  employed  the  pens  of  several 
of  their  most  eminent  writers;  Masudi  and  Ebn  Haukal  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries; 
Abulfeda  and  Edrisi  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth ;  to  whom  may  be  added  the  respectable 
names  of  Ibn-al-Vardi,  Bakoui,  and  Scheabeddin.  Although  none  of  their  works  have  be- 
come at  all  lamiliar  to  the  European  reader,  yet  learned  men  have  translated  portions,  which 


Book  II. 


ARABIAN  GEOGRAPHY. 


61 


not  only  convey  a  general  idea  of  their  system,  but  have  enabled  geographers  to  delineate 
some  districts  of  the  globe  which  otherwise  would  have  long  remained  unknowTi. 

Sect.  I, — General  System.  Fig.  11. 
The  mathematical  sciences,  and  above  all  astronomy,  were  among  the  most  favourite  pur- 
suits of  the  court  of  Bagdad ;  and  the  ample  resources  which  they  aftbrded  were  applied 
with  considerable  care  to  the  improvement  of  geography.  In  833,  the  caliph  Almamoun  en- 
deavoured, by  observations  of  latitude  made  at  -Kufa,  and  at  a  point  in  the  desert  of  Pal- 
myra, to  measure  the  circumference  of  the  globe.  In  all  the  countries  subject  to  the  Maho- 
medan  arms,  nuinerous  observations  are  recorded  which,  thougli  not  always  rigorously  cor- 
rect, appear  at  least  to  have  been  real,  and  not  merely  calculated  out  of  itineraries,  like  those 
of  the  Alexandrian  geographers.  The  tables  of  Abulfeda,  of  Ulug  Beg,  and  of  Nazir  Ed- 
din,  edited  by  Grsevius,  and  republished  by  Hudson,  afford  materials  that  are  still  useful  for 
the  construction  of  the  maps  of  interior  Asia. 

Fig.  11.— MAP  OP  THE  WORLD  TAKEN  FROM  AN  ARABIAN  MANUSCRIPT  OP  AL  EDRISI,  IN  THE 

BODLEIAN  LIBRARY. 


Mountains    of  the     15 

Moon  and  Sourcea    16 

of  the  Nile  17 

Bcrbara   (kingdom      18 

of  Adel) 
AIZi.nL'(Zanguebar)  19, 
Se'Hhi  (Sofala) 
Al-Wak  Wak 
Serpndeeb  (Ceylon) 
Al-Comor    (Mada- 

eascar) 
A-Uisi 
A!  Yeman  (Arabia 

Fi'hx) 
Trhaiua 
Al-Fl.jiz  (Arabia" 

Drscria) 
Al-Slmj^r  (Soger) 
Al-lni!:ma(Yamania) 
Al  Habesh  (Ethiopia, 

Abyssinia) 

Vol.  I. 


"-^^ 

30. 

South  —      ___-< 

352 

Al  Nuba  (Nubia) 

Afreekeea  (Afrit-a) 

47. 

Al  Tajdeen 

31. 

Belad  el  Gerid  (Date 

48. 

Al-Bejah 
Al-Saneed  (Upper 

Country) 

49. 

32. 

Seharen,Bereneek(or 

50. 

Egypt,  Said) 

Desert  of  Berenike) 

51. 

Al-nuhat-what  (Oa- 

33. 

Mi=5nr  (E»vpi) 

M. 

sis) 

34. 

Al-Sham  (Syria) 

53. 

Gowas 

35. 

Al-Irak  (Persian 

54. 

Kanun 

empire) 

55. 

Belad  Al-Iemlum 

?.€,. 

Fais(Per=ii  Proper)  50. 

Belad  Mufrada 

37. 

Kirnian  (Carmania) 

57. 

Belad  Nemanch 

38. 

Allazeh 

.5.8. 

Al-Muliia  M  Sinhajeh 

1  39. 

Mui;han 

59. 

Curan  (Karooan, 

40. 

Al-Snnda  (Sr-indi) 

fiO. 

Kurene) 

41. 

Al-Hind  (India) 

fil. 

Neeroland 

42. 

Al-Seen  (China) 

fi-.'. 

Al-Sous  Nera 

43. 

Khorasan 

6). 

Al-Mughruh  Al 

44. 

Al-Bcharus 

64. 

Amkpen  (Mogreb 

45. 

Azerbijan  (Media) 

05. 

llio  West) 

48. 

Khuwarizm 

Al-Shash 
Khukeez 
A!  Sffur 
Al-Tibut  (Tibet) 
Al-Nul'uz  Izz 
Kurjeea  (Georgia) 
Keymak 
Kulhcca 
I  zzea 
Azkush 
Tnrkesb 
Itnrab 

Buk'bar  (Bulgaria) 
Al-Muipnah 
Yaj>„.j  (r;„2) 
Mmjooj  (Maeog) 
Asiatic  (Russia) 
Bejeerut 
Al-AImao 


65.  Al-Khuzzus  Kbos7» 
(Caspian  Sea) 

67.  Turkea  (Turkey) 

68.  Albeian  (Albania) 

69.  Makedunoeali  (Ma- 

cedonia) 

70.  Baltic  Sea 

71.  Jenubea  (probably 

Sweden) 

72.  Gennania(Germany) 

73.  Denmark 

74.  Alransteah  (France) 

75.  Felowiah  (Norway) 

76.  Bnrtea  or  Burtenea 

(Britain) 

77.  Cor.«ica, Sardinia. &c. 

78.  Italy 

79.  Ai^hkerineah  (part  ol 
SpaiQ.Q.AndaJusLa) 


62  HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  I. 

Many  countries,  hitherto  unknown  and  barbarous,  were  explored,  and  in  some  degree 
civilized,  by  the  Moslem  arms.  Those  on  the  Oxus  and  the  Jaxartes,  the  Asiatic  Scythia  of 
tiie  ancients,  and  occupied  then  only  by  Nomadic  hordes,  were  covered  by  them  with  groat 
and  flourishing  cities.  Among  these,  Samarcand  became  afterwards  the  capital  of  an  empire 
that  extendecf  over  half  of  Asia.  At  tlie  opposite  extremity,  Mauritania,  wliich  had  been 
reo-arded  by  the  Romans  as  almost  beyond  the  limits  of  social  existence,  became  a  flourishing 
kingdom,  and  possessed  in  Fez  an  eminent  school  of  learning.  Even  beyond  tlie  limits  of 
the^Mahomcdan  world,  missions  were  sent  to  explore  the  remotest  limits  of  the  east  and 
west.  One  interesting  result  of  these  has  been  communicated  in  the  relation  of  two  Maho- 
medan  travellers,  Wahad  and  Abuzaid,  who  in  the  ninth  century  penetrated  into  China ;  and 
gave  a  description  of  that  country  ;  which,  though  only  recently  known  to  us  by  the  transla- 
tion of  Renaudot,  must  have  been  the  earliest  ever  communicated  to  the  nations  of  the  west. 
From  Lisbon,  also,  the  brothers  Almagrurim  sailed,  endeavouring  to  anticipate  the  discoveries 
of  Columbus,  by  exploring  unknown  countries  beyond  "  the  sea  of  darkness."  For  ten  or 
eleven  days  they  steered  westward ;  but  seeing  a  storm  approaching,  the  light  faint,  and  the 
sea  tempestuous,  tiiey  dreaded  havmg  come  to  the  dark  boundaries  of  the  earth.  They  turned 
therefore  south,  sailed  twelve  days  in  that  direction,  and  came  to  an  island,  which  they  called 
Ganam,  or  the  island  of  birds ;  but  the  flesh  of  these  birds  was  too  bitter  to  be  eaten.  They 
sailed  on  twelve  days  farther,  and  came  to  another  island,  the  king  of  which  assured  them 
that  their  pursuit  was  vain :  that  liis  father  had  sent  an  expedition  for  the  same  purpose ;  but 
tliat,  after  a  month's  sail,  the  light  had  wholly  failed,  and  they  had  been  obliged  to  return.  The 
adventurers,  therefore,  made  their  way  back  to  the  coast  of  Africa,  which  they  reached  in 
three  days.  The  bearings  stated  seem  to  point  out  Madeira  and  the  Canaries  as  the  two 
islands  visited  in  this  expedition. 

In  regard  to  the  general  outline  of  the  earth,  the  Arabs  seem  to  have  closely  adhered  to 
ancient  theories.  They  revived  the  early  impression  of  an  ocean,  which,  like  a  zone,  encom- 
passed the  whole  earth.  This,  according  to  a  natural  feeling,  was  characterized  as  the  "  Sea 
of  Darkness,"  an  appellation  most  usually  given  to  the  Atlantic ;  but  the  northern  sea  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  inspiring  still  more  mysterious  and  gloomy  ideas,  is  called  the  "  Sea  of 
pitchy  Darkness."  Edrisi  has  even  imagined  the  land  as  floating  in  the  sea,  and  only  part 
appearing  above,  like  an  egg  in  a  basin  of  water.  At  the  same  time  he  divides  it  into  seven 
seas,  fancillilly  appropriated  to  the  seven  climates  into  which  the  earth  was  divided.  Ac- 
cording to  these  climates,  he  describes  the  earth  beginning  at  the  western  and  proceeding  to 
the  eastern  extremity ;  an  ill-judged  arrangement,  which,  by  a  mechanical  section,  separates 
portions  of  territory  the  most  intimately  connected.  The  knowledge  of  the  Arabs  was  sub- 
jected to  another  and  a  voluntary  limitation.  They  studiously  desisted  from  all  inquiry 
respecting  those  blinded  nations,  whose  minds  had  never  been  illumined  by  the  light  of  the 
Koran.  Ibn  Haukal  even  makes  it  a  subject  of  glory,  that  he  had  found  nothing  worthy  of 
remark  among  nations  who  could  not  be  viewed  without  horror  by  men  who  had  any  innate 
principles  of  virtup,  wisdom,  or  religion.  These  views  of  the  subject  greatly  restricted  their 
means  of  knowledge  in  respect  to  Europe,  and  rendered  it  of  little  value,  unless  with  regard 
to  those  two  continents,  which  their  arms  had  rendered  to  a  great  e.xtent  Mahoraedan. 

Sect.  II. — Asia. 

The  Asia  of  the  Arabs  comprised  a  wider  range  than  had  belonged  to  that  continent  under 
any  former  system.  China  is  distinctly  marked,  partly  under  the  appellation  of  Seen,  and 
partly  under  that  of  Cathay ;  the  former  term  appearing  to  comprehend  India  beyond  the 
Ganges.  Lamery,  productive  in  camphor,  gold,  ivory,  and  dye-woods,  appears  by  these 
products  to  be  Sumatra,  and  mention  is  even  made  of  Al  Djavah.  The  countries  on  the 
Oxus  and  Jaxartes  having  become  the  seat  of  an  extended  Moslem  empire,  of  which  Samar- 
cand was  the  capit<al,  Tartary,  both  eastern  and  western,  was,  for  the  first  time,  delineated 
with  tolerable  accuracy ;  many  of  the  leading  positions,  in  this  hitherto  inaccessible  part  of 
the  continent,  were  even  fixed  by  astronomical  observation ;  and  some  positive  though  faint 
and  indistinct  notice  appears  to  have  been  received  respecting  the  people  situated  along  the 
shores  of  the  Northern  Ocean.  Unfortunately  the  main  objects  of  curiosity  and  inquiry 'were 
Gog  and  Magog.  The  authentic  application  of  these  names  has  been  obser^'ed  under  the 
Hebrew  system  as  belonging  to  a  devastating  race  from  the  shores  of  the  Euxine  and  Caspian. 
Oriental  fancy  had  transformed  them  into  two  enormous  giants,  who  had  erected  an  impreg- 
nable castle  on  the  borders  of  Scythia.  The  efforts  made  by  the  court  of  Bagdad  in  pursuit 
of  this  chimera  were  very  extraordinary.  The  first  expedition  was  undertaken  with  the 
liope  of  finding  it  somewhere  on  the  shores  of  tlie  Caspian ;  but  as  their  conquests  soon 
embraced  the  wliole  of  that  region,  without  the  slirfhtest  trace  of  tliis  tremendous  castle,  the 
more  southern  country  of  Bokhara  was  the  next  object  of  search.  When  that  also  had  been 
surveyed  in  vain,  the  court  was  involved  in  much  perplexity,  and  scarcely  knew  to  what 
ulterior  region  their  view  was  to  be  directed.  At  length  one  of  the  caliphs  dispatched  a 
mission,  with  strict  injunctions  on  no  account  to  return  without  having  discovered  the  castle 
of  Gog.     The  envoys,  accordmg  to  Edrisi's  report,  proceeded  first  along  the  shores  of  the 


Book  H.  IN  EUROPE  DURING  THE  DARK  AGES.  63 

Caspian,  then  tlirougli  a  vast  extent  of  desert,  probably  the  country  of  the  Kirg-hises,  when 
they  arrived  at  a  stupendous  range  of  mountains,  which  must  have  been  the  Altai.  Here 
tliey  did  actually  find  or  pretend  to  find  something  which  they  concluded  to  be  the  castle  of 
Gog  and  IMagog.  Perhaps  they  reached  some  of  those  ancient  monuments  which  have  been 
found  along  this  range,  and  gladly  embraced  this  pretext  to  rid  themselves  of  so  troublesome 
a  commission.  The  picture  they  drew  of  it  was  certainly  very  higiily  coloured,  according 
to  Oriental  taste.  The  walls  were  of  iron  cemented  with  brass,  and  a  gate  fifty  cubits  high 
was  secured  by  bolts  and  bars  of  enormous  magnitude.  The  minds  of  the  Arabs  were  thus 
set  at  rest,  and  in  all  the  future  delineations  of  Asia  this  miglity  castle  was  seen  towering  at 
its  farthest  extremity. 

Sect.  HI. — Africa. 
In  regard  to  Africa,  the  wide-extended  settlements  of  the  Arabs  afforded  them  new  sources 
of  hiformation.  The  Mediterranean  coast,  indeed,  as  far  as  Numidia,  had  been  fully  explored 
by  the  ancients,  and  had  even  formed  a  more  intimate  part  of  their  political  system  than  it 
has  done  of  that  of  the  moderns.  By  the  Arabs,  however,  who  had  established  here  a  suc- 
cession of  kingdoms,  it  was  described  in  greater  detail  than  ever ;  and  as  the  most  western 
of  these  kingdoms  was  the  flourisliing  one  of  Morocco,  tliis  region,  comprising  the  nearly 
unknown  tracts  of  ancient  Mauritania,  formed  an  almost  entirely  new  acquisition  to  know- 
ledge. But  their  grandest  achievement  consisted  in  forming  a  road  across  the  Great  Desert, 
and  in  colonising  a  considerable  part  of  the  central  regions  of  Africa.  They  here  founded  a 
series  of  powerful  kingdoms :  Ghana,  the  modern  Kano ;  Tocrur,  which  we  conceive  to  be 
Sackatoo;  Kuku  and  Kauga,  which  recent  travellers  have  found  in  and  near  the  modern 
region  called  Bornou.  They  described  those  countries  as  situated  on  the  Nile  of  the  Ne- 
groes, which,  contrary  to  ancient  opinions,  they  represented  as  rising  indeed  from  the  same 
fountain  with  the  Nile ;  but  as  flowing  westward  across  all  Africa,  and  falling  into  the 
Atlantic  ocean  or  sea  of  darkness.  At  its  mouth  they  placed  the  island  of  Ulil,  whence  salt 
was  conveyed  to  all  the  Negro  territories,  which  were  entii-ely  destitute  of  that  necessary 
of  life.  This  view  of  the  subject,  though  erroneous,  was  naturally  suggested  by  the  course 
of  the  rivers  within  the  region  with  which  they  were  alone  intimately  acquainted ;  but  we 
reserve  this  discussion  for  a  separate  chapter,  when  we  propose  to  give  a  succinct  view  of 
the  successive  theories  respecting  this  great  African  river.  We  shall  at  present  only 
observe,  that,  as  Tocrur  is  described  to  be  only  eighteen  days'  journey  fi-om  the  ocean,  it  is 
plain  that  the  knowledge  of  the  Arabs  did  not  extend  to  Tombuctoo;  that  they  knew  nothing 
of  the  Senegal  or  Gambia,  or  the  countries  upon  these  rivers;  and  that  the  ocean  into  v/hich 
they  represented  the  Nile  of  the  Negroes  as  falling  was  either  a  hypothetical  feature  alto- 
gether, or  was  at  least  hypothetically  connected  with  all  that  they  knew  of  the  eastern  tracts 
of  interior  Africa. 


CHAPTER  II. 

EUROPEAN  GEOGRAPHY  DURING  THE  DARK  AGES. 

Even  the  imperfect  knowledge  possessed  by  the  ancient  geographers  became  involved  in 
the  general  progress  of  that  intellectual  darkness,  which  ensued  on  the  decline  of  the  Roman 
empire.  Europe,  overwhelmed  witli  a  deluge  of  barbarism,  no  longer  cultivated  art  or 
science ;  and  the  rude  states  into  which  it  was  divided  had  only  a  vague  idea  of  each  other's 
situation.  The  advance  of  this  darkness  may  be  observed  in  an  anonymous  work,  published 
at  Ravenna  in  the  eighth  century.  The  write-r  presents  only  confused  fragments  of  the 
information  contained  in  Ptolemy  and  Pliny.  The  coast  of  India,  indeed,  tlie  mercantile 
route  to  which  appears  to  have  been  kept  open,  is  still  delineated  with  some  degree  of  cor- 
rectness. But  the  whole  interior  of  Asia,  from  China  to  Bactriana,  is  included  under  the 
name  of  "  Seric  India :"  the  Caspian  re-appears  as  a  gulf  of  the  Northern  Ocean ;  in  short, 
all  these  distant  regions  are  viewed,  in  the  manner  natural  to  ignorance,  as  a  dim  and  inde- 
finite expanse,  the  features  of  which  were  all  confusedly  blended  with  each  other. 

The  monasteries  during  the  dark  ages  afforded  an  asylum  for  all  that  remained  of  ancient 
knowledge ;  in  them  the  manuscripts  of  many  of  the  classic  writers  were  still  preserved, 
though  little  consulted.  The  reading  aloud  of  histories,  and  descriptions  of  neighbouring, 
and  even  of  distant  countries,  formed  a  mode  of  beguiling  the  tedious  hours;  but  these  being 
recorded  under  the  title  of  "  Wonders  of  the  World,"  and  crowded  with  the  most  extrava- 
gant fiibles,  served  rather  for  the  amusement  of  the  fire-side,  than  for  any  real  instruction. 

The  missions  undertaken  for  the  conversion  of  the  northern  pagans  were  the  principal 
diannel  by  which  any  geographical  knowledge  was  conveyed.  The  missionaries  did  not,  at 
this  time,  attempt  to  pass  the  limits  of  Europo ;  but  directed  their  efforts  towards  the  con- 
version of  the  Slavonic  tribes,  who  occupied  Poland,  Prussia  and  Livonia.  Other  appears 
even  to  have  penetrated  through  the  interior  of  Russia  to  the  White  Sea;  he  undertook  also 
an  extensive  voyage  along  the  coasts  of  Norway.  The  Anglo-Saxon  Wilfrid,  named  by  the 
pope  the  apostle  of  the  Germans,  appears  to  have  been  the  person  who  transmitted  the  most 


64  inSTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  T. 

full  details  relative  to  the  Slavonic  tribes.  St.  Otto,  bishop  of  Bamberof,  and  Anscaire,  a 
monk  of  Corbie,  penetrated  to  the  kingdoms  of  Sweden  and  Denmark :  but  tlic  details  of 
their  mission  have  not  been  preserved.  Although,  however,  the  monks  thus  did  something 
to  illustrate  the  geography  of  Europe,  there  is  sufficient  evidence  that  they  laboured,  in 
many  instances,  vmder  the  grossest  ignorance ;  some  of  them  knew  not  even  the  capital  of 
their  own  country,  or  the  cities  nearest  to  their  own.  * 

Tiie  great  monarchs  made  some  efforts  to  rescue  the  age  from  this  state  of  profound  igno- 
rance. ''The  two  illustrious  monarchs,  Charlemagne  and  Alfred,  distinguiished  themselves- 
by  their  endeavours  to  promote  geography :  the  former  constructed  a  silver  table  of  large 
dimensions,  on  which  was  delineated  the  whole  world  so  fiir  as  known  to  him  ;  unfortunately 
the  materials  were  too  costly,  and  the  silver  world  was  soon  melted  down  to  supply  the 
necessities  of  one  of  its  kingdoms.  Al.^ed  produced  a  more  valuable  monument  in  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  north  of  Europe,' fi-om  the  best  materials  which  could  be  then  collected,  and  which 
fbrnis  still  the  best  record  of  the  geographical  Icnowlcdge  of  that  age.  Under  the  direction 
of  William  the  Conqueror  was  drawn  up  that  important  document  called  Doomsday  Book,  in 
which  the  population,  tiie  culture,  and  the  taxes  paid  by  eacii  district,  are  exliibited  in  the 
greatest  detail.  A  similar  survey  of  Denmark  was  made  in  the  thirteenth  century,  by  its 
sovereign  Waldemar  II.;  and  of  the  J\Iark  of  Brandenburg,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  by  the 
emperor  Charles  IV. 

The  Danes  and  Norwegians,  the  Northmen  as  they  were  called,  while  under  thdr  mighty 
sea-kings  tliey  spread  desolation  over  tlie  maritime  districts  of  Europe,  necessarily  acquired 
a  very  extensive  knowledge  of  its  seas  and  coasts.  Such  knowledge,  though  nowhere  formed 
into  any  regular  system,  may  be  traced  in  the  sagas,  or  metrical  histories  in  which  they 
celebrate  the  gallant  exploits  of  their  countrymen.  They  were,  of  course,  familiar  with  all 
the  countries  bordering  on  the  Baltic.  They  knew  by  conquest  Orkney,  Shetland,  the  He- 
brides, and  the  western  coast  of  Ireland.  Their  fleets  reached  even  the  shores  of  Italy  and 
Sicily.  Towards  the  north,  they  established  colonies  in  Iceland  and  Greenland.  But  the 
most  important  discovery  of  the  Northmen  was,  undoubtedly,  America,  if  their  claim  to  the 
merit  of  that  discovery  shall  be  admitted  to  be  made  good.  In  the  beginning  of  tlie  eleventh 
century,  Thorwald  and  Leif,  two  natives  of  Iceland,  having  sailed  fir  to  the  south-west,  came 
to  a  country  which  appeared  to  them,  doubtless  by  comparison,  to  be  mild  and  agreeable ; 
the  natives  were  of  dwarfish  stature,  and  maintained  with  them  sometimes  a  hostile,  but 
oftener  a  friendly  intercourse.  Finding  that  the  rivers  abounded  with  fish,  and  that  tlie  finest 
furs  could  be  procured,  they  and  their  countrymen  repeated  tlieir  visits;  and  in  1211,  Bishop 
Eric  is  said  to  have  repaired  thither  with  the  view  of  converting  the  natives.  The  name 
given  to  the  region  is  Vinland,  from  the  vines  growing  in  it ;  a  feature  wliich  certainly 
occurs  to  us  as  very  foreign  to  this  part  of  the  world;  but,  in  fact,  wild  vines  are  found 
growing  in  all  the  most  northerly  districts  of  America.  It  is  highly  probable  that  the  conti- 
nent was  not  reached  by  the  Icelandic  adventurers,  and  that  Vinland  was  merely  a  southerly 
district  of  Greenland. 


CHAPTER  m. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  KNOWLEDGE  DERIVED  FROM  THE  CRUSADES. 

The  crusades  formed  a  series  of  events  which  roused  the  European  mind  from  its  local  and 
limited  range,  and  directed  its  ken  into  the  regions  of  another  continent.  The  high-wrought 
enthusiasm  which  impelled  Europe  to  pour  itself,  as  it  were,  in  one  mass  on  tlie  eastern 
world,  however  blind  might  have  been  the  zeal  which  inspired  it,  was,  on  the  whole,  highly 
beneficial:  it  drove  back  the  tide  of  Saracen  and  Turkish  conquest,  which  miglit  have  swal- 
lowed up  the  whole  West,  and  involved  it  in  the  same  gloom  of  barbarism  and  superstition 
that  pervaded  the  East.  Above  all,  the  crusades  had  a  powerfijl  influence  in  dispelling  the 
mental  darkness  in  which  the  western  regions  were  involved,  and  in  preparing  that  light  of 
science  and  intelligence  which  was  so  soon  to  dawn  upon  them.  The  attention  of  Europe 
was  thus  directed  to  these  interesting  and  memorable  regions,  known  hitherto  only  by  the 
meagre  report  of  some  occasional  pilgrims.  Not  only  the  Holy  Land,  with  the  kingdoms  of 
Jerusalem  and  Edessa,  founded  by  the  victorious  crusaders,  but  the  extensive  domains 
belonging  to  the  Saracen  and  Turkish  em])ires,  became  objects  of  inquiry;  search  was  now 
made  in  the  writings  of  the  ancient  geographers,  and  perhaps  some  lights  were  derived  even 
from  the  Arabian  writers.  Sanudo  compiled  a  map  of  the  world,  annexed  to  Bongar's 
"Gesta  Dei  per  Francos,"  {fiff.  12.)  in  which  the  ideas  formed  out  of  the  crusading  expedi- 
tions are  fiilly  exemplified :  Jerusalem  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  world,  as  tlie  point  to 
which  every  other  object  is  to  be  referred ;  the  earth  is  made  a  circle  surrounded  by  the 
ocean,  the  shores  of  whicli  are  represented  as  everywhere  nearly  equidistant  fi"om  that 
spiritual  capital,  the  site  of  which  is,  indeed,  remarkable  for  its  relation  to  the  tiiree  conti- 
nents, Asia,  Europe,  and  Africa.  Persia  stands  in  its  proper  place ;  but  India,  under  the 
modifications  of  Greater  and  Lesser,  is  confi^isedlv  repeated  at  different  points,  while  the 
river  Indus  is  mentioned  in  the  text  as  the  eastern  boundary  of  Asia.     To  the  north,  the 


Book  II. 


KNOWLEDGE  FROM  THE  CRUSADES. 

Fig.  12.— SANUDO'S  MAP  OF  THE  WORLD. 


65 


castle  of  Gog  and  Magoof,  an  Arabian  feature,  crowns  a  vast  range  of  mountains,  within 
which  it  is  said  that  the  Tartars  had  been  imprisoned  by  Alexander  the  Great.  The  Cas- 
pian appears,  with  the  bordering  countries  of  Georgia,  Hyrcania,  and  Albania ;  but  these 
features  stand  nearly  at  the  northern  boundary  of  the  habitable  earth.  Africa  has  a  sea  to 
the  south,  stated,  however,  to  be  inaccessible,  on  account  of  the  intensity  of  the  heat.  The 
European  countries  stand  in  their  due  place,  not  even  excepting  Russia  and  Scandinavia ; 
though  some  oversights  are  observable  in  the  manner  in  which  the  two  are  connected 
tofiretlier. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

TARTAR    GEOGRAPHY. 


The  revolutions  of  the  north  of  Asia  next  attracted  the  eyes  of  Europeans  to  the  distant 
quarters  of  the  world.  The  roaming  tenants  of  those  boundless  wilds,  known  under  the 
ancient  name  of  Scythia,  and  the  modern  one  of  Tartary,  liave  at  various  periods  conquered 
and  desolated  the  civilized  world  of  Asia.  The  offspring  of  Tartar  chiefs  sat  for  many  cen- 
turies on  the  thrones  of  Pekin,  of  Delhi,  of  Ispahan,  and  of  Constantinople :  but,  of  the 
Tartar  rulers,  none  ever  raised  so  terrible  a  name,  or  established  so  wide  an  empire,  as 
Gengis  or  Zingis ;  originally  an  imlividual  chief  of  the  Monguls,  he  attained  the  general  sway 
over  tliat  warlike  race,  and  led  them  as  conquerors  from  empire  to  empire.  His  first  and 
most  signal  exploit  was  tlie  conquest  of  China ;  having  thence  crossed  the  whole  breadth  of 
Asia,  he  died  on  the  shoresof  the  Caspian.  His  successors  pressed  on  westward,  overran  Russia, 
and  penetrated  through  Poland  into  Hungary  and  Silesia ;  their  approach,  their  rapid  move- 
ments, and  the  exagfgerated  reports  of  their  ravages,  struck  the  nations  of  Europe  with  inex- 
pressible terror ;  this  was  greatly  heightened  by  the  prevailing  ignorance  of  geography,  which 
was  such  that  none  knew  when  they  might  arrive,  or  where  they  might  be  encountered.  The 

Vol.  I.  6*  I 


t)6 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  I. 


Danes  were  thus  deterred  one  season  even  from  going  to  the  lierrintr-fishcry,  on  the  coast  of 
Scotland.  Tlie  Tartars  defeated  and  killed  the  Duke  of  Silesia ;  but  a  general  muster  of 
the  German  chivalry  being  made  to  oppose  them,  they  retreated  into  the  mterior  of  Poland, 
and  even  further  to  the  east,  leaving  only  a  numerous  vanguard ;  but  it  was  suspected  that 
they  were  only  mustermg  their  strength,  again  to  invade  Europe,  in  more  dreadful  and 

destructive  array.  ,.,    ,    ,  .,     r         ^  i 

Embassy,  at  this  crisis,  was  deemed  the  expedient  most  likely  to  appease  the  fury  ot  these 
dreaded  invaders.  According  to  the  ideas  of  the  age,  the  pope  appeared  the  most  respectable 
character,  in  whose  name  a  mission  could  be  undertaken,  and  monks  the  most  fitting  ambas- 
sadors. The  clioice  was  injudicious :  these  envoys,  ignorant  of  the  political  relations  of 
countries,  of  tlie  usages  of  society,  and  the  mode  of  treatmg  with  mankind,  obtained  no 
respect  in  the  eyes  of  the  fierce  conquerors  of  Asia.  They  returned  without  fiilfiUing  any 
object  of  their  mission ;  and  if  Europe  was  not  again  exposed  to  this  barbarous  inundation,  it 
owed  its  safety  only  to  the  division  of  the  unmense  empire  of  Kaptchak,  and  the  dissensions 
among  its  princes.  These  ambassadors,  however,  traversed  a  large  portion  of  the  contment, 
before  unknown  to  Europeans.  One  mission,  indeed,  under  Ascelin,  which  met  the  Monguls 
on  the  fi-ontier  of  Persia,  does  not  communicate  any  geograpliical  information;  but  the 
journey  of  Carpini,  and  after  him  of  Rubruquis,  (Jig.  13.)  led  tliem  through  the  north  of 

Fig.  13— MAP  OF  THE  JOURNEY  OF  RUBRUQUIS. 

50  CO  70  80  90  100  110 


Russia,  along  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  Caspian,  and  thence  into  the  very  heart 
of  the  immense  plains  of  interior  Asia,  where  they  found  the  great  Tartar  capital  of  Kara- 
korum,  the  chief  seat  of  the  posterity  of  Zingis.  Here  the  masters  of  the  world,  while 
embassies  and  presents  were  waiting  them  from  all  the  courts  of  southern  Asia,  were  living 
in  the  rudest  Scythian  fashion,  feeding  scantily  on  horse-flesh  and  mares'  milk,  roving  about 
in  tents,  destitute  of  arts,  and  occupied  only  with  war  and  plunder.  The  Tartars,  however, 
treated  with  a  proud  disdain  all  other  nations,  over  whom  they  held  themselves  as  commis- 
sioned by  heaven  to  rule,  while  they  paid  the  most  abject  submission  to  their  own  Khan,  re- 
vering him  as  the  appointed  representative  of  the  deity  on  earth. 

Karakorum  was  foimd  scarcely  entitled  to  the  name  of  city,  being  little  larger  than  one 
of  the  suburbs  of  Paris,  and  its  most  sumptuous  edifices  scarcely  suitable  to  a  European 
country  town.  The  situation  of  this  capital  of  so  great  an  empire  has  been  a  subject  of  some 
controversy.  D'Anville  places  it  at  a  point  to  the  north  of  China,  near  the  eastern  limit  of 
the  great  desert  of  Shamo  or  Cobi,  while  Fischer  fixes  it  on  the  Orchon,  one  of  tlie  rivers 
which  unite  in  forming  the  Selingha.  I  have  elsewhere  endeavoured  to  show  (Discoveries 
in  Asia,  I.)  that  both  these  positions  must  be  about  a  thousand  miles  to  the  eastward  of  the 
real  site.  It  is  true  that  upwards  of  four  months  was  occupied  m  passing  fi-oin  the  western 
frontier  of  Russia  to  this  capital ;  and  the  missionaries  complain  of  the  grievous  rapidity  with 
which  they  were  conveyed.  They  estimate  the  daily  rate  as  equal  to  the  distance  from  Paris 
to  Orleans,  or  about  seventy  miles ;  and  this  time  and  route  would  doubtless  be  sufficient  to 
carry  them  to  the  most  eastern  extremity  of  the  continent.  But  whenever  they  give  us  the 
time  actually  employed  in  travelling  between  known  points,  a  rate  is  found  which  does  not 
even  approach  to  the  above.  Two  months  are  spent  by  Carpini  in  travelling  from  tlie  Dnieper 
to  the  Volga,  and  by  Rubruquis  trom  the  Danube  to  the  Don,  '.'  riding  post  as  the  Tartars 
do ;"  yet  neither  of  these  spaces  exceeds  in  direct  distance  six  hundred  miles.  Then  from 
the  Volga  to  tlio  Ural,  which  may  be  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  we  have  twelve  days ; 
while  the  journey  from  the  Ural  to  tlie  inland  sea  of  Balkash,  or  Palcati,  occupied  above 
forty-three  days.  Thus  down  to  that  point  it  required  four  months  to  travel  not  quite  eighteen 
liundrcd  miles.    From  the  Balkash  to  Kiirakorum,  the  journey  was  performed  in  three  weelis. 


Book  II.  VENETIAN  GEOGRAPHY.  67 

Is  it  possible  to  suppose  that  they  could  in  that  time  have  travelled  fifteen  hundred  miles,  the 
space  which  would  be  necessary  to  enable  them  to  reach  the  Karakorum  either  of  D'Anville 
or  ot"  Fischer  J  They  could  not  have  passed  the  great  table  plain  of  Soongaria,  compared  by 
the  Oriental  histories  to  a  great  sea  of  verdure,  and  consequently  of  all  others  the  best  fitted 
to  form  the  central  encampment  of  this  great  pastoral  and  military  empire.  All  the  geo- 
grapliical  indications  given  by  Rubruquis  agree  with  this  position ;  and  disagree  wholly  with 
the  otiier  two.  He  says  all  the  rivers  observed  by  him  flowed  to  the  westward,  which  is  true 
as  far  as  Soongaria,  but  directly  contrary  to  what  takes  place  in  the  other  positions,  both  of 
which  are  even-  placed  upon  rivers  that  flow  to  the  eastward.  China  is  said  to  lie  to  the 
south-east,  as  it  does  from  Soongaria ;  but  from  the  two  other  positions  it  would  be  directly 
south.  The  Kirghises  are  said  to  lie  to  the  nortli,  and  the  Baschkirs  to  the  west ;  but  these, 
according  to  the  ordinary  site,  would  have  been  at  a  distance  quite  immense,  and  could  have 
had  no  relations  with  Karakorum.  The  hypothesis  which  places  that  city  in  Mongolia  is 
founded  upon  the  latter  having  been  the  original  seat  of  Zingis ;  but  Rubruquis  expressly 
states,  tliat  this  arrangement  had  now  ceased,  and  that  Tartaria  was  "  the  chief  and  royal 
city."  Such  a  change  was,  indeed,  almost  necessary  to  an  empire  which  was  to  embrace  at 
once  the  East  and  the  West ;  to  hold  China  in  one  hand,  and  Russia  in  the  other. 


CHAPTER  V. 

VENETIAN    GEOGRAPHY. 


The  republics  of  Italy,  and  above  all  that  of  Venice,  were  the  states  in  which  the  spirit  of 
commerce  and  inquiry,  after  being  long  dormant,  revived  witli  the  most  brilliant  lustre. 
The  commerce  which  they  carried  on  was  one  wliich  connected  them  with  the  most  distant 
regions :  they  traded  in  the  jewels,  the  spices,  and  the  fine  cloths  of  India,  a  country  situated 
at  a  distance  really  vast,  and  which  then  appeared  almost  immeasurable.  It  was  not  by 
Venetians,  however,  or  by  any  Europeans,  that  the  vast  intervening  space  was  traversed. 
They  found  the  Indian  commodities  in  the  ports  of  the  Mediterranean  or  the  Black  Sea,  to 
which  they  were  brought  by  the  Arabs  up  the  Red  Sea,  or  by  the  interior  caravans  across 
central  Asia.  It  was  impossible,  however,  tliat  they  could  see  these  precious  and  profitable 
commodities  continuing  to  enter  their  ports,  without  feeling  some  curiosity  as  to  the  splendid 
and  beautiful  regions  whence  they  came ;  and,  in  that  age  of  enterprise,  it  was  likely  that 
some  would  be  impelled  to  brave  even  the  obstacles  presented  by  this  vast  unknown  space, 
occupied  by  people  of  a  hostile  and  bigoted  faith.  The  Abbe  Zurla  has  collected  notices  of 
a  considerable  number  who,  actuated  by  this  spirit  of  discovery,  penetrated  to  a  considerable 
depth  into  the  interior  of  Asia.  But  the  fame  of  all  these  is  eclipsed  by  one,  whose  travels 
extended  far  beyond  the  rest,  and  who  has  always  ranked  among  the  greatest  of  discoverers 
of  any  age. 

Marco  Polo  was  a  noble  Venetian,  whose  family,  like  many  others  of  the  same  rank,  was 
engaged  in  extensive  commerce.  His  uncles,  Mafloo  and  Nicolo,  had  visited  Tartary,  and 
afterwards  China,  though  without  leaving  any  narrative  of  their  observations.  Tlie  pope, 
however,  being  apprized  of  their  discoveries,  sent  out  an  ecclesiastical  mission,  accompanied 
by  the  young  Marco  Polo,  then  only  nineteen.  They  spent  twenty-four  years  in  traversing 
the  most  remote  regions  of  Asia.  The  result  of  their  religious  mission  is  not  stated ;  but  they 
returned  laden  with  precious  jewels,  with  which  they  dazzled  the  eyes  of  their  countrymen, 
by  whom  they  were  not  at  first  recognised.  Marco  being  afterwards  made  prisoner  by  the 
Genoese,  was  persuaded  to  amuse  the  hours  of  confinement  by  dictating  a  narrative  of  his 
travels,  which  was  read  with  avidity,  and  soon  translated  into  all  tlie  European  languages. 
He  has  suffered  like  many  other  eminent  travellers,  under  those  injurious  suspicions  which 
arise  in  the  minds  of  persons  unwilling  to  believe  any  event  or  object  which  goes  beyond 
the  sphere  of  their  ordinary  experience.  His  name  even  furnished  the  nickname  given  to  a 
personage  introduced  into  the  comedies  of  the  age,  to  recite  every  species  of  extravagant 
fable.  But  modern  information  has  verified  in  all  its  most  essential  points  the  narrative  of 
Marco  Polo,  leaving  only  a  sliglit  tincture  of  that  credulity  which  was  characteristic  of  the 
an-e,  and  is  confined  to  what  was  told  him  by  otliers  of  countries  which  he  did  not  himself 
visit.  He  appears  to  have  first  proceeded  along  the  northern  shore  of  Asia  Minor,  then  the 
seat  of  a  flourishing  Turkish  dynasty.  He  passed  through  Armenia,  along  the  lofty  ridges 
of  Ararat,  and  descending  the  Euphrates  througli  Curdistan  came  to  Bagdad,  no  longer  the 
capital  of  the  caliphate,  but  still  a  flourishing  and  civilized  city  under  its  Tartar  conquerors. 
He  visited  the  great  commercial  capital  of  Ormuz,  and  thence  proceeded  eastward  through 
the  southern  part  of  Persia  byKerman  and  Kubbees,  across  tlie  great  salt  desert.  At  length 
he  reached  Balkh,  whicli,  though  still  a  considerable  emporium  of  central  Asia,  presented 
only  in  its  ruined  temples  and  spacious  squares  the  vestiges  of  its  ancient  grandeur.  Then 
passing  along  the  borders  of  Cashmire  and  the  mountain  tract  of  Balashan  (Badakslian),  cele- 
brated for  its  mines  of  rubies,  lie  ascended  to  tlie  elevated  plain  of  Parnere,  forming  the  sum- 
mit of  that  cross  branch  of  the  Himmaleli  ciilleJ  the  Beloor.     On  this,  which  appeared  to  him 


68 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  1. 


the  highest  ground  in  the  world,  he  felt  that  difficulty  in  respiration,  and  in  producing  com- 
bustion, which  is  peculiar  to  the  most  elevated  mountain  sites.  He  afterwards  reached  the 
large  Tartar  cities  of  Yarkmid  and  Cashgar,  and  entered  on  that  great  eastern  table-land 
wluch,  before  and  since,  has  formed  the  Terra  Incognita  of  Asia.  He  then  entered  Northern 
China,  which  lie  calls  Cathay,  and  visited  its  capital  Cambalu,  His  description  of  wliich  strik- 
ingly coincides  with  that  of  the  modem  Pekin.  He  afterwards  visited  Mangi  or  Southern 
China,  and  found  in  its  capital,  Quinsai,  a  scene  eclipsing  all  tliat  he  had  beheld  either  in 
Europe  or  in  the  East.  It  is  described  as  a  most  immense,  and,  iVom  its  splendour  and  the 
beauty  of  its  situation,  almost  a  magic  city.  In  fact  Hangtchoofoo,  which  corresponds  with 
Quinsai,  though  it  has  long  ceased  to  be  the  capital  of  Chma,  is  still  a  very  large  city,  very 
charmingly  situated.  From  China,  Marco  Polo  passed  through  the  Indian  Archipelago,  hear- 
ing only  of  Great  Java,  but  visitmg  Sumatra,  which  he  calls  Little  Java.  He  touched  at 
the  coasts  both  of  Malabar  and  Coromandel,  and  learned  many  particulars  respecting  India 
and  its  people,  which  have  since  been  confirmed  by  modern  observation.  He  returned  by 
the  Red  Sea  to  Europe. 

A  map  of  the  world  on  a  large  scale,  (Jig.  14.)  by  Fra  Mauro,  which  is  preserved  at  Venice, 
and  of  which  a  highly  finished  copy  exists  in  tlie  British  Museum,  exhibits  a  view  of  the 
geograpliical  ideas  formed  by  the  Venetians,  founded  upon  tlie  information  derived  fi-om  tlieir 
Asiatic  travellers,  and  prior  to  the  discovery  of  America. 

Fig.  14. — Map  of  the  World  by  Fra  Mauro. 


S>3 


Arabia 

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1.  Barara 

2.  Dafur 

3.  Fundan 

4.  Murocho 

5.  Siene 

6.  Media 

7.  Ttiasi 
a  Thatc 

9.  Poltanfur 
IC.   Petligondi 

11.  Kiecnc!;a 

12.  .TurmUli 

13.  Deli 

14.  Ava 


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44 

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5      Kocsia    f/              ^^ 

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1.5    Charazan 

29. 

Zardavo 

43.  Sepolcro  Uncam 

e 

Nib 

16.  Charaian 

30. 

Here 

44.  Samargant 

f 

Eufratcs 

17.  Mihen 

31. 

Baleh  . 

45.  Nugra 

g 

Tisris 

18.  Mognan 

32. 

Tangui 

46.  Moschovia 

\ 

Indus 

19.   Siachone 

33. 

Cliansay 

47.  I'erinia 

IMandu3 

20    Selleton 

34. 

Nansm 

48.  -Novogrado 

j 

Ganges 

21.  Candar 

35. 

Q.uanzu 

49.  Riga 

k 

Uuian 

2-2.  Thymchain 

36. 

Cambalu 

50.  Fraga. 

1 

Mare  Breunto 

2.1.  Babilonia 

37. 

Archanara 

ni 

Amu 

24.  Mi-acipotamia 

38. 

Silao 

Rivera,  Lakes,  tjc 

a 

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25.  Archa  Noe 

39. 

Otrar 

a  Galla 

0 

Mare  Biancho 

26.  Tiphilis 

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Chawjo 

b  Xebe 

p 

Edil 

27.  Armenia 

41. 

Segenach 

c  Avaai 

q 

Tanai 

2d  Spaban 

42 

Sepulture 

b  Abavi 

r 

Dauubio. 

Book  IIL  MODERN  GEOGRAPHY.  69 

BOOK   III. 

MODERN    GEOGRAPHY. 

Geography  was  now  to  assume  a  new  aspect,  and  worlds  before  unknown  were  to  be  com- 
prehended within  her  domain.  Although  the  Italian  states  produced,  almost  exclusively,  emi- 
nent astronomers,  skilftU  pilots,  and  hardy  navig-ators,  then-  attention  vms  nearly  engrossed 
by  land  conveyance,  and  the  navigation  of  the  interior  seas  of  Europe :  they  did  not  originate, 
or  even  attempt  to  follow  out,  any  trains  of  oceanic  discovery.  The  rulers  of  the  exterior 
coasts  of  Europe,  and  especially  of  the  Iberian  peninsula,  carried  off  all  the  prizes  in  this 
new  and  brilliant  career.  Between  1492  and  1498,  the  American  continent,  and  the  passage 
to  India  by  the  Cape,  were  discovered  by  Gama  and  Columbus :  the  face  of  the  world  was 
changed ;  and  all  the  daring  and  enterprising  spirits  of  the  age  embarked  in  tliis  career  of 
discovery,  conquest,  and  commefce. 


CHAPTER  I. 

DISCOVERY  OF  AMERICA  AND  THE  EAST  INDIES. 

The  progress  of  discovery  over  the  globe,  when  the  first  steps  had  been  taken,  was 
astonishingly  rapid ;  no  cost,  no  peril,  deterred  even  private  adventurers  fi-om  equipping 
fleets,  crossing  the  oceans,  and  facmg  the  rage  of  savage  nations  in  the  remotest  extremities 
of  the  earth.  Columbus  had  not  yet  seen  the  American  continent,  and  the  mouth  of  the 
Orinoco,  when  Cabot,  of  Venetian  descent,  but  sailing  under  English  auspices,  discovered 
Newfoundland,  and  coasted  along  the  present  territory  of  the  United  States,  probably  as 
far  as  Virginia.  In  the  next  two  or  three  years,  the  Cortereals,  a  daring  family  of  Portu- 
guese navigators,  began  the  long  and  vain  search  of  a  passage  round  the  north  of  America : 
they  sailed  along  the  coast  of  Labrador,  and  entered  the  spacious  inlet  of  Hudson's  Bay, 
which  they  seem  to  have  mistaken  for  the  sea  between  Africa  and  America ;  but  two  of 
them  unhappily  perished.  In  1501,  Cabral,  destined  for  India,  struck  unexpectedly  on  the 
coast  of  Brazil,  which  he  claimed  for  Portugal.  Amerigo  Vespucci  had  sailed  along  a  great 
part  of  Terra  Firma,  and  Guiana,  and  he  now  made  two  extensive  voyages  along  the  coast 
of  Brazil ;  services  which  obtained  for  him  the  high  honour  of  giving  his  name  to  the  whole 
continent.  Grijalva  and  Ojeda  went  round  a  great  part  of  the  circuit  of  the  coasts  of  the 
gulf  of  Mexico,  In  1513,  Nunez  Balboa,  crossing  the  narrow  isthmus  of  Panama,  beheld  the 
boundless  expanse  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  These  discoveries  afforded  the  impulse  which 
prompted  Cortez  and  Pizarro  to  engage  in  their  adventurous  and  sanguinary  career ;  in  which, 
with  a  handful  of  daring  followers,  they  subverted  the  extensive  and  populous  empires  of 
Mexico  and  Peru.  Expeditions  were  soon  pushed  forward  on  one  side  to  Chili,  and  on  the 
other  to  California,  and  the  regions  to  the  north.  -Nearly  a  full  view  was  thus  obtamed,  both 
of  the  great  interior  breadth  of  America,  and  of  that  amazing  range  of  coast  wliich  it  pre- 
sents to  the  southern  ocean. 

In  the  Eastern  world,  the  domain  which  the  papal  grant  had  assigned  to  Portugal,  dis- 
covery was  alike  rapid.  Twenty  years  had  not  elapsed  from  the  landing  of  Vasco  da 
Gama,  when  Albuquerque,  Almeida,  Castro,  Sequeira,  Perez,  and  many  others,  as  navigators 
or  as  conquerors,  had  explored  all  the  coasts  of  Hindostan,  those  of  Eastern  Afi-ica,  of  Ara- 
bia, of  Persia ;  had  penetrated  to  INIalacca  and  the  Spice  Islands ;  learned  the  existence  of 
Siam  and  Pegu;  and  even  attempted  to  enter  the  ports  of  China.  But  the  characteristic 
jealousy  of  that  power  was  soon  a,wakened :  the  Portuguese  embassy  was  not  admitted  into 
the  presence  of  the  emperor ;  and  a  mandate  was  issued,  tliat  none  of  the  men  with  long 
beards  and  large  eyes  should  enter  the  havens  of  the  celestial  empire.  After  all  these  dis- 
coveries, the  grand  achievement  yet  remained,  of  connecting  together  the  ranges  of  eastern 
and  western  discovery;  and  of  laying  open  to  the  wondering  eyes  of  mankind  that  structure 
of  the  globe,  which,  though  demonstrated  by  the  astronomer,  seemed  to  the  generality  of 
mankind  contrary  to  the  testimony  of  tlieir  senses. 

Magellan,  in  1520,  undertook,  by  circumnavigating  the  earth,  to  solve  this  mighty  problem : 
he  passed  tlirough  the  straits  which  bear  his  name,  and  crossed  the  entire  breadth  of  the 
Pacific.  He  himself  was  unhappily  killed  at  the  Philippine  Islands,  but  his  companions 
sailed  on,  and  presented  themselves  to  the  astonished  eyes  of  the  Portuguese  at  the  Moluc- 
cas. They  arrived  in  Europe,  after  a  voyage  of  tliree  years;  and  it  could  no  longer  be 
doubted  by  the  most  sceptical  that  the  earth  was  a  spherical  body. 


70  HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  L 

CHAPTER  II. 

EARLY  SYSTEM  OF  MODERN  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  systematic  arrangement  of  the  immense  regions  thus  discovered,  their  adjustment  to 
each  other,  and  to  the  m'ass  of  knowledge  previously  possessed,  was  a  task  as  yet  beyond  the 
resources  of  modern  geography.  It  was  to  Venice  that  the  results  of  discovery  were  still 
referred  to  be  arranged  and  systematised ;  but  the  Venetian  geographers,  however  skilfiil, 
laboured  under  many  difficulties.  The  navigators  seldom  furnished  them  with  any  celestial 
observations,  or  even  accurate  surveys ;  for  which,  indeed,  science  had  as  yet  provided  no 
suitable  instruments:  they  gave  only  rude  delineations,  on  which  the  geographer  was  obliged 
to  trace  his  uncertain  way ;  most  of  the  countries  formerly  known  were  touched  at  new 
iximts,  and  recognised  under  new  names ;  and  the  continents,  being  made  to  contain  both  the 
old  and  tlie  new  features,  were  swelled  to  a  preposterous  magnitude.  The  east  of  Asia 
was  obliged  to  contain  at  once  the  Serica  of  Ptolemy,  the  Mangi  and  C*athay  of  Marco  Polo, 
and  the  "China  of  the  Portuguese,  all  as  separate  empires.  The  relative  site  of  the  two 
continents  of  Asia  and  America,  the  presentation  of  the  west  coast  of  the  one  to  the  east 
coast  of  the  other,  was  of  course  the  problem  wliich  they  had  the  fewest  means  of  solving. 
In  a  series  of  Venetian  maps,  preserved  in  the  king's  library,  the  two  continents  are  de- 
scribed througiiout  their  whole  extent  as  either  united  or  separated  only  by  the  narrow  Strait 
of  Anian :  the  former  delineation  is  retained  even  in  a  map  by  Bertelli,  dated  1571 ;  and  in 
one  by  Cimertinus  (1566),  Cathay  is  placed  upon  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  expedition 
of  Magellan,  it  might  be  supposed,  Avould  already  have  opened  their  eyes  to  the  extent  of  that 
vast  ocean  which  here  intervened :  but  ]\Iagellan  scarcely  penetrated  into  the  northern 
Pacific ;  and  his  ill-understood  course  was  probably  supposed  to  reach  direct  from  Cape 
Horn  to  the  Moluccas,  which  did  not  interfere  with  the  hypothesis  of  the  two  continents 
meeting  each  other  in  a  different  latitude.  The  breadth  of  America,  like  all  unknown 
spaces,  was  vastly  exaggerated  in  the  early  maps ;  while  eastern  Asia,  by  the  process  above 
pointed  out,  was  tripled  in  all  dimensions,  and  thus  made  to  cover  an  ample  portion  of  the 
Pacific. 

Sebastian  Munster,  in  1572,  produced  a  delineation  of  the  world,  w^hich  is  cleared  of 
some  of  the  grossest  mistakes,  and  which  very  tolerably  delineates  the  general  outline  of  the 
earth.  He  commits,  however,  a  very  discreditable  mistake,  in  taking  Ptolemy  for  his  guide 
in  regard  to  Scotland,,  and  consequently  representing  that  country  as  extending  from  west  to 
east ;  a  blunder  the  more  singular,  as  his  forms  of  Scandinavia  and  Ireland  are  liable  to  little 
exception.  Singular  flights  of  fancy  are  found  in  the  works  of  these  early  geographers. 
ISIunster  undertakes  to  describe,  not  only  the  surface  of  the  earth,  but  also  its  interior :  this 
is  stated  to  be  occupied  by  hell,  a  huge  cavern  two  or  three  thousand  German  miles  in  length 
and  breadth,  and  "  capable  cf  holding  many  millions  of  damned  souls."  Its  existence  w'as 
proved  by  the  spirits  wliich,  in  the  depth  of  mineral  caverns,  as  he  had  been  assured  by  Cor- 
nelius Agrippa,  often  killed  instantly  a  great  number  of  men.  The  inflammatory  gases, 
W'hich  are  still  frequently  producing  such  disasters,  afford  certainly  no  unplausible  ground 
for  that  strange  conclusion. 

Ortelius,  in  the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth  century,  exhibits  a  remarkable  im- 
provement in  geography.  In  his  maps,  all  the  parts  of  the  globe  begin  to  assume  their  real 
form  and  dimensions ;  America  and  Asia  are  widely  separated,  the  expanse  of  the  South  Sea 
interposing  between  tliem.  The  south  pole  is  invested  with  a  Terra  Atistralis  Incognita  ; 
which,  as  it  relates  to  New  Holland,  is  said  to  rest  on  the  authority  of  Marco  Polo  and  Bar- 
thema,  and  in  regard  to  the  West,  on  that  of  Magellan.  Terra  del  Fueffo  is  made  a  por- 
tion of  this  Austral  continent:  while  in  lat.  41°  S.,  and  long.  10°  west  of  Ferro,  is  Promon- 
torium  Terrte  Avstralis.  There  is  a  Terra  Septentrio7ialis  Incognita,  nearly  as  extensive, 
and  seeming  to  include  Nova  Zembla.  Greenland,  however,  exists  distinct  from  it.  In  the 
interior  of  Asia,  the  Caspian,  under  the  appellation  of  Mer  de  Bachu,  presents  the  same  form 
and  dimensions  as  in  Ptolemy,  and  receives  all  the  rivers  falling  really  into  the  Aral,  the 
existence  of  which  seems  not  to  be  suspected  by  this  geographer. 

Mercator  advanced  considerably  farther,  particularly  by  showing  the  imperfections  of 
Ptolemy,  and  the  injudicious  manner  in  which  the  delineations  given  by  him  had  been  mixed 
with  those  ilimished  by  modern  authority.  Mercator  retains  the  Austral  continent,  includ- 
ing in  it  Terra  del  Fuego.  The  lakes  of  Canada  appear  for  the  first  time  in  his  maps,  as  a 
sea  of  fresh  water,  the  termination  of  which  is  unknown.  In  Africa,  Abyssinia,  enormously 
amplified,  is  made  the  principal  and  almost  sole  feature ;  it  extends  southward  to  the  vicinity 
of  the  Cape,  comprehending  Mosambique,  and  bordering  on  Caflraria :  the  Nile  rises  only 
about  ten  degrees  north  of  the  Cape,  and  consequently  traverses  all  Africa  from  south  to  north. 
With  respect  to  the  extreme  northern  regions,  this  very  learned  man  has  indulged  in  some 
extraordinary  flights  of  imagination.  The  ocean  resumes,  as  m  Homer,  the  character  of  a 
river,  and  is  seen  rushing  by  four  mouths  into  tlie  Polar  Gulf,  to  be  absorbed,  it  is  said,  into 
the  bowels  of  the  earth.     On  one  of  the  river  branches  are  placed  pigmies,  scarcely  four 


Book  IH.  MODERN  ASTRONOMICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  71 

feet  high ;  a  notion  sng-gested,  perhaps,  by  the  diminutive  stature  of  the  Laplanders  and  Sa- 
moyedes :  on  another  is  placed  a  sort  of  northern  paradise,  while  the  Pole  itself,  a  blaciv  and 
immense  rock,  towers  to  a  prodigious  height. 

From  the  time  of  Mercator  modem  geography  made  rapid  and  continued  progress,  till  it 
attained  the  state  approaching  towards  perfection,  in  which  it  now  exists :  this  will  appear, 
when  we  consider  it  as  astronomical,  critical,  or  statistical ;  and  when  we  view  it  in  its  rela- 
tion to  the  different  quarters  of  the  globe. 


CHAPTER  m. 

MODERN  ASTRONOMICAL  GEOGRAPHY 


The  astronomical  geography  of  the  Greeks  rested  on  a  basis  exceedingly  narrow.  It  was 
only  at  Alexandria,  Syene,  Rhodes,  and  a  few  other  leading  pomts,  that  observations  of  lati- 
tude appear  to  have  been  made  with  a  tolerable  approach  to  accuracy ;  all  the  others  seem  to 
have  been  only  extended  from  rude  itineraries.  With  regard  to  the  longitudes,  although  the 
mode  of  calciilatmg  them  by  means  of  eclipses  appears  to  have  been  understood,  only  one  or 
two  actual  observations  of  tliis  nature  are  recorded ;  nor  does  it  seem  to  have  exerted  any 
important  influence  on  geogi-aphy  in  general.  The  Arabs  made  much  greater  progress  in 
this  department ;  but,  through  the  separation  produced  by  religious  antipathy,  their  works 
were  scarcely  at  all  known  in  Europe  at  the  period  of  the  revival  of  letters.  At  that  time, 
the  pompous  display  of  latitudes  and  longitudes  made  by  Ptolemy,  venerable  as  it  had  become 
from  its  antiquity,  commanded  universal  assent. 

Modern  observations  have  gradually  shown  the  magnitude  of  Ptolemy's  errors.  The  first 
great  shock  to  his  authority  was  given  by  the  latitude  of  Constantmople,  wliich  Amurath  III. 
caused  to  be  taken  in  1574,  when  it  proved  to  be  two  degrees  lower  than  ancient  authorities 
had  assigned :  the  idea  of  such  a  difference,  however,  was  treated  with  derision  by  some 
European  geographers,  till  it  was  confirmed,  in  1G38,  by  Greaves,  who  had  been  sent  to  the 
East  by  Archbishop  Laud.  Even  then,  many,  rather  than  renounce  the  authority  of  Ptolemy; 
believed  that  a  change  had  taken  place  in  the  position  of  the  earth ;  but  this  notion  became 
no '  longer  tenable  to  any  extent  when  Alexandria  and  other  pomts  were  found  very  nearly 
to  coincide  with  ancient  observation.  But  the  great  alarm  as  to  the  unsoundness  of  ancient 
graduation  was  given  in  1635,  when  M.  de  Peiresc  caused  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  to  be 
observed  at  Marseilles  and  at  Aleppo ;  and  the  difference  of  longitude,  instead  of  45°  as  it 
had  been  represented,  was  found  to  be  only  about  30°  :  such  an  enormous  error,  in  a  dimen- 
sion which  ought  of  all  others  to  have  been  most  exactly  ascertained,  shook  altogether  the 
blind  confidence  hitherto  reposed  in  the  longitudes  of  Ptolemy.  It  was  at  last  perceived, 
that  an  entire  reform  of  his  graduations  must  be  effected,  before  geography  could  rest  on  any 
secure  basis.  Numerous  observations  upon  eclipses  now  began  to  be  made ;  but  it  was  then 
discovered,  that  this  only  known  mode  of  ascertaining  the  longitude  was  attended  with  many 
imperfections.  In  the  observation  of  fifty-six  eclipses,  collected  by  Ricciolus,  there  were 
no  two,  observed  in  the  same  two  places  by  the  same  men,  which  exhibited  the  same  quantity 
of  longitude :  even  the  same  eclipse  gave  different  results,  when  observed  at  its  four  critical 
periods.  As  it  was  found  impossible  to  guard  against  errors  amounting  even  to  three  or 
four  degrees,  an  opinion  became  prevalent,  in  the  middle  of  tlie  seventeentii  centur}',  that  unless 
for  very  great  distances,  even  itinerary  measures  would  give  the  result  with  greater  accu- 
racy ;  yet  Galileo,  in  1610,  had  already  pointed  out  a  source  of  more  accurate  knowledge : 
he  had  in  that  year  discovered  three  of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  and  in  his  Nuncius  Sidereus, 
pointed  out  the  use  to  which  they  might  be  applied.  As  his  liints  did  not  meet  with  the 
attention  they  merited,  he  communicated  them  more  fully,  in  1631,  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain  ; 
but  that  bigoted  prince  was  unable  to  estimate  their  importance.  Galileo  met  with  a  more 
favourable  reception  from  the  Dutch,  who  sent  Hortensius  and  Bleau  to  Florence,  to  commu- 
nicate with  him  on  the  subject.  They  found  that  great  man  involved  in  the  storm  of 
persecution  which  the  ignorant  bigotry  of  the  Romish  church  had  raised  against  him:  he 
was  thrown  into  prison ;  and,  after  having  asked  pardon  on  his  knees,  for  asserting  that  the 
earth  moved  round  the  sun,  obtained  only  a  mitigation  of  his  confinement.  This  discovery 
was  therefore  of  little  use  till  1668,  when  Cassini  published  his  tables  of  the  revolutions  and 
elipses  of  these  satellites  ;  and  tliree  years  afterwards,  he  and  Picard  made  joint  observations 
at  Paris,  and  in  the  observatories  of  Tycho  Brahe  at  Copenhagen,  by  which  tlie  longitude 
of  these  two  important  points,  which  had  been  the  subject  of  long  controversy,  was  finally 
fixed. 

The  French  government  now  took  the  most  active  measures  for  extending  geographical 
observation.  Two  academicians,  Picard  and  De  la  Hire,  were  employed  to  construct  a  now 
map  of  France  upon  astronomical  principles.  In  this  operation  they  almost  everywhere 
reduced  the  previous  dimensions,  which  had  been  founded  upon  itinerary  measures,  and  were 
liable  to  their  usual  excess :  they  took  off  a  whole  degree  fi'om  the  western  coast  between 
Britany  and  Gascony,  and  lialf  a  degree  from  the  coasts  of  Languedoc  and  Provence ;  so  that 


72  HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY  Part  I. 

on  tlicir  return,  Louis  XIV.  facetiously  reproached  tliem  with  having  rohbed  liim  of  a  part 
of  his  kingdom.  Other  academicians  were  employed  to  determine  the  longitude  of  Goree 
on  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  of  Guadaloupe  and  Martinico  in  the  West  Indies;  and  M.  Cha- 
zelles  was  sent  up  the  Levant  on  a  similar  mission.  E.xpeditions  on  a  much  grander  scale 
were  dispatched,  imder  Maupertuis  to  the  Arctic  circle,  and  Condamine  to  the  equator. 
The  primary  object  of  these  was  to  detennme  tiis  figure  of  the  earth  by  the  application  of 
the  pendulum ;  but  the  opportunity  was  taken  of  making  various  observations  of  longitude 
and  latitude,  in  regions  which  had  been  formerly  delineated  only  by  processes  of  the  most 
vague  description. 

In  the  operation  of  determining  tlie  position  of  places  on  the  globe,  important  improve- 
ments have  been  made  since  the  above  eras.  Although  there  can  be  no  more  accurate  mode 
of  determining  the  longitude,  than  by  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter's  satellites,  these  are  of  too 
unfrcquent  occurrence  to  answer  the  practical  purposes  required.  Observations  of  the  transits 
of  Mercury  and  Venus  over  the  sun,  of  the  occultations  of  the  fixed  stars,  and  of  Avhat  are 
called  lunar  distances;  processes,  the  nature  of  which  will  be  fiilly  explained  in  the  following 
book,  have  been  employed  with  success.  Nay,  to  such  perfection  have  chronometers  been 
brought,  that,  by  showing  the  difference  of  time  between  known  and  unknown  points,  they 
serve  many  of  the  ordinary  purposes  of  navigation.  The  voyages  undertaken  by  Capt.  Cook, 
under  the  auspices  of  George  III.,  afforded  the  means  not  only  of  exploring  many  islands  and 
regions  of  the  Pacific  and  Polar  seas,  but  of  throwing  much  light  upon  the  general  structure 
of  the  earth.  The  expeditions  of  Capt.  Parry,  and  the  nautical  surveys  executed  under  the 
direction  of  the  British  government  by  Flinders,  King,  Owen,  and  other  officers,  have  gone 
far  to  fix  the  outlines  of  the  great  continents.  The  trigonometrical  surveys  of  France  and 
England,  executed  witliin  the  last  thirty  years,  have  almost  completed  the  delineation  of 
those  countries.     Still  tliis  branch  of  geography  remains  very  imperfect. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

MODERN  CRITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


The  application  of  a  sound  criticism  to  geographical  materials  cannot  be  discerned  in  the 
rude  and  infant  stages  of  the  science.  There  is  no  branch  in  which  tlie  inquirer  is  so  likely 
to  be  misled  by  false  and  fabulous  rumours.  The  persons  from  whom  he  must  draw  his 
information, — the  navigator,  the  merchant,  the  traveller, — make  observations  often  only  in  a 
rougli  and  superficial  manner,  and  are  swayed  in  their  reports  by  fancy  or  vanity.  The  results 
of  their  own  observation,  or  the  authentic  relations  of  well-informed  persons,  are  confounded 
with  the  most  vague  rumours  which  float  among  the  vulgar.  Hence  almost  all  the  early 
systems  have  a  portion  of  truth,  mingled  with  many  ideal  and  fabulous  creations.  The  human 
mind  unwillingly  owns  its  ignorance  even  to  itself.  The  geographer  was  reluctant  to  stop 
short  at  the  point  where  his  authentic  information  ceased.  Having  to  delineate  a  kingdom 
or  a  continoHt,  he  filled  up  the  really  unknown  parts  from  vague  rumour,  or  a  fancifiil  pro- 
longation of  those  that  were  known.  Whatever  object  had  once  found  a  place  was  copied 
mechanically  witliout  any  inquiry,  until  modern  maps  and  descriptions  became  crowded  with 
objects,  for  the  position  of  which  no  reason  could  be  assigned. 

Stralx),  among  the  ancient  geographers,  was  alone  endowed  with  a  critical  spirit :  but  not 
having  a  sufficiently  ample  stockof  materials,  he  exercised  his  judgment  with  a  blind  severity, 
which  appears  to  have  done  injustice  to  several  individuals  whose  exertions  in  the  infant 
cause  of  discovery  were  highly  meritorious.  This  extreme  of  scepticism,  opposite  to  that 
of  credulity,  has  indeed  thrown  unjustly  into  shade  the  merits  of  some  of  the  most  eminent 
discoverers,  both  ancient  and  modern.  It  is  only  by  the  collation  of  numerous  authorities, 
accumulated  by  time  and  extended  intercourse,  that  the  just  medium  can  be  observed,  and 
an  equitable  sentence  prorwunced  on  the  reports  of  each  party. 

D'Anville,  in  the  eighteentli  century,  possessed  of  ample  materials,  endued  with  indefa- 
tigable patience  and  sound  judgment,  undertook  to  revise  the  whole  system,  upon  which  the 
world  and  its  regions  had  been  hitherto  delineated.  The  maps  of  the  age  were  still  covered 
with  many  obsolete  and  many  fanciful  particulars ;  and  large  portions  of  the  world,  con- 
cerning which  absolutely  nothing  was  known,  were  filled  with  imaginary  cities  and  countries. 
D'Anville  subjected  every  geographical  feature  to  the  strictest  revision,  and  expunged 
without  mercy  those  which  rested  on  no  positive  and  actual  authority.  The  world,  under 
his  hands,  assumed  a  new,  and  in  some  respects,  a  less  flattering  aspect.  Maps,  which  had 
before  been  amply  and  regularly  covered,  now  exhibited  vast  and  unseemly  blanks,  which, 
amid  the  boasted  learning  of  this  age,  implied  a  mortifying  confession  of  ignorance.  It  was 
impossible,  however,  to  deny,  that  this  was  the  sound  system  upon  which  to  proceed. 
Geography  rested  at  last  upon  sure  bases,  and  proceeded  in  a  regular  course  of  improvement. 

Major  Rennell,  with  a  skill  and  sagacity  not  inferior  to  that  of  D'Anville,  arranged  and 
illustrated  the  mass  of  important  materials  collected  respecting  India  and  Africa ;  and,  though 


Book  IH.  MODERN  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  73 

additional  contributions  of  vast  importance  have  in  some  degree  superseded  his  actual  delinea- 
tion, his  example  has  introduced  a  still  g-reater  precision  into  the  mode  of  treating  the  subject. 
The  comparison  of  ancient  and  modern  geography,  and  the  tracing  of  the  infant  steps  of 
early  discovery,  constitute  an  interesting  field  of  inquiry,  which  has  been  much  cultivated 
during  tlie  present  ago.  Vossius,  Bochart,  and  other  learned  scholars  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tur}',  had  exercised  much  diligence  in  these  researches ;  but  tliey  were  not  always  guided 
by  the  soundest  judgment,  nor  were  they  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  objects  actually 
existing,  to  be  able  to  recognise  them  under  the  early  descriptions.  Rennell,  Vincent,  and 
Mannert,  seemed  to  have  carried  this  research  nearly  as  far  as  it  can  go,  though  without 
being  able  to  dispel  that  inipenetrable  darkness  in  which  some  questions  are  still  involved. 
Gosselin  has  applied  to  the  science  an  extent  of  investigation,  and  a  critical  acumen,  which, 
perhaps,  none  of  his  predecessors  have  equalled ;  but  animated  by  too  Strabonic  a  spirit,  and 
seeking  to  subvert  all  the  bases  on  which  ancient  geography  had  before  rested,  he  has  in 
many  instances  rather  given  lustre  to  bold  and  ingenious  paradoxes,  than  made  solid  addi- 
tions to  the  science. 


CHAPTER  V. 

MODERN  DESCRIPTIVE  AND  STATISTICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  mere  outline  of  the  globe,  its  continents  and  countries,  the  leading  features  of  moun- 
tains, rivers,  and  cities,  their  distance  and  position  with  respect  to  each  other,  constitute  all 
tliat  in  tlie  very  strictest  sense  can  be  called  geography.  But  the  mind  cannot  pass  these  in 
review,  without  feeling  its  mterest  excited,  in  even  a  superior  degree,  by  other  objects,  for 
whicli  these  only  serve  as  the  basis.  The  productions  of  the  earth,  whether  natural  or  arti- 
ficial ;  the  treasures  hid  in  its  bosom ;  the  animals  which  roam  or  are  bred  on  its  surface ; 
above  all,  the  men  by  whom  each  region  is  peopled, — their  manners,  laws,  industry,  com- 
merce, the  revolutions  through  which  they  have  passed, — these  possess  the  strongest  claim 
on  our  attention,  and  are  of  an  importance  superior  to  that  of  the  mere  geometrical  outline. 

The  ancients  did  not  occupy  themselves  with  much  more  than  the  simple  and  fundamental 
bases  of  the  science.  The  delineation  of  these  formed  alone  an  arduous  task,  which  the 
geographer  was  required  to  accomplish  before  he  could  attend  to  the  accessary  and  orna- 
mental parts.  Eratosthenes  does  not  appear  to  have  extended  his  research  beyond  those 
branches  which  were  connected  with  astronomy.  The  work  of  Ptolemy  forms  a  mere  naked 
tabular  list  of  positions,  rarely  enlivened  by  any  historical  or  descriptive  notices.  Pliny  does 
not  go  much  farther.  Strabo  alone  has  enriched  his  work  with  numerous  anecdotes  and  de- 
scriptions which,  though  not  given  on  any  complete  or  systematic  prmciple,  constitute  a 
great  portion  of  its  value. 

Early  modern  writers  confined  themselves,  like  the  ancient  geographers,  to  mere  outlines. 
All  tlie  first  treatises  were  formed  on  the  model  of  Ptolemy ;  D'Anville,  the  head  of  the 
French  school,  applied  himself  solely  to  the  boundaries  and  positions  of  countries,  which  he 
fixed  with  a  precision  before  unknown,  but  without  directing  much  attention  to  their  physical 
and  social  relations. 

Statistics,  the  science  which  treats  of  kingdoms  and  states  in  their  relations  of  population, 
wealth,  productions,  commerce,  and  public  force,  is,  as  a  separate  branch  of  knowledge,  only 
of  recent  origin.  From  the  first  it  had  a  natural  alliance  with  geography.  Busching  may 
bo  considered  as  the  father  of  statistical  geography :  his  vast  research,  strict  fidelity,  and 
access  to  the  best  sources,  enabled  him,  in  his  description  of  Europe,  to  assemble  a  mass  of 
information  unequalled  by  any  of  his  predecessors.  He  has  arranged  it,  however,  nearly  in 
the  same  mechanical  manner  in  wliich  they  had  drawn  the  mathematical  outlines  of  the 
globe.  His  writings,  instead  of  conveying  to  the  mind  striking  general  views,  are  loaded 
with  minute  "and  burdensome  details,  which  can  be  useftil  only  as  matter  of  reference,  and 
would  therefore  have  most  properly  appeared  in  the  form  of  a  dictionary.  His  successors  have 
been  numerous,  and  their  labours  are  of  similar  character  and  value.  Bruns,  with  regard  to 
Africa,  and  Ebeling  to  Asia,  continued  the  series.  The  great  geographical  work  recently 
completed  by  Hassel,  Cannabich,  Gaspari,  and  Gutsmuth,  in  twenty-five  octavo  volumes,  each 
equal  to  three  or  four  of  ordinary  size,  comprises,  probably,  the  largest  mass  of  statistical 
information  ever  assembled  into  one  work. 

The  English  compilations  of  Bowen,  Guthrie,  Salmon,  and  others  of  the  same  school  were, 
perhaps,  the  first  works  which  embraced  nearly  all  the  objects  that  can  give  interest  to  a 
system  of  geography ;  and  though  indifl"erently  executed,  and  devoid  of  any  charms  of  style, 
they  acquired  a  very  extensive  popularity.  Mr.  Pinkerton  has  executed  a  work  on  the  same 
plan,  in  a  superior  manner,  adding  notices  of  the  different  branches  of  natural  history,  and 
of  the  different  languages  of  nations.  M.  Malte-Brun,  by  his  acquaintance  with  the  eastern 
and  northern  literature  of  Europe,  and  by  an  animated  and  interesting  style,  has  produced  a 
work  in  some  respects  superior.  M.  Balbi  has  distinguished  himself  by  the  industry  with 
which  he  has  collected  geographical  facts. 

We  shall  now  take  a  view  of  modern  discovery  in  the  remoter  quarters  of  the  globe. 
Vox.  I.  7  K 


74  HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  L 

CHAPTER  VI. 

MODERN  GEOGRAPHY  OF  ASIA. 

Asia  was  the  first  continent  which  attracted  the  attention  of  Europeans,  and  the  journeys 
of  all  the  early  travellers.  The  enterprise  of  the  Venetians  penetrated  into  some  of  the 
wide  and  perilous  tracts  of  its  interior,  which  the  boldest  of  more  modern  travellers  have  in 
vain  essayed  to  reach.  Since  the  passage  of  the  Cape,  the  career  of  discovery  has  been 
chiefly  maritime.  We  have  seen  how  rapidly  the  Portuguese  fleets  explored  all  the  south- 
ern coasts  and  islands.  The  eastern  shores  beyond  Japan,  as  they  presented  nothing  tempt- 
ing to  commercial  avidity,  were  left  to  be  examined  by  expeditions  having  science  and  curi- 
osity for  their  object.  This  task  was  effected  by  Cook,  Perouse,  Broughton,  and  Krusenstern. 
Jesso,  which  had  figured  as  a  large  continental  tract,  stretching  between  Asia  and  America, 
was  reduced  by  them  to  its  insular  form  and  dimensions,  and  its  separation  from  Saghalien 
established ;  the  range  of  the  Kurile  islands  was  also  traced ;  but  some  questions  respecting 
this  very  remote  and  irregular  coast  remain  yet  to  be  solved.  Along  its  northern  boundary, 
beset  by  the  almost  perpetual  ices  of  the  polar  sea,  the  progress  of  navigation  was  slow  and 
laborious.  The  English  and  Dutch,  the  chief  maritime  states,  made  extraordinary  cfiorts. 
and  braved  fearful  disasters,  in  the  hopeless  attempt  to  effect  by  this  route  a  nearer  passage 
to  India ;  but  though  they  penetrated  beyond  Nova  Zembla,  they  never  could  pass  the  formi- 
dable promontory  of  Severovostochnoi,  the  most  nortliern  point  of  the  Asiatic  continent.  The 
Russians  now  claimed  for  themselves  the  task  of  advancing  farther.  They  had  most  rapidly 
discovered,  and  conquered  the  whole  south  and  centre  of  Siberia,  and  reached  the  eastern 
ocean  at  Ochotzk ;  but  the  frozen  bounds  of  the  north  for  some  time  defied  their  investiga- 
tion. Proceeding  in  little  barks,  however,  they  worked  their  way  from  promontory  to  pro- 
montory. Behring  and  TchirikofF,  early  in  the  last  century,  sailed  through  the  Northern 
Pacific,  discovered  the  American  coast,  and  the  straits,  bearing  the  name  of  the  former,  which 
divide  Asia  from  America.  Deschnew  and  Shalaurof,  by  rounding  the  Asiatic  side  of  this 
Cape,  and  discovering  the  coast  stretching  away  to  the  westward,  were  supposed  to  have  es- 
tablished the  fact  of  the  entire  separation  of  the  two  contments.  There  still  remained  a 
portion  of  coast  on  the  side  of  Asia,  which,  it  was  alleged,  might,  by  an  inrunense  circuit, 
have  connected  the  two  together ;  but  the  late  voyage  of  Baron  Wrangle  seems  to  have  re- 
moved every  ground  on  which  such  conjecture  could  rest,  and  to  have  established  beyond 
doubt  or  dispute,  the  existence  of  Asia  and  America  as  continents  altogether  distinct. 

Respecting  the  interior  of  Asia,  the  British  obtained  much  additional  information  from 
Lidia,  after  they  became  undisputed  masters  of  that  region.  This  information  was  in  many 
respects  only  a  revival  of  ancient  knowledge.  The  mountain  boundary  of  India  was  traced, 
and  found  to  rise  to  a  height  before  unsuspected.  The  sources  and  early  courses  of  the 
Ganges  and  the  Indus,  were  found  in  quarters  quite  different  from  those  which  modern 
geography  had  long  assigned  to  them.  The  mountain  territories  of  Cabul  and  Candahar, 
the  vast  sandy  plains  of  Mekran,  were  illustrated  by  the  missions  of  Elphinstone  ind  Pottin- 
ger ;  while  Turner  and  Moorcroft  penetrated  into  the  high  interior  table-land  of  Thibet. 
Recent  and  authentic  information  has  also  been  furnished  by  Burnes  respecting  Bochara  and 
Samarcand,  those  celebrated  capitals  of  the  early  masters  of  Asia :  but  there  remains  stili  a 
great  central  Terra  Incognita,  respecting  which  our  infonnation  rests  chiefly  upon  the  desul- 
tory and  somewhat  clouded  reports  of  Marco  Polo,  and  the  meagre  narrative  of  Goez ;  though 
some  important  and  more  precise  information  has  recently  been  afforded  by  the  researches  of 
Humboldt  and  Klaproth. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

MODERN  GEOGRAPHY  OF  AFRICA. 

Africa,  more  than  any  other  quarter  of  the  globe,  has  defied  the  research,  and  humbled  the 
pride,  of  modem  inquiry.  After  accurate  surveys  had  been  made  of  the  remotest  oceans  and 
shores,  this  continent,  placed  almost  in  view  of  Europe,  still  baffled  every  attempt  to  pene- 
trate the  mighty  secrets  which  it  held  in  its  bosom.  This  vast  and  unbroken  region  enclosed 
by  huge  expanses  of  desert,  and  occupied  by  barbarous  and  predatory  tribes,  for  a  long 
period  proved  fatal  to  every  daring  mortal  who  attempted  to  penetrate  into  its  depths.  The 
Portuguese,  however,  at  an  early  period,  made  verv  extraordinary  exertions,  impelled  by  the 
odd  chimera  of  Prester  John,  a  Christian  prince,  whom  they  expected  to  find  in  the  interior. 
With  this  view  they  explored  Abyssinia,  of  which  they  vastly  exaggerated  the  dimensions, 
making  it  extend  even  to  t\o  Cape,  in  the  vicinity  of  which,  according  to  their  idea,  the 
Nile  took  its  origin.  In  their  progress  also  along  the  western  coast,  they  sent  repeated  em- 
bassies into  the  interior,  to  discover,  if  possible,  the  abode  of  Prester  John ;  and  though  that 
favourite  object  always  eluded  their  seardh,  they  appear  to  have  reached  on  one  occasion  as 
far  as  Tirabuctoo,  and  learned  at  Benin  some  particulars  respecting  the  great  interior  king- 
dom of  Ogane  or  Ghana. 


Book  IU.  MODERN  GEOGRAPHY  OF  AFRICA.  75 

The  great  interior  river  called  by  Ptolemy  the  Niger,  was  the  object  which  from  the  first 
excited  the  chief  interest  in  respect  to  the  African  interior.  All  the  early  European  navi- 
gators, on  comin^T  to  the  two  broad  estuaries  of  the  Senegal  and  Gambia,  concluded  that  one 
or  both  formed  the  termination  of  the  long  course  which  the  Niger  had  been  described  as 
taking  ncross  the  entire  breadth  of  Africa.  For  several  centuries  the  European  nations, 
inte-:!  r.  Jy  on  the  trade  in  slaves,  merely  touched  at  different  points  of  the  coast,  to  which 
iY '  unhappy  victuns  were  brought  down  by  large  caravans.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
se.enteenth  century,  however,  the  French  and  English  having  respectively  settled  on  the 
Senegal  and  Gambia,  were  tempted,  by  the  report  and  view  of  the  gold  brought  from  the 
interior,  to  push  up  these  rivers  and  endeavour  to  reach  Timbuctoo.  They  had  not  ascended 
far,  wlien  they  became  sensible  that  the  extraordinary  magnitude  and  distant  origin  ascribed 
to  both-  was  altogether  chimerical.  They  were  traced  so  near  to  their  sources  as  to  be 
little  more  than  rivulets ;  yet  still  the  explorers  were  far  from  Timbuctoo,  and  from  the 
great  central  plain,  through  which  the  main  course  of  the  Niger  was  understood  to  flow. 
At  the  same  tune,  notices  were  transmitted  to  the  French  geographers  Delisle  and  D'Anville, 
which  led  them  to  infer  that  there  was  in  that  region  another  and  greater  river,  which 
flowed  eastward  towards  the  interior,  and  of  which  they  were  unable  to  learn  the  termina- 
tion. Yet  this  delineation  of  these  great  geographers  had  been  in  a  great  measure  lost 
sight  of,  even  among  their  own  countrymen. 

The  information  obtained  by  the  African  Association  at  first  tended  to  confirm  this  impres- 
sion. The  persons  who  had  crossed  the  Niger  at  the  most  eastern  part  of  the  central  Afri- 
can plain,  described  it  to  Mr.  Lucas  as  flowing  westward :  but  these  conflicting  statements 
were  silenced  by  the  first  expedition  of  Mr.  Park,  who  at  Sego  beheld  it  a  broad  and  majes- 
tic stream,  flowing  through  the  plain  of  Bambarra  from  west  to  east,  and  directing  its  course 
into  the  depths  of  interior  Africa.  From  that  time,  the  termination  of  the  Niger  became 
the  grand  problem  which  the  science  and  the  enterprise  of  the  age  were  exerted  to  solve. 
A  boundless  field  v.'as  open  to  conjecture.  By  one  theory,  the  Niger  was  lost  in  some  great 
inland  seas  or  lakes  of  the  interior ;  by  another,  it  bent  to  the  south  and  west,  and  reached 
the  Atlantic  either  in  the  Gulf  of  Benin,  or  by  the  estuary  of  the  Congo ;  lastly,  it  rolled  to 
tiie  eastward,  till,  under  the  name  of  the  Abiad,  or  White  River,  it  became  the  principal 
head  of  the  Nile  of  Egypt.  At  last,  by  the  persevering  exertions  of  the  British  govern- 
ment, an  expedition  fairly  succeeded  in  penetrating  into  the  hitherto  unknown  interior  of 
Africa,  and  in  throwing  a  wonderftil  addition  of  light  upon  its  structure.  This  mission,  how- 
ever, broke  up  the  grand  question.  They  discovered,  flov/ing  through  the  great  African 
plain,  not  one  river  in  one  direction,  but  several  in  different  directions ;  all  of  which,  it 
appears,  have  been  considered  at  different  times,  and  under  different  circumstances,  as  the 
Niger.  These  rivers  are  four : — 1.  The  Senegal,  considered  by  the  Arabians  and  modern 
Europeans  as  the  embouchure  by  which  the  Niger  entered  the  ocean.  2.  The  Joliba,  which 
ever  since  it  was  visited,  and  its  course  ascertained,  by  Park,  has  been  fixed  in  the  mind  of 
Europeans  as  the  only  Niger ;  though  probably  not  kno\\'n  to  any  of  the  ancient  geographers 
wlio  used  that  term.  3.  The  Quarrama,  or  river  of  Zirmie,  first  discovered  by  the  late 
mission,  flowing  from  east  to  west,  and  falling  into  the  Joliba  or  Quolla.  This  is  evidently 
the  Arabian  Nile  of  the  negroes,  on  or  near  which  are  situated  all  their  great  cities — Ghana, 
now  known  under  the  name  of  Cano ;  Berissa,  under  that  of  Bershee  ;  Tocrur,  as  I  appre- 
hend, under  that  of  vSackatoo.  4.  The  Yeou,  flowing  eastward  into  the  great  lake  of  Bornou, 
and  wliich  appears  to  have  been  the  western  Nile  of  Herodotus,  visited  by  the  Nasamonian 
adventurers  from  Tripoli.  The  mission  also  ascertained  the  site  of  the  kingdom  of  Bornou, 
whicli  had  been  very  erroneously  placed ;  they  discovered  the  fertile  kingdom  of  Loggun, 
perhaps  the  Cauga  of  Edrisi,  and  the  great  mountain  region  of  Mandara,  which  appears  to 
1)C  tlie  ^[ons  Mundrus  of  Ptolemy.  The  subsequent  expedition  of  Clapperton  from  the 
(jtulf  of  Benin  showed  the  connexion  between  tlie  Atlantic  coast  and  the  interior,  and  com- 
])leted  the  diagonal  section  made  across  the  greatest  breadth  of  the  African  continent.  It 
showed  also  the  continuity  of  large  and  populous  kingdoms  extending  in  this  direction : 
Eyeo,  the  Gago  of  Leo  and  the  early  geographers ;  Zegzeg,  with  its  large  capital  Zaria ; 
Nyffe,  the  most  industrious  of  the  African  states ;  Boussa,  Koolfu,  and  other  flourishing 
cities.  The  Niger  of  Park  was  here  seen  liolding  a  southerly  direction  towards  the  Gulf 
of  Benin ;  but  it  was  reserved  for  Lander  finally  to  solve  the  grand  problem  by  tracing  the 
Niger  down  to  its  termination  in  the  Gulf  of  Benin.  Tliis  discoverj^  witli  that  of  its  numer- 
ous tributaries,  opens  to  commerce  the  prospect  of  being  able  to  penetrate  into  the  most 
interior  and  finest  regions  of  the  African  continent. 

Among  partial  but  important  contributions  to  the  knowledge  of  Africa,  may  be  mentioned 
the  observations  of  Bruce  and  Salt  in  Abyssinia  ;  those  of  Brown  in  Darfur;  of  Waddin^on 
and  Caillaud  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Nile;  and,  lastly,  of  Lichtenstein,  Campbell,  and 
Burchell,  upon  the  countries  which  lie  in  the  interior  northward  from  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  Yet  a  vast  field  still  remains  for  future  discovery.  In  particular,  all  the  southern 
interior,  from  the  equator  nearly  to  the  Cape,  has  scarcely  been  the  subject  even  of  rumour. 
Tlie  sources  of  the  Nile,  after  the  search  of  so  many  ages,  are  yet  unexplored ;  as  well  as 


76  HISTORY  OF  GEOGTRAPHY.  Part  I. 

that  wide  rano-c  of  territory  vvhich  intervenes  between  it  and  the  series  of  rivers  which  we 
have  just  noticed  as  assuming-  the  name  of  Nig-er.  The  continuity  and  structure  also  of 
that  vast  cliain  of  mountains,  which,  according  to  recent  travellers,  appears  to  cross  Alrica 
at  its  greatest  breadth,  and  gives  rise  to  so  many  mighty  streams,  have  yet  by  no  means  been 
completely  traced. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

MODERN  GEOGRAPHY  OF  AMERICA. 


The  discovery  of  America,  as  formerly  observed,  was  made  in  the  first  instance  with 
e.xtraordinary  rapidity.  The  thirst  for  gold  and  tlie  spirit  of  adventure  urged  nation  after 
nation  to  explore  its  coasts,  and  penetrate  its  interior.  Within  twenty  years  \vas  formed 
a  ftiU  and  tolerably  precise  outline  of  the  whole  eastern  coast,  from  the  mouth  of  Hudson's 
Bay  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  The  conquest  of  Cortez,  of  Pizarro,  and  of  their  im- 
mediate successors,  soon  conveyed  a  pretty  accurate  idea  of  the  western  coast  of  South 
America,  of  Mexico,  and  even  of  the  peninsula  of  California.  But  the  northern  regions, 
stretching  into  the  ices  of  the  Pole,  presented  barriers  of  a  formidable  description,  which 
long  bafiled  tlie  utmost  efforts  of  navigators.  America  on  this  side  resisted  for  a  longer 
time  tlie  attempts  to  complete  its  delineation  than  any  other  continent. 

To  explore  the  north-western  coast  seems  to  have  been  an  undertakmg'  properly  belong- 
ing to  Spain,  the  possessor  of  all  the  vast  and  opulent  regions  which  extend  along  the 
Pacific.  Recent  notices  liave  shown  that  they  did  not  neglect  that  inquiry,  for  Cortez  and 
several  of  the  other  viceroys  sent  expeditions  along  this  coast,  to  whicii  they  gave  the  name 
of  New-Mexico.  The  Spaniards,  however,  as  usual,  shrouded  in  deep  mystery  even  these 
limited  discoveries,  and  were  long  able  to  prevent  the  other  nations  of  Europe  from  visiting 
this  coast,  the"  most  remote  and  inaccessible  of  any  in  the  circuit  of  the  globe.  Europeans, 
therefore,  were  not  aware  of  the  vast  breadth  to  which  this  continent  expanded  towards  the 
north.  They  ratlier  supposed  that,  like  South  America,  it  narrowed  to  a  point  or  cape, 
upon  passing  which  tlie  navigator  would  enter  upon  the  expanse  of  the  Pacific,  and  might 
bear  down  upon  Japan,  Cliina,  and  the  East  Indies.  The  commercial  nations  therefore, 
made  vigorous  and  almost  ceaseless  efforts  to  turn  this  point,  and  effect,  as  they  imagined,  a 
nearer  and  more  direct  route  into  the  eastern  seas. 

The  English  took  the  lead  in  tliis  important  career.  Under  the  reign  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, Frobisher  and  Davis  made  each  three  successive  voyages.  One  discovered  the 
entrance  into  Hudson's  Bay,  tlie  other  found  the  entrance  into  the  great  sea  which  bears 
the  name  of  Baffin's  Bay ;  but,  partly  arrested  by  the  well  known  obstructions  to  wliich 
these  seas  are  liable,  partly  diverted  by  a  chimerical  search  after  gold,  they  could  pot  pene- 
trate beyond  the  numerous  islands  and  mlets  by  which  these  entrances  are  beset.  Hudson, 
in  1610,  steered  a  bolder  course,  and  entered  the  vast  bay,  which  has  received  its  appella- 
tion from  that  great  navigator,  who  there  unfortunately  terminated  his  adventurous  career. 
The  treachery  of  a  ferocious  and  mutinous  crew  exposed  him  on  these  frozen  and  desolate 
shores,  where  he  miserably  perished.  Sir  Thomas  Button  followed  in  1612,  and  finding 
himself  in  the  middle  of  this  capacious  basin,  imagined  himself  already  in  the  Pacific,  and 
stood  full  sail  to  the  westward.  To  his  utter  dismay  he  came  to  the  long  continuous  line 
of  shore  which  forms  the  western  boundary  of  Hudson's  Bay.  He  expressed  his  disappoint- 
ment by  giving  to  the  coast  the  name  of  "  Hope  checked."  Bylot  and  Baffin,  who  followed 
three  years  after,  were  stopped  by  tlie  ice  at  Southampton  Island.  Baffin,  however,  made 
afterwards  a  more  important  voyage,  in  which  he  completely  rounded  the  shores  of  that 
great  sea  which  bears  his  name,  and  which,  appearing  to  him  to  be  inclosed  on  all  sides  by 
land,  has  been  denominated  Baffin's  Bay.  The  error  involved  in  this  appellation  deterred 
subsequent  navigators  from  any  further  attempt;  for  Baffin,  in  passing  the  great  opening 
of  Lancaster  sound,  had  concluded  it  to  be  merely  a  gulf  From  that  period  the  English 
navigators,  though  they  ceased  not  to  view  this  object  with  ardour,  ho{>ed  to  fulfil  it  only  by 
the  channel  of  Hudson's  Bay.  In  1631,  two  vessels  were  sent  thither  under  Fox  and  James. 
The  latter,  entangled  in  some  of  the  southern  bays,  returned  after  dreadful  sufferings  from 
the  cold  of  the  winter ;  but  the  former,  quaintly  calling  himself  North-west  Fox,  explored  a 
part  of  that  great  opening  called  Sir  Tliomas  Roe's  Welcome,  whicli  appeared  now  to  afford 
almost  the  only  hope  of  a  passage ;  but  he  stopped  short  at  a  point  which  he  termed  "  Fox's 
ferthest."  Under  Charles  II.  a  company  was  formed  for  the  purpose  of  settlement  and 
commerce  in  Hudson's  Bay,  and  engaged  to  make  the  most  strenuous  exertions  to  discover 
a  western  passage ;  but  it  is  believed  that  the  only  exertions  really  made  by  the  Company 
tended  to  prevent  any  such  discovery.  Middleton,  an  officer  in  their  service,  was  sent  out 
in  1741,  sailed  up  the  Welcome,  and  believed  himself  to  have  discovered  that  the  head  of 
that  channel  was  completely  closed.  He  was  strongly  charged  with  having  received  a  high 
bribe  from  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  to  stiffe  the  discovery,  and  Moor  and  Srnitli  we"r« 
sent  out  in  tlie  following  year  with  the  most  sanguine  hopes ;'  but  when  they  returned  with  • 


Book  IU.  THE  AUSTRAL  SEAS  AND  ISLANDS.  77 

out  having  effected  any  thing-,  the  public  expectations  were  greatly  abated.  It  became  the 
general  impression  tliat  America,  on  this  side,  formed  a  mass  of  unbroken  land,  and  that  the 
long  sought  passage  had  no  existence. 

New  views  of  the  extent  and  form  of  the  northern  extremities  of  America  were  opened 
by  the  discoveries  of  Cook,  corroborated  by  those  of  some  other  English  navigators  in  the 
Northern  Pacific.  It  appeared  that  America  there  stretched  away  to  the  north-west,  till  it 
reached  a  breadth  equal  to  one-fourth  part  of  the  circumference  of  the  globe.  Cook  pene- 
trated, indeed,  through  the  strait  wliich  bounds  the  continent  and  separates  it  from  Asia;  but 
the  coast  appeared  there  extending  indefinitely  north ;  and  it  became  a  general  impression 
that  America  formed  a  huge  unbroken  mass  of  land  approaching  the  Pole,  and  perhaps 
reaching  that  ultimate  point  of  the  globe.  This  belief  received  a  sudden  shock  from 
Hearne's  voyage  down  the  Copper  Mine  River,  and  his  discovery  of  the  sea  into  which  it 
fell,  in  a  latitude  not  higher  than  that  of  the  north  of  Hudson's  Bay.  Soon  after,  Sir 
Alexander  Mackenzie  traced  also  to  the  sea  another  river  twenty  degrees  farther  west. 
There  was  now  a  strong  presumption  that  a  sea  bounded  the  whole  of  America  to  the  north, 
and  that  there  really  was  such  a  passage  as  had  been  so  long  sought,  and  might  be  found, 
were  it  not  too  closely  barred  by  ice  and  tempest.  The  British  administration,  animated 
with  an  active  and  laudable  zeal  in  the  cause  of  discovery,  determined  that  no  possible  eflx)rt 
should  be  omitted  by  which  this  important  and  long  agitated  question  might  be  brought  to  a 
final  decision. 

A  series  of  exploratory  voyages  was  now  begun.  Capt.  Ross,  in  1818,  made  the  circuit 
of  Baffin's  Bay,  and  returned  witli  the  belief  that  no  opening  existed :  Ijieut.  Parry,  second 
in  command,  formed  a  different  judgment,  and  having  satisfied  the  Admiralty  as  to  his 
grounds  of  belief,  was  sent  out  with  the  command  of  a  new  expedition.  In  this  memorable 
voyage,  Capt.  Parry  penetrated  through  Lancaster  Sound,  which  he  found  to  widen  gradually, 
until  it  opened  into  the  expanse  of  the  Polar  Sea.  He  did  not  toucli  on  any  part  of  the 
American  coast,  but  found  parallel  to  it  a  chain  of  large  islands ;  and  his  progress  through  ■ 
these  was  arrested,  not  by  land,  but  by  straits  and  channels  encumbered  with  ice.  In  con- 
sideration of  these  obstacles,  his  next  attempt  was  made  through  Hudson's  Bay,  by  the  yet 
imperfectly  explored  channel  of  the  Welcome.  Struggling  through  various  obstacles,  he 
reached  at  length  a  point  considerably  beyond  that  where  Middleton  had  stopped,  and 
found  a  strait  opening  from  Hudson's  Bay  into  the  Polar  Sea.  This  strait  was,  however,  so 
narrow,  and  so  completely  blocked  witli  ice,  that  there  appeared  no  room  to  hope  that  it 
would  ever  afford  an  open  passage.  Capt.  Parry  was  therefore  again  sent  out  in  his  first 
direction ;  but  he  made  no  material  addition  to  his  fonner  discoveries.  Meantime  a  land 
journey,  under  Capt.  Franklin,  following  in  the  footsteps  of  Hearne,  reached  the  sea,  and 
discovered  a  considerable  extent  of  tlio  hitherto  unknown  northern  coast  of  the  American 
continent.  A  tolerably  clear  glimpse  was  thus  obtained  of  its  extent  and  boundaries ;  and 
the  zealous  efforts  of  government  were  employed  to  verify  the  whole  by  actual  survey.  A 
second  expedition  under  Capt.  Franklin  extended  this  survey  over  three-fourtlis  of  this 
boundary  coast,  and  reached  beyond  the  149th  degree  of  longitude.  Meantime  an  expedi- 
tion, under  Captain  Beechy,  sent  to  meet  Captain  Franklin  from  the  westward,  passed  the 
Icy  Cape  of  Cook,  and  arrived  at  nearly  156°  W.  longitude ;  between  which  point  and 
Captain  Franklin's  farthest  limit  there  intervened  only  7°,  or  150  miles. 

The  belief  was  hence  entertained,  that  the  whole  coast  extended  in  a  line  not  varying 
mucli  from  the  70th  degree  of  latitude  ;  but  the  important  expedition  which  Captain  Ross 
has  just  achieved  through  so  many  difficulties,  proves  the  existence  of  a  large  peninsula, 
extending  as  far  north  as  74°  N.  latitude.  It  remains  still  probable  that  a  naval  passage 
may  exist  farther  nortli,  in  the  line  of  Captain  Parry's  first  voyage.  But  the  encumbering 
ice  is  so  thick,  and  so  wedged  into  various  straits  and  channels,  that  probably  no  vessel  will 
ever  be  able  even  once  to  work  its  way  through  ;  and  certainly  a  ship  could  never  set  out 
with  any  assurance  of  thus  finding  its  way  from  the  Atlantic  into  the  Pacific.  Britain  has, 
however,  reaped  an  ample  share  of  glory  in  contributing  so  essentially  to  delineate  the 
boundaries  and  dimensions  of  this  great  and  important  continent. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

MODERN  GEOGRAPFIY  OF  THE  AUSTRAL  SEAS  AND  ISLANDS. 

More  than  half  the  surface  of  tlie  globe,  including  long  groups  of  islands  and  vast 
expanses  of  ocean,  remained  unexplored,  even  after  regular  naval  routes  liad  been  formed 
round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  Cape  Horn  ;  yet  there  soon  arose  the  belief  of  an  Austral 
continent,  as  extensive  and  as  abounding  in  wealth  as  that  which  had  been  discovered  by 
Columbus.  An  ideal  balance  was  fancied,  v.-hich  it  was  supposed  must  exist  betv.een  the 
lands  of  the  northern  and  those  of  the  southern  hemispheres ;  and  the  more  disproportionate 
the  extent  of  sea  which  existed  in  the  known  parts  of  the  latter,  the  greater  it  was  sup- 
posed must  be  the  mass  of  southern  continent  which  was  to  establish  this  ideal,  unaginary 

7* 


78  HISTORY  OF  GEOGR.\PHY.  Part  I.  Book  IE. 

balance.  In  all  the  early  maps,  a  huge  continental  mass  encircles  the  Antarctic  pole,  and 
presents  to  tlie  great  ocean  a  continuous  circuit  of  shore  reaching  round  the  globe :  the 
above  analogies  were  doubtless  aided  by  discoveries  made  on  great  uisular  tracts  of  the 
South  Sea,  m  partial  that  they  might  be  mistaken  for  promontories,  or  portions  of  a  great 
mai^s  of  Antarctic  land. 

The  Portuguese,  so  long  the  most  skilful  and  intrepid  navigators  of  the  ocean,  appear  to 
have  been  tlie  first  who  threw  any  light  upon  tliis  fillli  and  most  remote  portion  of  the  earth  ; 
in  less  than  twenty  years  after  their  passage  of  the  Cape  they  had  reached  the  most  extreme 
islands  of  the  Oriental  Archipelago,  mcluding  Java  and  the  Moluccas,  and  appear  even  to 
have  observed  some  parts  of  the  coast  of  Xew  Guinea.  There  are  no  records  of  their  having 
proceeded  farther ;  but  maps  have  been  found  in  the  British  Museum,  and  other  collections, 
which  exhibit  an  extensive  land  to  the  south  of  Java,  under  the  title  of  Java  Major,  on 
\s\Ach  occur  a  number  of  names,  some  of  them  Portuguese :  one  of  these  maps,  partly 
translated  mto  French,  has  the  "  Cote  des  Herbages,"  a  name  somewhat  curiously  coincid- 
ing with  Botany  Bay.  None  of  these  discoveries,  however,  have  been  embodied  in  any 
known  narration. 

The  Spaniards  also,  durmg  their  early  and  adventurous  career,  made  strenuous  efforts  to 
explore  the  southern  seas :  Magellan,  as  already  observed,  by  his  first  circmimavigation  of 
the  globe,  effected  a  grand  step  in  geographical  discovery.  Alvaro  Mendana,  in  1568, 
sailed  from  Lima,  ansi,  after  crossing  tlie  breadth  of  the  Pacific,  discovered  a  group  of  large 
maritime  lands,  to  which,  from  a  chunerical  reference  to  Ophir,  he  gave  the  name  of 
"  Islands  of  Solomon  :"  they  appear  to  be  part  of  that  great  group  which  forms  the  outer 
range  of  Australasia.  Mendana  set  out  on  a  second  voyage,  and  reached  the  same  quarter, 
but,  by  some  fatality,  could  not  again  find  the  islands  formerly  discovered.  Quiros  made  a 
still  more  important  expedition  ;  he  passed  through  the  Polynesian  group  ;  and  Sagittaria, 
one  of  the  islands  discovered  by  him,  appears  clearly  identified  with  Otaheite  ;  he  ter- 
minated his  voyage,  like  Mendana,  among  the  exterior  islands  of  Australasia ;  and  with 
him  expired  the  spirit  of  Spanish  enterprise. 

The  Dutch,  when  they  had  expelled  the  Portuguese  from  Java  and  tlie  Spice  Islands,  and 
had  established  in  them  the  centre  of  their  Indian  dominion,  were  placed  in  such  close 
proximity  witli  Xew  Holland,  that  it  was  scarcely  possible  for  a  great  maritime  nation  to 
avoid  extending  their  search  to  that  region.  Van  Diemen,  the  Dutch  governor  of  India 
about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  greatly  promoted  this  object,  and  sent  successive 
vessels  to  explore  the  coast  of  Xew  Holland.  Hertog,  Carpenter,  Xuytz,  and  Ulaming 
made  very  extensive  observations  on  the  northern  and  western  shores,  but  found  them  so 
dreary  and  unpromising,  that  no  settlement  of  any  description  was  ever  attempted.  Abel 
Tasman,  however,  wcnl;  beyond  his  predecessors ;  he  reached  the  southern  extremity  of  this 
great  mass  of  land,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Van  Diemen,  without  discovering  it  to  be 
an  island  :  he  tlien  sailed  across,  surveyed  the  western  coast  of  X"ew  Zealand,  and  returned 
home  by  the  Friendly  Islands.  This  important  range  of  discovery  was  not  followed  up ;  it 
refuted,  however,  the  delineation  by  which  Xew  Holland  had  been  made  part  of  the  imagined 
Austral  continent.  In  the  newly  arranged  charts,  that  continent  still  remained,  but  with 
its  position  shifted  farther  to  the  south,  and  New  Zealand  probably  contributing  to  form  part 
of  its  fancied  outline. 

The  English  nation,  by  the  vovages  of  several  navigators,  and  particularly  of  Cook,  secured 
the  glory  of  fizlly  exploring  the  depths  of  the  great  Pacific.  The  previous  voyages  of  Byron, 
Wallis,  and  Carteret  had  already  made  known  some  of  the  interesting  groups  of  islands 
with  whicli  its  vast  surface  is  studded.  Cook  fully  traced  the  great  chains  of  the  Society 
Islands,  and  of  the  Friendly  Islands :  he  discovered  and  surveyed  the  eastern  coasts  of  Xew 
Holland  and  Van  Diemen's  Land.  He  settled  the  form  and  relations  of  Xew  Zealand,  Xew 
Caledonia,  and  the  other  great  Australasian  lands  and  islands.  This  side  he  passed  thrice  the 
Antarctic  circle,  and  ranging  along  the  yet  unvisited  borders  of  the  southern  pole,  solved,  by 
refutijig,  the  famous  modern  hypothesis  of  an  Austral  continent.  He  navigated  also  through 
the  northern  Pacific,  observed  carefiilly  the  group  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  established, 
in  the  manner  before  pointed  out,  the  relation  between  the  continents  of  Asia  and  America, 
Many  emment  navigators,  amontj  the  French,  La  Perouse,  Marchand,  D'Entrecasteaux; 
among  the  Russians,  Kotzebue  and  Krusenstern ;  among  the  English,  Vancouver  and  Beechey, 
followed ;  and,  though  the  grand  prizes  of  discovery  had  been  carried  off,  found  still  some 
gleanings  in  so  vast  a  field.  The  circumnavigation  of  the  globe  has  ended  in  becoming  a 
mere  trading  voyage,  which  conveys  neither  name  nor  glory  to  him  by  whom  it  is  achieved. 
Captain  Weddell,  however,  has  lately,  in  Xew  South  Shetlnnd,  found  a  tract  of  land  situated 
nearer  to  the  Antarctic  pole  than  any  previously  supposed  to  exist. 

Xew  Holland,  much  the  most  extensive  of  tlie  lands  belonging  to  the  southern  hemisphere, 
and  rendered  doubly  interesting  by  its  recent  relations  with  Europe,  has  formed  the  theatre 
of  late  southern  discoveries.  Bass,  in  an  open  teat,  found  the  strait  which  bears  his 
name,  separating  New  Holland  irom  Van  Diemen's  land,  and  making  the  latter  a  separate 
island.     Baudm  and  Flmders,  contemporaneously  employed  by  the  French  and  Englisl. 


Pakt  n.  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  79 

nations,  made  a  continuous  survey  of  the  vast  circuit  of  its  coasts,  which  had  been  before 
touched  only  at  partial  points.  At  a  later  period,  Freycinet  made  some  additional  observa- 
tions ;  and  King  found  still  a  great  extent  of  nortli  and  north-western  coast  to  survey  for  the 
first  time.  More  recently,  tlie  discovery  of  Swan  River  and  its  shores  promises  to  redeem 
the  reproach  of  sterility  which  had  been  attaclied  to  the  whole  western  coast  of  this  conti- 
nent :  the  interior  on  the  eastern  side  also,  though  guarded  by  steep  and  lofty  barriers,  has 
been  penetrated  to  a  considerable  depth,  and  found  to  contain  extensive  plains  traversed  by 
large  rivers.  Still  the  explored  tracts  form  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  vast  surface  of 
this  southern  continent. 


PART   II. 
PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Among  the  various  branches  of  human  knowledge  there  is  so  intimate  a  connexion,  that 
no  science  can  be  truly  said  to  be  independent  of  all  others.  Some,  indeed,  may  be  regarded 
as  prunary,  because,  to  a  certain  extent,  they  have  had  an  independent  existence,  and  be- 
cause other  sciences  have  sprung  from  them.  Such,  for  example,  are  arithmetic  and 
geometry,  the  prolific  parents  of  all  the  branches  of  modern  mathematics.  Other  sciences, 
again,  are  connected  by  collateral  relationship,  in  respect  of  their  afibrding  mutual  aid  :  and 
in  this  manner  all  the  branches  of  human  knowledge  depend  one  on  another,  each  repaying 
the  advantages  which  it  has  received. 

The  subject  of  this  treatise,  Geography,  which  in  common  with  other  sciences  owes  its 
origin  to  the  wants  of  man,  joined  with  his  inherent  desire  of  knowledge,  has  arrived  at  its 
present  state  of  improvement  by  the  aid  of  several  sciences,  and  of  a  very  great  number  of 
the  arts  wliich  are  the  fruit  of  human  ingenuity.  It  is  more  particularly  indebted  to  the 
mathematical  sciences,  either  directly,  as  fijrnishing  rules  and  methods  by  which  the  mag- 
nitude of  the  earth,  its  figure,  and  the  position  of  the  different  parts  of  its  surface,  may  be 
determined ;  or  indirectly,  inasmuch  as  it  has  been  improved  by  astronomy,  navigation,  and 
other  sciences  which  owe  their  perfection  to  the  mathematics.  To  the  arts  its  obligations 
are  innumerable :  for  every  step  of  progress  which  has  been  made  in  the  construction  and 
management  of  ships,  in  the  fabrication  of  mathematical,  optical,  and  nautical  instruments, 
and  in  the  collateral  arts  on  which  these  depend,  has  contributed  to  the  advancement  of 
geographical  knowledge. 

The  doctrines  of  geography  strongly  support,  and  have  a  close  affinity  with,  those  of 
astronomy.  It  is  only  by  the  application  of  this  latter  science  that  we  have  been  able  to 
discover  the  true  figure  of  the  earth,  and  its  magnitude :  and  some  of  the  most  important 
divisions  of  the  earth's  surface  are  marked  out  by  astronomical  phenomena.  On  the  other 
hand,  an  exact  knowledge  of  the  figure  and  magnitude  of  the  earth  is  of  the  highest  import- 
ance in  the  explication  of  the  more  recondite  doctrines  of  astronomy.  Hence,  while  the 
doctrines  of  astronomy  involve  the  principles  of  geography,  it  holds  equally  true  that  the 
principles  of  geography  can  only  be  understood  by  a  due  application  of  some  of  tiic  more 
simple  theories  of  astronomy. 

The  science  of  geology  has,  if  possible,  a  still  more  intimate  connexion  with  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  earth.  While  astronomy  delineates  the  form  and  movements  of  that  planet,  and 
its  relation  to  other  bodies  in  the  universe,  geology  describes  the  materials  which  compose 
its  surface,  and  tiie  order  in  which  they  are  arranged,  with  the  composition  and  phenoinena 
of  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  The  various  inequalities  into  which  it  is  formed,  the  dis- 
tinction of  land  and  sea,  with  their  origin  and  effects,  come  all  within  the  sphere  of  this 
important  science. 

The  organized  and  living  beings  which  cover  the  surface  of  our  planet,  fonn  a  most  in- 
teresting feature  in  its  delineation.  For  the  support  and  nourishment  of  these-,  the  whole 
of  its  vast  structure  was  originally  destined.  In  taking  a  survey  of  this  interesting  range 
of  objects,  we  may  begin  with  plants ;  then  ascend  to  animals ;  and,  lastly,  to  man,  who 
holds  the  chief  rank  in  the  constitution  of  this  lower  world. 

Three  divisions,  comprehending  each  a  separate  book,  will,  on  tlie  grounds  now  stated, 
comprehend  the  Prmciples  of  Geography :  these  are — I.  Astronomical  Principles.  11.  Geo- 
logical pruicinles.  III.  Geography  considered  ir.  :!ation  to  the  organized  living  and  rationa 
natures  which  cover  the  surface  of  the  earth. 


80  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

BOOK    I. 

ASTRONOMICAL    PRINCIPLES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  PHENOMENA  OF  THE  HEAVENS,  APPARENT  MOTIONS,  FIXED 

STARS,  PLANETS,  fcc. 

The  succession  of  day  and  night  brings  under  our  observation  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  an 
innumerable  multitude  of  luminous  bodies,  wliich  appear  like  pouits  on  the  concave  surface 
of  tlie  heavens.  Of  these  tlie  sun  and  the  moon  are  the  most  remarkable.  The  sun  at  all 
times  presents  to  us  a  circular  disc :  the  disc  of  the  moon  is  also  at  certain  periods  circular, 
but  she  undergoes  a  succession  of  changes  in  the  appearances  of  her  luminous  part,  wliich 
are  denominated  phases.  With  regard  to  the  distances  of  the  sun  and  moon  from  this  earth, 
we  are  certain  that  they  are  very  remote ;  for  we  observe  that  their  apparent  magnitude  is 
not  sensibly  affected  by  any  change  in  our  local  position.  We  may  with  probability  suppose 
the  stars  to  be  bodies  of  the  same  nature  with  the  sun  and  moon,  appearing  smaller  only 
because  they  are  at  a  greater  distance. 

The  apparent  motion  of  the  heavens  from  east  to  west  about  a  fixed  point  in  the  northern 
quarter  of  the  sky,  as  seen  in  this  country,  is  a  plienomenon  quite  fimiliar  to  every  one.  If 
we  change  our  position  on  the  earth  by  gomg  always  south,  this  fixed  point  appears  to  de- 
scend, and  at  last  it  sinks  below  the  horizon :  but  we  now  perceive  that  there  is  another 
fi.\ed  point  in  the  southern  region  of  the  heavens,  exa-ctly  opposite  to  tlie  former,  about 
which  the  diurnal  motion  is  also  in  like  manner  performed.  These  two  points  are  the  north 
and  SOUTH,  or  the  arctic  and  antarctic  poles  of  the  heavens. 

From  wliat  we  see  on  the  earth's  surface,  we  learn  by  experience  that  the  real  and  ap- 
parent motions  of  bodies  may  be  very  different.  An  observer  in  a  vessel  carried  along  by 
the  current  of  a  river,  will  feel  disposed  to  believe  himself  at  rest ;  and  then,  if  he  were  to 
judge  from  appearances,  he  would  suppose  that  trees  and  fixed  objects  on  the  banks  were 
in  motion,  because  of  tlie  apparent  change  in  their  relative  positions.  Hence  we  may  infer, 
that  we  cannot  judge  immediately  respecting  the  absolute  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
from  their  apparent  motions.  It  has  only  been  by  a  series  of  nice  observations,  and  the  appli- 
cation of  the  doctrines  of  matliematics,  that  the  former  have  with  absolute  certainty  been 
deduced  from  tlie  latter. 

The  general  phenomena  of  the  apparent  motions  have,  however,  been  discovered  by  the 
ordinary  observation  of  mankind  from  the  remotest  ages.  To  a  spectator  in  any  place  of 
the  earth,  the  whole  system  of  the  celestial  bodies  appears  as  if  placed  on  the  surface  of  a 
concave  sphere,  the  centre  of  which  is  the  place  where  he  stands ;  and  this  sphere  appears 
to  revolve  daily  on  an  ideal  line  which  passes  through  the  poles  of  the  heavens,  and  is  called 
the  AXIS  of  the  world.  Although  the  supposition  that  the  celestial  bodies  are  all  situated  in 
the  surface  of  a  sphere,  of  which  the  eye  is  the  centre,  be  perfectly  consistent  with  the 
appearance  of  the  heavens,  it  is  easy  to  understand  that  this  may  be  a  consequence  of  their 
immense  distances.  To  an  observer  standing  on  an  extensive  plam,  objects  very  remote 
around  him,  though  at  unequal  distances,  would  appear  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle 
having  his  eye  in  the  centre. 

Besides  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  which  is  common  to  them  all,  we  dis- 
cover that  some  of  them  have  peculiar  motions  by  which  they  change  their  apparent  places 
in  respect  of  one  another.  Thus  we  s6e  the  moon  in  the  course  of  about  a  month  describe 
a  circle  quite  round  the  heavens  from  west  to  east.  The  sun  also  appears  to  change  his 
position  daily,  and  to  go  round  the  heavens  from  west  to  east  in  a  year.  It  is  in  consequence 
of  this  peculiar  motion  of  the  sun,  tiiat  we  find  different  stars  at  different  seasons  of  the 
year  set  immediately  after  him,  or  rise  immediately  before  him;  and  that  the  appearance  of 
the  heavens  through  the  course  of  the  year  is  continnalh'  changing. 

From  the  remotest  antiquity  ,^«e  stars  had  been  observed  to  change  their  position  ;  and  in 
modern  times  five  others  have  been  discovered.  These  "  wandering  stars  "  have  been  appro- 
priately denominated  planets  ,  and,  generally  speaking,  they  can  be  seen  at  all  times,  except 
when  their  feeble  light  is  rendered  insensible  by  the  efflilgence  of  the  sun.  The  planets 
have  received  particular  names,  and  are  distinguished  by  particular  characters ;  these  are 
INIercury  ?,  Venus  ?,  Mars  t%  Vesta  g,  Juno  $,  Ceres  ?,  Pallas  ^,  Jupiter  4,  Saturn  h, 
Uranus  i^. 

Tliere  are  other  luminous  bodies  having  a  proper  motion,  which  are  seen  for  a  short  time 
and  afterwards  disappear.  Their  existence,  however,  is  permanent.  They  are  distinguished 
from  the  planets  by  their  being  visible  only  for  a  sliort  period,  and  also  by  a  train  of  light 
proceeding  fi-om  tliem  on  one  side,  forming  a.  tail ;  these  bodies  are  called  comets.  Thei' 
number  is  not  known,  but  it  appears  to  be  very  considerable. 


Book  I.  THE  HEAVENS  AS  SEEN  THROUGH  THE  TELESCOPE.  81 

Besides  tlie  siin,  moon,  planets,  and  comets,  there  are  other  luminous  bodies  visible  every 
clear  nig-ht ;  these  retain  always  tlie  same  position  in  respect  of  each  other,  and  for  this 
reason  are  denominated  fixed  stars.  Their  apparent  motion  about  the  axis  of  the  celestial 
sphere  is  perfectly  uniform,  and  a  complete  revolution  is  performed  in  about  23  hours  56 
minutes. 

By  the  permanence  of  tJie  relative  situations  of  the  fixed  stars  on  the  concavity  of  the 
celestial  sphere,  we  are  enabled  to  determine  tlie  apparent  motions  of  the  other  heavenly 
bodies.  Of  these  the  motions  of  tlie  sun  and  moon  are  the  most  conspicuous  and  simple. 
The  motions  of  the  planets  appear  more  complicated,  and  are  considerably  different  from 
one  another.  This  dissimilarity  mig-ht  well  lead  to  a  conjecture,  that  the  real  motions  of 
tlie  heavenly  bodies  are  very  different  from  the  apparent  motions,  and  that  these  last  are 
modified  by  the  real  motion  of  the  earth.  This  conjecture  we  shall  afterwards  find  fully 
verified. 

All  the  heavenly  bodies  which  this  general  survey  has  brought  under  our  notice,  with 
their  motions  and  mutual  relations,  fonn  the  subject  of  astronomy,  which  of  all  the  natural 
sciences  presents  the  most  extensive  series  of  discoveries.  By  observing  for  ages,  and  deter- 
mining with  exactness,  the  positions  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars ;  by  tracing  and  measuring 
with  precision  their  various  motions ;  and  by  employing  all  the  resources  of  mathematical 
science  in  investigating  the  constant  laws  to  which  these  motions  are  subject,  the  human 
mind  lias  suc^  ceded  in  passing  from  the  first  cursory  view  of  the  heavens,  to  that  compre- 
hensive survey  by  which,  in  tlie  present  state  of  astronomical  science,  we  contemplate  the 
past  and  ful  ure  states  of  the  system  of  the  universe. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  HEAVENS  AS  SEEN  THROUGH  THE  TELESCOPE. 

From  the  aiscovery  of  the  telescope,  and  its  application  to  the  purposes  of  astronomy,  a  new 
era  may  be  dated  in  that  science.  The  number  of  stars  visible  to  the  naked  eye  is  about  three 
thousand,  which  appear  scattered  over  the  concave  surface  of  the  heavens.  Even  in  the 
clearest  night,  and  in  the  absence  of  the  moon,  seldom  more  than  two  thousand  are  seen  at 
once.  They  are  not  distributed  indiscriminately  over  the  heavens,  but  are  disposed  in  groups, 
which  from  the  remotest  antiquity  have  received  distinct  names,  and  these  have  been  em- 
ployed to  facilitate  the  description  of  the  heavens,  and  the  reference  to  any  particular  star. 
The  ancients  imagined  the  figures  of  various  personages  of  their  mythology,  and  of  animals, 
&c.  to  be  traced  on  the  concave  surface :  these  figures  they  called  constellations,  and  con- 
sidered a  group  of  stars  to  belong  to  each.  To  some  of  the  brighter  stars,  and  to  those  more 
remarkable  for  their  position,  proper  names  have  been  given. 

The  distinction  founded  on  the  different  degrees  of  brightness  of  the  fixed  stars,  is  the 
most  obvious  which  occurs  to  the  spectator  while  his  vision  is  unassisted  by  the  telescope, 
and  has  accordingly  been  employed  for  the  purpose  of  classifying  them.  The  stars  visible 
to  the  naked  eye  have  been,  on  this  principle,  arranged  under  six  magnitudes.  The  bright- 
est are  reckoned  to  be  of  the  first  magnitude,  the  next  in  brightness  of  the  second,  and  so  on 
to  the  sixth  magnitude.  The  arrangement  of  the  stars  has  been  still  farther  facilitated  by 
combining  the  principle  of  this  last-mentioned  arrangement  with  the  method  of  constellations. 
In  maps  of  the  heavens  and  on  celestial  globes  the  constellations  are  delineated,  and  the  stars 
in  each  constellation  are  marked  with  the  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet  according  to  their 
degrees  of  brightness. 

The  use  of  the  telescope  has  greatly  increased  the  number  of  visible  stars  ;  and  has  at 
the  same  time  discovered  to  us  many  particulars  before  unknown  respecting  those  that  are 
visible  to  the  naked  eye.  Many  of  the  stars  which  to  unaided  vision  appear  single,  ai-e 
found,  when  observed  through  a  telescope  of  high  magnifying  powers,  to  consist  of  two, 
sometimes  of  three  or  more  stars  extremely  near  to  one  another.  Seven  hundred  of  these 
multiple  stars  were  observed  by  Sir  William  Herschel,  and  the  number  has  been  increased 
by  the  joint  labours  of  his  son  and  Sir  James  South,  also  by  the  German  astronomer  Struve. 
In  some  of  them  the  small  stars  are  different  in  brightness  and  in  the  colour  of  their  light. 
Thus  a  Hcrculis  is  double ;  the  larger  of  the  stars  is  red,  the  smaller  blue :  «  Lyrse  is 
composed  of  four  stars ;  three  white,  and  one  red  :  y  Andromedse  consists  of  two  stars  very 
unequal,  the  largest  a  reddish  white,  the  smallest  a  sky-blue  inclining  to  green.  Some 
single  stars  evidently  differ  in  their  colour:  Aldebaran  is  red,  Sirius  of  a  brilliant  white. 

NebulcB  are  small  luminous  spots  of  a  cloudy  appearance  and  irregular  shape,  seen  in 
many  places  of  the  heavens.  The  most  remarkable  appearance  of  this  kind  is  the  Galaxy, 
or  Milky  Way,  which  encompasses  the  whole  heavens,  and  is  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 
Tlie  Sword  of  Orion  contains  a  beautiful  nebula.  Two  occur  in  the  head  of  the  Great 
Bear,  one  of  an  oval  shape  the  other  round  like  a  comet  without  a  tail.  Viewed  through 
a  telescope  of  great  magnifying  power,  these  luminous  spots  are  resolved  into  a  multitude 
of  small  stars,  distinctly  separate,  but  apparently  very  naar  one  another,  whose  light  being 

Vol.  I.  L 


S2  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  H 

blended  together  produces  the  luminous  appearance.  In  a  portion  of  the  Galaxy,  about 
fifteen  det^rees  in  length,  and  two  in  breadth.  Dr.  Herschel  found  no  fewer  than  fifty  tliousand 
stars  large  enough  to  be  distmctly  counted.  The  number  of  nebuliB  is  very  considerable. 
Herschel  discovered  two  thousand  ;  before  his  time  only  one  hundred  and  three  were  known. 

Continued  observation  lias  sliown  that  the  fixed  stars  are  not  altogether  exempt  from 
chano-e.  Several  stars  mentioned  by  the  ancient  astronomers  are  no  longer  visible,  while 
some*are  now  seen  by  the  naked  eye  which  are  not  in  the  ancient  catalogues.  Some  stars 
have  suddenly  appeared,  and  after  havmg  been  seen  for  a  short  time  have  ceased  to  be  visi- 
ble. In  1572  a  new  star  appeared  m  Cassiopeia's  Chair ;  and  in  1604  another  appeared  in 
Serpentarius.  These  stars  did  not  change  their  places :  but  having  gradually  increased  m 
brilliancy,  until  they  exceeded  Venus  or  Jupiter  in  brightness,  and  were  even  seen  m  the 
day-time,  they  dimmished  in  the  same  gradual  manner,  and  in  a  few  months  entirely  disap- 
peared. Some  stars  are  observed  to  have  periodical  changes  of  brightness.  Of  this  descrip- 
tion is  Algol,  orP  Persei:  when  brightest  it  is  of  the  second,  and  when  least  bright  of  the 
fourth  magnitude.  It  goes  through  all  its  changes  of  lustre  in  four  days,  twenty-one  hours. 
Other  stars  like  (3  in  the  Whale,  have  gradually  increased  in  brilliancy ;  or,  like  8  in  the 
Great  Bear,  have  contmually  duninished  in  brightness. 

The  fixed  stars,  when  viewed  througli  the  telescope,  appear  like  luminous  points  on  the 
concave  surface  of  the  heavens ;  but  the  planets  are  found  to  exhibit  the  appearance  of  discs 
of  greater  or  less  diameter.  Mercury  and  Venus  accompany  the  smi,  appearing  at  one  time 
on  the  east,  and  at  another  time  on  the  west  of  that  luminary,  and  never  receding  from  him 
beyond  a  certain  distance.  The  other  planets  recede  fi-om  the  sun  to  all  possible  angular 
distances.  Connected  with  this  circumstance  is  a  distinction  which  it  is  usefiil  to  make  of 
inferior  planets  and  superior  planets  ;  the  former  appellation  being  applied  to  Mercury  and 
Venus,  and  the  latter  to  the  remaming  planets. 

Mercury  and  Venus,  as  they  oscillate  about  the  sun,  exhibit  all  the  phases  of  the  moon. 
From  liaving  the  appearance  of  a  crescent,  they  gradually  assume  that  of  the  half-moon. 
The  illuminated  part  of  the  disc  increasing,  they  become  gibbous,  and  at  last  present  a  com- 
plete circular  disc,  like  the  full  moon.  From  this  state  of  illumination  they  again  pass 
through  the  same  appearances  in  an  inverted  order,  until  they  disappear  altogether.  Some- 
times these  planets  are  seen  like  black  spots  in  the  sun ;  these  appearances  are  called  tran- 
sits of  the  planets  over  the  sun's  disc.  They  are  rare,  but  when  observed,  particularly  the 
transit  of  Venus,  they  give  the  best  means  of  determining  the  magnitude  of  the  solar  system. 
In  all  the  phases  of  Mercury  and  Venus  the  convexity  of  the  illuminated  portion  of  the  disc 
is  turned  towards  the  sun. 

The  discs  of  the  other  planets  are  always  nearly  circular.  Mars,  however,  in  certain  posi- 
tions with  regard  to  the  sun,  assumes  a  gibbous  appearance ;  but  he  never  becomes  cornicu- 
lar  like  Venus.  He  has  no  satellite.  As  viewed  from  the  earth,  he  is  known  by  his  red 
and  fiery  appearance.  Dr.  Herschel  observed  that  the  polar  regions  of  Mars,  after  having 
been  turned  from  the  sun,  appeared  brighter  than  the  rest  of  the  planetary  disc ;  just  as  if 
these  regions  had  in  the  absence  of  the  sun's  heat  been  covered  with  snow. 

Certain  spots  appear  on  the  discs  of  the  sun  and  the  four  planets  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and 
Saturn,  when  they  are  viewed  through  the  telescope,  and  are  distinguished  from  other  parts 
of  the  discs  by  the  colour  or  intensity  of  their  light.  Similar  spots  are  seen  on  the  moon 
with  the  naked  eye.  Jupiter  has  also  his  disc  marked  with  several  parallel  belts  or  stripes, 
which  stretch  across  it.  They  are  subject  to  considerable  variation  with  regard  to  number, 
breadth,  and  distance  from  each  other.  Mercury  is  too  much  immersed  in  the  solar  rays ; 
Vesta,  Ceres,  Juno,  and  Pallas,  are  too  small ;  and  Uranus  is  too  distant  to  allow  points  of 
unequal  brilliancy  to  be  observed  on  their  surface.  The  spots  upon  the  sun  are  very  varia- 
able  in  their  number,  position,  and  magnitude.  Often  they  are  numerous,  and  of  great  extent. 
Each  of  them,  in  general,  consists  of  a  dark  space,  or  ximhra,  surrounded  by  a  penumbra, 
or  fainter  shade,  beyond  which  is  a  border  of  light  more  brilliant  than  the  rest  of  tlie  sun's 
disc.  Sometimes,  though  seldom,  the  sun  has  been  without  spots  for  several  years ;  this  was 
the  case  from  1676  to  1684.  The  dark  nucleus  of  the  spot  is  seen  to  form  and  disappear 
amidst  the  greater  brilliancy  that  surrounds  it.  After  the  nucleus  ceases  to  be  seen-,  the 
umbra  continues  visible  for  some  time  :  the  place  where  it  at  length  disappears  becomes 
like  the  other  ports  of  the  solar  surface,  unless  it  be  succeeded,  which  is  sometimes  the  case, 
by  a  luminous  spot.  Umbrae  of  great  extent  have,  with  few  exceptions,  a  nucleus  in  their 
centre  ;  but  small  umbrae  are  often  seen  without  it. 

The  solar  spots  are  never  stationary,  but  are  seen  to  move  slowly  over  the  sun's  disc  from 
east  to  west.  Their  paths  across  the  disc,  when  accurately  traced,  are  found  to  be  rectili  • 
neal  in  the  begimiing  of  June,  and  in  the  beginning  of  December ;  but  in  the  intermediate: 
seasons  they  are  found  to  be  elliptic.  Between  June  and  December  the  convexity  of  the 
path  is  towards  the  upper  part  of  the  disc,  and  between  December  and  June  it  is  towards 
the  lower  part. 

The  planet  Jupiter,  wlien  viewed"  through  the  telescope,  appears  to  be  attended  by  four 
small  stars,  ranged  nearly  in  a  straight  line,  which  are  seen  sometimes  on  the  same  side, 


Book  I.  FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  EARTH.  83 

and  at  other  times  on  opposite  sides  of  the  planet.  These  small  stars  occasionally  pass 
between  us  and  Jupiter,  and  then  they  are  found  to  project  shadows  which  are  seen  to  tra- 
verse his  disc.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are  often  immersed  in  the  shadow  of  Jupiter,  and 
exhibit  the  phenomenon  called  an  eclipse.  The  planets  Saturn  and  Uranus  are  also  simi- 
larly attended,  the  former  by  seven,  and  the  latter  by  six,  little  stars.  These  accompanying 
stars  are  called  satellites,  and  also  secondary  planets,  in  contradistinction  to  the  others, 
which  are  called  primary. 

Saturn  is  distin^iished  from  all  the  other  planets,  in  being  surrounded  by  a  circular  ring 
concentric  with  itself.  When  first  examined  by  the  telescope,  this  planet  was  almost 
always  seen  between  two  small  luminous  bodies  of  an  irregular  form,  which  seemed  to  be 
attached  to  it,  and  which,  as  they  suggested  the  idea  of  handles,  were  denominated  ansa. 
Sometimes  the  ansae  disappeared,  and  then  Saturn  appeared  round  like  the  other  planets. 
By  tracmg  with  care  these  singular  appearances,  and  combining  them  with  the  positions  of 
Saturn  relatively  to  the  sun  and  the  earth,  Huygens  at  last  discovered  that  they  are  pro- 
duced by  a  ring  which  encompasses  the  body  of  the  planet,  and  which  is  everywhere  sepa- 
rated from  it.  Being  seen  obliquely,  the  ring  appears  of  an  oval  or  elliptic  form.  Before 
tlie  time  of  Herschel  the  ring  of  Saturn  was  supposed  to  be  single ;  but  this  distinguisliea 
astronomer  discovered  that  it  is  double  :  so  that  two  rings  concentric,  and  in  the  same  plane, 
constitute  what  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  a  single  ring.  The  ring,  which  is  very  thin,  is 
inclined  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.  It  revolves  from  west  to  east  in  lO**  39'  54".  Its 
breadth  is  nearly  equal  to  its  distance  from  Saturn ;  that  is,  about  one  third  of  the  diameter 
of  the  planet.  The  interval  between  the  rings  is  very  little ;  yet  Dr.  Herschel  saw  a  star 
through  it.     The  inner  ring  is  somewhat  broader  than  the  outer. 


CHAPTER  m. 

APPROXIMATION  TO  THE  FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OP  THE  EARTH. 

The  true  figure  and  exact  magnitude  of  the  earth  are  elements  of  the  highest  importance 
in  geography.  Their  determination,  however,  has  required  the  aid  of  astronomy  in  its  most 
improved  state ;  yet  it  is  necessary,  to-  the  explanation  of  the  general  doctrines  of  astronomy, 
that  we  should,  in  the  outset,  know  nearly  its  figure  and  magnitude :  we  shall  afterwards 
explain  by  what  means  the  first  conceptions  have  been  corrected,  and  its  true  figure  and 
magnitude  found.  Having  now  pointed  out,  generally,  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens — 
taking  into  view  the  more  remarkable  discoveries  made  by  aid  of  the  telescope — we  are  next 
to  consider  the  causes  and  mutual  dependence  of  these  phenomena.  The  first  step  towards 
obtaining  an  explication  of  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  is  to  form  some  notion  of  the 
figure  and  magnitude  of  the  earth  which  we  inhabit,  and  from  which  all  the  celestial  phe- 
nomena are  observed.  To  a  person  placed  in  an  elevated  situation  in  an  open  country, 
where  the  view  is  unconfined  on  all  sides,  the  earth  appears  an  extended  plane,  with  the 
concave  sphere  of  the  heavens  resting  upon  it, — the  liorizon  being  the  common  boundary. 
This  appearance  is,  however,  altogether  illusory. 

The  earth  is  a  round  body,  and  is  isolated  in  space.  This  is  sufficiently  established  by 
the  following  facts : — 

1.  To  an  observer  who  travels  from  north  to  south  the  nocturnal  heavens  appear  conti 
nually  to  cliange  tlieir  aspect.  The  stars,  indeed,  retain  the  same  relative  position  in 
respect  of  each  other,  and  tlie  points  on  which  the  heavens  appear  to  revolve  remain 
unchanged ;  but  the  angle,  which  the  axis  of  their  motion  forms  with  the  horizon,  continually 
decreases ;  so  that  stars  which,  at  the  place  from  which  he  set  out,  appeared  to  reach  their 
greatest  elevation  to  the  south  of  the  point  directly  over  his  head,  now  that  he  has  changed 
his  position,  appear,  when  highest,  on  the  north  of  that  point.  This  clearly  indicates  that 
his  path  on  the  earth's  surface  has  not  been  a  straight  line,  bu-t  a  curve  of  which  the  con- 
vexity, is  turned  towards  the  sky. 

2.  The  convexity  of  the  earth  is  quite  apparent  to  a  spectator  in  a  ship  receding  from  the 
shore.  At  first  low  objects  disappear ;  then  those  more  elevated ;  and  at  last  the  highest 
points  of  the  land  sink  in  the  horizon,  on  account  of  the  direct  visual  ray  being  broken  by 
the  interposed  cur\-ed  surface  of  the  ocean.  In  like  manner,  when  two  ships  approach  each 
other,  the  navigators  in  each  see  at  first  the  upper  part  of  the  rigging  of  the  other  vessel, 
the  hull  being  still  invisible :  as  the  distance  becomes  less  the  body  of  each  vessel  comes 
gradually  into  view.  The  reverse  happens  if  the  distance  between  the  vessels  is  increasing. 
From  these  appearances  it  is  evident,  that  a  straight  line  joining  any  two  points  of  the 
earth's  surfaces  passes  within  the  body  of  the  earth. 

3.  That  the  horizon  of  the  sea,  which,  to  the  eye,  terminates  its  surface,  is  only  an  appa- 
rent limit  in  reference  to  the  position  of  the  observer,  is  evident  from  the  fact,  that  if  we 
.advance  towards  it  we  find  it  recede ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  we  still  imagine  ourselves 
placed  in  the  centre  of  an  extended  plane,  bounded  by  the  line  in  which  the  heavens  and 


84  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  Part  JT. 

eartn  anpear  to  meet.  This  is  what  the  navigator  uniformly  experiences ;  while,  to  an 
observer  on  the  shore,  his  vessel  appears  to  sink  below  the  horizon ;  and  by  continuing-  to 
sail  in  the  same  direction,  he  will  at  last  arrive  at  the  same  port  from  which  lie  set  out, — 
having  thus  circumnavigated  the  earth.  This  enterprise  has,  it  is  well  known,  in  numerous 
instance^,  been  accomplished  by  navigators,  who  have  letl  the  shores  of  Europe  and  returned 
home,  some  by  sailing  always  towards  the  west,  and  otJicrs  by  holding  an  easterly  course. 
This  great  experiment  demonstrates  tiiat  the  sea  and  land  have  a  curved  surface  which 
returns  into  itself,  so  that  no  part  of  it  is  touched  by  the  heavens. 

There  are  other  phenomena  whicli  prove  that  the  earth,  if  not  an  exact  sphere,  is  at  least 
nearly  of  tiiat  figure.  The  various  appearances  of  tlie  moon,  in  the  course  of  her  revolution 
round  the  earth,  show  that  she  is  an  opaque  body,  and  is  visible  only  by  the  reflected  light 
of  the  sun.  The  earth  being  also  an  opaque  body,  must  project  a  sliadow  in  a  direction 
opposite  to  the  sun.  It  will  afterwards  be  shown  that  the  moon,  when  full,  must  sometimes 
pass  through  this  shadow.  In  this  case,  when  the  moon  begins  to  penetrate,  or  is  about  to 
leave,  tlie  shadow,  the  greater  part  of  the  disc  is  still  illuminated  by  the  sun ;  and  it  is 
found  that  this  luminous  part  is  always  of  the  form  of  a  crescent,  iiaving  its  concave  side 
bounded  by  an  arch  of  a  circle.  The  section  of  the  earth's  shadow,  shown  by  its  projection 
on  the  moon,  is,  therefore,  as  to  sense,  circular, — a  proof  that  the  earth  is  a  sphere,  or  nearly 
of  a  spherical  figure  ;  whence  we  may  conclude  that  there  is  a  point  within  the  earth  which 
is  its  centre. 

TJiat  the  earth  is  a  round  body,  is  thus  completely  proved  by  experience  and  observation ; 
yet,  wlien  this  doctrine  is  presented  to  the  mind  for  the  first  time,  there  is  some  difficulty 
in  believing  that  the  eartli  is  balanced,  as  it  were,  on  its  centre,  without  any  visible  sup- 
port ;  while  all  things  at  rest  on  its  surface  require  to  be  supported.  We  must,  however, 
consider  that  the  bodies  which  we  see  fall  towards  the  centre  of  the  earth  are  mere  atoms 
in  comparison  to  the  earth  itself;  and  that,  although  their  tendency  to  its  centre  is  another 
fact  established  by  experience,  yet  it  does  not  thence  follow  that  the  earth  itself  should  move 
towards  one  point  of  space  rather  than  towards  another.  A  little  reflection  will  show  that 
there  is  no  inconsistency  in  supposing  the  earth,  an  immense  mass,  to  be  at  rest,  and  all 
things  to  be  retained  on  its  surface  by  some  force  analogous  to  that  by  which  a  piece  of  iron 
is  drawn  towards  a  magnet.  This  is  really  the  fact ;  and  a  consequence  of  it  is,  that  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  earth  its  inhabitants  stand  in  opposite  directions,  with  their  feet  towards 
each  other,  for  which  reason  they  are  called  Antipodes ;  and  every  country  has  its  own 
Antipodes. 

The  knowledge  of  the  true  figure  and  magnitude  of  the  earth  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
in  geography,  and  on  this  account  we  shall  treat  of  them  in  a  particular  manner.  In  the 
mean  time,  as  a  near  approximation  to  the  truth,  the  earth  may  be  considered  as  differing 
but  little  from  a  sphere,  7916  miles  in  diameter,  and  consequently  nearly  24,870  miles  in 
circumference.  In  geometry,  the  circumference  of  every  circle  is  supposed  to  be  divided 
into  360  equal  parts,  called  degrees ;  and  each  of  these  into  60  equal  parts,  called  minutes, 
and  so  on.  A  degree,  therefore,  of  any  circle  on  the  earth's  surface,  whose  centre  is  the 
same  with  that  of  the  earth,  will  be  rather  more  than  69  miles ;  and  a  minute  of  a  degree 
will  be  about  lA  mile. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

DOCTRINE    OF   THE    SPHERE. 


The  motions  of  the  celestial  bodies  being  in  appearance  all  performed  on  a  sphere,  of 
which  the  eye  of  the  spectator  is  the  centre ;  with  a  view  to  describe  the  nature  of  these 
motions,  it  has  been  found  expedient  to  suppose  certain  circles  to  be  traced  on  this  sphere, 
to  which,  also,  tlie  positions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  in  space  are  referred. 

The  distance  of  the  fixed  stars  is  immensely  great  in  respect  of  the  earth's  semi-diameter; 
for  it  is  found  that,  when  viewed  from  any  two  points  of  the  earth's  surface,  they  ha\e  the 
very  same  relative  position,  and  the  same  apparent  distances,  at  a  given  instant  ot-time. 
Hence  it  follows,  that  the  appearance  of  the  heavens,  and  the  angular  distances  of  the  fixed 
stars,  will  be,  as  to  sense,  the  same,  whether  they  be  viewed  fi-om  the  centre  of  the  earth, 
or  from  a  point  on  its  surface.  We  may,  therefore,  conceive  the  axis  of  the  diurnal  revo- 
lution to  pass  through  the  centre  of  the  earth,  which  will  be  also  the  centre  of  the  celestial 
sphere. 

DEFINITIONS. 

A  great  circle  of  the  sphere  is  that  whose  plane  passes  through  its  centre ;  and  all  others 
are  called  small  circles. 

A  circle  of  the  celestial  sphere,  whose  plane  passes  through  the  earth's  centre,  and  is 
perpendicular  to  the  axis,  is  called  the  Equator.  The  line  in  which  this  plane  meets  thu 
earth's  surface  is  called  tlie  Equator  of  the  earth,  or  the  Eo.uixoctial. 


Book  I. 


DOCTRINE  OF  THE  SPHERE. 


85 


To  illustrate  this  by  a  diagram,  let  c  be  the  centre  of  the   sphere  {fig.  15.),  which- 

we  suppose  to  coincide  with  the  centre  of  the 
earth,  and  let  V  c  p  be  the  axis ;  then  the  cir- 
cle, whose  diameter  is  E  Q,  which  passes  tlirough 
c,  and  is  perpendicular  to  P^,  is  the  Efuator. 
The  circles  which  the  stars  describe  by  the 
diurnal  revolution,  are  all  parallel  to  the  Equa- 
tor.    Such  is  the  circle  whose  diameter  is  A  B. 

A  circle,  whose  plane  passes  through  the 
poles,  is  called  the  AIeridian,  and  the  section 
of  the  earth's  surface  made  by  this  plane  is  call- 
ed the  Meridian  of  all  the  places  through  which 
it  passes.  Thus  FEpQ  is  a  meridian  circle 
in  the  heavens.  The  nmnber  of  these  circles 
is  indefinite. 

By  the  geometrical  properties  of  a  sphere, 
the  plane  of  any  meridian  cuts  the  planes  of 
the  equator  and  all  circles  parallel  to  it  at  right 
angles. 

We  know  by  observation,  that  any  body  at  rest,  and  let  fall  from  a  point  above  the  earth, 
will,  by  its  weight  or  gravity,  descend  in  a  straight  line.  This  line  is  the  direction  of 
gravity:  it  is  also  indicated  by  the  direction  of  a  cord  to  which  a  plummet  is  suspended, 
and  is  everywhere  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  water  at  rest.  If,  now,  a  line  in  the 
direction  of  gravity  at  any  point  on  the  earth's  surface  be  produced  mdefinitely  upward  and 
downward,  this  line,  called  a  vertical,  will  mark,  on  the  celestial  sphere,  two  points  called 
the  Ze.vith  and  IVadir.  The  former  is  the  point  in  the  heavens  immediately  over  head.  A 
plane  conceived  to  pass  through  any  plane  on  the  earth's  surface  at  right  angles  to  the  line 
joining  its  zenith  and  nadir,  will,  when  extended  to  the  heavens,  meet  the  sphere  in  a  circle, 
which  is  the  Horizon  of  that  place.  A  plane  that  passes  through  the  earth's  centre,  and  is 
parallel  to  the  plane  just  now  defined,  will  meet  the  sphere  in  a  circle,  which  is  also  called 
the  Horizon,  but,  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other,  the  former  is  called  the  Se.vsible, 
and  the  latter  the  Rational  Horizon.  On  accoimt,  however,  of  the  smallness  of  the  earth's 
semidiameter,  when  compared  with  the  immense  distances  of  the  fixed  stars,  the  two  horizons 
are,  as  to  sense,  the  same. 

The  zenith  is  at  Z  {Jig.  15.),  and  nadir  at  N.  The  circle  H  O  R  is  the  horizon. 
If  the  earth  were  a  perfect  sphere,  the  direction  of  gravity  being  everywhere  perpendicu- 
lar to  its  surface,  all  bodies  would  tend  towards  its  centre.  But  if  there  be  ani/  deviation 
from  the  exact  spherical  figure,  (and  this  is  really  the  case,)  then  the  direction  of  gravity 
wUl  not,  in  general,  pass  through  the  centre ;  though,  if  the  deviation  be  small,  it  will  nearly 
pass  through  that  point. 

The  plane  of  the  horizon  of  any  place  touches  the  earth's  surface,  and  divides  the  whole 
expanse  of  the  heavens  into  two  Hemispheres  ;  one  of  which,  viz.  that  above  the  horizon, 
is  Visible,  and  the  other  Invisible.  To  an  eye  placed  close  to  the  earth's  surface,  or  to  the 
surface  of  the  sea,  the  two  hemispheres  will  appear  exactly  equal.  A  spectator,  however,  on 
the  top  of  a  mountain,  can  see  more  than  half  of  the  heavens ;  because,  if  a  line  drawn  from 
his  eye  to  touch  the  earth's  surface  were  carried  round,  it  would  generate  the  surface  of  a 
cone.  The  portion  of  the  heavens  within  this  cone  would  be  invisible ;  but  he  would  see  all 
the  space  without  the  cone,  which  would  manifestly  be  the  larger  portion.  His  apparent  hori- 
zon would  still  be  a  circle ;  but  it  would  be  below  the  plane  passing  through  his  eye  perpen- 
dicular to  the  vertical.  The  depression  of  the  horizon  of  a  spectator  so  situated  below  this 
plane  is  called  the  Dip. 

Circles  whose  planes  pass  through  the  zenith  and  nadir  of  any  place  are  called  Verticai, 
Circles.  Such,  for  example,  as  the  circle  Z  O  N.  These,  by  the  properties  of  a  sphere, 
are  all  perpendicular  to  the  horizon.  The  meridian  is,  of  course,  a  vertical  circle ;  and 
the  vertical  circle  whose  plane  is  perpendicular  to  the  meridian  is  called  the  Prime 
Vertical. 

The  meridian  cuts  the  horizon  in  the  North  and  South  points,  and  the  prime  vertical 
cuts  it  in  the  East  and  West.  These  four  are  the  Cardin.vl  Points.  They  divide  the  horizon 
into  four  equal  parts. 

Let  a  vertical  circle  be  supposed  to  pass  continually  through  a  star,  or  any  point  of  the 
heavens,  the  arc  of  that  circle  between  the  star  and  the  horizon  is  called  the  Altitude  of 
the  star ;  and  the  arc  of  the  horizon  between  the  vertical  circle  and  the  meridian  is  called  its 
Azimuth,  which  may  be  measured  either  from  the  north  or -south.  Thus,  in  Jig.  15.,  suppose 
a  star  at  S,  then  its  altitude  is  the  arc  S  O,  and  its  azimuth  the  arc  H  O. 
Vertical  circles  are  called  Circles  of  Azimuth. 

The  altitude  of  a  star  will  evidently  be  greatest  when  it  is  on  the  meridian,  and  it  will 
Vol.  I.  8 


86  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

have  equal  altitudes  when  it  is  at  equal  distances  from  the  meridian ;  that  is,  when  its  eastern 
and  western  azimutlis  are  equal. 

Sui)posc  a  meridian  to  pass  through  a  star,  then  tlie  arc  intercepted  between  the  star 
and  the  equator  is  called  the  Declination  of  the  star.  Thus  P  S;>  being-  a  meridian  tiiat 
passes  through  the  star  S,  and  meets  the  equator  in  K,  the  arc  S  K  is  the  declination  of  the 
star. 

If  the  meridian  circle  pass  throucrh  the  zenith  of  any  place,  the  arc  intercepted  between 
the  zenith  and  the  equator  is  called  the  Latitude  of  that  place.  Thus  Z  being  the  zenith  of 
any  place,  and  E  K  Q,  the  equator,  the  latitude  of  the  place  is  the  arc  Z  E. 

Assuming  the  meridian  circle  that  passes  through  the  zenith  of  any  particular  place  as  the 
FiR.ST  Meridian,  the  arc  of  the  equator  intercepted  between  the  first  meridian  ajid  the  meri- 
dian circle  passing  through  the  zenith  of  any  other  place,  is  called  the  Longitude  of  that 
place.  It  is  usual,  in  this  country,  to  reckon  the  longitude  of  places  from  the  meridian  circle 
that  passes  through  the  zenith  of  the  Observatory  at  Greenwich. 

Because  the  arcs  Z  R,  the  distance  of  the  zenith  from  the  horizon,  and  P  E,  the  distance 
of  the  pole  from  the  equator,  are  each  one-fourth  of  the  circumference  of  a  circle  or  a 
quadrant,  they  are  equal,  and  conseqviently,  leaving  out  the  common  arc  P  Z,  the  arcs  Z  E 
and  P  R  are  equal.  Hence  it  appears  that  P  R,  the  distance  of  the  pole  from  the  horizon  of 
any  place,  called  the  elevation  or  altitude  of  the  pole,  is  equal  to  the  latitude  of  that  place. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ROTATION  OF  THE  SUN,  MOON,  AND  PLANETS  ON  THEIR  AXES.    THEIR  FIGURE. 

From  the  phenomena  of  the  spots  which,  by  aid  of  the  telescope,  are  visible  on  his  disc, 
we  are  led  to  conclude  that  the  sun  revolves  from  west  to  east  on  an  axis,  in  about  twenty- 
five  days  and  a  half.  Though  these  spots  are  subject  to  many  variations,  they  are  suffi- 
ciently permanent  to  enable  us  to  discover  that  they  have  regular  motions  across  the  disc, 
exactly  the  same  as  must  belong  to  corresponding  points  on  the  surface  of  the  sun,  supposing 
him  actually  to  have  a  motion  of  rotation  from  west  to  east  on  an  axis  nearly  perpendicular 
to  the  plane  of  the  path  or  orbit,  which,  in  virtue  of  his  apparent  motion,  he  describes 
round  the  heavens  in  the  course  of  a  year.  When  a  spot  is  first  discovered  on  the  eastern 
edge  of  the  disc,  it  appears  like  a  fine  line :  as  it  approaches  the  centre  of  the  disc  its 
breadth  increases ;  as  it  advances  towards  the  western  edge  the  breadth  again  diminishes, 
until  the  spot  at  length  entirely  disappears.  The  same  spot  is  sometimes  again  observed, 
after  fourteen  days,  on  the  east  side  of  the  disc ;  but  more  frequently  the  spot  is  dissolved, 
and  is  no  more  seen.  By  careful  observation  of  the  time  occupied  by  a  spot  in  crossing 
the  disc,  taking  also  into  account  the  proper  motion  of  the  sun  fi'om  west  to  east  during 
that  period,  the  time  of  the  sun's  rotation  on  his  axis  is  found  to  be  about  twenty-five  and  a 
half  days. 

That  the  moon,  and  the  planets  Mercury,  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn,  have  each  a 
motion  of  rotation  from  west  to  east,  on  an  axis  inclined  to  the  plane  of  the  sun's  orbit,  is 
inferred  in  like  manner  from  the  spots  that  are  seen  to  traverse  their  discs.  The  moon  pre- 
sents always  nearly  the  same  side  to  the  earth ;  and  must,  therefore,  revolve  on  her  axis  in 
the  same  time  in  which  she  is  carried  round  the  heavens  bv  her  apparent  motion,  namely,  in 
27  <i  7  ■"  43  \  Mercury  revolves  in  24  *■  5  " ;  Venus  in  23  "^  30  " ;  Mars  in  24 ''  39 "" ;  Jupiter  in 
.  9  *"  56  " ;  Saturn  in  10 ''  29  "'.  In  the  remaining  planets  no  appearances  have  been  discovered 
which  enable  us  to  ascertain  whether  or  not  tliey  revolve  on  axes ;  though,  from  analogy,  it 
is  hiffhly  probable  that  they  do. 

With  regard  to  the  figure  of  the  sun  and  of  those  planets  which  are  knovsTi  to  revolve  on 
axes,  we  may  conclude  that  they  are  nearly  spherical ;  because  no  other  but  a  spherical  body 
can,  when  revolving  on  an  axis  in  the  manner  of  the  planets  (with  the  exception  of  the 
moon),  present  in  every  position  the  appearance  of  a  circular  disc.  The  spherical  figure  of 
the  moon,  and,  indeed,  of  the  other  planets  which  exhibit  phases,  may  be  inferred  from  the 
fact,  that  the  concavity  of  the  crescent  which  they  from  time  to  time  display  is  bounded  by 
an  elliptic  line.  The  planet  Uranus  always  presents  a  disc  that  is  nearly  circular,  and  it  has 
not  been  ascertained  that  he  revolves  on  an  axis ;  but  it  is  very  improbable,  when  we  con- 
sider how  very  irregular  his  motions  among  the  fixed  stars  appear  when  seen  from  the  earth, 
that  he  should  keep  the  same  side  always  turned  towards  us.  His  apparent  motion  is  some- 
times direct,  that  is  from  west  to  east,  sometimes  retrograde,  or  in  the  contrary  direction ;  so 
that  to  present  constantly  the  appearance  of  a  circular  disc,  the  planet  would  require,  were 
it  not  spherical,  to  have  motions  m  opposite  directions  about  the  same  axis.  The  same  rea- 
soning will  apply  to  the  remaining  planets.  We  may  conclude,  therefore,  that  the  sun, 
moon,  and  planets,  are  bodies  nearly  spherical. 


Book  I. 


DISTANCES,  ETC.  OF  THE  HEAVENLY  BODIES. 


87 


CHAPTER  VI. 

DISTANCES  AND  MAGNITUDES  OF  THE  HEAVENLY  BODIES. 

Distances  of  the  fixed  stars.  From  whatever  point  of  the  earth's  surface  we  observe  the 
fixed  stars,  they  always  appear  to  preserve  the  very  same  relative  positions.  We  may  hence 
conclude  that  these  bodies  are  situated  at  immeasurable  distances  from  the  earth ;  and  that 
though  to  us  who  inhabit  it  tlie  dimensions  of  the  eartli  appear  very  great,  they  are  insensi- 
ble wlien  compared  with  these  immense  distances.  The  earth  is  in  reality  but  as  a  point  in 
space.  But  though  the  fixed  stars  are  vastly  too  remote  to  admit  of  their  distances  being 
determined,  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  they  are  placed  at  very  different  degrees  of 
remoteness.  They  shine  with  very  various  degrees  of  brilliancy  ;  multitudes  are  not  visible 
without  tlie  aid  of  the  telescope,  and  it  may  reasonably  be  supposed  that  many  more  have 
not  yet  been  discovered  by  the  most  powerfial  instruments  whicli  have  been  directed  to  the 
heavens. 

The  distances  of  the  fixed  stars  being  unknown,  we  can  only  form  conjectures  from 
hypothesis  and  analogy  respecting  their  true  magnitudes.  When  viewed  through  the  best 
telescopes,  they  have  no  apparent  diameter,  but  appear  like  points  in  the  heavens. 

Mode  of  determining  the  distance  of  the  sum,  moon,  and  planets.  In  reference  to  the 
sphere  of  the  fixed  stars,  then,  the  earth  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  point.  To  a  spectator,  at  the 
sun,  moon,  and  planets,  however,  it  would  present  a  disc  subtending  an  angle  of  greater  or 
less  magnitude,  and,  ev^n  when  smallest,  admitting  of  measurement.  This  angle  can  be 
determined  by  an  observer  on  the  earth's  surface ;  and  as  we  know  the  true  magnitude  of  the 
earth,  it  affords  us  the  means  of  estimating  the  distances  of  these  bodies.  Let  O  o  (fig.  16)  be 
the  places  of  two  observers  under  the  same  meridian,  but  very  distant  from  each  other.  Let  P 
be  a  planet  in  the  meridian  of  these  places,  and  let  some  fixed  star  which  comes  to  the  meri- 
dian at  the  same  time  with  the  planet,  be  seen  by  the  observers  at  O  and  o,  in  the  directions 
O  S,  0  s.  Join  O  P,  o  P,  and  produce  O  P,  to  meet  o  s  in  A.  Then,  because  O  S,  o  s,  are 
parallel  (the  distance  of  the  star  S  being  regarded  as  infinite),  the  angles  O  A  o,  A  O  S  are 
equal ;  and,  because  O  P  o  is  the  exterior  angle  of  the  triangle  o  A  P,  it  is  equal  to  tlie  sum 
of  the  two  interior  and  opposite  angles  A  o  P,  o  A  P.  Wherefore  the  angle  O  P  o  is  equal 
to  the  sum  of  the  angles  A  o  P,  P  O  S ;  that  is,  the  angle  subtended  at  the  planet  by  the 
chord  of  the  terrestrial  arc  intercepted  between  the  points  of  observation,  is  equal  to  the  sum 
of  the  apparent  distances  of  the  planet  from  the  star,  provided  the  planet  is  seen  (as  we  have 
here  supposed)  on  opposite  sides  of  the  star  by  the  two  observers.  If  the  star  is  seen  on  the 
same  side  by  both,  the  angle  at  the  planet  will  then  be  equal  to  the  difference  of  the  appa- 
rent distances. 

If  the  observers  are  so  situated  that  P  O,  P  o  (fig.  17)  are  tangents  to  the  circle  O  E  o  at  the 
points  O  and  o,  the  angle  O  P  o  will  be  the  angle  subtended  by  the  disc  of  the  earth  at  the  planet. 


But  if  P  O,  P  0  are  not  tangents,  draw  P  O'  and  P  6  tangents  to  the  circle  O  E  o,  and  fi-om 
C  the  centre  draw  C  O',  C  d  to  the  points  of  contact :  draw  also  the  vertical  lines  C  Z  and 
C  Z'  through  O  and  o  the  places  of  the  observers,  and  produce  P  O,  P  o  to  meet  C  O',  C  d 
in  B  and  D.  Now,  for  the  sun  and  planets  the  angle  O  P  o  is  very  small,  and  even  for  the 
moon  it  is  not  very  considerable.  The  distance  P  C  may  tlierefore  be  regarded,  in  every 
case,  as  much  greater  than  C  O',  or  C  6.  Hence  the  lines  C  O',  C  B,  C  D  may  without  sen- 
sible error  be  considered  as  proportional  to  the  angles  C  P  O',  C  P  B,  C  P  D  ;  so  that  we 
nave  ZCPO':  ZCPO  =  CO':  CB  and  ZCPO:  ZCPo  =  CO':  CD;  where- 
fore  ZCPO':  Z  C  P  O  +  Z  C  P  o  or  Z  O  P  o  =  C  O' :  C  B  +  C  D     But  the  angles 


Angle  at  the  Sun 

= 

17 

Mercury- 

^ 

28 

Venus 

= 

62 

Mars 

= 

42 

Jupiter 

=: 

4 

Saturn 

= 

2 

88  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Paiit  U. 

at  B  and  D  are  very  nearly  right  angles,  and  therefore,  to  radius  C  O',  we  have  C  B  = 
Sin  C  O  B  =  Sin.  P  O  Z ;  and  C  D  =  Sin.  C  o  D  =  Sin.  P  o  Z' :  Hence  we  obtain 
ZCPO':  ZOPo  =  (CO:CB+CD=)  Rad. :   Sin.  P  O  Z  +  Sin.  P  o  Z' :  And  2  Z 

Rad. 
CPO'  orZO'P(;  =  2ZOPoX  b      p  o  V    I    g — 5— ^' 

Sm.  P  O  Z  +  Sin.  P  0  Z 

If  the  planet  be  on  the  same  side  of  the  zenith  to  both  observers,  then  the  diiTerence, 
instead  of  the  sum  of  the  sines  of  the  zenith  distances,  must  be  taken  for  the  denominator. 
Expressing  the  above  formula  in  words,  we  give  the  following  simple  rule : — Divide  the  arc, 
(expressed  in  parts  of  the  radius,)  which  measures  the  observed  angle  at  the  planet,  by  the 
sum  of  the  sines  of  the  zenith  distances  of  the  planet,  if  it  is  between  the  zeniths  of  the 
two  observers ;  or  by  the  difference  of  these  sines  if  the  planet  is  on  the  same  side  of  the 
zenith  to  both  observers ;  and  twice  the  result  ivill  be  the  arc,  expressed  in  parts  of  the 
radius,  that  measures  the  angle  subtended  at  the  planet  by  the  disc  of  the  earth. 

Since  small'  angles,  that  require  for  their  measurement  only  the  use  of  the  micrometer, 
can  be  determined  with  much  more  accuracy  than  large  angles  requiring  the  whole  telescope 
to  be  moved,  it  is  best  to  employ,  in  finding  the  angle  O  P  o  a  star  which  is  near  the  planet ; 
a  small  error  in  taking  the  zenith  distances  of  the  planet  will  produce  no  sensible  error  in 
the  result. 

Another  method  of  determining  this  angle,  is  by  observations  on  the  transit  of  Venus  over 
the  disc  of  the  sun ;  a  phenomenon  in  which  the  planet  is  seen  like  a  dark  spot  on  the  disc ; 
but  the  method  now  explained  is  sufficient  for  our  present  purpose. 

The  following  are  the  angles  subtended  by  the  earth'' s  disc  at  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets, 
when  the  earth  is  nearest  to  each : 

Seconds.  Seconds. 

Angle  at  Uranus     =^        1 
Vesta    "1 

Juno       I  ^_         q 
Ceres     | 
Pallas   J 
Moon        =  2°  2' 
To  determine,  now,  the  distance  of  the  sun  or  moon,  or  of  a  planet : — In  the  right  angled 

triangle  P  O  C  we  have  given  the  angle  P  equal  to 
half  the  angle  subtended  by  the  earth's  disc  at  the 
body  whose  distance  is  to  be  found ;  also  O  C  the 
earth's  semi-diameter :  therefore  ^he  distance  P  C 
may  be  determined  by  the  proportion  Sin.  P  :  Rad.= 
C  O  :  P  C.  Since  the  angle  P  is  small,  its  sine 
must  be  nearly  equal  to  tlie  arc  which  measures  it. 
Observing  therefore  that  the  arc  to  which  the  radius 
is  equal,  expressed  in  seconds,  is  206265"  we  have 
Z  P  (in  seconds)  :  206265  =  C  O  :  P  C.     Hence 

P  C  =  2  C  O  X  ~  "T^-  •   Whence  we  derive  the  following  rule : — Divide  the  constant 

number  206265  by  the  number  of  seconds  in  the  angle  subtended  by  the  eartlis  disc  as  seen 
from  the  body  whose  distance  is  to  be  determined ;  multiply  the  result  by  the  diameter  of 
the  earth,  and  the  product  is  the  distance  required.     In  the  case  of  the  sun ;  assuming  the 

diameter  of  the  earth  as  unity,  we  have  the  distance  equal  to  — — —  or  12133  diameters  of 

the  earth.  In  like  manner,  taking  4",  2",  1"  for  the  angles  subtended  by  the  earth's  disc  at 
•Tupiter,  Saturn,  and  Uranus,  the  distances  of  these  planets  from  the  earth,  when  least,  will 
be  51566,  103132,  206265  diameters  of  the  earth  respectively.  The  mean  distance  of  the 
moon  is  about  sixty  semi-diameters  of  the  earth. 

The  apparent  diameter  of  any  one  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  is  the  number  of  seconds  in  the 
measure  of  the  angle  under  which  its  circular  disc  is  seen  by  a  spectator  upon  the  earth. 
When  measured  by  a  micrometer,  the  apparent  diameters  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets  are 
found  to  be,  when  greatest,  as  follows : 

Seconds.  Saronds. 

Diameter  of  the  Sun          =  1923  Diameter  of  Jupiter  =      46 

Mercury  =      12  Saturn  =      18 

Venus       =      61  Uranus  =^        4 

Mars         =      18  Moon     ^  2020 

Tlie  four  remaining  planets,  according  to  the  most  careftil  observations,  appear  to  subtend 

only  a  small  part  of  a  second. 

Now,  for  deducing  the  real  diameters  from  the  apparent,  we  have  this  rule : — As  the 

apparent  diaynetcr  of  the  earth,  (or  the  seconds  in  the  angle  which  its  disc  subtends,)  as 


Boob  I.  ROTATION  OF  THE  EARTH.  89 

seen  from  the  planet,  is  to  the  apparent  diameter  of  the  planet  as  seen  from  the  earth,  st, 
is  the  true  diameter  of  the  earth  to  the  true  diameter  of  the  planet. 

Calling  the  diameter  of  the  earth  unity,  or  8000  miles  in  round  numbers,  we  obtain, 

Diameters  of 


the  Earlh. 

Miles. 

Diameter  of  the  Sun 

= 

111.454 

= 

882,000  nearly. 

Mercury 

= 

0.398 

= 

3,140    — 

Venus 

= 

0.9 

=: 

7,200    — 

Mars 

= 

0.517 

= 

4,100    — 

Jupiter 

= 

10.860 

= 

87,000    — 

Saturn 

= 

9.982 

=: 

70,068    — 

Uranus 

= 

4.332 

= 

34,500    — 

Moon 

= 

0.273 

= 

2,160    — 

As  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets  are  spherical  bodies,  their  magnitudes  compared  with  the 
magnitude  of  the  earth,  may  be  found  upon  the  principle  that  similar  solids  are  to  one 
another  as  the  cubes  of  their  similar  dimensions ;  so  that  as  the  cube  of  the  diameter  of  the 
earth  is  to  the  cube  of  the  diameter  of  the  sun,  moon,  or  a  planet,  so  is  the  magnitude  of 
the  former  to  the  magnitude  of  the  latter. 

Assuming  the  magnitude  of  the  earth  as  unity : 

The  magnitude  of  the  Sun  =  1384472.000 

Mercury      =  .063 


Venus 

= 

.927 

Mars 

= 

.139 

Jupiter 

= 

1280.900 

Saturn 

= 

995.000 

Uranus 

= 

80.490 

Moon 

= 

.020 

Having  now  ascertained  the  distances  and  magnitudes  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  we  proceed 
to  inquire  whether  the  diurnal  motion  which  we  observe  in  them  be  a  real  or  only  an  ap- 
parent motion ;  and  whether  the  earth  is  the  centre  to  which  the  proper  motion  of  any  of 
them  is  to  be  referred. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ROTATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


The  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies  suggests  the  existence  of  some  cause,  under 
the  influence  of  which  they  either  perform  or  appear  to  perform  a  revolution  from  east  to 
west  round  the  axis  of  the  celestial  sphere  in  the  space  of  a  day  and  a  night.  Now,  there 
are  two  suppositions,  on  either  of  which  the  diurnal  motion  may  be  explained.  We  may 
suppose  the  heavens  to  be  carried  round  the  earth,  while  the  latter  remains  immoveable  in 
the  centre ;  or  we  may  suppose  the  heavens  to  be  at  rest,  and  the  earth  to  revolve  on  an 
axis  in  an  opposite  direction ;  that  is,  from  west  to  east.  To  which  of  these  hypotheses  the 
preference  is  due,  will  be  evident  if  we  consider  that  the  heavenly  bodies  are  independent 
one  of  another,  and  are  placed  at  very  different  distances  from  the  earth ;  that  variations  in 
the  apparent  diameters  of  the  planets  indicate  great  changes  hi  their  distances,  while  the 
comets  traverse  the  heavens  in  all  directions ;  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  that  one  and 
the  same  cause  should  impress  on  all  these  bodies  a  common  motion  of  rotation. 

Since  the  earth  is  a  globe  of  about  8000  miles  diameter,  it  is  small  when  compared  with 
the  unmense  mass  of  the  sun.  Were  the  centres  of  the  sun  and  earth  brought  into  coinci- 
dence, the  former  body  would  fill  the  orbit  of  the  moon  and  extend  as  far  again  beyond  it. 
Besides,  the  sun  is  distant  from  us  about  twelve  thousand  diameters  of  the  earth ;  so  that  to 
revolve  round  the  heavens  in  the  interval  of  twenty-four  hours,  he  must  move  at  the  im- 
mense velocity  of  about  twenty-five  millions  of  miles  in  an  hour.  It  is  therefore  more 
reasonable  to  suppose  the  earth  to  have  a  motion  of  rotation  on  an  axis,  than  to  suppose  the 
sun,  a  body  so  distant  and  of  such  immense  magnitude,  to  move  with  the  vast  rapidity  that 
would  be  requisite  to  carry  him  round  the  heavens  in  so  short  an  interval.  With  regard  to 
the  fixed  stars,  we  may  reason  in  the  same  manner  with  still  greater  force :  for  the  velocity 
necessary  to  carry  the  sun  round  in  twenty-four  hours  is  really  insensible  when  compared 
with  the  rapidity  with  which  tlie  fixed  stars  must  move  to  accomplish  a  like  revolution.  In 
order  to  account  for  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens  on  the  hypothesis  that  the  earth  is 
at  rest,  it  must  be  supposed  that  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  have  tlieir  velocities  so  adapted 
to  their  respective  distances,  that  all  of  them  complete  their  revolutions  round  the  earth 
in  exactly  the  same  number  of  seconds.  Such  an  adaptation  among  innumerable  indepen- 
dent bodies,  placed  at  such  a  variety  of  distances,  it  is  impossible  to  admit. 

There  are  otlier  phenomena  of  the  heavens  which  serve  still  farther  to  confirm  the  con- 
clusion, that  tliG  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies  is  not  a  real  motion.  Every  difficulty, 

Vol,.  I.  8*  M 


90  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  P.uit  II. 

however  disappears,  if  we  suppose  the  earth  to  have  a  motion  of  rotation  on  aii  axis  from 
west  to  east.  Carried  round  with  a  velocity  common  to  all  the  objects  wliich  surround  us 
on  the  earth's  surface,  we  are  in  a  situation  similar  to  that  of  a  spectator  placed  in  a  vessel 
in  motion.  At  the  first  careless  glance  he  imagines  himself  at  rest,  while  the  shore,  and 
all  the  objects  which  he  sees,  unconnected  with  the  vessel,  appear  to  be  in  motion.  By 
reflecting,  however,  on  the  extent  of  the  shore,  on  the  magnitude  of  the  mountains,  and 
otlier  objects  on  land,  wlien  compared  with  the  vessel  from  which  he  observes  them,  he  frees 
his  mind  from  this  momentary  illusion,  and  becomes  convinced  that  the  motion  of  these 
objects  is  only  apparent,  and  that  it  is  produced  by  the  real  motion  of  the  vessel.  The 
multitude  of  stars  scattered  over  the  heavens  are,  with  respect  to  us,  what  the  shore  and 
the  objects  upon  it  are  with  regard  to  the  spectator  placed  in  the  vessel :  and  by  the  same 
considerations,  by  which  his  first  impressions  are  so  corrected  that  he  becomes  assured  of 
the  reality  of  his  motion,  we  are  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  an 
axis  produces  the  apparent  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens. 

An  argument  for  tlie  rotation  of  the  earth  may  also  be  drawn  from  analogy.  Several  of 
the  planets  are  known  to  have  a  motion  on  an  axis  similar  to  that  which  we  have  supposed 
to  belong  to  the  earth.  Jupiter,  for  example,  which  is  many  times  greater  than  the  earth, 
Tjevolves  on  his  axis  from  west  to  east  in  less  than  half  a  day ;  and  to  an  observer  on  his 
surface,  the  heavens  would  appear  to  revolve  round  that  planet  in  the  same  manner  as  we 
see  them  revolve  round  the  earth,  but  in  about  half  the  time.  This  motion  of  the  heavens 
in  reference  to  a  spectator  on  the  planet  Jupiter  would,  however,  be  only  apparent ;  and 
hence  we  may  reasonably  conclude,  that  the  case  is  the  same  in  reference  to  a  spectator  on 
the  earth. 

Lastly,  if  the  earth  is  actually  in  motion,  there  will  be  generated  a  centrifugal  force,  or 
a  tendency  to  throw  off  objects  from  its  surface,  which  must  diminish  the  force  of  gravity, 
particularly  at  the  equator,  where  the  motion  is  most  rapid.  Now,  by  observations  made 
with  the  pendulum,  this  diminutioq  of  the  force  of  gravity  has  been  found  to  exist.  The 
same  cause  aflfects  also  the  figure  of  the  earth,  which  has  been  found  to  be  flattened  some- 
what at  the  points  of  rotation,  and  elevated  at  the  equatorial  regions.  TJie  same  is  observed 
to  be  the  figure  of  Jupiter, — a  circumstance  which  greatly  strengthens  the  argument  drawn 
from  analogy.  The  evidence  which  has  now  been  adduced  leaves  no  doubt  respecting  the 
earth's  motion  of  rotation ;  and  thus  we  ar«  enabled  to  ascertain  the  true  place  which  the 
globe  that  we  inhabit  holds  in  the  universe. 

The  points  in  which  the  axis  of  rotation  meets  the  surface  are  called  the  poles  of  the 
earth ;  and  it  is  evident  that  the  axis,  if  produced,  must  pass  through  the  poles  of  the 
heavens. 


CHAPTER  Vm. 

APPARENT  ANNUAL  MOTION  OF  THE  SUN.     VICISSITUDE  OF  SEASONS. 

While  the  sun  participates  in  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens,  he  also  appears  to  move 
eastward  among  the  fixed  stars.  This  motion  it  will  be  of  importance  now  to  trace  out, 
and  to  explain  the  change  of  seasons  to  which  it  gives  rise.  If  we  observe  each  day  of  the 
year  the  meridian  altitude  of  the  sun,  and  note  the  time  which  elapses  between  liis  passage 
over  the  meridian  and  the  passage  of  any  particular  star,  we  shall  have  the  apparent  motion 
of  the  sun  in  the  direction  of  the  meridian,  and  of  the  circles  parallel  to  the  equator  in 
which  he  appears  daily  to  he  carried  by  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens.  The  result  of 
the  composition  of  these  two  motions  will  give  the  true  motion  for  each  day.  In  this  manner 
it  has  been  found  that  the  sun  moves  in  a  path  or  orbit  which  cuts  the  equator  in  two  oppo- 
site points,  and  makes  with  it  an  angle  equal  to  23°  28'  nearly. 

The  name  of  ecliptic  is  given  to  the  circle  which  the  plane  of  this  orbit  marks  out  on  the 
sphere  of  the  heavens.  It  passes  through  twelve  constellations,  which  are  called  the 
TWELVE  SIGNS.  This  has  given  rise  to  the  division  of  the  ecliptic  into  twelve  equal  parts, 
called  SIGNS,  each  containing,  of  course,  30°.  The  twelve  signs  are  contained  in  a  zone  of 
the  starry  heavens,  called  the  Zodiac.  Tlie  names  of  these  constellations,  with  the  charac- 
ters by  which  they  are  usually  denoted,  are  as  follow: — Aries  T,  Taurus  b,  Gemini  IT,  Cancer 
22,  Leo  ^,  Virgo  "J,  Libra  r^,  Scorpio  Tt|,  Sagittarius  ^,  Capricornus  V5',  Aquarius  ca,  Pisces  X- 

The  vicissitude  of  seasons  arises  from  the  combination  of  the  apparent  motion  of  tlie  sun 
in  the  ecliptic  with  his  apparent  diurnal  motion.  When  the  sun  is  in  either  of  the  points 
in  whicli  the  ecliptic  intersects  tlie  equator,  he  describes  the  equator  on  that  day  in  virtue 
of  his  diurnal  motion ;  and  as  by  tlie  properties  of  the  sphere  this  circle  is  divided  into  two 
equal  parts  by  the  horizon,  at  whatever  point  of  the  earth's  surface  the  spectator  is  situated, 
the  day  is  then  equal  to  the  night  over  all  the  globe. 

The  points  of  intersection  of  equator  and  ecliptic  are  called  the  Equinocti.vl  Points. 
The  first  point  of  the  sign  Aries  is  supposed  to  coincide  with  the  point  of  the  vernal  equinox ; 
and  from  that  point  the  signs  of  the  ecliptic  are  reckoned :  the  first  point  of  the  sign  Libra 


Book  I.  VICISSITUDE  OF  SEASONS.  91 

will  therefore  coincide  with  the  point  of  the  autumnal  equinox.  As  the  sun,  when  he  leaves 
the  point  of  the  vernal  equinox  advances  in  the  ecliptic,  his  meridian  altitude  above  our 
horizon  daily  increases,  and  a  larger  portion  of  the  parallel  which  he  daily  describes  becomes 
visible.  Hence  arises  a  gradual  increase  in  the  length  of  the  day  in  all  countries  to  the 
north  of  the  equator ;  until  the  sun  having  readied  his  greatest  altitude,  the  day  acquires  its 
greatest  length,  and  begins  to  shorten.  As  the  variations  of  the  altitude  on  each  side  of  the 
points  at  which  it  is  greatest  are  insensible,  the  sun,  if  we  attend  only  to  his  altitude,  appears 
stationary,  and  the  day  continues,  for  some  time,  very  nearly  of  the  same  length.  The  point 
of  tiie  ecliptic  at  which  the  maximum  takes  place  is  therefore  denominated  the  point  of  the 
Summer  Solstice.  The  sun,  having  reached  this  point,  now  returns  towards  the  equator, 
which  he  crosses  at  the  point  of  the  autumnal  equinox.  His  meridian  altitude  gradually 
diminishes  until  it  reaches  the  minimum  at  the  point  of  the  Winter  Solstice.  The  day, 
wliich  has  been  gradually  shortenmg  from  the  summer  solstice,  is  then  the  shortest  in  the 
year,  and  for  some  time  does  not  sensibly  lengthen.  The  sun,  however,  again  gradually 
approaches  the  equator,  and  reaches  it  at  the  vernal  equinox. 

Such  is  the  constant  progress  of  the  sun  in  the  heavens,  and  such  the  succession  of  the 
seasons  of  the  year.  The  Spring  is  the  time  comprised  between  the  vernal  or  spring  equinox, 
which  falls  about  the  21st  of  March,  and  the  summer  solstice,  which  happens  about  the  21st 
of  June  :  the  interval  between  the  solstice  and  the  aaitumnal  equinox,  which  falls  about  the 
23d  of  September  is  the  Summer  :  the  time  between  the  autumnal  equinox  and  the  winter 
solstice,  which  occurs  about  the  22d  of  December,  is  the  Autumn  :  and,  lastly,  the  Winter 
is  the  time  that  elapses  between  the  winter  solstice  and  the  spring  equinox. 

The  two  circles  parallel  to  the  equator,  which  the  sun  describes  on  the  longest  and 
shortest  days,  are  called,  one  the  summer  or  northern  Tropic,  and  the  other  the  winter  or 
southern  Tropic.  They  are  also  respectively  denominated  the  tropic  of  Cancer  and  the 
tropic  of  Capricorn,  in  reference  to  the  points  in  which  they  touch  the  ecliptic. 

The  presence  of  the  sun  above  the  horizon  being  the  cause  of  heat,  and  the  temperature 
increasing  as  the  altitude  increases,  it  might  be  inferred  that  the  temperature  should  be  the 
same  in  summer  as  in  spring,  and  in  winter  as  in  autumn ;  because  the  altitudes  of  the  sun 
in  these  seasons  exactly  correspond.  But  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  temperature  is  not  an 
instantaneous  effect  of  the  sun's  presence ;  but  is  the  result  of  the  continued  action  of  his 
rays.  On  this  account  it  is  not  greatest  on  the  day  when  the  altitude  is  greatest,  but  some 
time  between  the  summer  solstice  and  autumnal  equinox.  In  like  manner,  the  greatest  cold 
of  winter  does  not  occur  on  the  shortest  day,  but  some  tune  between  the  winter  solstice  and 
the  spring  equinox. 

With  regard  both  to  temperature  and  the  length  of  the  day,  great  differences  arise  from 
the  different  elevations  of  the  pole  above  the  horizon,  as  we  proceed  from  the  equator 
towards  either  of  the  poles.  The  horizon  of  an  observer  at  the  equator  passes  through  the 
poles,  and  by  the  geometrical  properties  of  the  sphere  it  divides  the  equator  and  all  the  circles, 
parallel  to  it  into  two  equal  parts.  It  also  cuts  them  at  right  angles ;  and  hence  the  position 
of  the  celestial  sphere,  in  reference  to  the  horizon  of  an  observer  at  the  equator,  is  called  the 
Right  position  of  the  sphere.  In  whatever  pomt  of  the  ecliptic  the  sun  is  situated,  his 
diurnal  course  is  therefore  at  right  angles  to  the  horizon,  and  one  half  of  it  is  in  the  visible 
hemisphere,  and  the  other  half  in  the  invisible ;  hence,  at  the  equator,  the  day  is  at  all 
seasons  equal  to  the  night. 

When  the  sun  is  in  either  of  the  equinoctial  points,  he  passes  through  the  zenith  at 
mid-day.  When  he  is  in  either  of  the  solstitial  points  his  meridian  altitude  is  the  least,  and 
is  equal  to  the  complement  of  the  inclination  of  the  ecliptic  to  the  equator.  In  these  two 
positions  of  the  sun  the  shadows  of  objects  fall,  at  mid-day,  in  opposite  directions, — a  pheno- 
menon whicli  at  no  season  occurs  in  our  climate,  where  the  solar  shadows  are  at  mid-day 
always  directed  towards  the  north :  there  are,  then,  properly  speaking,  two  summers  and 
two  winters  in  the  year  at  the  equator.  The  same  thing  takes  place  in  all  the  countries 
where  the  elevation  of  the  pole  above  the  horizon  is  less  than  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic. 
In  every  country  beyond  this  region  there  is  only  one  summer  and  one  winter  in  the  year, 
with  the  intervening  seasons  of  spring  and  autumn :  the  sun  is  never  in  the  zenith :  the 
length  of  the  longest  day  increases,  and  that  of  the  shortest  day  diminishes,  as  we  advance 
towards  either  of  the  poles ;  and  when  we  have  reached  such  a  position,  that  tlie  zenith  is 
distant  from  the  pole  by  an  arc  of  the  meridian  equal  to  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  the 
sun  does  not  set  at  the  summer  solstice,  nor  rise  at  the  winter  solstice. 

The  polar  circles.  About  each  of  the  poles  of  the  celestial  sphere,  suppose  a  circle  to  be 
described  distant  from  it  by  an  arc  equal  to  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic ;  these  two  circles 
are  called  the  Polar  Circles.  In  the  region  of  the  earth  situated  around  either  of  its 
poles,  at  every  point  whose  zenith  lines  within  the  polar  circle,  the  time  of  the  sun's  presence 
above  the  horizon  and  of  his  absence  below  it,  at  certain  seasons,  exceeds  twenty-four  hours: 
it  increases  as  we  approach  the  pole,  and  may  amount  to  days  or  even  to  months.  Thus, 
when  the  sun's  declination  north,  increasing,  becomes  equal  to  the  distance  of  the  zenith  of 
ajiy  place  m  the  northern  polar  region  from  the  north  pole  of  the  heavens,  he  ceases  to  set 


92  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

at  that  place,  and  continues  above  the  horizon  until  he  has  reached  the  same  declination  in 
returning  towards  the  equator.  From  t.lint  time  the  sun  rises  and  sets  in  the  course  of 
twenty-four  liours,  until  the  sun's  declination  south  becomes  equal  to  the  distance  of  the 
zenith  from  the  pole,  and  then  he  ceases  to  rise  and  continues  below  the  horizon  til'  he  has 
again  acquired  the  same  declination  in  returning  northward. 

At  the  pole,  the  equator  coincides  with  the  horizon,  and  all  the  circles  parallel  to  the 
equator  are  also  parallel  to  the  horizon.  This  is  called  the  Parallel  position  of  the  sphere. 
To  an  observer,  placed  at  the  pole,  the  heavenly  bodies  would  appear  to  move  round,  either 
in  the  horizon  or  parallel  to  it.  Hence  the  sun  is  constantly  above  the  horizon  when  he  is 
on  the  same  side  of  the  equator  with  the  pole,  and  constantly  below  it  v/hen  on  tlie  other 
side ;  so  that  at  either  of  the  poles  of  the  earth  there  is  only  one  day  and  one  night  in  the 
year. 

At  any  point  on  the  earth's  surface,  between  the  equator  and  either  of  the  poles,  the 
equator  and  the  circles  parallel  to  it,  are  oblique  to  the  horizon.  This  is  called  the  Oblique 
position  of  the  sphere ;  and  by  tlie  geometrical  properties  of  the  sphere,  tlie  horizon,  in  this 
position,  divides  all  the  circles  parallel  to  the  equator  into  two  unequal  parts ;  hence  arises 
the  mcquality  of  the  days  and  nights  at  all  places  between  the  equator  and  either  pole.  In 
this  country,  for  e.xample,  in  summer,  when  the  sun  is  on  the  north  side  of  the  equator,  the 
larger  portion  of  his  diurnal  course  lies  in  the  visible  hemisphere,  and  the  less  in  the  invisible, 
so  that  the  day  is  longer  than  the  night.  The  reverse  is  the  case  in  the  winter  when  the 
sun  is  on  the  south  side  of  the  equator. 

If  two  places  are  situated  on  opposite  sides  of  the  equator,  the  spring  and  summer  of  the 
one  will,  it  is  evident,  correspond  to  the  autumn  and  winter  of  the  other. 

Witli  regard  to  tlie  temperature,  it  is  higher  in  the  equatorial  regions  than  in  any  other 
part  of  the  earth,  because  there  the  action  of  the  sun's  rays  is  most  direct.  To  every  point 
of  the  earth's  surface,  whose  zenith  lies  between  the  tropics,  the  sun  is  vertical  twice  in  the 
year;  so  that  his  rays,  acting  perpendicularly,  produce  their  greatest  effect.  In  the  polar 
regions  the  temperature  is  lowest,  in  consequence  of  the  obliquity  with  which  the  sun's  rays 
fall  on  the  earth's  surface,  and  the  great  length  of  the  winter  night.  In  the  countries  situated 
between  tlic  equatorial  region  and  the  two  polar  regions,  there  prevails  a  medium  tempera- 
ture, increasing  as  the  zenith  approaches  the  nearer  of  the  two  tropics,  and  diminishing  as 
it  approaches  the  nearer  of  the  polar  circles. 

A  division  of  the  earth's  surface  into  five  zones  has  been  suggested  by  this  difference  of 
^,  temperature  from  the  equator  towards  either  pole. 

'»~^JD  In  the  adjoining  figure  let  P  jf  represent  the  earth's 

^\^  axis,  P  E  p  Q,  a  meridian,  and  E  Q  the  equatorial 

\^  diameter.     Let  E  C  Q  be  the  representation  of  a 

\  circle  on  the  earth's  surface  equally  distant  from 

\        the  poles,  which  will  therefore  be    the  equator : 

"J]^M-   and  Y  G  Yi,  f  g  h  circles  on  the  earth's  surface 

77^ '^         \      parallel  to  the  equator,  and  at  the  distance  of  about 

"''),,  235  degrees ;  on  eacli  side  of  it,  and  A  B  D,  a  6  (Z 

^^  circles  round  the  poles  P,  p,  and  at  the  same  dis- 

J      tance  of  23^  degrees. 

y  At  tiie  times  of  the  year  when  the  sun  is  in  the 

/        tropic  of  Cancer,  he  will,  in  his  apparent  re  vol  u- 
/  tion,  be  vertical  to  all  places  on  the  circle  F  G  H ; 

X  and  when  he  is  in  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  he  will 

—~.^^  be  vertical  to  the  circle  y^  h.    The  space  on  the 

cl  earth's  surface  between  these  circles  is  the  Torrid 

Zone. 
When  the  sun  is  in  the  southern  tropic  he  will  not  be  seen  anywhere  in  the  space  bounded 
by  the  circle  A  B  D.  This  is,  therefore,  the  northern  Frigid  Zone :  and  when  he  is  in  the 
northern  tropic  there  is  a  like  tract,  bounded  by  the  circle  a  b  d,  round  the  south  pole,  where 
he  will  then  be  invisible.  This  is  the  southern  Frigid  Zone.  The  two  tracts  between  the 
torrid  zone  and  the  frigid  zones  are  the  temperate  zones. 

Another  division  of  the  eartli  into  zones  was  used  by  the  ancient  geographers,  founded  on 
the  different  lengths  of  the  longest  day,  as  we  proceed  from  the  equator  towards  either  of 
the  poles.  These  zones  were  denominated  Climates,  and  were  each  of  such  a  breadth,  tliat 
the  longest  day  at  the  boundary  nearer  the  pole  exceeded  the  longest  day  at  the  boundary 
nearer  the  equator  by  some  certain  space  of  time,  as  half  an  hour  or  an  hour.  Witliin  the 
polar  circle,  the  climates  were  supposed  of  such  a  breadth  as  to  make  the  longest  day  at  the 
opposite  sides  differ  by  a  month. 

The  points  in  which  the  equator  and  ecliptic  intersect  each  other  are  not  immoveable,  but 
appear,  with  respect  to  the  fixed  stars,  to  recede  towards  the  west  at  the  rate  of  5O70" 
nearly,  annually,  or  about  1°  in  72  years.  This  motion  is  called  the  Precession  of  the 
Equinoxes.     When  the  constellations  of  the  zodiac  were  first  delineated  by  the  ancient 


Book  I.  VICISSITUDE  OF  SEASONS.  93 

astronomers,  the  middle  of  the  si^  Aries  was  at  the  point  of  tlie  vernal  equinox,  from  which 
it  is  now  distant  more  than  58°  towards  the  east.  In  consequence  of  the  precession  of  the 
equinoxes,  the  time  in  which  the  sun  moves  from  the  vernal  equinox  to  the  vernal  equinox 
again,  is  less  than  the  time  in  which  he  moves  from  any  star  to  the  same  star  again ; — the 
point  of  the  vernal  equinox  moving  westward,  so  as  to  meet  the  sun,  and  thus  anticipate  the 
time  of  his  crossing  the  equator  m  the  preceding  year. 

The  intervals  of  time  which  sepai'ate  the  equinoxes  or  the  solstices  are  unequal.  Almost 
eight  days  more  elapse  from  the  spring  to  the  autumnal  equinox,  than  from  the  latter  to  the 
former.  We  may  therefore  conclude,  that  the  motion  of  the  sun  is  not  uniform.  From 
precise  and  multiplied  observations,  it  has  been  ascertained  that  his  motion  is  most  rapid  at 
a  point  of  the  ecliptic  situated  near  the  winter  solsticial  point,  and  slowest  at  the  opposite 
point  towards  the  summer  solstice.  At  the  former  point  the  sun  describes  daily  1°  1'  10", 
at  the  latter  only  57'  11^".  The  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  earth  is  also  variable.  This 
is  proved  by  variations  observed  in  his  apparent  diameter,  which  increases  and  diminishes  at 
the  same  time  with  his  angular  velocity,  but  not  in  tlie  same  ratio.  The  angular  velocities 
at  any  two  instants  of  time  are,  to  one  another,  as  the  squares  of  the  apparent  diameters. 

If  V  and  v'  be  the  angular  velocities  of  the  sun,  or  his  daily  advances  in  the  ecliptic  at  any 
two  seasons  of  the  year,  and  d  and  d'  his  apparent  diameters  at  the  same  time,  then  v  :  v'  = 
(f  :  d'\ 

To  diminish  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun,  it  would  be  sufficient  to  suppose  that  body 
removed  to  a  greater  distance  from  the  earth,  without  altering  his  true  angular  velocity. 
But  if  the  diminution  of  his  motion  depended  entirely  on  this  cause,  the  apparent  velocity 
would  diminish  in  the  same  ratio  with  the  apparent  diameter.  Since  it  diminishes,  however, 
as  the  square  of  the  diameter,  there  must  necessarily  be  an  actual  dimmution  of  the 
velocity  of  the  sun  while  he  recedes  to  a  greater  distance  from  the  earth. 

His  distance  being  reciprocally  as  his  apparent  diameter,  if  D  and  D'  be  his  distances  at 
the  two  seasons  when  his  diameters  are  d  and  d',  we  have  v  :  v'  =  D'^ :  D' ;  and  i;D^  =  d'D'\ 
Hence  it  appears,  that  from  the  combined  effect  of  the  two  causes  influencing  the  sun's 
apparent  motions, — namely,  the  diminution  of  his  velocity  and  the  increase  of  his  distance, — 
his  daily  angular  motion  diminishes  as  the  square  of  his  distance  increases ;  so  that  the  pro- 
duct of  the  sojare  of  tlie  distance  by  the  velocity  is  a  constant  quantity. 

Let  us  imagine  a  straight  line  to  join  the  centres  of  the  sun  and  of  the  earth.  This  line 
is  usually  called  the  Radius  Vector.  It  is  not  difficult  to  prove  that  the  small  sector,  or 
the  area  which  the  Radius  Vector  traces  in  a  day,  in  consequence  of  the  sun's  motion,  is 
proportional  to  the  product  of  the  square  of  this  radius  by  the  sun's  daily  motion,  that  is,  to 
V  D".  This  area  is  therefore  constant ;  and  the  whole  area,  described  by  the  Radius  Vector, 
setting  out  from  a  fixed  radius,  increases  as  the  number  of  days  reckoned  from  the  epoch 
when  the  sun  was  at  the  fixed  radius. 

Since  vjy  ^^  r'D'",  we  have  D'  =  Dv/"-     Assuming,  therefore,  any  line  whatever  for  D, 

and  finding,  by  observation,  tlie  sim's  angular  velocity  for  every  day  of  the  year,  the  value 
of  D'  for  each  day  may  be  found. 

Thus  we  shall  be  able  to  trace  a  curve  line  representing  the  orbit  of  the  sun.  This  curve 
is  found  to  be  not  exactly  circular,  but  a  little  elongated  in  the  direction  of  the  straight  line 
passing  through  the  centre  of  the  eartli,  and  joining  the  points  in  the  orbit  at  which  the  sun 
is  at  its  greatest  and  least  distances.  The  resemblance  of  this  curve  to  an  ellipse  having 
given  rise  to  a  comparison  between  them,  their  identity  has  been  discovered.  Hence  we 
conclude,  that  the  apparent  solar  orbit  is  an  ellipse  having  the  centre  of  the  earth  in  one 
of  its  foci. 

The  solar  ellipse  is  not  much  different  from  a  circle  ;  for  its  eccentricity,  which,  from  the 
geometrical  properties  of  the  ellipse,  is  equal  to  half  the  difference  of  the  sun's  greatest  and 
least  distances  from  the  earth,  is  a  quantity  which  bears  but  a  very  small  proportion  to  the 
distance  of  the  sun.  It  appears,  from  observation,  that  there  is  a  small  diminution  of  the 
eccentricity, — so  small,  indeed,  as  scarcely  to  be  perceptible  in  a  century. 

The  position  of  the  greater  axis  of  the  solar  ellipse  is  not  constantly  the  same.  Its 
extremities  have  an  annual  motion  eastward,  in  reference  to  the  fixed  stars,  of  about  12'  in 
the  direction  of  the  sun's  motion. 

The  obliquity  of  the  sun's  orbit,  or  of  the  ecliptic  to  the  equator,  is  also  subject  to  change, 
and  appears  to  have  been  continually  diminishing  from  the  remotest  date  of  astronomical 
observation.     Its  present  rate  of  diminution  may  be  stated  at  nearly  48"  in  a  century. 

The  apparent  elliptic  motion  of  the  sun  does  not  represent,  with  perfect  exactness,  the 
results  of  modern  observation.  The  great  precision  now  attained  in  the  art  of  observing 
lias  made  known  to  us  small  inequalities,  the  laws  of  which  it  wovild  have  been  almost 
impossible  to  determine  by  mere  observation.  These  laws  can  be  investigated  only  afler 
tiie  physical  cause  has  been  discovered  upon  which  the  phenomena  depend. 


94  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

DIVISION  AND  MEASURE  OF  TIME. 

The  notion  of  time  is  suggested  by  tlie  succession  of  phenomena  in  the  universe.  Wlien 
two  events  exactly  correspond  in  all  their  circumstances,  they  are  conceived  to  occupy 
equal  portions  of  time.  The  descent  of  a  heavy  body  to  the  earth,  for  example,  from  a 
given  height,  if  repeated  under  precisely  similar  circumstances,  will  in  every  case  be  per- 
formed in  the  same  interval  of  time.  Suppose  then  that  a  number  of  heavy  bodies  fall  to 
the  ground  one  after  another  from  the  same  height, — the  descent  of  the  second  and  of  each 
succeeding  body  commencing  at  the  instant  in  wliich  the  body  that  preceded  it  had  reached 
the  ground ;  the  whole  time  occupied  by  the  fall  of  these  bodies  will  be  divided  into  equal 
portions,  one  of  which  may  be  assumed  as  the  measuring  unit  of  time.  The  vibrations  of 
a  pendulum,  performed  under  precisely  the  same  circumstances,  are  employed  for  estimating 
the  smaller  portions  of  time :  the  larger  portions  are  determined  by  the  motions  of  the  sun; 
from  which  arise  the  vicissitude  of  day  and  night,  and  the  change  of  seasons. 

The  Day,  m  civil  life,  is  the  time  that  elapses  between  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun ; 
and  the  Night  the  time  between  his  setting  and  risuig.  The  Astronomical  or  Solar  Day, 
on  the  other  hand,  comprehends  the  whole  period  of  the  sun's  diurnal  revolution,  and  is 
reckoned  from  the  time  of  his  passing  any  particular  meridian,  to  the  time  of  his  returning 
to  the  same  meridian.  The  pendulum  usually  employed  is  of  such  a  length  as  to  divide  the 
mean  astronomical  day  into  24x60x60=86400  equal  parts  called  seconds;  60  of  these 
parts  make  a  minute ;  60  minutes  make  an  hour ;  and  24  hours  complete  the  day. 

As  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun  carries  him  eastward  among  the  fixed  stars,  the  time 
that  elapses  between  his  passing  tlie  meridian,  and  his  returning  to  it  again,  is  longer  than 
the  time  that  intervenes  between  two  successive  passages  (called  transits)  of  any  particular 
star.  This  latter  period  is  the  exact  time  of  the  earth's  revolution  on  its  axis,  and  is  called 
a  Sidereal  day  :  it  is  about  23''  56""  4'  in  length. 

The  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  bchig  perfectly  uniform,  the  length  of  the  sidereal  day 
is  always  the  same.  This  is  not,  however,  the  case  with  respect  to  the  astronomical  or  solar 
day,  which  is  atFected  by  the  unequable  motion  of  the  sun,  and  by  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic. 
At  the  summer  solstice,  towards  ^vhicli  the  sun's  motion  in  the  ecliptic  is  slowest,  the  solar 
day  is  more  nearly  equal  to  the  sidereal  day  than  at  the  winter  solstice,  when  the  sun's  motion 
is  quickest. 

With  regard  to  the  effect  of  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  in  reference  to  the  length  of  the 
solar  day,  it  is  to  be  observed,  that,  by  the  geometrical  properties  of  the  sphere,  equal  portions 
of  any  circle,  whose  plane  is  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  revolution,  pass  over  the  meridian 
in  equal  times;  but  if  the  plane  of  a  circle  is  oblique  to  the  axis,  the  arcs  that  pass  over  the 
meridian  in  equal  times  are  not  equal.  Hence,  if  the  sun  moved  uniformly  in  the  equator, 
the  solar  day  would  be  always  of  the  same  length :  but  as  he  moves  in  the  ecliptic,  whose 
plane  is  oblique  to  the  axis,  even  if  he  did  proceed  with  a  uniform  motion,  the  equal  arcs 
which  he  daily  described  would  pass  over  the  meridian  in  unequal  times ;  so  that  the  solar 
day  would  be  longer  or  shorter  according  to  the  sun's  place  in  the  ecliptic. 

The  motion  of  the  shadow  on  a  sun-dial  marks  out  time  as  measured  by  the  sun's  motion 
in  the  ecliptic :  but  if  the  sun  moved  uniformly  in  the  equator  at  such  a  rate  as  to  complete 
the  annual  circuit  of  the  heavens,  in  the  same  time  as  he  does  by  his  actual  motion  in  the 
ecliptic,  time  measured  by  his  motion  would  then  correspond  with  that  of  a  well-regulated 
clock. 

The  difference  between  the  time  shown  by  the  sun-dial,  and  that  shown  by  the  clock,  is 
called  the  Equation  op  Time.  The  part  of  this  equation  which  depends  on  the  obliquity  of 
the  ecliptic,  vanishes  at  the  equinoxes  and  at  the  solstices ;  because  at  these  seasons  the  sun 
comes  to  the  meridian  at  the  same  moment  as  he  would  do  if  he  moved  in  the  equator. 

From  the  vernal  equinox  till  the  summer  solstice,  and  from  the  autumnal  equinox  till  the 
winter  solstice,  the  time  as  shown  by  the  sun-dial  is  in  advance  of  that  indicated  by  the 
clock ;  because  then  the  sun's  distance  from  the  first  point  of  Aries,  and  first  point  of  Libra, 
passes  sooner  over  the  meridian  than  the  equal  arc  upon  the  equator,  which  the  sun  would 
have  described  had  he  moved  in  that  circle. 

Again,  the  hour  shown  by  the  sun-dial  is  behind  that  shown  by  the  clock,  from  the  summer 
and  winter  solstices,  till  the  autumnal  and  vernal  equinoxes  ;  because  at  these  two  seasons 
the  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  first  point  of  Aries,  and  from  the  first  point  of  Libra,  re- 
quires longer  time  to  pass  over  the  meridian,  than  the  equal  arc  upon  the  equator. 

The  part  of  the  equation  of  time  which  arises  from  the  unequable  motion  of  the  sun,  will 
vanish  when  he  is  at  his  greatest  and  least  distances  from  the  earth ;  because  he  is  in  these 
two  points  of  his  orbit  at  t!ie  same  instants  of  time  as  he  would  be  if  he  moved  uniformly 
with  his  mean  velocity ;  that  is,  with  a  rate  of  motion  by  which  he  would  describe  equally 
the  ecliptic  in  the  same  time  in  which  he  describes  it  by  his  unequable  motion, 

The  dial,  during  the  time  when  the  sun  is  moving  "from  the  point  of  his  greatest,  to  the 
point  of  his  least  distance  from  the  earth,  is  faster  than  the  clock;  because  the  sun  ia  then 


Book  I. 


DIVISION  AND  MEASURE  OF  TIME. 


95 


at  no  instant  so  far  advanced  in  liis  orbit,  as  he  would  have  been  if  he  had  been  moving  uni- 
formly with  his  mean  velocity.  The  reverse  is  the  case  while  the  sun  is  moving  from  the 
point  of  his  least  to  that  of  his  greatest  distance.  Time  measured  by  the  dial  is  called 
APPARENT  time ;  that  shown  by  a  well-regulated  clock  is  called  true  time.  The  effect  of 
the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  and  that  of  the  sun's  unequable  motion,  in  rendering  the  dial 
faster  or  slower  than  the  clock,  sometimes  combine  with  and  at  other  times  counteract  each 
other.  The  amount  of  each  is  given  in  the  two  following  tables  for  every  fifth  day  of  the 
year ;  and  by  taking  the  sum  or  difference,  accordmg  as  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  and 
the  sun's  unequable  motion  produce  similar  or  opposite  effects,  a  table  may  be  formed  of 
the  equation  of  time. 

Table  showing  the  Part  of  the  Equation  of  Time  that  arises  from  the  Obliquity  of 

the  Ecliptic. 


Dial  Faster. 

Dial  Slower. 

Dial  Faster. 

Dial  Slower. 

' 

M. 

S. 

M. 

S. 

M. 

S. 

M. 

s 

March  •    - 

21 

0 

0 

June     •    - 

2X 

0 

0 

September 

23 

0 

0 

December  - 

21 

0 

0 

25 

1 

39 

20 

1 

48 

28 

1 

39 

20 

1 

48 

30 

3 

15 

July.    .    . 

1 

3 

32 

October 

3 

3 

15 

31 

3 

32 

April     .    - 

4 

4 

40 

7 

5 

8 

8 

4 

40 

January    . 

5 

5 

8 

y 

(j 

9 

ti 

(i 

35 

13 

<i 

9 

10 

f) 

35 

14 

7 

22 

17 

7 

48 

18 

7 

22 

15 

7 

48 

1!) 

8 

23 

22 

8 

45 

23 

a 

23 

20 

8 

45 

i!4 

9 

9 

28 

9 

20 

28 

9 

9 

25 

9 

20 

30 

0 

40 

August .    . 

2 

9 

49 

November  • 

2 

9 

40 

29 

9 

49 

May.    .    - 

5 

1) 

53 

7 

9 

53 

7 

9 

53 

February  - 

3 

9 

53 

JO 

9 

49 

12 

9 

40 

12 

9 

49 

8 

9 

40 

15 

9 

26 

17 

9 

9 

17 

9 

2fi 

13 

9 

9 

20 

8 

45 

oo 

8 

23 

22 

8 

45 

18 

8 

23 

2G 

7 

48 

28 

7 

22 

27 

7 

48 

23 

92 

31 

6 

35 

September 

2 

6 

9 

December  - 

2 

G 

35 

28 

6 

9 

June     •    • 

5 

5 

8 

7 

4 

40 

7 

,1 

8 

March  .    . 

5 

4 

4fi 

10 

3 

32 

12 

3 

15 

12 

3 

32 

10 

3 

15 

IG 

1 

48 

17 

1 

39 

17 

1 

48 

15 
20 

1 
0 

39 
0 

Table  shotoing  the  Part  of  the  Equation  of  Time  that  arises  from  the  Inequality  of  the 

Sun^s  Motion. 


Dial  Faster  than  Clock. 

Dial  Slower  than  Clock. 

M. 

S. 

M. 

s. 

M. 

S. 

M 

s 

July-    .    . 

1 

0 

0 

October     - 

3 

7 

43 

December  - 

31 

0 

0 

March  -    . 

30 

43 

7 

0 

40 

8 

7 

42 

January    . 

5 

0 

41 

April     -    . 

4 

7 

40 

12 

1 

19 

13 

7 

37 

10 

1 

22 

9 

7 

.34 

17 

1 

57 

18 

7 

29 

15 

o 

2 

14 

7 

94 

22 

2 

35 

23 

7 

18 

20 

2 

41 

19 

7 

19 

28 

3 

12 

28 

7 

3 

25 

3 

19 

'>4 

r> 

56 

August  •   - 

2 

3 

47 

November  - 

2 

0 

45 

29 

3 

56 

30 

6 

36 

7 

4 

21 

7 

0 

24 

February  - 

3 

4 

30 

May .    .    - 

5 

6 

14 

12 

4 

52 

12 

5 

39 

8 

5 

2 

10 

5 

.W 

17 

5 

22 

17 

5 

32 

13 

5 

32 

15 

5 

«9 

22 

5 

50 

22 

5 

2 

18 

.■) 

39 

90 

4 

.59 

28 

0 

14 

27 

4 

30 

23 

6 

24 

W 

4 

91 

September 

2 

0 

30 

December  - 

2 

3 

56 

28 

6 

45 

31 

3 

47 

7 

0 

50 

7 

3 

19 

March  .    • 

5 

7 

3 

June     •    . 

5 

3 

12 

12 

7 

12 

12 

2 

41 

10 

7 

18 

10 

2 

35 

17 

7 

24 

17 

2 

o 

15 

7 

29 

16 

1 

57 

23 

7 

34 

21 

1 

22 

20 

7 

37 

91 

1 

19 

28 

7 

40 

20 

0 

41 

25 

7 

42 

26 

0 

40 

The  difference  between  the  apparent  and  the  true  time,  is  very  observable  about  the 
season  when  the  day  is  lengthening  or  shortening  with  most  rapidity.  It  is  a  common 
remark,  that  when  the  day  is  shortening,  the  change  is  more  observable  in  the  evening  than 
in  the  morning ;  but  that  the  reverse  is  the  case  when  the  day  is  lengthening.  This^arises 
from  the  clock  being  before  or  after  the  sun.  Thus,  in  the  end  ^of  October,  the  dial  is 
upwards  of  sixteen  minutes  faster  than  the  clock ;  so  tliat  the  time  of  sun-rise,  and  the  time 
of  sun-set,  will  each,  as  indicated  by  the  clock,  appear  earlier  by  16  minutes,  than  as  mdicated 
by  the  motion  of  the  solar  shadow.  Hence  the  histant  of  noon,  as  shown  by  the  clock, 
appears  not  to  divide  equally  tlie  time  during  which  the  sun  is  above  the  horizon :  the  time 
from  sun-rise  till  noon,  appears  longer  than  fi-om  noon  till  sun-set.  Again,  about  the  middle 
of  February,  the  dial  is  about  15  minutes  slower  than  the  clock ;  so  that  the  time  of  sun-rise 
and  the  time  of  sun-set  will  each,  as  indicated  by  tlie  clock,  be  later  by  15  minutes  than  as 
indicated  by  the  dial ;  and  the  time  from  sun-rise  till  noon,  as  shown  by  the  clock,  will 
appear  shorter  than  the  time  from  noon  till  sun-set. 


«j6  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  IL 

As  the  return  of  tlie  sun  to  the  meridian  marks  out  the  day,  so  his  return  to  the  same 
equinox  marks  out  another  portion  of  time  of  much  importance  to  be  determined  with 
accuracy ;  namely,  the  Year.  This  period  comprehends  the  seasons  which  divide  it  into 
four  parts.  Within  this  period  also,  the  moon  goes  twelve  times  tiirough  all  her  phases, 
which  occupy  the  space  of  nearly  twenty-nine  and  a  half  days :  hence  tlie  year  has  been 
divided  mto  twelve  months,  three'of  which  are  aUotted  to  each  season.  By  accurate  obser- 
vation it  is  found,  that  the  time  which  elapses  between  the  mstant  at  which  the  sun  passes 
the  vernal  equinox,  and  the  period  of  his  return  to  it,  is  365^  5''  48""  48\  This  period  is 
called  the  Tropical  year.  It  is  found  to  be  shorter  than  the  interval  between  two  successive 
returns  of  the  sun  to  the  same  star  by  20'"  29'.  This  last-mentioned  period  is  called  the 
Sidereal  year,  and  consists  of  36.5'^  &"  9"'  11'. 

In  order  to  make  such  a  distribution  of  time  as  is  accommodated  to  the  purposes  of  liffe, 
it  is  necessary  so  to  adjust  the  reckoning  of  the  solar  revolution  to  the  length  of  the  mean 
solar  day,  that  the  beginning  of  the  year  may  coincide  with  the  beginnmg  of  the  day,  and 
the  seasons  may  always  recur  in  the  same  months.  If  the  solar  revolution  consisted  of  an 
exact  number  of  days,  there  would  be  no  difEculty ;  but  as  it  includes  a  fraction  of  a  day, 
it  is  evident  that  one  year  camiot  be  made  equal  to  one  revolution,  without  incurring  the 
inconveniience  of  making  the  year  commence  at  a  different  point  of  time  from  the  beginning 
of  the  day.  But  though  one  year  cannot  be  made  equal  to  one  revolution,  a  certain  number 
of  years  may  be  made  equal  to  a  like  number  of  revolutions. 

Julius  Cajsar  introduced  the  first  near  approximation  to  accuracy  on  this  subject,  in  the 
45th  year  before  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era.  The  Romans  had  before  that 
time  estimated  the  year  according  to  the  course  of  the  moon,  in  imitation  of  the  Greeks ; 
dividing  it  into  twelve  months,  which  consisted  in  all  of  354  days ;  but  as  an  odd  number 
was  thought  the  more  fortunate,  one  day  was  added  which  made  the  year  consist  of  355 
days.  To  make  the  lunar  year  correspond  with  the  course  of  the  sun,  on  which  depends 
the  vicissitude  of  seasons,  an" intercalary  month  was  inserted  every  other  year,  between  the 
23d  and  24th  day  of  February.  The  intercalation  of  this  month  was  left  to  the  discretion 
of  the  priests,  who,  from  interested  motives,  inserted  often  more  or  fewer  than  the  proper 
number  of  days,  so  as  to  make  the  year  longer  or  shorter,  according  as  it  suited  their  own 
purposes.  This  caused  the  months  to  be  transposed  from  their  stated  seasons,  the  winter 
months  being  carried  back  into  autumn,  and  the  autumnal  months  into  summer.  "Wlien  Julius 
Caesar  became  master  of  the  state,  he  resolved  to  put  an  end  to  this  disorder,  by  abolishmg 
the  use  of  intercalations  which  had  been  the  source  of  it ;  and  for  that  purpose,  by  the 
assistance  of  Sosigenes,  a  celebrated  astronomer  of  Alexandria,  he  adjusted  the  year  to  the 
course  of  the  sun,  and  assigned  to  the  respective  months  the  number  of  days  which  they 
still  contain.  That  matters  might  proceed  with  regularity  from  the  beginning  of  the  ensuing 
January,  he  made  the  current  year,  which  was  called  the  last  year  of  confusion,  consist  of 
fifteen  months,  or  445  days. 

The  Julian  tjear  is  founded  upon  the  supposition  that  the  solar  revolution  is  exactly 
365''  6*".  For  three  successive  years  the  six  hours  are  omitted ;  but  in  the  fourth  year  an 
additional  day  is  inserted  in  the  montli  of  February,  which  makes  the  four  years  correspond 
with  four  solar  revolutions.  This  fourth  year,  consisting  of  366  days,  is  called  Blssextile 
or  Leap  year.  But  as  the  true  length  of  the  solar  revolution  is  not  365''  6*",  but  only 
365'  S'"  48'"  48',  the  Julian  year  is  too  long  by  11""  12';  so  that  before  a  new  year  begins, 
the  Sim  has  passed  the  point  of  the  ecliptic  where  the  preceding  year  began.  The  error 
thence  arising  is,  however,  so  small,  that  it  was  long  before  it  was  observed.  The  Julian 
Calendar  was  introduced  into  the  church  at  the  time  of  the  Council  of  Nice,  in  the  year  325 
of  the  Christian  era ;  and  the  vernal  equuiox  was  at  that  time  fixed  to  the  21st  of  March. 
In  the  year  1582,  however,  it  was  found  that  the  vernal  equinox  fell,  not  on  the  21st  of 
March,  but  on  the  11th  of  that  month ;  so  that  the  Julian  year  had  fallen  about  ten  days 
behind  the  sun.  If  this  erroneous  reckoning  had  been  continued,  the  seasons  would  have 
entirely  changed  their  places.  It  was  therefore  resolved  to  reform  the  calendar,  which  was 
done  by  Pope  Gre<rory  XIII.,  and  the  first  step  was'^  correct  the  loss  of  the  ten  days,  by 
counting  the  day  after  the  4th  of  October,  not  the  5th,  but  the  15th  day  of  the  month.  The 
error  in  the  Julian  year  reckoning,  being  about  eleven  minutes  yearly,  amounts  to  nearly 
three  days  in  four  centuries.  Hence  to  prevent  its  accumulation  in  future,  it  was  agreed  to 
suppress  three  intercalary  days  in  the  course  of  four  hundred  years,  by  considering  the  last 
of  three  successive  centuries  common,  instead  of  leap  years.  The  years  in  which  the  inter- 
calary days  are  omitted  are  1700,  1800,  1900 :  and,  in  general,  the  last  year  of  even,'  century 
not  divisible  by  four,  is  reckoned  a  common  year,  which  in  the  Julian  account  is  bissextile. 
The  degree  of  accuracy  thus  attained  is  very  considerable ;  for  taking  the  annual  error  at  Hi 
minutes,  in  four  centuries,  it  will  amount  to  4450  minutes,  or  to  3'  2''  40"".  Of  this  error, 
the  fractional  part,  2"^  40"",  is  all  that  remains  uncoiTected ;  and  this  error  will  require  the 
lapse  of  3600  years  before  it  amounts  to  a  day. 

Other  modes  of  intercalation.  If  the  tropical  year  were  36.5''  5''  49""  12',  the  Gregorian 
intercalation  would  be  perfectly  exact.    Accurate  observ'ation  proves,  however,  that  the  year 


Jt 


Book  I.  DIVISION  AND  MEASURE  OF  TIME.  97 

IS  shorter  by  about  24  seconds.  If  scientific  principles  had  been  strictly  followed,  they  would 
have  pointed  out  other  modes  of  intercalation  still  more  accurate,  though  perhaps  not  more 
convenient,  than  tliat  which  has  been  adopted.  The  determination  of  the  methods  of  inter- 
calation best  suited  to  make  the  computations  in  the  calendar  correspond  as  nearly  as  possible 
with  the  real  motions  of  the  sun,  requires  all  the  integer  numbers  to  be  found,  which  most 
nearly  express  the  ratio  of  5''  48'"  48'  to  a  day.  These  numbers  are  easily  determined  by  the 
method  of  continued  fractions.  In  the  Gregorian  calendar,  97  days  are  intercalated  in  the 
course  of  400  years ;  but  it  would  be  much  more  exact  to  intercalate  109  days  in  the  course 
of  450  years.  If  the  tropical  year  were  precisely  365'  5*"  48™  48',  this  intercalation  would,  in- 
deed, be  quite  accurate :  for  5*"  48™  48',  multiplied  by  450,  give  exactly  109  days. 

The  reformation  of  the  calendar,  or  the  change  from  the  Old  Style  to  the  New  Style, 
did  not  take  place  in  England,  till  the  year  1752,  at  wliich  time  it  was  established  by  an 
act  of  parliament.  The  alteration  was  ordered  to  be.  made  on  the  2d  of  September ;  and  as 
the  error  of  the  Julian  reckoning  now  amounted  to  11  days,  the  3d  was  to  be  counted  the 
14th  of  September. 

Correspondence  between  the  days  of  the  week  and  month.  As  the  common  year  consists 
of  52  weeks  and  one  day,  it  is  evident  that  the  beginning  and  end  of  each  common  year  will 
fall  on  the  same  day  of  the  week.  In  a  series  of  years,  therefore,  if  no  leap  years  occurred, 
the  first  day  of  each  month  would,  year  after  year,  be  one  day  farther  advanced  in  the  week, 
till,  in  the  course  of  seven  years,  the  same  days  of  the  month  would  return  to  the  same  days 
of  the  week.  But  since  leap  year  contains  .52  weeks  and  2  days,  and  occurs  every  fourth 
year,  it  follows  that  the  days  of  the  week  cannot  correspond  to  the  same  days  of  the  month, 
till  after  the  lapse  of  four  times  seven  or  twenty-eight  years.  This  period  is  called  the 
Cycle  of  the  Sun.  When  this  period  is  completed,  the  sun's  place  in  the  ecliptic  returns 
to  the  same  signs  and  degrees  on  the  same  months  and  days,  so  as  not  to  differ  a  degree  in 
a  century ;  and  the  leap  years,  as  well  as  the  common  years,  begin  the  same  course  over 
again  with  respect  to  the  days  of  the  week  on  which  the  days  of  the  month  fall.  The  year 
of  our  Saviour's  birth,  according  to  the  vulgar  era,  was  the  ninth  year  of  the  solar  cycle : 
hence,  to  find  the  current  year  of  that  cycle,  we  must  add  nine  to  the  given  year  of  the 
Christian  era,  and  divide  the  sum  by  twenty-eiglit ;  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  cycles 
which  have  been  completed  since  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  the  remainder  will  be  the  current 
year  of  the  present  cycle.  Thus,  for  the  year  1829,  the  cycle  of  the  sun  is  found  to  be  18. 
The  first  seven  letters  of  the  alphabet  have  been  employed  to  mark  the  several  days  of  the 
week.  As  one  of  those  seven  letters  must  necessarily  stand  against  Sunday,  it  is  printed  in 
the  calendar  in  a  capital  form,  and  called  the  Dominical  Letter  :  the  other  six  letters  are 
inserted  in  a  different  character,  to  denote  the  other  six  days  of  the  week.  When  January 
begins  on  Sunday,  A  is  the  Dominical  letter  for  that  year :  but  because  the  next  year  begins 
on  Monday,  the  Sunday  will  of  course  fall  on  the  seventh  day,  to  which  is  annexed  the 
seventh  letter  G,  which  will  therefore  be  the  Dominical  letter  for  all  that  year :  and  as  the 
third  year  will  begin  on  Tuesday,  Sunday  will  fall  on  the  sixth  day,  so  that  F  will  be  the 
Dominical  letter  for  that  year,  and  so  on.  Hence  it  is  evident  that  the  Dominical  letters 
will  succeed  each  other  in  a  retrograde  order,  viz.  G,  F,  E,  D,  C,  B,  A.  As  the  days  of  the 
week  correspond  to  the  same  days  of  the  month  only  once  in  twenty-eight  years,  it  follows 
that  it  is  only  after  the  lapse  of  the  same  period,  that  the  series  of  Dominical  letters  ca/i 
proceed  in  the  same  order  in  reference  to  the  days  of  the  month.  Every  leap  year  has  two 
Dominical  letters;  one  answering  from  the  beginning  of  January  till  the  end  of  February; 
the  other  being  the  letter  immediately  preceding,  answering  for  the  remainder  of  the  year. 
The  Dominical  letter  may  be  found  for  any  year  of  any  century  by  the  following  rule : 
divide  the  centuries  by  4,  and  take  twice  what  remains  from  6:  then  add  together  this  last 
remainder,  the  odd  years  above  the  even  centuries,  and  the  fourtli  part  of  these  odd  years, 
neglecting  the  remainder  if  any :  divide  the  sum  by  7,  and  the  excess  of  7  above  the 
•£rnainder  is  the  number  answering  to  the  letter  required.  Thus,  for  the  year  1830,  the 
Dominical  letter  is  C.  For  the  centuries  18  divided  by  4  leave  2;  and  twice  this  remainder 
taken  fi-om  6  also  leaves  2;  by  adding  to  which  the  odd  number  of  years  30,  and  their  fourth 
part  7,  we  obtain  39 :  this  sum  divided  by  7  leaves  the  remainder  4,  which  taken  from  7 
leaves  3,  answering  to  C,  the  third  letter  of  the  alphabet. 


CHAPTER  X. 

PROPER  MOTION  OF  THE  MOON.     HER  PHASES.    ECLIPSES  OF  THE  SUN  AND  MOON. 
The  moon,  next  to  the  sun,  is  the  most  interesting  to  us  of  all  the  heavenly  bodies.     Her 
phases,  or  that  series  of  changes  in  her  figure  and  illumination  which  she  undergoes  in  the 
course  of  about  a  month,  are  one  of  the  most  striking  of  the  celestial  phenomena;  and  present 
a  division  of  time  so  remarkable  that  it  has  been  the  first  in  use  among  all  nations. 

The  moon  has  an  apparent  motion  among  the  fixed  stars  similar  to  that  of  the  sun,  but 
Vol.  I.  9  N 


98 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


much  more  rapid :  it  carries  lier  eastward  at  the  rate  of  nearly  13°  10 J',  at  an  average,  in 
24  hours.  When  this  motion  is  accurately  traced  out,  it  is  foimd,  tliat  the  moon  describes 
round  tlie  earth,  in  27''  T*"  43"',  a  path  or  orbit  inclined  to  the  ecliptic  at  an  angle  of  nearly 
5°  9'.  The  line  in  which  the  plane  of  tlic  orbit  cuts  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  is  called  the 
Line  of  the  Nodes.  The  point  in  which  the  moon  crosses  the  ecliptic  when  ascending 
to  the  north,  is  called  the  ascending  node ;  and  the  opposite  point,  in  which  she  crosses  it 
wlien  descending  to  the  south,  is  called  the  descending  node. 

The  figure  of  the  lunar  orbit  is  determined  in  the  same  manner  as  that  of  the  solar,  by 
observing  the  changes  in  the  apparent  diameter  of  the  moon,  and  comparing  these  with  the 
variations  in  her  angular  velocity.  It  is  thus  found,  that  the  moon's  orbit,  like  that  of  the 
sun,  is  in  appearance  an  ellipse,  having  the  centre  of  the  earth  in  one  of  the  foci,  and  that 
tlie  radius  vector,  or  the  line  joining  tlie  centres  of  the  earth  and  moon,  describes  areas  pro- 
portional to  the  times.  Neither  the  line  of  the  nodes  nor  the  greater  axis  of  the  lunar  orbit 
is  fixed.  The  former  has  a  slow  retrograde  motion,  by  which  it  makes  an  entire  revolution 
in  something  more  than  18^  years ;  the  latter  has  a  progressive  motion,  by  which  it  com- 
pletes a  revolution  in  something  less  than  9  years.  The  elliptic  orbit  is  liable,  indeed,  to  so 
many  changes,  that  the  full  investigation  of  the  lunar  motion  has  been  found  one  of  tlie  most 
difficult  problems  in  astronomy.  At  the  same  time  it  is  one  of  the  most  useftil,  as  connected 
with  the  finding  of  the  longitude  of  places  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Accordingly,  the 
efforts  of  astronomers  have  been  assiduously  directed  to  the  perfecting  of  the  lunar  theory; 
and  by  employing  the  resources  of  modern  science,  and  combining  these  with  continued  and 
accurate  observation,  their  labours  have  been  crowned  with  wonderful  success. 

The  phases  of  the  moon  depend  on  her  position  with  regard  to  the  sun.     Let  E  be  the 

earth,    M   the   moon   revolving   in    her    orbit 
20         ^w/___\  round  the  earth,  E  S  the  direction  of  the  sun, 

and  let  us  suppose  all  the  solar  rays  which 
illuminate  the  moon  to  proceed  in  straight  lines 
parallel  to  S  E.  The  moon  is  an  opaque  body 
like  the  earth,  and  is  visible  only  in  conse- 
quence of  reflecting  the  light  of  the  sun.  When 
_  she  comes  to  the  meridian,  therefore,  about  the 

W-MIMi i-  \ ^^^M   same  time  with  the  sun,  that  is,  when  she  is  at 

M,  she  must  be  invisible,  on  account  of  the 
unenlightened  side  being  turned  towards  us. 
It  is  then 'Said  to  be  new  moon:  and,  in  refer- 
ence to  her  position  with  regard  to  the  sun,  the 
moon  is  said  to  be  in  conjunction.  Again, 
when  the  moon  comes  to  the  meridian  about 
midnight,  that  is,  when  she  is  at  m,  she  is  said 
to  be  in  opposition,  and  in  that  position  she 
presents  an  entire  circular  disc ;  because  the 
whole  of  the  enlightened  side  is  then  turned 
towards  the  earth.  It  is  then  said  to  be  full 
moon.  At  any  point  of  her  orbit,  between  the 
points  of  conjunction  and  opposition,  the  moon 
turns  more  or  less  of  her  enlightened  side  towards  the  eartli,  according  to  her  angular  dis- 
tance from  the  sun,  and  presents  exactly  the  same  appearances  as  an  opaque  spherical  body, 
of  which  one  side  is  illuminated,  would  exhibit,  if  viewed  from  a  distance,  and  in  the  same 
positions  in  which  the  moon  is  seen  from  the  earth.  After  the  conjunction,  as  soon  as  she 
has  emerged  sufficiently  from  the  solar  rays,  she  is  seen  in  the  western  sky,  after  sunset,  in 
the  form  of  a  Crescent,  as  at  M',  having  the  convex  side  turned  towards  the  sun,  and  the 
concave  bounded  by  an  elliptic  line.  On  every  succeeding  night  the  luminous  part  increases, 
while  the  elliptic  boundary  continually  approaches  to  a  straight  Hue.  On  the  seventh  night 
from  the  time  of  new  moon,  the  moon  reaches  the  position  M",  where  her  distance  from  the 
sun  is  90° :  she  is  then  said  to  be  in  her  first  Quadrature,  and  exhibits  the  appearance  of 
HALF  moon ;  that  is,  the  disc  is  a  semicircle.  The  enlightened  part  still  continuing  to 
increase  on  the  same  side,  the  rectilineal  boundary  of  the  semicircular  disc  passes  again 
mto  an  elliptic  line,  and  the  moon  becomes  gibbous,  as  at  M'":  on  all  sides  the  disc  is  con- 
vex, though  it  does  not  become  entirely  full  orbed  until  she  reaches  the  point  of  opposition, 
at  m,  about  the  end  of  seven  days  from  the  time  of  half  moon.  From  the  instant  of  opposi- 
tion the  moon  begins  to  return  to  the  sun  on  the  western  side ;  and  in  her  progress  towards 
the  conjunction  she  goes  through  the  same  series  of  changes  in  an  inverted  order,  becoming 
first  gibbous,  as  at  m' ;  then  half  moon  at  the  time  when  she  reaches  the  position  m",  her 
second  quadrature ;  then  a  crescent,  as  at  m'",  which,  continually  diminishing,  at  last  dis- 
appears altogether.  Thus,  on  the  supposition  that  the  moon  is  an  opaque  body  and  nearly 
spherical,  and  that  she  revolves  in  an  orbit  round  the  earth,  the  phenomena  of  her  phases 
are  easily  explained. 


Rook  I. 


PHASES  OF  THE  MOON. 


99 


Strictly  speaking,  the  moon  is  not  exactly  90  degrees  distant  from  the  sun  when  she  pre- 
sents the  appearance  of  half  moon.  This  phasis 
occurs  at  the  moment  when  the  moon  is  in  such  a 
position  that  two  straight  lines  drawn  from  her 
centre, — the  one  to  the  centre  of  the  earth,  the 
other  to  the  centre  of  the  sun, — form  a  right  angle. 
By  observing,  therefore,  the  moon's  distance  from 
the  sun,  at  the  mstant  when  the  boundary  between 
the  enlightened  and  dark  part  exactly  bisects  the 
lunar  disc,  we  should  liave  in  the  right-angled  tri- 

angle  S  M  F  the  angle  at  F ;  and  hence,  since  the 

side  F  M  is  also  known,  S  F,  the  distance  of  the  sun  may  be  determined.  This  was  the 
first  method  employed  for  finding  the  sun's  distance  from  the  earth ;  but,  from  the  nicety  of 
the  observations  required,  it  cannot  be  expected  to  lead  to  any  very  satisfactory  result. 

To  a  spectator  on  tlie  moon  the  earth  must  evidently  exhibit  a  series  of  changes  similar 
to  the  lunar  phases  as  seen  from  the  earth.  At  the  time  of  conjunction  the  moon  is  on  the 
illuminated  side  of  the  earth,  so  that  the  earth  must  then  appear,  as  seen  from  the  moon, 
an  entire  circular  disc.  Again,  at  the  time  of  opposition,  the  moon  is  on  the  dark  side  of 
the  earth ;  so  that  the  earth  must  then  be  invisible.  When  the  jnoon  is  seen  as  a  crescent, 
the  earth  will  appear  gibbous ;  and  when  the  moon  appears  gibbous,  the  earth  will  be  seen 
as  a  crescent. 

The  fact  of  the  earth  appearing  to  a  spectator  on  the  moon  an  entire  luminous  disc,  at 
the  time  of  the  moon's  conjunction  with  the  sun,  furnishes  an  explanation  of  a  phenomenon 
with  which  every  one  is  familiar.  In  clear  weather,  when  the  moon  is  three  or  four  days 
old,  her  whole  body  is  visible.  The  horns  of  the  enlightened  crescent  appear  to  project 
beyond  the  old  moon  as  if  they  were  part  of  a  sphere  of  considerably  larger  diameter  than 
the  unenlightened  part.  Now,  the  part  of  the  moon  not  directly  illuminated  by  the  sun  is 
seen  by  the  light  reflected  from  the  eartli.  The  appearance  of  a  lucid  bow,  connecting  the 
horns  of  the  crescent,  is  produced  by  the  circumstance  of  the  eastern  edge  of  the  moon's 
disc  being  more  luminous  than  the  adjacent  regions  towards  the  centre.  With  regard  to 
the  enlightened  crescent  appearing  a  portion  of  a  larger  sphere,  this  is  an  optical  deception, 
and  furnishes  a  remarkable  proof  that  of  two  objects  of  equal  magnitude,  but  of  different 
degrees  of  brightness,  the  brighter  appears  larger. 

A  lunation  or  lunar  month  is  formed  by  the  time  that  elapses  between  one  new  moon 
and  anotlier.  It  consists  of  29''  12''  44™  3'  nearly ;  and  therefore  exceeds  tlie  period  of  her 
moan  sidereal  revolution,  which  is  27'  T""  43™  11 2'.  This  excess  arises  from  the  proper 
motion  of  the  sun  in  the  ecliptic ;  for  it  is  evident  that  the  period  in  which  the  moon  goes 
through  all  her  phases  must  be  equal  to  the  time  required  to  describe  360°,  with  an  angular 
velocity  equal  to  the  difference  between  angular  velocities  of  moon  and  sun. 

Cycle  of  the  moon.  In  19  Julian  solar  years  there  are  235  lunations,  and  about  one 
hour  and  a  half  more.  Hence,  after  19  years,  the  conjunctions,  oppositions,  and  other 
aspects  of  the  moon  recur  on  the  same  days  of  the  month,  and  only  about  an  hour  and  a 
half  sooner.  Tliis  period  is  accordingly  called  the  Cycle  of  the  Moon,  and  has  been 
found  of  so  much  use  in  adjusting  the  lunar  to  the  solar  year,  in  order  to  know  the  time  of 
new  and  full  moon,  and  to  determine  the  time  of  Easter,  and  other  moveable  feasts,  that  the 
numbers  of  it  have  been  called  Golden  Numbers.  The  year  of  our  Saviour's  birth,  accord- 
ing to  the  vulgar  era,  was  the  first  year  of  tlie  lunar  cycle :  hence,  to  find  the  golden 
number,  or  the  current  year  of  that  cycle,  we  must  add  one  to  the  year  of  Christ  for  which 
Ihe  golden  number  is  required,  and  divide  the  sum  by  19 :  the  quotient  will  be  the  number 
of  cycles  which  have  elapsed  since  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  the  remainder  will  be  the  golden 
nnmber  or  current  year  of  the  cycle. 

The  epact  is  the  difference  between  the  solar  and  lunar  periods  at  the  end  of  each  year, 
or  the  moon's  age  on  the  first  of  January.  Since  the  Julian  solar  year  is  365'  6\  and  the 
lunar  year,  or  twelve  lunations,  354'  8"  48™  36',  if  we  suppose  new  moon  to  bave  happened 
on  tlie  first  of  January,  so  that  the  epact  for  that  year  is  0,  it  follows  that  the  epact  for  the 
next  succeeding  year  will  be  10'  21"  11™  24',  or  nearly  11  days.  For  the  third  year,  the 
epact  will  be  nearly  22  days.  For  the  fourth  year  it  will  be  33  days,  or  (rejecting  30  days 
for  a  complete  lunation)  3  days,  and  so  on. 

The  annexed  table  contains  the  golden  num- 
bers with  the  corresponding  epacts  adapted 
to  tlie  Gregorian  calendar,  till  the  year  1900. 
The  epact  for  each  month  of  the  year  is,  in 
like  manner,  the  moon's  age  on  the  first  day 
of  the  month,  supposing  new  moon  to  have 
happened  on  the  first  of  January. 


Golien 

Numbers. 

Epacls. 

Golden 

Numbers. 

Epacls. 

Gnlden 
Numbers. 

Epacls. 

I. 

0 

VIII. 

17 

XV. 

4 

II. 

11 

IX. 

28 

XVI. 

15 

III. 

2-2 

X. 

9 

XVII. 

26 

IV. 

3 

XI. 

.      20 

XVIII. 

7 

V. 

14 

XII. 

1 

XIX. 

18 

VI. 

2o 

XIII. 

12 

I. 

0      1 

VII. 

6 

XIV. 

23 

1 

100  PRL\CIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  P.^t  II. 

The  epacts  for  the  montlis  of  the  common  and  leap  year  are  as  follows : — 


Jan. 

Feb. 

3Iar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sep. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Common  year 

0, 

1, 

0, 

2, 

2, 

3, 

4, 

5, 

7, 

7, 

!), 

9. 

Leap  year 

0, 

1, 

1, 

3, 

3, 

4, 

5, 

6, 

8, 

e, 

]0, 

10. 

It  is  evident  that  the  moon's  age  will  be  found  by  adding  together  the  epact  of  the  year, 
the  epact  of  tlie  month,  and  the  day  of  the  month,  rejecting  thirty  if  the  sum  amount  to  that 
number.  Tlm.s,  if  it  is  required  to  find  the  moon's  age  on  tlie  11th  November  1829;  by 
adding  1  to  1829  and  dividing  by  19,  we  obtain  a  remainder  6,  which  is  the  golden  number 
for  the  yc*r  1829.  Now,  agaiast  YI.  in  the  table,  we  find  25  for  the  epact  of  the  year,  and 
9  is  the  epact  for  November:  hence  25  +  9+11  —  30  =  15,  which  is  the  moon's  age;  so 
that  tlie  moon  is  full  on  that  day. 

The  lunar  cycle  of  19  years,  though  remarkably  simple,  is  however  far  from  being  accu- 
rate. Nineteen  years  contain  about  an  hour  and  a  half  more  than  235  hmations;  so  that  at 
the  termination  of  that  period  the  moon  has  advanced  about  an  hour  and  a  half  in  the  next 
lunation.  This  error  amounts  to  a  day  in  the  course  of  16  cycles,  or  about  300  years.  But, 
to  compensate  this  excess,  the  epacts  may  be  advEinced  one  daj-  every  300  years,  and  in 
this  manner  tlie  lunar  and  solar  periods  will  be  made  to  agree.  In  consequence  of  her 
apparent  motion  eastward,  the  moon  is  about  48  minutes  later  atler  every  diurnal  revolution 
of  coming  to  the  meridian.  As  48  minutes  is  equal  to  jl  of  an  hour,  an  approximation  is 
made  to  the  time  of  her  southing,  oy  multiplying  her  age  by  4,  and  dividing  by  5.  This 
gives  the  time,  nearly,  before  or  after  noon,  according  as  the  moon  is  past  the  opposition  or 
conjunction. 

The  time  of  her  rising  and  setting  is  affected  by  the  same  cause.  In  one  part  of  the 
orbit,  however,  this  is  in  a  great  measure  counteracted  by  the  smallness  of  the  angle  which 
the  orbit  makes  witii  the  horizon.  For  facilitating  the  illustration  of  this  phenomenon,  let 
us  suppose  the  moon  to  move  in  the  ecliptic,  from  whicli  she  never  deviates  much  more 
than  5°.  By  turning  round  the  celestial  globe,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  ecliptic  makes  witli 
the  horizon  very  dift'erent  angles,  as  the  points  of  their  intersection  vary.  If  the  first  point 
of  Arirs  be  brought  to  coincide  with  the  east  point  of  the  horizon,  the  angle  which  the 
ecliptic  makes  with  the  horizon  is  equal  to  the  difference  of  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  and 
the  complement  of  the  latitude  :  but  if  the  first  point  of  Libra  be  brought  into  coincidence 
with  the  east  point,  the  angle  between  the  ecliptic  and  the  horizon  is  equal  to  the  sum  of 
the  obliquity  and  the  complement  of  the  latitude.  When  the  moon  is  in  Pisces  or  Aries, 
her  motion  in  her  orbit  will  therefore  produce  a  considerable  change,  each  succeeding  night, 
on  the  distance  between  the  east  and  the  point  of  rising,  but  the  time  of  rising  will  not  be 
much  affected.  The  reverse  will  be  the  case  when  the  moon  is  in  Virgo  or  Libra.  Hence 
it  is  obvious  that  in  every  lunation,  at  a  certain  time,  the  moon  must  rise  nearly  at  the  same 
hour  for  several  days  together.  This  phenomenon,  however,  for  the  most  part,  passes  unob- 
.served ;  but  in  the  harvest  season  it  attracts  attention,  as  being  then  much  more  conspicuous 
than  at  any  other  time  of  the  year.  In  the  autumnal  months  the  moon  is  full  in  the  signs 
Pisces  and  Aries,  (the  sun  being  at  that  season  in  the  opposite  signs  Virgo  and  Libra,)  and 
on  that  account  rises  an  entire  orb  (or  nearly  so)  for  about  a  week,  almost  at  the  time  of 
sunset,  thus  aftbrding  a  supply  of  light  very  beneficial  to  the  husbandman,  in  gathering  in 
the  fruits  of  the  earth.     This  lunation  has  accordingly  been  distinguished  by  the  name  of 

the  HAJIVEST  MOOX. 

The  inclination  of  the  moon's  orbit  to  the  ecliptic,  makes  the  harvest  moon  rise,  more  or 
less,  nearly  at  the  same  time  that  she  would  if  she  moved  in  the  ecliptic,  according  to  the 
position  of  the  line  of  tlie  nodes.  If  we  suppose  the  ascending  node  to  be  in  Aries,  the 
moon's  orbit  makes  with  the  horizon  an  angle  upwards  of  5°  less  than  the  angle  which  the 
ecliptic  makes  with  it,  and  consequently  the  liarvest  moon  will  rise  more  nearly  at  the  same 
time  than  if  the  moon  had  been  in  the  ecliptic.  In  a  little  less  than  9^  years,  however,  the 
line  of  the  nodes  will  have  made  half  a  revolution,  and  the  descending  node  will  be  m  Aries. 
The  moon's  orbit  will  then  make  with  the  horizon  an  angle  more  than  5°  greater  than  that 
which  the  ecliptic  makes  with  it ;  and,  consequently,  the  harvest  moon  will  not  rise  so  nearly 
at  the  same  time  as  if  the  moon  had  been  in  the  ecliptic. 

The  quantity  of  moonlight  which  we  enjoy  in  winter  is  much  greater  than  in  summer. 
As  the  moon  is  always  on  the  same  side  of  the  heavens  with  the  sun,  at  the  time  of  new 
moon,  and  on  the  opposite  side  at  the  time  of  full  moon ;  it  is  evident  that  at  midsummer  the 
moon,  when  seen  as  a  crescent,  will  rise  at  a  point  of  the  horizon  to  the  north  of  east,  and 
set  at  a  point  to  the  north  of  west,  and  will  be  seen  high  in  the  heavens  when  she  passes 
the  meridian.  As  she  approaches  full  moon,  however,  she  w^ll  rise  farther  and  fartlierto  the 
south  of  east,  will  appear  low  in  tlie  heavens  when  on  the  meridian,  and  will  set  farther  and 
farther  to  the  south  of  west.  The  reverse  takes  place  at  mid-winter:  tlie  moon  is  low 
when  seen  as  a  crescent,  and  rises  higher  and  higher  in  the  heavens  as  she  approaches  full 
moon.  She  also  rises  to  the  south  of  east  when  a  crescent,  and  sets  to  the  south  of  west ; 
but,  when  full,  rises  and  sets  to  the  north  of  these  points.  Thus  the  great  quantity  of  moon- 
light during  the  long  nights  of  winter  arises  from  the  moon  being  full  in  the  northern  signs 


Book  I. 


PHASES  OF  THE  MOON 


]01 


of  the  ecliptic,  and  is  analogous  to  that  of  sunshine  in  the  long  days  of  summer.  As  we 
approach  the  pole,  the  quantity  of  moonlight  in  winter  becomes  still  more  remarkable ;  and 
at  the  pole  itself,  at  mid-winter,  the  moon  does  not  set  for  fifteen  days  together,  namely,  from 
the  first  to  the  last  quarter. 

The  lunar  disc  is  diversified  with  a  great  variety  of  spots,  which  are  quite  permanent,  but 
difier  very  considerably  from  each  other  in  degrees  of  brightness.  These  inequalities  of 
illumination  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  Since  the  discovery  of  the  telescope  they  have 
engaged  the  particular  attention  of  several  astronomers,  by  whom  their  relative  positions 
have  been  carefully  ascertained,  and  laid  down  in  maps  of  the  lunar  surface.  From  an 
attentive  examinntion  of  the  lights  and  shades  seen  on  the  moon's  disc,  it  lias  been  inferred 
that  her  surface  is  very  irregular,  being  diversified  by  lofty  mountains,  precipitous  rocks,  and 
deep  caverns.  The  existence  of  these  irregularities  of  surface  is  strikingly  evident  from  the 
serrated  appearance  of  the  line  which  separates  the  enlightened  fi-om  the  dark  part  of  the 
moon,  and  by  a  variety  of  bright  detached  spots,  almost  always  visible  on  the  dark  part  and 
near  the  line  of  separation  between  light  and  darkness.  These  bright  spots  are  the  tops  of 
mountains  illuminated  by  the  sun,  while  his  rays  have  not  yet  reached  the  bottom  of  the 
intervening  valleys.  The  dark  spots  of  the  moon  are  smooth,  and  apparently  level,  while 
the  luminous  parts  are  elevated  regions,  which  either  rise  into  high  mountains  or  sink  into 
deep  and  immense  cavities.  The  general  smoothness  of  the  dark  spots  naturally  led  to  the 
conclusion  that  they  were  collections  of  water ;  but  more  careful  observation  has  made  it 
appear  that  the  line  which  separates  the  enlightened  from  the  dark  part  of  the  moon  is  not 
smooth  and  regular,  even  when  it  passes  over  a  dark  spot ;  so  that  there  is  no  reason  to  sup- 
pose that  there  is  any  large  collection  of  water  in  the  moon :  and  this  conclusion  is  strength- 
ened by  the  constant  serenity  of  her  appearance,  wliich  seems  undisturbed  by  any  of  those 
atmospherical  phenomena  which  arise  on  our  globe  from  the  existence  of  water.  The 
mountahious  scenery  of  the  moon,  and  more  especially  the  immense  caverns  with  which  her 
surface  is  broken,  bear  little  analogy  to  what  we  see  on  tlie  surface  of  the  earth.  The 
resemblance  may,  however,  be  conceived  to  be  considerably  increased  if  all  the  waters  of 
the  earth  were  removed,  and  the  beds  of  the  ocean,  seas,  and  lakes  were  left  dry  with  all 
the  inequalities  of  their  surfaces  exposed  to  view.  The  earth  would  then  be  diversified,  not 
only  with  the  rocks  and  mountains  now  seen  upon  its  surface,  but  likewise  with  deep  caverns 
of  immense  extent,  and  having  detached  mountains  and  rocks  rising  fi-om  the  bottom,  similar 
to  the  cavities  discovered  in  the  moon.  From  certain  light  spots  which  have  sometimes 
been  seen  on  the  dark  part  of  the  moon,  at  sucli  a  distance  from  the  enlightened  portion 
that  they  could  not  arise  from  the  light  of  the  sun,  astronomers  have  inferred  the  existence 
of  volcanoes  in  the  moon.  Dr.  Herschel,  in  particular,  two  or  three  different  times,  observed 
such  spots. 

The  height  of  a  lunar  mountain  may  be  measured  by  the  following  method.     Let  DAE 

S  be  a  section  of  the  moon  made  by  a  plane  passing- 

through  O,  the  eye  of  an  observer  on  the  earth,  M  the 
summit  of  a  mountain  situated  in  the  dark  part  of  the 
lunar  disc,  and  S  the  sun.  It  is  evident  that  this  plane 
will  be  perpendicular  to  the  line  which  joins  the  horns 
Kof  the  moon.  Let  D  A  be  the  arch  of  the  circle 
D  A  F,  which  passes  over  the  visible  portion  of  the 
enlightened  hemisphere.  Whenever  the  point  M  be- 
comes visible  to  a  spectator  at  O,  it  must  be  illumi- 
nated by  a  ray  of  the  sun  S  A  M,  which  will  be  a 
tangent  to  the  circle  D  A  F  at  the  point  A,  and  therc- 
O  fore  at  right  angles  to  the  diameter  A  F.     Produce 

O  M  to  meet  the  diameter  D  E  in  w,  and  draw  A  r 
and  A  ?i  parallel  to  D  E  and  M  m ;  also  produce  E  D  to  meet  S  M  in  C.  Because  DAE 
is  a  section  of  that  hemisphere  of  the  moon  which  is  turned  towards  the  earth,  the  visual 
ray  O  M  m  is  perpendicular  to  D  E :  hence  the  angles  m  M  C,  M  C  m  are  together  equal 
to  two  right  angles.  But  because  C  A  is  perpendicular  to  A  B,  the  angles  ABC  and  A  C  B 
(or  M  C  m)  are  also  together  equal  to  two  right  angles :  whence  it  is  evident  that  the  angle 
m  M  C  is  equal  to  A  B  C ;  and  that  the  triangles  A  INI  r,  A  B  n  are  similar.     We  have, 

A  r  X  A  B 

therefore.  An:  A  B  =  A  r :  AM.     Hence  A  ]\I  =  -. • 

A  n 

Now,  A  r  is  the  projection  of  A  M  on  the  lunar  disc,  and  will  be  found  by  measuring, 
with  the  micrometer,  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  a  line  joining  the  horns  of  the  moon, 

the  distance  of  the  illuminated  summit  M  from  the  enlightened  disc  at  A :  also  -7-^^  Sin. 

°  '  A  B 

Z  A  B  C,  radius  being  unity,  the  angle  A  B  C  is  equal  to  S  M  m  the  moon's  distance  or 

A  r 

elongation  from  the  sun :  wherefore  we  obtam  A  M  =  h^ ^j p — >  a  given  quantity. 

9  *  m.  e  onga  ion 


102  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

Next,  let  A  G  H  be  a  section  of  the  moon  made  by  a  plane  passing  along  the  tangent  A  M, 
and  through  the  centre  K :  draw  M  K  G ;  then,  by  a  well-known 
property  of  the  circle,  A  M-  =•  G  M  X  M  H  =  M  H  X  (G  H  +  H  M), 
or,  II M  being  much  smaller  than  G  H,  we  have  A  M^'  =  M  H  X  G  H, 

A  Al- 
and M  H  ^  p  rj  nearly.  Now,  A  M  and  G  H  are  both  given ;  there- 
fore H  M,  the  heiglit  of  the  mountain  above  the  general  surface,  may 
be  determined. 

Suppose,  for  example,  that  when  the  apparent  diameter  of  the 
moon  is  31'  15",  and  her  elongation  from  the  sun  93°  57^',  the  dis- 
tance between  the  enlightened  part  of  her  disc,  and  the  summit  of  a 
mountain  situated  in  the  dark  part  of  it  is  found  to  be  4I5";  and  let 
it  be  required  thence  to  determine  tlie  height  of  the  mountain. 
The  diameter  of  the  moon  is  about  2180  miles;  hence  31'  15"  or  1875" :  41^"  =  2180: 
48'25,  which  is  the  number  of  miles  in  41^"  on  the  Imiar  disc  ;  so  that  we  have  Ar  =  48'25 
miles. 

A  r 
Again,  the  Nat.  Sin.  of  tlie  elongation  93°  57^  =  "9976 ;  therefore  A  M  =  ^^ — el  no-ati  n 
48'25  ^"'     ^  ° 

=  ■nn-'C!  =  48'36  miles. 
99/6 

Lastly.     The  height  = —"^ 1 i-OT  milp 

^  G  H    ~  2180      ~  -^  ^'  ""^^• 

Thus  the  height  of  the  lunar  mountain  in  question  is  found  to  be  about  a  mile.  The 
principle  now  explained  is  correct  in  theory;  but  with  regard  to  the  results  obtained  from 
the  practical  application  of  it,  a  greater  difference  of  opinion  exists  than  might  have  been 
expected.     These  results  are,  liowever,  highly  curious  and  interesting. 

Mooii's  motion  round  the  earth.  The  moon's  surface,  when  viewed  through  a  telescope, 
is  so  strongly  characterised  by  the  spots  visible  upon  it,  as  to  leave  no  doubt  of  its  being 
always  the  same.  From  tliis  tlie  inference  is  obvious,  since  we  are  certain  from  the  moon's 
motion  round  the  earth,  that  slie  must  revolve  on  an  axis  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  plane 
of  her  orbit  in  the  same  time  tliat  she  revolves  about  the  earth,  namely  in  275  days  nearly. 
Her  rotation  on  her  axis  is  equable ;  but  this  is  not  the  case  with  her  motion  in  her  orbit, 
which  is  periodically  variable :  and  hence  there  are  parts  of  the  eastern  and  western  edges 
of  the  moon  which  are  seen  occasionally.  This  appearance  is  called  the  libration  of  the 
MOON  IN  LONGITUDE.  It  is  entirely  optical,  and  argues  no  inequality  in  the  moon's  motion 
on  her  axis. 

The  moon's  axis  of  rotation  is  not  altogether  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  her  orbit,  but 
inclined  to  it  at  an  angle  of  88°  29'  49".  In  consequence  of  this  position  of  her  axis  her 
poles  are  alternately  visible,  and  a  small  portion  of  the  polar  regions ;  this  phenomenon  is 
called  the  libration  of  the  moon  in  latitude. 

The  diurnal  libration  of  the  moon  is  another  optical  appearance  arising  from  the  moon 
being  viewed  from  the  surface  instead  of  the  centre  of  the  earth.  At  rising,  a  part  of  the 
western  edge  is  seen,  which  is  invisible  at  setting;  and,  at  setting,  a  part  of  the  eastern 
edge  is  seen,  which  is  invisible  at  rising. 

The  explication  of  the  lunar  phases  leads  to  that  of  Eclipses — those  occasional  obscura- 
tions of  the  sun  and  moon  which  have,  in  ages  of  ignorance,  been  objects  of  superstitious 
terror  to  mankind,  and  at  all  times  objects  of  curiosity  to  the  philosopher.  At  the  time  of 
new  moon,  the  moon  is  upon  the  same  side  of  the  heavens  with  the  sun,  but,  for  the  most 
part,  passes  either  above  or  below  the  solar  disc  without  obscuring  any  part  of  it.  This 
arises  from  her  orbit  being  inclined  to  the  ecliptic :  for  it  is  evident  that  if  the  planes  of  the 
orbit  and  ecliptic  coincided,  the  centres  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  earth  would,  at  every  new 
moon,  be  in  the  same  straight  line;  so  that  the  moon  would  be  seen  to  pass  over  the  sun's 
disc,  and  the  sun  would  appear  to  be  totally  or  partially  eclipsed,  according  to  the  position 
of  an  inhabitant  upon  the  earth's  surface.  Again,  at  the  time  of  full  moon,  the  moon  is  on 
the  opposite  side  of  tlie  heavens  from  the  sun ;  and  therefore  she  is  on  the  same  side  of  the 
heavens  with  the  shadow,  which  the  earth,  as  an  opaque  body,  projects  into  space.  In  most 
cases,  liowever,  the  moon  passes  above  or  below  this  conical  shadow ;  so  that  she  is  not 
deprived  of  the  sun's  rays.  But  if  the  plane  of  the  orbit  coincided  with  that  of  the  ecliptic, 
the  centres  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  earth  would  evidently  be  in  the  same  straight  line  at  every 
full  moon  as  well  as  at  every  new  moon :  the  moon  would  therefore  fall  into  the  earth's 
shadow,  and  would  be  eclipsed  to  all  the  inhabitants  on  that  side  of  the  earth  which  is  turned 
towards  the  moon  at  the  time. 

Thousrh  the  inclination  of  the  lunar  orbit  to  the  ecliptic  prevents  the  occurrence  at  every 
new  and  full  moon  of  these  phenomena,  there  are  certain  distances  from  the  nodes  of  the. 
moon's  orbit,  called  ecliptic  limits,  within  which,  if  the  moon  is  situated  at  the  time  of 
new  or  full  moon,  there  will  be  a  solar  or  lunar  eclipse. 


Book  I. 


ECLIPSES. 


103 


To  illustrate  the  general  phenomena  of  lunar  eclipses.     Let  A  B,  D  E  be  sections  of  the 
sun  and  earth,  by  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.    Draw  A  V,  B  V  touching 


the  circles  A  B,  D  E  on  the  corresponding  sides  in  E  and  D,  and  meeting  each  other  in  V : 
also  draw  B  G,  A  H,  touching  these  circles  on  the  opposite  sides  in  M  and  N.  Then,  if  we 
suppose  the  figure  A  B  H  G  to  revolve  about  the  line  C  F,  which  joins  the  centres  of  the 
circles,  as  an  axis,  the  cone  generated  by  the  line  E  V  represents  the  shadow  which  the 
earth  projects  into  space ;  and  from  every  point  of  that  conical  shadow  the  light  of  the  sun 
is  entirely  excluded.  The  spaces  between  E  V,  M  G,  and  betw.een  D  V,  N  H,  will  receive 
the  light  of  a  part  of  the  sun :  and  hence  the  space  round  the  shadow,  which  is  generated  by 
the  motion  of  the  lines  G  M,  E  V,  is  called  the  penumbra. 

Join  C  E.  It  is  evident  that  the  angle  E  V  F  is  equal  to  the  difference  of  the  angles 
A  E  C,  E  C  F.  But  A  E  C  is  the  angle  under  which  the  sun's  semidiameter  is  seen  from 
the  earth ;  and  E  C  F  is  the  angle  under  which  the  earth's  semidiameter  is  seen  from  the 
sun.  Both  of  these  angles  being  known,  tlieir  difference  E  V  F  is  a  given  angle.  Now,  in 
the  right  angled  triangle  E  V  F  we  have  given  the  angle  at  V,  and  the  side  E  F,  which  is 
the  earth's  semidiameter :  hence  F  V,  the  heig-ht  of  the  earth's  shadow,  may  be  determined. 
The  height  of  the  shadow  varies  from  213  to  220  semidiameters  of  the  earth. 

Again,  let  F  O  be  the  distance  of  the  moon  from  the  earth :  draw  K  O  L  perpendicular 
to  F  V,  and  join  F  L.  The  angle  L  F  O,  under  which  the  semidiameter  of  the  section  of 
the  earth's  shadow  is  seen  from  the  earth,  is  equal  to  the  difference  of  the  angles,  F  L  E, 
F  V  L.  But  F  L  E  is  the  angle  under  which  the  semidiameter  of  the  earth  is  seen  from  the 
moon,  and  F  V  L  is,  as  has  been  shown,  equal  to  the  difference  between  the  angle  under 
which  the  sun's  semidiameter  is  seen  from  the  earth,  and  the  angle  under  which  the  earth's 
semidiameter  is  seen  from  the  sun:  hence,  to  find  the  angle  under  which  the  section  of  the 
earth's  shadow  through  which  the  moon  passes  in  a  lunar  eclipse  is  seen  from  the  earth, 
we  must  add  together  the  two  angles  under  which  the  semidiameter  of  the  earth  appears 
when  seen  from  the  sun  and  moon,  and  from  the  sum  subtract  the  sun's  apparent  semi- 
diameter, the  remainder  is  the  angle  required.  The  angle  L  F  O,  when  greatest,  is  about 
46':  but  the  inclination  of  the  lunar  orbit  to  the  ecliptic  is  upward  of  5°,  and  to  this  distance 
the  moon  may  recede  from  the  ecliptic.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  an  eclipse  of  the  moon 
can  take  place  only  when  she  is  near  her  nodes. 

Let  the  circle  A  H  B  be  the  section  of  the  earth's  shadow  at  the  moon ;  A  B  a  portion 
of  the  ecliptic,  and  D  F  a  portion  of  the  moon's  orbit  near  the  ascending  node.  Draw  C  G 
from  the  centre  of  the  shadow,  (which  must  be  the  point  of  the  ecliptic  direotly  opposite  the 
sun,)  perpendicular  to  A  B,  and  let  it  meet  D  F  in  G ;  then  G  is  the  point  of  opposition  at 
which  the  moon  will  be  180  degrees  of  the  ecliptic  distant  from  the  sun.     Now,  in  moving 

from  D  to  G,  the  moon  must  enter  the  earth's  shadow, 
and  will  therefore  be  eclipsed.  The  beginning  of  the 
eclipse  will  be  the  moment  that  she  enters  on  the  shadow 
at  K:  the  middle  of  the  eclipse  will  be  the  moment  when 
her  centre  reaches  the  point  E,  the  extremity  of  the  per- 
pendicular drawn  from  C  to  D  F ;  and  the  end  of  the 
eclipse  will  be  the  moment  when  she  leaves  the  sliadow 
at  the  point  L.  The  portion  of  the  moon's  disc  that  is 
obscured  will  depend  on  the  distance  between  E  and  C, 
which  will  vanish  when  the  point  of  the  opposition  coin- 
cides with  the  node.  It  is  evident  tliat  had  the  eclipse 
happened  on  the  other  side  of  the  node,  the  opposite  edge  of  the  moon  would  have  been 
immersed  in  the  shadow. 

In  eclipses  there  are  various  degrees  of  immersion.  Wlien  this  is  entire,  it  is  said  to  be 
total ;  when  only  a  part  of  the  moon  is  immersed,  the  eclipse  is  said  to  be  partial ;  and 
when  the  centre  of  the  moon  passes  through  tlie  centre  of  the  shadow,  the  eclipse  is  said 
\,ci  he  central  rn'yA  total.  The  breadth  of  the  shadow  at  the  moon  is  about  three  times  her 
diameter,  so  that  in  the  case  of  a  total  central  eclipse,  the  moon  may  be  entirely  obscured 
for  nearly  two  hours. 


104  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

The  time  when  eclipses  shall  happen  may  be  computed  from  the  laws  which  regulate  the 
motions  of  the  sun  and  moon.  This  computation  requires  astronomical  tables,  and  is  per- 
formed with  considerable  labour.  But  it  may  be  observed  that  in  *22;3  lunations,  or  18  years 
10  days  (or  II  days  according  as  lour  or  live  leap  years  occur  in  the  interim),  7  hours 
43  niinutes,  the  moon  returns  to  the  same  position  nearly  with  regard  to  tlie  sun,  and  the 
lunar  nodes,  and  therefore  the  eclipses,  will  return  nearly  in  the  same  order  and  circum- 
stances. This  is  thought  to  be  the  period  called  the  Chaldean  Saros,  being  used  by  the 
Chaldeans  in  predicting  eclipses. 

W'lien  it  is  known  that  a  lunar  eclipse  is  to  happen,  it  is  easy  to  compute  its  general  cir- 
cumstances. The  distance  of  the  moon  from  tlie  ecliptic  at  opposition,  the  time  of  opposi- 
tion, the  angles  under  which  tlie  earth's  semidiameter  is  seen  at  the  sun  and  moon,  also  the 
apparent  diameters  of  these  two  luminaries,  are  known  from  the  tables.  In  the  riglit  angled 
triangle  C  E  G  we  have  given  C  G,  and  tlie  angle  G  C  E,  which  is  equal  to  the  inclination 
of  the  moon's  orbit  to  the  ecliptic,  nearly ;  hence  we  find  C  E  and  E  G.  From  C  E  and 
C  F,  the  sum  of  the  semidiameters  of  tlie  section  of  the  earth's  shadow  and  the  moon,  we 
find  E  F,  which  is  equal  to  E  D ;  thence  D  G,  G  F  become  known.  We  can  compute  from 
the  tables  the  angular  motion  of  the  moon  in  her  orbit  relatively  to  tlie  sun,  the  latter  body 
being  supposed  at  rest.  Her  motion  relatively  to  the  opposite  point  C  is  evidently  the  same : 
lience  we  can  determine  the  time  of  describing  D  G  and  G  F;  that  is,  the  time  that  elapses 
between  the  beginning  of  tlio  eclipse  and  tlie  opposition,  and  between  tlie  opposition  and 
the  end  of  the  eclipse.  But  the  time  of  the  opposition  is  known,  therefore  the  times  of  the 
beginning  and  end  of  the  eclipse  will  also  be  known. 

For  estimating  the  quantity  of  an  eclipse,  the  diameter  of  the  solar  or  lunar  disc  is  con- 
ceived to  be  divided  into  twelve  equal  parts  called  digits  ;  and  according  to  the  number  of 
those  parts  which  are  obscured,  so  many  digits  are  said  to  be  eclipsed. 

Let  it  be  supposed  that  the  edge  of  the  moon's  disc  just  touches  the  edge  of  the  section 
2Q  of  the  earth's  shadow  at  P,  and  tliat  at  the  same  time 

-j5  'X  the  diameters  of  the  moon  and  shadow  are  each  at  the 

maximum,  and  we  shall  find  the  ecliptic  limit  for  lunar 
eclipses.     Produce  E  D  and  B  A  to  meet  in  N :  then 
D/  /       \  \NCis  the  limit  of  the  distance  of  the  node  from  the 

opposition  at  which  an  eclipse  can  happen.  Since  tlie 
p'  line  in  which  the  centre  of  the  moon  moves  (which  for 
a  short  distance  may  be  considered  as  a  straight  line) 
must  be  supposed  parallel  to  the  tangent  to  the  circle 
A  P  B  at  the  point  P,  the  angle  at  E  is  a  right  angle. 
The  angle  N,  is  tlie  inclination  of  the  lunar  orbit  to  the 
ecliptic :  also  C  E  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  semidiameters  of  the  moon  and  shadow. 
Hence  from  the  spherical  triangle  C  E  N,  C  N  may  be  determined ;  and  is  found  to  be 
about  11^".  Unless  when  the  node  and  the  point  of  opposition,  which  are  both  liable 
to  continual  change  of  position,  come  within  this  distance,  there  cannot  possibly  be  a 
lunar  eclipse. 

Calculation  of  longitude.  The  penumbra  makes  it  very  difficult  to  observe,  with  pre- 
cision, the  beginning  or  end  of  a  lunar  eclipse ;  so  that  though  these  periods  may  be  em- 
ployed for  determining  the  longitude  of  places  on  the  earth,  no  great  degree  of  accuracy  is 
to  be  expected.  Tlie  best  metliod  is  to  note  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  boundary  of  the 
shadow  at  the  different  spots  on  the  lunar  surface,  which  may  be  considered  as  so  many 
dillerent  observations. 

The  moon  seldom  disappears  entirely  in  lunar  eclipses,  but  is  seen  of  a  dusky  red  colour : 
even  the  spots  on  the  lunar  surface  may  be  distinguished  througli  the  shade.  This  effect  is 
to  be  attributed  to  a  portion  of  the  sun's  light,  wliicli  enters  the  conical  shadow  in  conse- 
quence of  being  refracted  by  the  atmosphere  of  the  earth.  The  nature  and  effects  of  atmos- 
pherical refraction  will  afterwards  be  explained. 

Eclipses  of  tlie  sun.  Witli  regard  to  the  general  phenomena  of  solar  eclipses,  we  may 
begin  with  remarking,  that  when  the  sun's  light  is  intercepted  by  the  moon,  so  tJiat  at  any 
place  on  tlie  earth's  surface  he  becomes  partly  or  wholly  invisible,  properly  speaking,  it  is 
an  eclipse  of  that  portioji  of  the  earth  on  which  tlie  moon's  sliadow  or  penumbra  falls. 

The  semi-angle  at  the  vertex  of  the  moon's  shadow  is  determined  in  a  similar  manner 
to  that  on  which  the  semi-angle  at  the  vertex  of  the  earth's  shadow  was  found.  It  is  equal 
to  tlie  diflerence  of  the  angles  under  which  the  semi-diameters  of  the  sun  and  moon  would 
be  seen,  if  each  of  tliese  bodies  were  viewed  from  the  other  at  the  time  of  their  conjunc- 
tion ;  and  will  therefore  not  be  very  far  from  being  equal  to  the  apparent  semi-diameter  of 
the  sun  as  seen  from  the  earth.  Computing,  then,  tlie  length  of  the  conical  shadow  of  the 
moon,  we  shall  find  it  vary  from  about  60-^  to  55|  semi-diameters  of  the  earth.  The  length 
of  the  shadow  at  the  time  of  the  conjunction  may  therefore  at  one  time  exceed,  and  at 
another  time  fall  short  of  tlie  moon's  distance  from  the  eartli,  which  varies  from  04  to  56 
eemi-diametcrs.     In  the  former  case,  if  the  conjunction  happen  when  the  moon  is  within  a 


Book  I.  ECLIPSES.  105 

certain  distance  of  the  node,  tlie  lunar  shadow  will  reach  the  earth,  and  a  section  of  it  will 
traverse  a  portion  of  the  earth's  surface,  producing,  wherever  it  falls,  a  total  eclipse  of  the 
sun. 

Wherever  the  penumbra  falls,  the  sun  will  appear  partially  eclipsed ;  more  or  fewer 
digits  beintr  eclipsed  according  as  the  place  is  less  or  more  removed  from  tlie  shadow, 
Beyond  the  penumbra  the  sun  is  not  eclipsed  at  all.  The  section  of  the  lunar  shadow  is  so 
near  the  vertex,  that,  even  when  greatest,  the  portion  of  the  eartli's  surface  which  it  covers 
is  not  very  extensive,  being  only  about  180  miles  in  diameter:  the  penumbra,  however 
extends  over  a  considerable  part  of  that  hemisphere  of  the  earth  which  is  turned  towards 
the  sun.  A  total  eclipse  in  any  place  cannot  exceed  7'  58".  If  the  vertex  of  the  lunar 
shadow  just  readies  tiie  surface,  the  total  eclipse  tiien  produced  will  be  instantaneous. 

When  tlie  vertex  of  tlie  lunar  shadow  falls  short  of  the  earth's  surface,  at  no  place  will 
there  be  a  total  eclipse :  but  at  places  near  the  axis  of  the  cone,  there  will  be  seen  an 
ANNULAR  eclipse ;  that  is,  the  central  parts  of  the  sun's  disc  will  be  obscured,  but  a  bright 
ring  will  be  left  visible  round  the  dark  body  of  the  moon.  Thus  let  A  B,  C  D  be  sections 
of  the  sun  and  moon  and  V  the  vertex  of  the  lunar 


shadow  wliich  is  supposed  not  to  reach  the  earth.  Produce  F  V  the  axis  of  the  shadow  to 
meet  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  E.  From  E  draw  E  C  G,  E  D  H  tangents  to  the  moon, 
and  intersecting  tlie  sun's  disc  in  G  and  H.  Tiie  circle  of  which  the  line  joining  G  H  is 
the  diameter,  marks  out  the  portion  of  the  sun  that  is  hid  by  the  body  of  the  moon  from  an 
observer  at  E,  and  the  annidiis,  of  which  the  breadth  is  A  G,  will  be  visible. 

Tlie  general  circumstances  of  a  solar  eclipse  may  be  represented  by  projection ;  and  a 
map  may  be  constructed  to  show  the  progress  of  the  shadow  over  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
The  most  simple  projection  is  that  wliich  supposes  the  observer  to  be  placed  in  the  sun,  and 
to  see  the  path  wliich  any  place  on  the  earth's  surface  describes  in  consequence  of  the 
diurnal  motion  projected  into  an  ellipse  on  the  plane  of  the  earth's  disc,  while  the  path  of 
the  moon's  shadow  is  projected  into  a  straight  line  on  the  same  disc.  The  geometrical  con- 
struction thus  obtained  is  sutficiently  accurate  for  the  prediction  of  eclipses. 

The  circumstances  of  a  solar  eclipse  may,  however,  be  computed  with  considerable  accu- 
racy. Tims,  find  for  the  given  place,  from  the  tables,  the  time  of  the  conjunction  of  the 
sun  and  moon.  Tlie  position  of  the  heavenly  bodies  in  reference  to  the  ecliptic  is  deter- 
mined by  latitude  and  longitude,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  position  of  a  place  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  in  reference  to  the  equator.  Find,  then,  for  the  time  of  the  conjunction, 
the  latitude  and  longitude  of  the  moon,  and  apply  to  tliem  the  small  change  produced  by 
the  spectator  being  placed  on  the  surface  instead  of  the  centre  of  the  earth ;  a  change 
wliich  depends  on  the  angle  whicli  the  eartli's  semidiameter  subtends  at  the  sun  and  moon 
at  the  time :  this  will  give  us  the  apparent  latitude  and  longitude  of  the  moon  as  seen  on 
the  concave  surface  of  the  heavens.  Compute  from  these  and  the  longitude  of  the  sun, 
that  is,  his  distance  from  the  first  point  of  Aries,  the  apparent  distance  of  the  centres  of  the 
sun  and  moon  at  the  instant  of  conjunction ;  wlience  we  may  nearly  conclude  the  time  of 
the  beginning  and  ending  of  the  eclipse,  by  taking  into  account  the  apparent  horary  motion 
of  tlie  moon  in  latitude  and  longitude  at  the  time  of  conjunction,  computed  from  the  tables. 
About  the  conjectured  time  of  tlie  beginning  of  the  eclipse,  compute  two  or  three  apparent 
latitudes  and  longitudes  of  the  moon,  and  thence,  combined  with  the  longitude  of  the  sun, 
the  apparent  distances  of  the  centres.  From  these  results  the  time  may  be  computed  by 
proportion  when  the  apparent  distance  of  the  centres  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  apparent 
semi-diameters,  that  is,  the  time  of  the  beginning  of  the  eclipse. 

The  magnitude  also  of  the  eclipse  at  any  time  maybe  thus  determined:  let  SE  (^fig.  28.) 
be  the  computed  apparent  difference  of  longitude  of  the  centres  S,  M,  of  the  sun  and  moon,  and 
III  E  the  computed  apparent  latitude  of  the  moon.  In  the  right-angled  triangle  M  E  S,  we 
have  therefore  given  the  two  sides  to  find  the  hypothenuse  M  S,  which,  being  known,  we 
obtain  m  n  the  eclipsed  part  of  the  sun:  for  ??i  n=^S  7rt+M  n — M  S. 

The  ecliptic  limits  of  the  sun  may  be  determined  in  the  following  manner :  let  S  and  M 
(29—_fig.  1.)  be  the  sun  and  moon,  seen  from  E  the  centre  of  the  earth  at  the  moment  of  con- 
junction ;  that  is,  when  their  centres  are  in  the  same  circle  S  B  perpendicular  to  the  ecliptic. 
Let  the  angle  a  E  h,  formed  by  tangents  dra\\^l  from  E  to  the  adjacent  edges  of  the  solar 
und  lunar  discs,  be  equal  to  the  greatest  difference  between  the  true  place  B  and  apparent 

Vol.  L  O 


106 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 

28 


Part  II. 


place  m  of  the  moon,  which  can  arise  from  her  being  viewed  from  the  surface  instead  of  the 
centre  of  the  earth.  It  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  this  difference  will  be  greatest  when  the 
moon  is  in  the  horizon,  and  that  its  effect  will  be  to  depress  her  altitude.  The  distance  of 
the  sun  is  so  great,  that  we  may  at  present  consider  his  true  and  apparent  place  as  coinci- 
dent. Suppose  now  an  observer  on  the  earth's  surface  at  A,  whose  horizon  is  at  right  angles 
to  S  B,  to  have  the  moon  in  his  horizon  at  the  moment  of  conjunction ;  it  is  evident  tliat  to 
him  the  two  discs  would  appear  to  be  in  contact :  but  to  an  observer  on  any  other  point  of 
the  earth's  surface,  the  discs  would  appear  asunder.  In  the  moment  of  conjunction,  there- 
fore, the  penumbra  must  have  just  touched  the  earth  at  the  point  A ;  and  when  the  centres 
of  the  sun  and  moon  approach  nearest  to  each  other  before  or  afler  the  conjunction,  it  will 
spread  over  a  very  small  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  near  A,  so  as  to  produce  barely  an 
eclipse.  Hence  the  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  node  at  the  time  of  conjunction  will  be 
the  solar  ecliptic  limit,  nearly.  In  the  right-angled  spherical  triangle  S  m  N  (Jig.  2.)  let 
N  S  be  a  portion  of  the  ecliptic,  and  N  m  a  portion  of  the  moon's  orbit,  N  being  the  node,  and 
let  the  perpendicular  S  m  be  equal  to  S  m  mfig.  1.  The  arc  N  S  is  the  ecliptic  limit  required : 
and  to  fmd  it,  we  have  given  the  angle  at  N  equal  to  tlie  inclination  of  the  moon's  orbit  to  the 
ecliptic,  and  S  in  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  apparent  diameters  of  the  sun  and  moon  together 
with  the  angle  6  E  a,  which  is  equal  to  B  M  /n  or  A  M  E,  the  angle  subtended  by  the  semi- 
diameter  of  the  earth's  disc  as  seen  from  the  moon.  The  angle  N  and  the  perpendicular 
S  m  being  known,  the  base  N  S  is  easily  determined.  The  three  quantities  to  the  sum  of 
which  S  m  is  equal,  are  variable  in  their  values.  Taking  for  S  m  the  sum  of  the  semi- 
diameters  of  the  solar  and  lunar  disc,  and  of  the  disc  of  the  earth  as  seen  from  the  moon 
when  they  are  greatest,  we  find  S  N  equal  to  17°  12'  nearly.  But  if  S  m  be  made  equal 
to  the  sum  of  the  semidiameters  when  they  are  least,  S  N  is  found  to  be  nearly  equal  to 
15°  19'.  Within  the  former  of  these  limits  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  may  happen,  within  the 
latter  it  must  happen. 

If  the  moon's  apparent  diameter  be  gr3ater  tlian  or  equal  to  tliat  of  the  sun,  the  eclipse 
will  be  total  wherever  the  lunar  shadow  falls.  But  if  the  sun's  apparent  diameter  be  greater 
than  that  of  the  moon,  the  eclipse  will  be  annular  within  the  lunar  shadow. 

Number  of  eclipses.  The  ecliptic  limits  of  the  sun  taken  on  each  side  of  the  node,  give 
an  arc  of  the  ecliptic  exceeding  30°,  so  that  the  sun  will  be  more  than  a  month  in  passing 
through  these  limits.  Hence  there  must  be  two  eclipses  of  the  sun  every  year.  Since  the 
ecliptic  limits  of  the  moon,  however,  taken  on  each  side  give  an  arc  only  of  about  23°,  and 
since  through  this  portion  of  the  ecliptic  the  sun  passes  in  less  than  a  month,  there  may  be 
no  eclipse  of  the  moon  in  the  course  of  a  year. 

When  a  total  and  central  eclipse  of  the  moon  happens,  there  may  be  an  eclipse  of  the 
sun  at  the  preceding  and  following  conjunctions,  because  between  new  and  full  moons  the 
sun  describes  only  about  15  degrees  of  the  ecliptic,  so  that  each  conjunction  may  happen 
within  the  solar  ecliptic  limits.  The  same  may  take  place  at  the  opposite  node :  there  may 
therefore  be  six  eclipses  in  the  course  of  a  year.  The  retrogradation  of  the  node  at  the 
rate  of  20°  yearly  renders  it  possible,  when  the  first  eclipse  of  the  year  happens  early  in 
January,  that  another  eclipse  of  the  sun  may  occur  in  the  end  of  the  year.  On  the  whole, 
there  may  be  seven  eclipses  in  tlie  course  of  one  year ;  five  of  the  sun,  and  two  of  the  moon : 
and  there  never  can  be  fewer  than  two,  but  though  more  solar  eclipses  happen  than  lunar, 
there  are  fewer  of  the  former  visible  than  of  the  latter;  because  a  lunar  eclipse  is  visible  at 
every  place  on  the  earth  which  is  turned  towards  the  moon  during  its  continuance;  but  in 
a  solar  eclipse  the  sun  continues  visible  at  all  places  over  which  the  penumbra  dors  not  pass. 
The  greatest  possible  duration  of  the  annular  appearance  of  a  solar  eclipse  is  12"  24",  and 
the  greatest  possible  time  during  which  the  sun  can  be  wholly  obscured  is  T""  58'. 

As  the  beginning  and  end  of  a  solar  eclipse  can  be  observed  w'ith  considerable  accuracy, 
they  are  useful  for  determmmg  the  longitude,  though  the  method  which  they  furnish  is 
complex  and  laborious. 


Book  I.  ECLIPSES.  107 

Effects  of  atmospherical  refraction  and  parallax.  In  the  preceding  explanation  of  solar 
eclipses  we  have  had  occasion  to  refer  to  the  eifects  of  atmospherical  refraction;  also 
to  the  difference  between  the  apparent  places  of  the  sun  and  moon,  called  their  parallax, 
produced  from  their  being  viewed  from  the  surface  instead  of  the  centre  of  the  earth. 
Before  leaving  this  subject,  we  shall  state  a  little  more  fully  the  effects  arising  from  these 
causes. 

Atmospherical  refraction.  The  earth  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  an  aeriform  elastic 
fluid,  which  is  called  the  atmosphere.  This  fluid  possesses  weight,  and  is  compressible ; 
and  hence  the  parts  near  the  surface  of  the  earth  are  more  dense  than  those  above  them,  on 
account  of  the  greater  superincumbent  pressure  which  they  sustain.  The  same  thing  holds 
true  of  every  stratum  when  compared,  in  reference  to  density,  with  that  immediately  below 
it;  so  that  from  the  surface  upwards  the  density  gradually  diminishes,  at  a  few  miles'  eleva- 
tion becomes  very  small,  and  at  some  point  may  be  considered  as  altogether  evanescent. 
Now,  it  is  a  well  known  principle,  that  if  a  ray  of  light,  after  passing  through  one  medium 
(air,  for  instance),  enters  another  (say  water)  of  a  diflferent  density,  in  a  direction  not  per- 
pendicular to  its  surface,  it  is  bent  out  of  its  course  towards  the  perpendicular  to  the  surface  on 
which  the  ray  is  incident,  if  the  second  medium  is  the  denser  of  the  two ;  but ^rom  that  per- 
pendicular if  the  second  medium  is  the  rarer.  In  passing  through  the  atmosphere,  therefore, 
a  ray  of  light  will  be  continually  deflected  from  the  rectilineal  into  a  curvilmeal  path ;  be- 
cause at  every  point  of  its  course  it  is  entering  a  medium  of  a  greater  density.  The  ray  is 
said  to  be  refracted ;  and  as  the  tangent  draws  from  the  eye  to  the  curve  which  it  describes 
is  the  direction  in  which  celestial  objects  appear,  it  follows,  that  refraction  renders  the  appa- 
rent altitude  of  all  the  heavenly  bodies  greater  than  the  true.  Hence  they  often  appear 
above  the'horizon  when  they  are  actually  below  it. 

The  deviation  of  the  refracted  ray  from  its  original  course  increases  with  the  angle  of 
incidence,  and  vanishes  when  the  direction  of  the  ray  is  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the 
second  medium.  Hence  atmospherical  refraction  is  greatest  when  the  object  is  in  the 
horizon,  where  it  may  be  about  34' :  at  45°  altitude,  it  is  about  57^" :  in  the  zenith  it 
vanishes. 

Whatever  alters  the  density  of  the  atmosphere  must  affect  also  its  refractive  power.  In 
all  accurate  observations,  therefore,  the  state  of  the  barometer  and  thermometer  must  be 
taken  into  account.  At  the  same  zenith  distances,  the  quantity  of  refraction  varies  nearly 
as  the  height  of  the  barometer,  supposing  the  temperature  to  remain  the  same.  The  effect 
of  a  variation  in  the  temperature  is  to  diminish  the  quantity  of  refraction  about  j^o^h  part  for 
every  increase  of  one  degree  in  the  height  of  the  thermometer. 

In  passing  through  the  atmosphere  light  is  reflected  as  well  as  refracted.  The  reflective 
power  of  tiie  atmosphere  produces  the  splendour  of  day  by  diffusing  light  in  every  direction. 
Combined  with  its  refractive  power,  it  causes  that  faint  light  called  twilight,  which  is  per- 
ceived before  sunrise  and  after  sunset ; — beginning  in  the  morning  in  our  latitude,  and  end- 
ing in  the  evening,  when  the  sun's  depression  below  the  horizon  is  about  18°.  Various 
other  phenomena  are  to  be  attributed  to  the  same  cause :  the  red  and  orange  colour  of  the 
morning  and  evening  clouds ;  the  ruddy  appearance  of  all  the  heavenly  bodies  when  near 
the  horizon ;  the  blue  colour  of  the  sky  ;  and  the  bright  azure  of  the  distant  mountains,  are 
all  the  effects  of  the  refractive  powers  of  the  atmosphere. 

Refraction  is  also  the  cause  of  the  oval  appearance  of  the  sun  and  moon  when  near  the 
horizon.  The  diameter  of  the  disc  that  is  parallel  to  the  horizon  remains  unaffected  in  its 
apparent  length,  because  both  extremities  are  equally  refracted ;  but  the  diameter  perpen- 
dicular to  the  horizon  is  shortened  by  about  ^tli  of  its  length,  because  the  lower  edge  of  the 
disc,  being  nearer  the  horizon,  is  refracted  nearly  five  minutes  more  than  the  upper. 

The  great  apparent  magnitude  of  the  sun  and  moon  when  in  the  horizon  is  another 
remarkable  phenomenon  which  we  may  here  notice.  This  illusion,  which  is  altogether 
optical,  is  usually  accounted  for  on  this  principle,  that  we  form  an  erroneous  judgment 
respecting  the  distances  of  these  bodies  when  they  are  in  the  horizon,  compared  with  their 
distances  when  they  have  attained  a  considerable  elevation.  When  we  see  tlie  moon,  for 
example,  in  the  heavens  at  a  considerable  altitude,  we  intuitively  suppose  her  nearer  than 
when  she  is  hi  the  horizon ;  because,  in  the  latter  case,  we  see  a  multitude  of  objects, — 
many  of  them  at  great  distances,  and  the  moon  beyond  them  all ;  but,  in  the  former  case, 
we  have  no  intervening  objects  by  which  to  form  an  estimate  of  her  distance.  The  angle 
under  which  she  is  seen  being  nearly  the  same,  we  infer  a  greater  magnitude  when  we 
imagine  the  distance  greatest,  that  is,  when  the  moon  is  in  the  horizon.  Such  is  the  error 
into  which  we,  in  this  instance,  fall,  in  the  rapid  judgments  of  the  mind  respecting  magni- 
tude and  distance  connected  with  vision.  The  more  deliberate  conclusion  on  this  subject 
drawn  by  reason  is,  that  the  moon  must  indeed  be  at  a  greater  distance  from  an  observer  on 
the  earth,  when  she  is  in  his  horizon,  tlian  when  sJie  is  in  or  near  his  zenith ;  but  that,  how- 
ever the  eye  may  be  deceived,  her  apparent  diameter  must,  when  exactly  measured,  be  found 
less.     This  is  accordingly  the  case ;  for,  Vv'hen  accurately  measured  with  the  micrometer. 


108  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  JI. 

the  Tiioon's  apparent  diameter,  when  she  is  in  the  liorizon,  is  actually  found  to  be  less  than 
when  bhe  has  attained  a  considerable  altitude. 

Parallax.  We  liave  formerly  shown  that,  in  comparison  witli  the  distances  of  the  fixed 
stars,  the  earth  is  but  as  a  point  in  the  universe  ;  so  tliat  their  positions  in  the  heavens  appear 
the  same  when  viewed  from  the  earth's  surface,  as  they  would  if  they  were  viewed  from 
its  centre.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case  with  regard  to  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets.  At 
each  of  these  bodies  the  earth  presents  a  disc  of  an  appreciable  magnitude :  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  tiieir  positions  among-  the  fixed  stars,  when  viewed  from  different  points  of  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  vary,  and  are  different  from  wliat  they  would  be  were  they  seen  from 
the  centre  of  the  earth. 

Let  ABE  {Jig.  30.)  be  the  earth,  C  its  centre,  and  M,  M",  M'  (a  heavenly  body,  for 
example)  the  moon  in  the  sensible  horizon,  the  zenith,  and 
any  intermediate  position.  The  true  places  of  the  moon  in 
these  positions,  as  seen  from  the  centre  C,  and  referred  to  the 
starry  heavens,  will  be  in,  m",  m' ;  and  their  apparent  places, 
as  seen  from  B,  will  be  n,  m",  n'.  It  is  evident,  that  in  the 
zenith  the  true  and  apparent  places  coincide,  so  that  there  is 
no  parallax.  In  the  horizon  the  parallax  is  greatest :  it  is 
measured  by  tlie  arc  m  n,  and  is  equal  to  tlie  angle  B  ]\I  C, 
under  which  the  semidiametcr  of  the  earth's  disc  appears 
when  viewed  from  the  moon.  At  tlie  intermediate  position 
M'  the  parallax  is  measured  by  the  arc  m'  n' :  it  is  less  than 
in  the  horizon,  and  decreases  as  the  body  ascends  until  it 
vanishes  when  the  body  reaches  the  zenith.  From  the  horizon 
to  the  zenfth,  parallax  diminishes  the  apparent  altitude  of  a 
body ;  but  as  the  altitude  increases,  this  diminution  becomes  less  and  less.  Its  eflfect,  there- 
fore, is  contrary  to  that  of  refraction,  which  always  increases  the  apparent  altitude  of  a  body. 


CHAPTER  XL 

MOTION  OF  THE  PLANETS  ROUND  THE  SUN. 

The  phenomena  of  the  motions  of  the  other  planets  differ  from  those  of  the  moon,  whicli, 
as  we  have  shown,  are  all  easily  accounted  for,  on  the  supposition  that  the  moon  revolves 
round  the  earth  in  an  elliptic  orbit,  subject  to  various  changes;  wliich  are  confined,  how- 
ever, within  certain  limits.  Tlie  attempts  which  the  ancient  astronomers  made  to  explain 
the  celestial  phenomena,  by  supposing  the  earth  to  be  the  centre  of  the  universe,  introduced 
a  system,  the  ptolemaic,  which  was  received  for  about  1500  years,  as  affording  the  true 
explanation  of  the  planetary  motions;  but  which  the  progress  of  scientific  discovery  iias 
proved  to  be  absurd.  Ptolemy,  an  astronomer  of  Egypt,  who  ffourished  about  140  years 
aff:er  the  Christian  era,  supposed  the  planets  to  revolve  about  the  earth  in  the  following 
order ;  viz.  the  Moon,  Mercury,  Venus,  the  Sun,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn.  Beyond  the  region 
of  the  planets  he  placed  the  sphere  of  the  fixed  stars.  Wliile  he  tlius  accounted  for  the 
proper  motions  of  the  planets  from  west  to  east,  he  conceived  the  whole  to  be  carried  round 
the  earth  by  a  diurnal  motion,  in  the  opposite  direction,  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  irregu- 
larities of  the  planetary  motions, — these  being  sometimes  direct,  at  other  times  retrograde ; 
sometimes  swift,  and  at  otlier  times  slow, — were  imagined  by  him  to  arise  from  each  planet 
moving  in  a  small  circle,  called  an  epicycle,  whose  centre  was  carried  round  a  larger 
circle,  called  the  deferent,  having  the  earth  placed  a  little  to  the  one  side  of  its  centre. 
The  motions  in  these  circles  he  imagined  to  be  produced  by  the  revolution  of  transparent 
globes ;  each  planet  being  supposed  to  be  attached  to  a  globe,  which  carried  it  round  in  its 
epicycle ;  and  this  globe  again  supposed  to  be  contained  in  the  shell  of  another  globe  of 
sufficient  thickness  to  receive  it  within  its  solid  substance,  and  to  allow  it  to  revolve  on  its 
own  centre,  at  the  same  time  that  it  was  carried  in  the  deferent  round  the  earth. 

Setting  aside  the  obvious  objections  to  this  theory,  arising  from  the  extravagance  of  the 
suppositions,  as  well  as  the  awkwardness  and  complication  of  the  machinery  which  it  em- 
ploys, an  insuperable  difficulty  remains ;  viz.  that  the  whole  system  is  entirely  hypothetical, 
and  ofl'ers  no  proof  of  the  existence  of  the  agents  to  Mhicii  it  attributes  such  mighty  eff^ects. 
It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  instead  of  being  confinned  by  subsequent  discoveries,  it 
fell  to  the  ground  as  soon  as  the  true  method  of  investigating  the  laws  of  nature  was  under- 
stood and  adopted. 

Of  the  planets,  two.  Mercury  and  Venus,  always  accompany  the  sun,  never  receding  from 
him  beyond  certain  limits :  the  rest  are  seen  at  all  possible  angular  distances  fi-om  the  sun.  Let 
us,  then,  fix  upon  Venus  as  the  most  conspicuous  of  the  two  which  accompany  the  sun,  and 
upon  Mars  as  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  among  those  which  recede  to  all  angular  distances 
fi-om  him ;  and  by  tracing  out  the  apparent  motions  of  these  planets,  let  us  endeavour  to 
ascertain  the  centre  about  which  they  revolve. 


Book  I.  MOTION  OF  THE  PLANETS  ROUND  THE  SUN,  109 

When  the  planet  Venus  is  near  the  sun,  she  is  invisible ;  but  when  she  has  emerged 
sufficiently  from  his  rays,  she  is  seen  in  the  twilight  of  the  morning  or  evening,  according 
as  slie  is  to  the  west  or  east  of  the  sun.  In  the  former  case  she  is  the  morning  star  ;  in  the 
latter,  the  evening  star.  When  she  begins  to  be  seen  in  the  evening,  she  is  found  to  be 
receding  from  the  sun  towards  the  east,  and  thus  disengaging  herself  more  and  more  from 
his  rays.  Having  reached  her  greatest  angular  distance,  or  elongation,  which  is  from  45° 
to  48°,  she  begins  again  to  approach  him,  and  continues  to  do  so  till  her  angular  distance  is 
about  28°.  Durmg  all  this  time  her  motion  is  direct,  that  is,  in  the  order  of  the  signs ;  but 
now  she  becomes  stationary,  and  in  a  short  time  she  is  seen  moving  in  a  direction  contrary 
to  the  order  of  the  signs,  and  has  thus  acquired  a  retrograde  motion ;  but  still  she  continues 
to  approach  the  sun,  until  in  a  short  time  she  is  lost  in  his  light.  After  being  invisible  for 
about  six  weeks,  she  is  again  seen ;  but  now  in  the  morning  to  the  west  of  the  sun,  emerging 
from  the  solar  rays.  Her  motion  is  still  retrograde ;  but  when  she  has  reached  about  28^^ 
distance  from  the  sun,  she  again  becomes  stationary ;  and  in  a  short  time  resumes  a  direct 
motion,  receding  from  him  night  after  night,  until  her  angular  distance  exceeds  45°.  She 
then  returns  to  the  sun ;  is  for  a  time  lost  in  his  rays ;  and  at  length  is  seen  in  the  evening 
to  the  east  of  the  sun,  to  repeat  the  same  round  of  phenomena.  While  Venus  thus  appears 
to  have  an  oscillatory  motion  to  the  east  and  west  of  the  sun,  she  is  found,  when  viewed 
through  a  telescope,  to  present  phases  exactly  similar  to  those  of  the  moon,  the  illuminated 
portion  being  always  turned  towards  the  sun.  We  may  hence  infer  that  Venus  is  an  opaque 
body,  and  shines  in  consequence  of  reflecting  the  solar  light.  At  the  same  time  her  apparent 
diameter  also  varies,  its  variations  having  an  evident  relation  to  the  position  of  the  planet 
with  regard  to  the  sun.  The  diameter  appears  least  when  the  planet  is  about  to  be  immersed 
in  the  rays  of  the  sun  in  the  morning,  or  immediately  after  her  emerging  from  them  in  the 
evening.  On  the  other  hand,  it  appears  greatest  when  she  is  about  to  be  lost  in  the  solar 
rays  in  the  evening,  or  when  she  emerges  from  them  in  the  morning.  Such  is  a  general 
view  of  the  apparent  motion  of  Venus ;  and  by  attending  to  the  phenomena  which  she  ex- 
hibits, we  are  led  to  the  conclusion  that  she  revolves  round  the  sun.  When  in  the  morning 
she  begins  to  disengage  herself  from  the  solar  rays,  she  is  seen  to  rise  before  the  sun  in  the 
form  of  a  crescent;  and  it  is  then  that  her  diameter  appears  greatest.  At  that  time,  therefore, 
she  must  be  nearer  to  us  than  the  sun  is,  and  not  far  from  being  in  conjunction  with  him. 
Iler  crescent  increases,  and  her  diameter  diminishes,  as  she  recedes  from  the  sun:  when  she 
has  reached  her  greatest  elongation  and  returns  again  towards  him,  she  continues  to  discover 
to  us  more  and  more  of  her  enlightened  hemisphere,  her  diameter  all  the  time  diminishing, 
until  she  is  lost,  in  the  morning,  in  the  sun's  rays.  At  the.  instant  of  her  disappearing, 
Venus  is  seen  as  a  full  disc ;  and  at  the  same  time  her  diameter  is  least.  Hence  we  may 
with  certainty  infer,  that  she  is  then  at  a  greater  distance  from  us  than  the  sun,  and  again 
nearly  in  conjunction  with  him.  After  having  remained  for  some  time  invisible,  she  re- 
appears in  the  evening  to  the  east  of  the  sun ;  and  in  receding  from  and  returning  towards 
him  exhibits,  in  an  inverted  order,  the  same  phenomena,  in  reference  to  the  changes  in  her 
disc  and  apparent  diameter,  which  she  had  presented  when  seen  in  the  morning,  on  the  west 
of  the  sun :  her  enlightened  hemisphere  turns  more  and  more  from  us,  and  her  apparent 
diameter  continually  increases,  until  she  again  disappears,  or  is  seen  as  a  black  spot  traversing 
the  disc  of  the  sun. 

From  these  phenomena  only  one  inference  can  be  drawn ;  viz.  that  Venus  revolves  in  an 
orbit,  near  the  centre  of  which  the  sun  is  placed.  This  conclusion,  which  rests  on  the  firm 
basis  of  observation,  leads  to  a  natural  and  simple  explanation  of  all  the  peculiarities  of  her 
motion. 

The  planet  Mars,  the  next  to  be  considered,  appears  to  be  carried  round  the  earth  by  a 
motion  which  is  subject  to  great  inequalities.  When  he  begins  to  be  seen  in  the  morning 
emerging  from  the  solar  rays,  his  motion  is  direct,  and  at  its  gi-eatest  rapidity ;  but  it  gradu- 
ally diminishes  until  the  planet's  angular  distance  from  the  sun  is  about  137°.  At  that  time 
it  changes  into  a  retrograde  motion,  whose  rapidity  increases  till  the  moment  that  the  planet 
comes  into  opposition  with  the  sun,  or  is  on  the  meridian  at  midnigiit.  It  is  then  at  its 
greatest  rate,  and  presently  begins  to  decrease,  continuing  to  do  so  till  the  planet  becomes 
stationary  when  at  the  angular  distance  of  about  137°  from  the  sun.  The  motion  now 
returns  to  its  direct  state,  after  having  been  retrograde  for  about  seventy-three  days ;  and 
in  that  period  tlie  planet  describes  an  arc  of  retrogradation  of  about  16°.  Mars  continues 
to  approacli  the  sun,  until  he  becomes  immersed  in  his  rays  in  the  evening.  These  pheno- 
mena are  repeated  at  every  opposition  of  the  planet,  with  considerable  differences,  however, 
in  reference  to  the  duration  and  extent  of  the  retrogradations.  At  different  points  of  his 
course  round  the  heavens,  the  apparent  diameter  of  Mars  is  very  different:  it  varies  from 
about  13.3"  to  29.1".     It  is  greatest  wlien  the  planet  is  in  opposition  to  the  sun. 

The  plienomena  now  described  can  be  satisfactorily  explamed  in  no  other  way  but  by  sup- 
posing Mars  to  revolve  round  the  sun.  As  he  recedes  from  the  sun  to  all  possible  angular 
distances,  the  earth  must  be  situated  within  his  orbit;  but  the  increase  of  his  apparent 
diameter  as  he  approaches  his  opposition,  and  its  decrease  v^hen  he  apnroaches  the  sun,  show 

Vol.  I.  10 


110  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  IL 

that  the  earth  is  rot  the  centre  of  his  motion.  Before  he  reaches  the  point  of  opposition, 
his  motion,  from  being-  direct,  becomes  retrograde ;  afler  tlie  opposition  it  resumes  its  direct 
Slate,  when  the  planet  is  at  the  same  distance  from  the  sun,  at  which  he  was  situated  wlieu 
tlie  motion  became  retrog^rade ;  and  it  is  at  the  moment  of  conjunction  that  this  last  motion 
is  most  rapid.  Now,  all  these  circumstances  evidentlj'  indicate  that  the  apparent  motion  of 
Mars  is  the  result  of  two  combined  motions,  which  alternately  conspire  with  and  oppose  each 
other,  and  of  which  one  depends  on  tlie  apparent  motion  of  the  sun.  As  we  have  found 
that  Venus  revolves  round  the  sun,  and  accompanies  him  in  his  apparent  annual  motion 
round  the  earth,  we  are  led  by  analogy  to  extend  tlie  same  law  to  ^lars,  and  to  conclude  that 
he  also  revolves  in  an  orbit  round  the  sun. 

The  disc  of  Mars  changes  its  figure,  and  becomes  sensibly  oval,  according  to  his  position 
relatively  to  the  sun :  hence  we  may  conclude  that  Mars  is  an  opaque  body,  and  derives  his 
light  from  the  sun. 

The  same  reasoning  being  applicable  in  the  case  of  the  other  planets,  we  may  extend  to 
all  of  them  the  conclusion  which  we  have  now  established  in  reference  to  Venus  and  Mars, 
— namely,  that  tliey  are  opaque  bodies,  and  revolve  about  the  sun  in  orbits  nearly  circular ; 
while  tliat  luminary  of  the  system  either  describes  or  appears  to  describe  an  orbit  about  the 
earth  in  the  course  of  a  year.  This  general  law,  which  affords  a  simple  and  complete  expli- 
cation of  the  planetary  motions,  receives  additional  confirmation  from  the  phenomena  of  the 
satellites  of  Jupiter  and  the  ring  of  Saturn;  for  tliese  phenomena  prove  directly  that  Jupiter 
and  Saturn  revolve  about  the  sun  in  nearly  circular  orbits. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

MOTION  OF  THE  EARTH  ROUND  THE  SUN. 


The  conclusion  to  which  wc  have  now  been  led, — that  all  the  plarfets  describe  orbits  that 
have  the  sun  near  to  their  centre, — naturally  suggests  the  question,  whether  the  earth  itself 
is  not  subject  to  the  same  law,  and  therefore  to  be  ranked  among  the  planets  which  revolve 
round  the  sun.  With  regard  to  the  celestial  motions,  every  appearance  would  remain  the 
same  to  us,  whether  the  eartli  described  an  orbit  round  the  sun,  or  the  sun  with  his  accom- 
panying planets  revolved  round  the  earth.  To  which  of  these  hypotheses  the  preference  is 
due  will  appear  from  the  following  considerations : — 

The  immense  masses  of  the  sun  and  of  several  of  the  planets,  combined  with  their  great 
distances  from  the  earth,  render  it  much  more  simple  to  suppose  that  the  earth  describes  an 
orbit  round  the  sun,  than  that  the  whole  planetary  system  revolves  round  the  earth.  What 
an  inconceivable  rapidity  of  motion  is  it  necessary  to  assign  to  Saturn,  almost  ten  times 
more  distant  from  us  than  the  sun,  or  to  Uranus,  at  about  double  the  distance  of  Saturn,  in 
order  that  these  planets  ma)?^  complete  a  revolution  roimd  the  earth  in  a  year,  at  the  same 
time  that  they  revolve  about  the  sun !  It  is  a  law  which  is  found  to  pervade  the  planetary 
.system,  that  the  less  body  revolves  about  the  greater  body  which  is  in  its  neighbourhood ; 
and  by  supposing  the  earth,  in  conformity  with  this  law,  to  revolve  about  the  sun,  which  in 
magnitude  greatly  exceeds  all  the  planets  taken  together,  we  avoid  all  the  complication  and 
rapidity  of  motion  which  follow  from  the  supposition  of  the  earth  being  at  rest. 

The  analogy  which  subsists  between  the  earth  and  the  planets  confirms  the  hypothesis  of 
the  earth  being  carried  round  the  sun  by  a  motion  of  translation :  Jupiter,  for  example,  is 
knowTi  to  have  a  revolution  on  his  own  axis,  and  to  be  attended  by  four  satellites.  In  these 
particulars  the  earth  resembles  that  planet,  having  also  a  revolution  on  its  own  axis,  and 
being  attended  by  one  satellite,  the  moon.  An  observer  placed  on  Jupiter  would  be  led 
from  appearances  to  imagine  that  the  planetary  system  revolved  round  him,  in  like  manner 
as  an  inhabitant  of  the  earth  supposes  himself  placed  at  the  centre  of  the  celestial  motions : 
and  the  greater  magnitude  of  Jupiter  would  give  to  such  a  conclusion,  when  drawn  by  an 
observer  placed  on  that  planet,  a  greater  resemblance  to  the  truth  than  it  would  have  when 
drawn  by  an  inhabitant  of  the  earth.  With  such  a  close  analogy  in  these  respects  before 
our  eyes,  may  we  not  naturally  conclude  that  it  extends  still  farther;  and  that  as  Jupiter 
revolves  in  an  orbit  round  the  sun,  the  earth  must  also  have  a  similar  motion  ? 

Let  us  imagine  ourselves  to  be  placed  on  the  surface  of  the  sun,  and  from  that  position  to 
observe  the  earth  and  the  planets.  All  these  bodies  would  appear  to  move  from  west  to  east ; 
the  planets  would  be  found  free  from  all  that  complication  in  their  motion  to  which  they 
appear  subject  when  viewed  from  the  earth ;  and  the  motion  of  the  earth  itself  would  in 
every  circumstance  correspond  with  that  of  the  planets.  The  more  distant  a  planet  is  from 
the  sun,  the  longer  is  the  time  whicli  it  requires  to  perform  its  revolution  round  him ;  but 
throughout  tlie  planetary  system  this  remarkable  law  prevails,  connecting  the  periodic  times 
with  the  distances, — the  squares  of  the  former  are  proportional  to  the  cubes  of  the  latter. 
If  we  compute,  by  this  principle,  what  sliould  be  the  time  of  revolution  of  a  planet  situated 
at  the  distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun,  we  find  the  result  correspond  exactly  with  the 
sidereal  year ;  thus,  the  earth's  distance  from  the  sun  being  assumed  as  unity,  the  distance  of 


Book  I.  MOTION  OF  THE  EARTH  ROUND  THE  SUN.  Ill 

Mars  is  known  to  be  1 '523693:  his  periodic  time  is  686"9796  days.  Hence  we  have 
(1-52693)3:  1^::  (686-9796) '-^ :  (365-256)2.  The  periodic  time  of  a  planet,  at  the  same 
distance  from  the  sun  as  tlie  earth  is,  should  therefore  be  365-256  days,  which  is  the  length 
of  the  sidereal  year.  This  result  leaves  no  doubt  that  the  motion  wliich  the  earth  would 
be  seen  to  have,  if  it  were  viewed  from  the  sun,  arises  from  the  same  causes,  and  is  regu- 
lated by  the  same  laws  as  the  motions  of  the  planets :  hence  we  may  conclude  that  it  is  no 
less  real. 

The  motion  of  the  earth  in  an  orbit  round  the  sun,  which  tlie  preceding  considerations 
render  so  highly  probable,  is  directly  proved  by  the  phenomena  of  the  aberration  of  liffht. 
It  was  long  supposed  that  light  was  propagated  from  the  sun  and  other  luminous  bodies 
instantaneously ;  but  modern  observations  have  proved  that  this  hypothesis  is  erroneous,  and 
that  light,  like  all  other  projectiles,  occupies  a  certain  time  in  passing  from  one  point  of  space 
to  another.  The  fact  that  light  has  a  progressive  motion  was  first  discovered  by  Roemer, 
a  celebrated  Danish  astronomer,  from  observations  made  on  the  eclipses  which  the  satel- 
lites of  Jupiter  undergo  when  they  fall  into  his  shadow.  He  found  that  these  eclipses 
happened  sometimes  sooner  and  sometimes  later  than  the  time  deduced  from  the  tables  of 
their  motions ;  the  observation  being  before  or  after  the  computed  time,  according  as  the 
earth  was  nearer  to  or  farther  from  Jupiter  than  the  mean  distance.  Repeated  observations 
have  proved,  that  when  the  earth  is  between  the  sun  and  Jupiter,  his  satellites  are  seen 
eclipsed  about  85  minutes  sooner  than  tliey  should  be  according  to  the  tables ;  but  that 
when  the  earth  is  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  sun  from  Jupiter,  the  eclipses  of  his  satellites 
happen  about  85  minutes  later  than  the  time  shown  by  the  tables.  The  only  conclusion  that 
can  be  drawn  from  these  facts  is,  that  light  occupies  about  16^  minutes  in  traversing  a  space 
equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  earth's  orbit,  which  is  upwards  of  190  millions  of  miles ;  it 
must  therefore  move  at  the  enormous  rate  of  nearly  210,000  miles  in  a  second. 

Now,  if  the  earth  is  really  in  molion,  it  must  be  moving  at  the  rate  of  about  20  miles  in 
a  second,  in  order  to  accomplish  its  revolution  round  the  sun  in  the  course  of  a  year.  This 
rate  of  motion,  although  small  when  compared  with  the  velocity  of  light,  bears  to  it  a  sensi- 
ble proportion ;  so  that  an  evident  consequence  of  the  earth's  motion  will  be,  that  the  appa- 
rent places  of  the  heavenly  bodies  will  not  be  the  same  as  they  would  be  if  the  earth  were 
at  rest. 

Suppose  A  B  to  be  a  portion  of  the  earth's  orbit,  S  a  fixed  star,  and  S  A  the  direction 
of  light  proceeding  from  the  star  to  the  earth  at  A.  It  is  evident  that  if  the  earth  were  at 
rest  at  A,  a  telescope  presented  in  the  direction  A  S  would 
receive  the  light  of  the  star,  which,  proceeding  along  the  axis 
of  the  telescope,  would  reach  tlie  eye  at  A,  and  show  the 
star  in  its  true  position.  But  if  the  earth  be  supposed  to 
move  from  A  towards  B  with  a  velocity  that  bears  a  sensible 
proportion  to  the  velocity  of  light,  the  ray  S  A,  which  enters 
'K  the  telescope  at  C,  cannot  reach  the  eye,  but  must,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  motion,  be  lost  against  the  interior  of  the  tube. 
In  order  that  the  light  from  the  star  may  reach  the  eye  when 
carried  forward  by  the  earth's  motion,  the  telescope  must 
have  such  an  inclination  to  A  B,  that  S  F  being  supposed  a 
ray  parallel  to  S  A,  and  meeting  the  axis  of  the  telescope  in 
D,  A  F  may  have  to  F  D  the  same  ratio  as  the  earth's  veloci- 
ty in  its  orbit  has  to  tlie  velocity  of  light ;  that  is,  of  1  to 
10,000  nearly.  In  this  position  of  the  telescope,  the  light  entering  at  D  will  pass  along  the 
axis  as  it  moves  from  A  to  F,  and  will  reach  the  eye  at  F ;  but  the  star  will  be  seen  in  the 
direction,  not  of  F  S,  but  of  F  E :  so  that  its  apparent  place  ditfers  from  its  true  by  a  quan- 
tity measured  by  tlip  angle  S  F  E  or  A  D  F.  The  angle  D  F  E  is  the  aberration  which  will 
evidently  be  towards  that  part  of  the  heavens  to  which  the  earth  is  moving.  Let  the  axis 
F  E  be  supposed  to  be  produced  to  the  starry  heavens :  it  will  trace  out  on  the  convex  sur- 
face a  circle,  if  the  star  S  is  in  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic  ;  but  an  ellipse  in  every  other  posi- 
tion of  the  star.     The  true  place  of  the  star  is  the  centre  of  the  circle  or  ellipse. 

If  the  star  be  in  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic,  the  angle  D  A  F  may  be  considered  as  a  right 
angle  ;  for  the  line  joining  the  star  and  the  earth  will  always  be  perpendicular  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  earth's  motion.  In  this  case,  therefore,  the  angle  A  D  F  will  be  the  greatest 
possible  ;  for  the  ratio  of  sin.  A  D  F  to  sin.  D  A  F  is  constant,  being  the  same  with  the  ratio 
of  A  F  to  F  D,  or  of  1  to  10,000  nearly :  so  that  sin.  A  D  F  is  greatest,  and  therefore  A  D 
F  is  greatest  when  sin.  D  A  F  is  the  greatest  possible  ;  that  is,  when  D  A  F  is  a  right  angle. 
In  the  case  of  any  other  star  the  greater  axis  of  the  ellipse  which  it  appears  to  describe 
round  its  true  place  as  a  centre  will  be  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  circle  which  a  star  in 
the  pole  of  the  ecliptic  would  appear  to  describe  about  the  pole  as  a  centre :  for  the  ellipse 
will  be  the  orthographic  projection  of  a  circle  equal  to  that  described  about  the  pole,  the 
greater  axis  being  the  diameter,  which  is  perpendicular  to  a  circle  of  the  sphere  passing 
through  the  star  and  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic,  and  at  right  angles  to  tlie  ecliptic.     When  tlia 


112  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  H. 

star  is  in  the  ecliptic,  it  will  appear  to  describe  an  arch  equal  to  the  greater  axis  of  tlie 
ellipse  described  by  a  star  not  in  the  ecliptic,  or  to  the  diameter  of  the  circle  of  aberration 
that  would  be  described  by  a  star  in  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic. 

When  angle  D  A  F  is  a  right  angle,  we  have  D  F :  F  A :  :  rad :  sin.  Z  A  D  F ;  that  is, 
10,()U0  :  1  :  :  I :  "0001  =  sine  of  greatest  aberration,  which  will  therefore  be  20"  nearly. 
Tlio  aberration  of  a  planet  will  depend  on  its  own  motion  as  well  as  on  that  of  the  earth. 
If  tlic  motion  of  the  planet  were  equal  and  parallel  to  that  of  the  earth,  no  aberration  would 
take  place.  The  aberration  of  a  planet  may  be  found  by  first  considering  the  effect  of  the 
motion  of  tlie  earth  on  the  apparent  place,  and  then  the  aberration  arising  from  the  planet's 
own  motion. 

Such  are  the  effects  which,  if  the  earth  have  actually  a  motion  of  translation  that  carries 
it  in  an  orbit  round  the  sun,  must  arise  from  that  motion  combined  witli  the  progressive 
motion  of  light.  To  obtain,  therefore,  decisive  proof  of  the  eartli's  annual  motion,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  ascertain  by  accurate  observation  the  existence  of  these  phenomena. 

The  true  system  of  the  world,  which  supposes  the  sun  to  be  at  rest  in  tlie  centre,  and  the 
earth  and  planets  to  revolve  round  him,  while  the  moon  revolves  about  the  earth,  and  the 
diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens  arises  from  the  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  was  taught  by 
several  of  the  ancient  pliilosopliers,  and  particularly  by  Pythagoras.  It  was  also  held  by 
Archimedes;  but  after  him  it  was  neglected,  and  even  forgotten  for  many  ages,  until  at 
length,  in  the  beginning  of  tlie  sixteenth  century,  it  was  revived  and  improved  by  Coperni- 
cus, from  whom  it  took  the  name  of  the  Copernican  System.  Notwithstanding  the  beauty 
and  simplicity  which  distinguished  this  theory,  it  was  at  first  coldly  received  or  utterly 
rejected.  Tycho  Brahe,  an  illustrious  Dane,  was  among  its  adversaries.  He  regarded  the 
doctrine  of  the  earth's  motion  as  untenable,  without  abandoning  the  testimony  of  Scripture : 
hence  he  was  led  to  imagine  another  system,  which  bears  his  name  ;  in  which  the  sun,  with 
all  the  planets  and  comets  revolving  round  him,  is  supposed  to  perform  a  revolution  about 
the  earth  in  a  solar  year,  while  at  the  same  time  all  the  heavenly  bodies  are  supposed  to  be 
carried  round  the  earth  from  east  to  west  in  twenty-four  hours. 

The  only  apparent  difficulty  connected  witli  the  Copernican  system  arises  fi-om  the  fact,  that 
the  earth's  axis  is  always  pointed  to  the  same  star,  and  that  the  stars  preserve  always  the  same 
relative  positions  ;  though  by  tlie  annual  motion  of  the  earth,  a  spectator  on  its  surface  views 
them  at  any  two  instants  of  time  separated  by  the  period  of  about  six  months,  from  two 
points  nearly  200,000,000  miles  asunder.  During  the  seventeentli  century  the  supporters 
of  the  Copernican  system  laboured  to  remove  tliis  objection,  by  detecting  a  change  in  the 
position  of  the  fixed  stars. 

The  minute  and  accurate  observations  instituted  for  this  purpose  led,  in  the  end,  to  the 
important  discovery  made  by  tlie  celebrated  Dr.  Bradley,  that  the  very  effects  wliich  we 
have  shown,  must  result  from  the  annual  motion  of  the  earth  crmibined  with  the  progressive 
motion  of  light.  He  found  that  each  star  describes,  round  its  true  place  as  a  centre,  a  small 
ellipse  of  which  the  greater  axis  is  about  40" ;  and  that  this  ellipse  approaclies  to  a  circle 
or  to  a  straight  line,  whicii  are  its  limits,  according  as  the  star  is  situated  towards  the  pole 
of  tlie  ecliptic,  or  towards  the  ecliptic  itself.  No  parallax  is  observable  in  the  fixed  stars 
arising  from  the  eartli's  annual  motion ;  and  hence  it  must  be  inferred  that  their  distance 
is  so  great,  that  even  the  diameter  of  the  earth's  orbit  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  point  m  the 
universe. 

From  an  attentive  consideration  of  the  celestial  motions,  we  are  therefore  led  to  reject 
as  erroneous  the  notions  which  appearances  at  first  smrffest  respeciinff  the  system  of  the 
world.  Instead  of  the  globe  which  we  inhabit  being  at  rest  in  the  centre  of  the  universe, 
it  is  a  planet  in  motion  about  its  own  axis  and  about  the  sun.  In  regarding  it  under  this 
aspect,  we  find  all  the  celestial  phenomena  explained  in  the  most  simple  manner,  the  laws 
of  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  appear  uniform,  and  every  analogy  subsisting  among 
them  is  preserved  unbroken.  Like  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Uranus,  the  earth  is  accompanied 
by  a  satellite ;  it  revolves  on  its  own  a.xis  as  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  perhaps  all 
the  planets;  like  them  it  receives  light  from  the  sun;  and  to  complete  the  analogy,  it 
revolves  about  the  sun  in  the  same  direction,  and  according  to  the  same  laws.  By  following 
out  the  results  arising  from  the  earth's  motion  being  combined  with  the  real  motions  of  the 
planets  and  of  light,  we  find  all  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens  flow,  as  necessary  conse- 
quences, from  one  great  principle.  Thus  the  motion  of  the  earth  acquires  all  the  certainty 
of  which  a  physical  truth  is  susceptible. 

The  vicissitudes  of  seasons  arise,  as  we  have  already  explained,  from  the  obliquity  of  the 
ecliptic  to  the  equator.  The  ecliptic,  which  we  liave  hitherto  considered  as  the  path  of  tlie 
sun  round  the  earth,  we  liave  now  proved  to  be  the  orbit  of  the  earth  round  the  sun.  The 
axis  of  the  earth's  diurnal  motion  is  inclined  to  tlie  plane  of  its  orbit  at  an  angle  of  about 
66°  32',  and  remains,  as  the  earth  revolves  round  the  sun,  nearly  parallel  to  itself.  Hence 
the  circle  which  tlie  sun  appears  to  trace  in  the  iieavens  in  the  course  of  a  year  forms  with 
the  equator  an  angle  of  about  23°  28'.  This  produces  the  differences  in  the"  distribution  of 
the  solar  l-'jlit  and  heat  which  we  observe  throughout  the  seasons  of  tlie  year. 


DooK  I, 


ORBITS  OF  THE  PLANETS 


113 


The  parallelism  of  the  earth  is  not  absolute ;  for  the  axis  is  found  to  have  a  slow  motion 
of  revolution  from  east  to  west  round  a  line  passing  through  the  centre  of  the  earth,  and 
perpendicular  to  the  ecliptic ;  its  revolution  being  completed  in  the  period  of  25,745  years. 
In  consequence  of  this  motion  the  poles  in  the  sphere  of  the  starry  heavens  describe  each  a 
circle  round  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic,  at  the  distance  of  23°  28'  nearly ;  and  the  two  points 
in  which  the  terrestrial  equator,  when  produced  to  the  starry  heavens,  cuts  the  ecliptic,  shift 
to  the  westward,  at  the  rate  of  about  50^  seconds  yearly,  which  causes  the  precession  of  the 
equinoxes.  A  small  inequality  has  been  observed  in  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  and  in 
the  mean  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  which  arises  from  a  slight  motion  in  the  earth's  axis, 
whereby  its  inclination  to  the  ecliptic  is  not  always  exactly  the  same,  but  varies  backwards 
and  forwards  some  seconds.  This  is  called  the  nutation  of  the  earth's  axis,  and  was  discovered 
by  Dr.  Bradley  while  employed  in  verifying  his  theory  of  aberration.  The  period  of  the 
clianges  of  this  inequality  is  nearly  nine  years. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

ORBITS  OF  THE  PLANETS. 

To  an  observer  placed  on  the  sun,  all  the  planets  would  appear  to  trace  on  the  concave 
surface  circular  paths,  cutting  each  other  at  various  angles,  but  all  comprehended  within  a 
certain  zone  of  the  heavens  of  some  degrees  in  breadth.  The  angle  which  the  plane  of  the 
orbit  of  a  planet  makes  with  the  ecliptic  is  called  the  inclination  of  that  orbit ;  and  the  line 
of  their  intersection  is  called  the  line  of  the  nodes.  If  a  planet  be  observed  twice  in  the 
same  node,  the  node  being  supposed  to  have  in  the  mean  time  remained  stationary,  the  posi- 
tion of  the  line  of  the  nodes  can  be  determined,  and  also  the  distance  of  the  planets  from 
the  sun  at  the  times  of  observation. 

Let  a  superior  planet  be  observed  in  its  node  N  from  the  earth  at  E,  (Fig.  32),  and  after  the 
planet  has  made  an  entire  revolution  let  the  earth  be  at  E'.  Then,  from  the  time  and  the  theory 
of  the  earth's  motion,  E  E'  is  given,  and  the  angles  S  E  E',  S  E'  E.  But  the  angles  SEN, 
S  E'  N  are  known  by  observation  ;  therefore,  in  the  triangle  E  E'  N,  the  angles  E  E'  N,  E'  E  N, 
and  the  base  E  E'  are  given ;  and  hence  the  sides  N  E  and  E'  N  may  be  found.  Wherefore 
from  either  of  tlie  triangles  S  E  N,  S  E'  N  the  distance  S  N  is  determined ;  also  the  angle 
ESN,  which  ascertains  the  position  of  the  node  as  seen  from  the  sun. 

From  observations  of  this  kind,  made  at  times  considerably  distant  from  each  other,  it  ia 
found  that  the  nodes  of  each  planet  lia.ve  a  slow  retrograde  motion. 

Again,  the  distance  of  a  planet  from  the  sun,  and  its  place  as  seen  from  the  sun,  may  be 
determmed  from  observations  made  at  the  time  of  its  opposition  to  the  sun. 

S 

32 


{Fig.  33).  Let  E  be  the  earth,  S  the  sun,  P  the  planet,  O  its  place  reduced  to  the  eclip- 
tic, S  N  the  line  of  the  nodes  passing  through  the  sun.  Since  the  planet  is  in  its  opposi- 
tion, the  points  S.  E,  O  are  in  tlie  same  straight  line.  The  angle  E  S  N  is  known  by  the  last 
problem,  which  determines  the  position  of  tiie  line  of  the  nodes ;  therefore  the  arch  O  N  in 
the  heavens,  which  measures  it,  is  also  given.  Tlie  angle  P  N  O  is  equal  to  the  inclination 
of  the  planet's  orbit  to  the  ecliptic,  and  is  tlierefore  given;  also  the  angle  P  O  N  is  a  right 
angle.'  Hence  in  the  spherical  triangle  P  N  O,  the  perpendicular  P  O  and  the  hypotenuse 
P  N  may  be  found.  Now  the  arc  P  O  is  the  measure  of  the  angle  P  S  O,  and  P  N  is  the 
measure  of  P  S  N ;  therefore  these  two  angles  are  given.  In  the  rectilineal  triangle  P  S  E, 
the  exterior  angle  P  E  O  can  be  determined  by  observation ;  the  angle  P  S  E  or  P  S  O  is 
given,  and  the  base  E  S  is  known  by  the  theory  of  the  eartli's  motion ;  whence  P  S,  the 
distance  of  the  planet  from  the  sun,  may  be  computed. 

Vol.  I.  10*  P 


114  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Pakt  H. 

Orbit  of  a  planet  Since  the  angle  P  S  N  is  also  known,  the  line  P  S  is  given  in  posi- 
tion as  well  as  in  magnitude.  If  many  oppositions  of  a  planet  are  thus  observed,  and  if  the 
radii  obtained  be  laid  down,  the  line  connecting  their  extreme  points  will  represent  the  orbit 
of  the  planet.  In  this  manner  it  is  found  that  the  orbits  of  all  the  planets  are  ellipses,  Iiaving 
the  sun  in  tlieir  common  focus ;  and  that  the  angular  motions  of  a  planet  round  the  sun  are 
inversely  as  the  squares  of  its  distance  from  the  sun :  so  that  the  sectors  described  by  the 
radius  vector  are  proportional  to  the  times.  This  exactly  corresponds  with  what  was  proved 
respecting  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun  in  the  ecliptic,  and  therefore  the  motion  of  the 
earth  is  regulated  by  the  same  law. 

The  planets  which  move  immediately  round  the  sun  are  called  primary,  their  satellites 
are  called  secondary  planets.  Thus,  the  moon  is  a  secondary  planet  to  the  earth.  In 
considering  the  lunar  motion,  we  found  that  the  moon  describes  round  the  earth  an  elliptic 
orbit,  and  that  the  radius  vector  describes  equal  areas  in  equal  times.  The  same  holds  of 
the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Uranus ;  so  that  the  same  principle  runs  through  the 
motions  of  all  the  bodies  of  the  planetary  system. 

When  the  mean  distances  of  the  planets  are  compared,  and  also  their  periodical  times,  it 
is  found  tiiat  the  squares  of  the  periodic  times  are  as  the  cubes  of  the  distances. 

The  great  general  facts  which  have  now  been  pointed  out  respecting  the  orbits  of  the 
planets,  and  their  motions  in  these  orbits,  were  first  discovered  by  Kepler,  after  he  had 
employed  immense  labour  and  ingenuity  in  the  research,  and  are  usually  called  Kepler's 
LAWS.     It  may  be  proper  to  bring  them  under  one  point  of  view : — 

I.  The  primary  planets  all  revolve  in  elliptic  orbits  round  the  sun,  which  occupies  one  of 
the  foci  of  the  ellipse ;  the  plane  of  the  orbit  passing  through  the  centre  of  the  sun. 

II.  The  radius  vector  describes  equal  areas  in  equal  times. 

III.  The  squares  of  the  times  of  revolution  in  the  planetary  bodies  are  as  the  cubes  of 
their  distances  from  the  sun. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

COMETS. 

The  fixed  stars  and  the  planets  are  always  visible  when  not  obscured  by  the  superior 
light  of  the  sun ;  but  the  class  of  bodies  called  comets  are  seen  only  when  they  are  in  that 
part  of  their  several  paths  which  lies  nearest  to  the  sun  :  at  all  other  times  they  move  through 
regions  of  space  far  beyond  the  reach  of  our  vision,  even  when  assisted  by  the  most  powerful 
telescopes.  The  motions  of  the  comets  are,  like  those  of  the  planets,  performed  in  elliptic 
orbits  according  to  Kepler's  laws ;  but,  unlike  the  planetary  orbits,  the  ellipses  which  the 
comets  describe  are  extremely  elongated  :  so  that  the  small  portion  of  their  orbits  through 
which  we  have  an  opportunity  of  tracing  them  coincides  very  nearly  with  a  parabola,  the 
curve  of  which  is  the  limit  of  the  ellipse  when  its  greater  axis  is  indefinitely  increased. 
The  inclination  of  the  orbits  of  the  comets  is  very  various ;  some  move  in  planes  almost 
coincident  with  the  ecliptic,  and  others  in  planes  nearly  perpendicular  to  it.  They  move 
also  in  very  different  directions ;  the  motion  of  some  being  direct,  and  of  others  retrograde. 

The  comets  differ  widely  from  the  planets  in  their  appearance,  as  well  as  in  the  figure 
and  position  of  their  orbits.  When  a  comet  is  first  seen,  it  is  usually  surrounded  by  a  faintly 
luminous  vapour,  which  becomes  more  bright  as  the  comet  approaches  the  sun,  and  at  length 
shoots  out  into  a  long  luminous  and  transparent  train,  very  much  resembling  a  streamer,  and 
extending  in  a  direction  opposite  to  the  sun.  The  dense  part  of  the  comet,  which  both  to 
the  naked  eye,  and  when  viewed  through  a  telescope,  resembles  much  the  planetary  bodies, 
is  called  tlie  nucleus ;  the  faintly  luminous  vapour  by  which  it  is  surrounded  is  called  the 
coma ;  and  the  long  luminous  train  proceeding  from  the  comet  in  an  opposite  direction  from 
the  sun  is  called  the  tail.  Between  the  nucleus  and  the  coma  lies  a  part  fainter  than  the 
former,  but  brighter  than  the  latter,  and  in  which  the  nucleus  appears  involved :  this  is  called 
the  head  of  the  comet. 

The  length  of  the  tail  is  very  various.  Sometimes  it  extends  only  a  few  degrees-;  in 
other  cases  it  lias  been  found  to  reach  over  more  than  a  fourth  part  of  the  heavens.  If  a 
comet  does  not  come  very  near  the  sun,  the  coma  does  not  shoot  into  a  tail,  but  retains  the 
appearance  of  a  nebulosity  round  the  comet  during  tlie  whole  period  of  its  being  visible. 
The  tail  sometimes  consists  of  two  or  more  diverging  streams  of  light,  and  is  always  so 
transparent  that  the  smallest  stars  are  seen  through  it  without  any  sensible  diminution  of 
their  brilliancy. 

Nature  of  comets.  In  ages  of  ignorance,  comets  have  always,  from  their  extraordinary 
appearance,  been  sources  of  superstitious  terror  to  mankind.  This  fear  has  been  dissipated 
by  the  light  of  science,  which  has  shown  that  the  appearances  of  comets  are  regulated  by 
the  same  laws  as  other  celestial  phenomena.  We  are  still,  however,  almost  entirely  igno- 
rant of  the  nature  of  these  bodies,  though  a  great  many  hypotheses  have  been  formed  con- 
cerning them.    They  were  considered  by  some  of  the  ancients,  and  particularly  by  Aristotle, 


Book  I.  COMETS.  115 

as  accidental  fires  or  meteors  generated  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  earth ;  but  this  opinion  is 
obviously  groundless.  If  they  were  connected  with  the  earth  or  its  atmosphere,  they  would 
partake  of  the  diurnal  motion  on  the  a.xu,  and  could  not  therefore  appear  to  have  a  diurnal 
revolution  in  the  heavens  along  with  the  other  celestial  bodies.  Besides,  their  having  no 
diurnal  parallax  proves  that  they  are  at  a  great  distance  from  the  earth;  while  the  fact  of 
their  apparent  motion  being  affected  by  the  annual  motion  of  the  earth  shows  that  they  are 
situated  in  the  planetary  regions.  Observation  has  demonstrated  that,  like  the  planets,  they 
are  permanent  bodies,  and,  in  all  probability,  derive  their  light  from  the  sun. 

From  the  small  portion  of  the  orbit  of  any  comet  which  we  have  an  opportunity  of  observ- 
ing, we  camiot  ascertain  with  sufficient  accuracy  the  elements  necessary  for  determining 
the  period  of  its  return ;  but  supposing  that  tlieir  orbits  are  not  disturbed  by  any  cause  in 
tliose  distant  regions  of  space  through  which  the  greater  portion  of  the  paths  of  comets  lie, 
it  is  evident  that  by  accurately  observing  all  the  comets  that  come  within  view,  and  care- 
fully recording  the  results,  in  the  course  of  ages  the  return  of  many  comets  may  be  detected 
and  their  periodic  times  ascertained.  Hence  the  greater  axis  of  the  orbit  of  each  may  be 
determined  by  Kepler's  third  law ;  and  the  comet's  least  distance  from  the  sun  being  found 
by  observation,  the  less  axis  will  also  become  known.  In  this  manner  the  periodic  time  of 
some  comets  has  been  found,  and  their  return  predicted. 

The  first  and  most  remarkable  instance  is  that  of  Dr.  Halley,  who,  by  comparing  his 
observations  on  the  comet  of  1682,  with  those  of  Kepler  on  the  comet  of  1607,  and  those  of 
Apian  on  the  comet  of  1531,  found  reason  to  conclude,  from  the  agreement  of  the  circum- 
stances of  each,  that  what  had  been  considered  three  distinct  comets  were  only  re-appear- 
ances of  the  same  comet  after  a  period  of  about  76  years.  In  all  the  three  cases  the  dis- 
tance of  the  comet  from  the  sun  when  nearest  to  him  was  almost  the  same ;  the  position  of 
the  comet  in  the  heavens  at  the  time  of  its  nearest  approach  to  the  sun  likewise  corre- 
sponded ;  as  did  also  the  inclination  of  the  orbit,  the  place  of  the  nodes,  and  the  variableness 
of  the  motion,  as  being  direct  or  retrograde. 

These  coincidences  rendered  the  identity  of  the  comet  almost  absolutely  certain.  Hence 
Halley  predicted  its  return  in  the  end  of  1758  or  the  beginning  of  1759.  It  appeared  about 
the  end  of  December  1758,  and  made  its  nearest  approach  to  the  sun  on  the  13th  of  March 
1759,  differing  not  many  days  from  the  time  expected.  Again  it  made  its  appearance,  as 
predicted,  at  the  completion  of  its  period,  toward  the  end  of  August,  1835. 

Thougii  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  identity  of  the  comet  of  1531, 1607,  1682, 1759,  and 
1835,  the  appearances  were  considerably  different.  In  1531  the  comet  was  of  a  bright 
gold  colour ;  in  1607,  it  was  dark  and  livid ;  it  was  bright  again  in  1682 ;  and  obscure  in 
1759. 

The  mean  distance  of  this  comet  from  the  sun  is  about  eighteen  times  that  of  the  earth  ; 
but  in  consequence  of  the  great  eccentricity  of  its  orbit,  its  distance,  when  at  the  farther 
extremity  of  its  greater  axis,  is  nearly  double  that  of  Uranus,  the  most  distant  of  the  planets. 
When  nearest  to  the  sun,  its  distance  from  him  is  about  /^th  parts  of  the  earth's  mean 
distance. 

A  very  remarkable  comet  was  seen  in  the  end  of  1680  and  beginning  of  1681.  Its  tail 
extended  70°,  and  was  very  brilliant.  This  comet,  of  all  those  which  have  been  observed, 
approaches  nearest  to  the  sun.  Descending  with  immense  velocity  in  a  path  almost  per- 
pendicular to  his  surface,  it  proceeded  until  its  distance  from  his  centre  was  only  about 
540,000  miles.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  computed  that,  in  consequence  of  so  near  an  approach 
to  the  sun,  it  must  have  received  a  heat  2000  times  greater  than  that  of  iron  almost  going 
into  fiision ;  and  tliat  if  it  was  equal  in  magnitude  to  our  earth,  and  cooled  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  terrestrial  bodies,  its  heat  would  not  be  expended  in  less,  than  50,000  years. 

Three  observations  on  comets  are  recorded  in  history,  agreeing  in  remarkable  circum- 
stances with  the  comet  of  1680 : — one  in  the  44th  year  before  Christ ;  another  in  the  con- 
sulate of  Lampadius  and  Orestes,  about  the  year  of  Christ  531 ;  and  the  third  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  I.  of  England,  in  the  year  1106.  These  dates  are  nearly  at  equal  distances  of 
time,  namely,  575  years ;  which  is  also  the  period  between  1106  and  1681.  Hence  Dr. 
Halley  conjectured  that  these  might  be  successive  appearances  of  one  and  the  same  comet, 
revolving  about  the  sun  in  the  period  of  about  575  years.  If  this  conjecture  is  well 
founded,  this  comet  may  be  expected  again,  after  finishmg  the  same  period,  about  the  year 
2255. 

A  comet  remarkable  for  its  beauty  appeared  in  1811.  The  tail  of  this  comet  was  com- 
posed of  two  diverging  streams  of  famt  light,  slightly  coloured,  which  made  an  angle  of 
from  15°  to  20°,  and  sometimes  much  more,  and  were  bent  outwards.  The  space  between 
was  comparatively  obscure.  When  at  its  greatest  length,  the  tail  subtended  an  angle  of  at 
least  16°  ;  and  was  then  computed  to  extend  about  23,000,000  miles  in  length. 

Besides  Dr.  Halley's  comet  there  are  two  others  whose  returns  have  been  observed,  and 
the  elements  of  their  orbits  determined,  with  such  certainty,  as  to  enable  astronomers  to 
predict  their  re-appearance.  One  of  these  was  recognised  for  the  first  time  in  1819  as  a 
periodic  comet.     Enckc,  a  German  astronomer,  has  determined  the  time  of  its  revolution 


116  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  U 

about  the  sun  to  be  three  years  and  tliree  months  nearly.  The  other  was  last  seen  in  1832. 
Its  periodic  time  was  determined  by  Biela,  a  Bohemian  astronomer,  to  be  six  years  and 
three  quarters.  Altogether,  then,  there  are  only  three  comets  whose  periods  are  certainly 
known. 

Danger  from  comets.  As  the  comets  traverse  the  planetary  regions  in  all  directions,  it  is 
natural  to  inquire  whether  there  is  not  a  possibility  that  souie  one  of  thern  may  approach 
so  near  to  the  earth  as  greatly  to  disturb  its  motion,  or  by  an  actual  contact  to  produce  the 
most  disastrous  effects.  Upon  this  subject  there  is  no  reasonable  ground  for  fear.  If  it  is 
not  absolutely  impossible  that  a  comet  may  come  in  contact  with  the  earth,  the  probabilities 
against  such  an  event  happening  are  as  millions  to  one.  Among  bodies  so  small  in  com- 
parison with  the  immense  space  in  whicli  they  move ;  and  moving  with  all  velocities,  and 
in  orbits  that  are  inclined  in  all  directions,  and  are  of  all  dimensions,  how  small  must  be 
the  probability  that  any  two  shall  come  in  contact !  Small,  however,  as  this  probability  is 
for  any  one  age,  if  we  take  into  account  a  long  series  of  ages,  the  probability  may  be  greatly 
increased. 

If  we  suppose  the  earth  actually  to  receive  such  a  shock,  it  is  easy  to  imagine  the  calami- 
tous consequences  which  must  follow.  The  axis  and  motion  of  rotation  being  changed,  the 
waters  of  the  ocean  would  leave  their  ancient  position,  and  would  be  precipitated  towards 
the  new  equator.  A  great  part  of  the  human  race,  and  of  the  lower  animals,  would  be 
drowned  by  this  universal  deluge,  or  destroyed  by  the  violent  shock  impressed  on  the  ter- 
restrial globe.  Whole  species  of  animals  might  be  annihilated.  All  the  monuments  of 
human  industry  and  invention  would  be  overthrown.  In  such  a  catastrophe  we  find,  too,  a 
cause  adequate  to  account  for  the  ocean  having  overflowed  lofty  mountains,  on  which  it  has 
left  incontestable  evidence  of  its  presence  ;  and  to  explam  how  the  animals  and  plants  of 
the  south  may  have  existed  in  the  climates  of  the  north,  where  we  find  the  remains  and  im- 
pressions of  them.  Lastly,  such  an  event  accounts  for  the  recentness  of  the  modern  world, 
the  monuments  of  which  go  back  scarcely  3000  years.  The  human  race,  reduced  to  a  small 
number  of  individuals,  and  to  the  most  miserable  condition,  would  for  a  long  time  be  mainly 
occupied  in  providing  for  their  preservation,  amidst  the  \\'reck  which  surrounded  them,  and 
would  lose  all  remembrance  of  arts  and  sciences ;  and  when,  by  the  progress  of  civilization, 
they  at  length  became  sensible  of  the  want  of  these,  they  would  find  it  necessary  to  recom- 
mence, as  if  man  had  been  newly  placed  upon  the  earth. 

It  seems  impossible  to  contemplate  the  picture  of  calamity  here  drawn,  without  being 
forcibly  struck  with  this  singular  coincidence ; — that  if  we  suppose  tlie  period  of  the  comet 
of  1680  (which  in  that  year  made  a  considerably  near  approach  to  the  earth's  orbit)  to  be 
575i  years ;  and  count  back,  from  the  year  1680,  seven  revolutions,  or  a  period  of  4028 
years,  we  reach  the  year  2349  before  Christ, — the  year  of  the  deluge,  as  fixed  by  chrono- 
logers. 

If  we  take  into  consideration  the  great  velocity  with  which  the  comets  move  in  approach- 
ing to  and  receding  from  the  sun,  it  is  evident  that  the  mere  approximation  of  a  comet  to 
the  terrestrial  orbit,  would  be  productive  of  little  or  no  effect.  Accordingly,  though  a 
comet  is  said  to  have  eclipsed  the  moon,  in  which  case  it  must  have  been  very  near  the 
earth,  no  sensible  effect  was  produced. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

LAW  OF  UNIVERSAL  GRAVITATION. 


Having  now  taken  a  brief  view  of  the  planetary  motions,  and  pointed  out  generally  their 
laws,  we  may  next  inquire  whether  from  these  any  general  principle  can  be  deduced  to 
which  the  motions  regulated  by  them  may  be  referred  as  to  their  cause. 

The  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  have  been  variously  accounted  for.  We  have  already 
adverted  to  the  nide  mechanism  of  deferent  and  epicyclic  spheres,  by  which  some  of  the 
ancient  philosophers  attempted  to  explain  the  celestial  motions.  This  doctrine  originated 
with  Eudoxus  and  Callipus.  But  a  more  sensible  attempt  was  made  by  Cleanthes,  another 
philosopher  of  Greece,  who,  from  observing  that  bodies  are  ea.sily  carried  round  by  wliirl- 
pools  or  vortices  of  water,  imagined  that  the  celestial  spaces  are  filled  with  an  ethereal 
fluid,  which  is  in  continual  motion  round  the  earth,  and  that  it  carried  the  sun  and  planets 
round  with  it.  Though  this  hypothesis  affords  no  real  explanation  of  the  phenomena,  it  was 
revived  in  modern  times,  and  maintained  by  two  of  the  most  eminent  mathematicians  and 
philosophers  in  Europe,  namely,  by  Des  Cartes  and  Leibnitz,  and  for  a  long  time  met  with 
general  acquiescence.  But  a  much  nearer  approximation  to  right  conceptions  on  tliis  sub- 
ject was  made  by  many  philosophers,  both  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  who  supposed  that 
the  planets  were  deflected  from  uniform  rectilineal  motions,  by  forces  similar  to  what  we 
observe  in  the  motions  of  magnetical  and  electrical  bodies,  or  in  the  motion  of  common  heavy 
bodies;  where  one  body  seems  to  influence  the  motion  of  another  at  a  distance  from  it,  with- 
out any  intervening  impulsion.     Fermat  was  the  first  who  suggested  that  the  weight  of  a 


Book  I.  LAW  OF  UNIVERSAL  GRAVITATION.  117 

body  is  the  sum  of  the  tendencies  of  each  particle  of  matter  in  the  body  to  every  particle  of 
the  earth.  Kepler  made  another  approximation  to  the  truth  when  he  said,  that  if  there  were 
two  bodies  placed  out  of  the  reach  of  all  external  forces,  and  at  perfect  liberty  to  move,  they 
would  approach  eacli  other  with  velocities  inversely  proportional  to  their  quantities  of  matter  • 
when  he  asserted  that  the  earth  and  the  moon  mutually  attract  each  other,  and  are  preven^ea 
from  meeting  by  their  revolution  round  their  common  centre  of  attraction ;  and  when  he 
attributed  the  tides  to  the  attractive  influence  of  the  moon  in  heaping  up  the  waters  imme- 
diately under  her. 

But  Dr.  Uooke  made  the  most  precise  surmise  to  this  purpose.  At  a  meeting  of  the 
Royal  Society,  May  3,  1668,  he  expressed  himself  in  the  following  manner : — ''  I  will 
explain  a  system  of  the  world  very  different  from  any  yet  received,  and  it  is  founded  on  the 
three  following  propositions : 

"  1.  That  all  tlie  heavenly  bodies  have  not  only  a  gravitation  of  their  parts  to  their  own 
proper  centres,  but  that  they  also  mutually  attract  each  other  within  their  spheres  of  action. 

"2.  That  all  bodies  having  a  simple  motion  will  continue  to  move  in  a  straight  line  unless 
continually  deflected  from  it,  by  some  extraneous  force  causing  them  to  describe  a  circle,  an 
ellipse,  or  some  other  curve. 

"  3.  Tliat  this  attraction  is  so  much  the  greater  as  the  bodies  are  nearer.  As  to  the  pro- 
portion in  which  these  forces  diminish  by  an  increase  of  distance,  I  own  I  have  not  yet  dis- 
covered it,  although  I  have  made  some  experiments  to  that  purpose.  I  leave  this  to  otliers 
who  have  time  and  knowledge  sufficient  for  the  task." 

The  truly  philosophical  views  stated  in  these  propositions  relatively  to  the  celestial  motions 
were  illustrated  by  a  very  pretty  experiment,  which  Hooke  had  some  time  before  exhibited 
to  the  Society.  A  ball,  suspended  by  a  long  thread  from  the  ceiling,  was  made  to  swing 
round  another  ball  laid  on  a  table  immediately  below  the  point  of  suspension.  When  the 
impulse  given  to  tlie  pendulum  was  very  nicely  adjusted  to  its  deviation  from  the  perpendi- 
cular, it  described  a  perfect  circle  round  the  ball  on  the  table ;  but  when  the  impulse  was 
very  great  or  very  little,  it  described  an  ellipse  having  the  other  ball  in  its  centre.  The 
force,  under  the  ii^uence  of  wliich  this  circular  or  elliptic  motion  was  produced,  Hooke 
showed  to  be  a  deflecting  force,  proportional  to  the  distance  from  the  other  ball.  But  he 
added,  that  although  this  illustrated  the  planetary  motions  in  some  degree,  yet  it  was  not 
suitable  to  their  case ;  for  the  planets  describe  ellipses,  having  the  sun  not  in  their  centre 
but  in  their  focus,  so  that  they  are  not  retained  in  their  orbits  by  a  force  proportional  to  the 
distance  from  the  sun. 

Thus  we  see  that  certain  points  of  resemblance  between  the  motions  of  the  planets  and 
the  motions  of  magnets  and  heavy  bodies,  had  attracted  the  attention  of  many  philosophers ; 
but  these  observers  failed  to  deduce  from  the  principles  which  they  so  dimly  perceived  any 
satisfactory  conclusion. 

At  length  the  powerful  genius  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton  was  directed  to  the  subject,  and  by 
his  penetrating  sagacity  the  law  of  universal  gravitation  was  brought  fully  into  view,  and 
successfully  applied  to  explain  tlie  celestial  phenomena.  He  had  retired  from  Cambridge  to 
the  country  on  account  of  the  plague,  and  while  walking  in  his  garden  he  was  led  to  meditate 
on  the  planetary  motions,  and  on  the  nature  of  that  central  force  which  retains  the  planets 
in  their  orbits.  The  thought  happily  occurred  to  him  that  the  same  force,  or  some  modifica- 
tion of  the  same  force,  which  causes  a  heavy  body  to  descend  to  the  earth,  might  extend  to 
the  moon,  and  might  retain  that  body  in  its  orbit  by  deflecting  it  from  the  rectilineal  path. 
However  plausible  this  conjecture  might  appear,  tlie  mind  of  Newton  was  too  deeply  imbued 
with  the  true  spirit  of  philosophy  to  adopt  it  as  the  groundwork  of  a  theory,  unless  it  could 
be  shown  by  calculation  to  be  coincident  with  fact.  But  before  it  could  be  brought  to  this 
test,  it  was  necessary  that  he  should  form  some  conditional  hypothesis  respecting  tlie  modi- 
fication of  the  force  as  the  distance  increased,  and  also  that  he  should  know  nearly  the 
magnitude  of  the  earth.  The  hypothesis  which  he  assumed  with  regard  to  the  modification 
of  the  force  according  to  the  increase  of  the  distance  was  correct ;  namely,  that  the  force 
decreases  as  the  square  of  the  distance  increases.  But  he  made  a  false  estimation  of  the  bulk 
of  the  earth;  so  that  his  calculations  showed  that  his  conjecture  did  not  agree  with  the  phe- 
nomenon :  he  accordingly  abandoned  it.  A  few  years  afterwards  he  was  induced,  however, 
to  renew  his  calculations,  having  in  the  interval  obtained  more  correct  data,  in  consequence 
of  the  measurement  of  a  degree  in  France  by  Picard.  The  attempt  now  succeeded  ;  and  it 
is  said  that,  as  his  calculations  drew  to  a  close,  he  became  so  agitated  that  he  was  obliged  to 
request  a  friend  to  finish  them.  His  former  conjecture  was  found  to  agree  with  the  pheno- 
mena with  the  utmost  precision ;  and  in  exploring  the  grand  scene  which  was  now  laid  open 
before  him,  he  was  led  to  an  explanation  of  the  system  of  the  world,  consisting  simply  in  an 
accurate  narration  of  facts,  and  such  an  arrangement  of  them  as  showed  their  mutual  depen- 
dence, and,  at  tlie  same  time,  their  reference  to  one  great  fact  of  which  they  were  all  neces- 
sary consequences. 

We  are  now  to  explam  briefly  the  theory  of  gravitation ;  but  our  account  of  it  must  of 
course  be  very  limited. 


iia 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pakt  II. 


There  is  no  phenomenon  in  nature  more  familiar  to  us  than  motion ;  and  although  it  be 
greatly  diversified  according  to  the  causes  by  which  it  is  produced,  yet  all  motions  are  sub- 
ject to  the  three  following  laws : — 

1st  Law.  Every  body  continues  in  a  state  of  rest,  or  of  uniform  rectilinear  motion,  unless 
Eiflected  by  some  mechanical  force. 

2d  Law.  Every  change  of  motion  is  proportional  to  the  force  impressed,  and  is  made  in 
the  direction  of  that  force. 

3d  Law.  Every  action  is  accompanied  by  an  equal  and  contrary  re-action. 
It  is  a  consequence  of  the  first  two  laws,  that  if  a  body  or  particle  of  matter  be  subjected 
at  the  same  time  to  the  action  of  two  moving  forces,  each  of  which  would  separately  cause 
it  to  describe  the  side  of  a  parallelogram  uniformly  in  a  given  time,  the  body  will  describe 
the  diagonal  uniformly  in  the  same  time.  By  these  very  simple  laws,  the  result  of  expe- 
rience, and  by  the  principles  of  geometry,  Newton  established  the  sublime  doctrines  of  tlie 
planetary  motions. 

It  will  not  be  expected  that  we  should  enter  at  any  considerable  length  into  the  recondite 
doctrines  of  physical  astronomy.  This  subject  requires  for  its  lull  discussion  ample  space, 
and  all  the  resources  of  the  higher  mathematics :  the  mere  elements  of  geometry,  however, 
are  sufficient  to  indicate  generally  some  of  the  fundamental  principles.     Let  us  suppose  that 

S  {fig.  34.)  is  a  fixed  point, 
,~-^^  ^  and  that  a  body  moves  in 

~~---J5,-''    '^v  the  direction  A  B  with  an 

uniform  velocity,  at  sucli  a 
rate,  that  if  not  disturbed 
by  any  external  cause,  it 
would  move  from  B  to  6  in 
r^^  a  second  of  time.  Let  us 
I  also  suppose  that  when  the 
body  arrives  at  B,  it  re- 
ceives an  impulse  in  the 
direction  B  S,  and  of  such 
intensity,  that,  if  acting 
alone,  it  would  cause  the 
body  to  move  uniformly 
from  B  to  H  in  a  second. 
Complete  the  parallelo- 
grarn  H  B  6  C,  and  draw 
the  diagonal  B  C :  the  impulse  at  B,  combined  with  the  tendency  to  continue  its  motion  in 
the  line  B  b,  will  cause  the  body  to  move  along  the  diagonal  B  C ;  so  that  at  the  end  of  a 
second  it  will  actually  be  at  the  point  C ;  and  if  no  external  cause  acted  on  the  body,  by  the 
first  law,  it  would  continue  to  move  uniformly  ever  after  in  tlie  direction  B  C  c ;  so  that  in 
the  next  second  it  would  describe  a  line  C  c,  equal  to  B  C.  But  now  suppose  that  the  body, 
when  at  C,  receives  a  second  impulse  in  the  direction  C  S,  by  which  it  would  be  carried 
uniformly  from  C  to  I  in  a  second :  then,  completing  tlie  parallelogram  D  I  C  c,  the  actual 
path  of  the  body  will  be  the  diagonal  C  D,  which  will  be  uniformly  described  in  a  second; 
and  if  undisturbed,  the  motion  would  be  continued  uniformly  in  the  straight  line  C  D  d,  the 
distance  D  d  described  in  the  next  second  being  equal  to  C  D.  A  third  impulse  at  D,  in  the 
direction  D  S,  such  as  would  carry  the  body  uniformly  from  D  to  K  in  a  second  of  time, 
would,  when  combined  with  the  tendency  to  move  in  the  direction  D  d,  produce  a  motion 
along  D  E,  the  diagonal  of  the  parallelogram  E  K  D  rf,  and  a  fourth  impulse  in  the  direction 
E  S,  would,  when  combined  with  the  motion  in  the  direction  E  e,  produce  a  motion  along 
the  diagonal  E  F,  and  so  on.  In  this  way,  by  successive  instantaneous  impulses,  a  body  may 
be  made  to  describe  the  path  A  B  C  D  E  F,  &c.,  which  will  be  all  in  one  plane. 

Since  the  lines  A  B,  B  6  are  equal,  the  triangles  A  S  B,  B  S  6  are  equal ;  but  because 
C  6  is  parallel  to  S  B,  the  triangle  B  S  6  is  equal  to  the  triangle  B  S  C  ;  therefore  the  trian- 
gle B  S  C  is  equal  to  A  S  B.  In  like  manner,  it  mav  be  proved  that  C  S  D  is  equafto  B 
S  C,  and  D  S  E  to  C  S  D,  and  so  on  :  thus  it  appears  that  the  triangles  A  S  B,  B  S  C,  C  S  D, 
D  S  E,  &c.  are  all  equal.  If  we  suppose  a  straight  line  to  be  drawn  from  the  moving  body  to 
the  fixed  point  S,  and  to  be  continually  carried  along  with  it,  it  is  evident  that  this  line  will 
pass  over  or  generate  the  equal  areas^A  S  B,  B  S  C,  C  S  D,  D  S  E,  &c.  in  equal  intervals 
of  time  :  it  is  also  evident  that  the  shorter  the  interval  between  the  impulses  communi- 
cated to  the  moving  body,  tlie  greater  will  be  the  number  of  sides  of  the  figure  formed  by 
the  diagonals  of  the  parallelograms,  and  the  nearer  will  the  line  composed  of  these 
diagonals  approach  to  a  curve.  If  we  suppose,  therefore,  that  the  body  is  urged  towards  P 
by  a  force  acting,  not  at  intervals,  but  incessantly,  the  body  will  move  in  tliat  curve  to 
which,  as  its  limit,  the  line,  composed  of  the  diagonals  continually  approaches,  while  the 
line  drawn  fi-om  the  moving  body  A  S,  or  radius  vector,  will  continue  to  describe  areas  pro- 
portional to  the  times. 


Book  I. 


LAW  OF  UNIVERSAL  GRAVITATION. 


119 


The  force  which  urges  the  body  towards  S,  is  called  a  centripetal  force.  If  the  action 
of  that  force  were  to  cease,  the  body  would  proceed  in  a  straight  line, — a  tangent  to  its 
curvilinear  path.  The  tendency  of  the  body  to  proceed  in  the  direction  of  the  tangent,  is 
called  its  centrifugal  force. 

From  the  important  conclusion  to  which  we  have  now  been  led,  we  may  infer,  conversely, 
that  if  a  body  revolve  in  a  curvilinear  path  about  a  point,  and  if  the  ra,dius  vector  drawn 
from  that  point  describe  round  it  areas  proportional  to  the  times,  the  body  is  deflected  from 
the  rectilineal  path  by  a  force  directed  to  that  point.  Now,  this  is  exactly  the  case  of  the 
planets,  both  primary  and  secondary.  The  former  describe  curvilinear  orbits  round  the  sun ; 
and,  according  to  tlie  second  of  Kepler's  laws,  the  radius  vector  describes  areas  proportional 
to  the  times.  Hence  we  may  infer,  that  each  is  retained  in  its  orbit  by  a  centripetal  force 
directed  towards  the  sun ;  and  that  this  force  is  counteracted  by  a  centrifugal  force  genera- 
ted by  the  planet's  motion  in  its  orbit.  In  like  manner,  each  secondary  planet  revolves 
about  its  primary,  the  areas  described  by  the  radius  vector  following  the  same  law ;  so  that 
the  secondary  must  be  acted  upon  by  a  centripetal  force  directed  towards  the  primary 
planet. 

The  next  thing  to  be  determined  is  the  law  of  the  centripetal  force  when  a  body  moves 
in  an  elliptic  orbit,  the  force  being  directed  towards  one  of  the  foci.  First,  let  us  suppose  a 
body  to  revolve  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle  ADC  {fig.  35.),  about  any  point  S,  as  the 
centre  of  its  motion,  and  let  us  inquire  into  the  law  of  the  centripetal  force  in  that  case. 
35  Draw  the  chord  A  S  C,  and  let  A  D  be  so  small  an  arc,  that 
it  may  be  considered  coincident  with  its  chord.  Draw  D  E 
parallel  to  the  tangent  A  B,  and  join  C  D.  Then  A  D  will 
measure  the  velocity  of  the  body  in  its  orbit  at  the  point  A, 
and  A  E  the  space  over  which  the  centripetal  force  directed 
towards  S,  if  acting  alone,  would  cause  the  body  to  move  in 
the  time  in  which  it  moves  from  A  to  D.  Put  v  to  denote  tho 
velocity,  and  f  the  centripetal  force.  Since  the  triangles  A 
DC,  A  E  D,  are  equiangular  and  similar,  we  have  A  C  : 
A  D=A  D  :  A  E ;  that  is, 

AC  :  v=^v  : f:  therefore/=  j^ 
Next,  let  A  P  B  {fig.  36.)  be  the  elliptic  orbit  of  a  planet? 
S  the  focus  in  which  the  sun  is  placed,  A  the  point  at  which 
the  planet  is  at  its  greatest  distance  from  the  sun,  and  P  any  other  point  in  its  orbit.  Join 
P  S ;  draw  the  tangent  P  D,  and  draw  S  D  perpendicular  to  P  D.  Let  v  and  v'  denote  the 
velocities  of  the  planet  at  A  and  P  respectively ;  and  c  and  c'  the  chords  of  the  equicurve 
circles  at  A  and  P  which  pass  through  the  point  S,  and  let  f  be  the  deflecting  force  at  A, 
and  f  the  deflecting  force  at  P.  Then  from  what  we  have  proved  respecting  a  body 
moving  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle  round  any  point  F  as  the  centre  of  its  motion,  we 
tiBiwef:/'  =  --  :  -r-=zv^c'  :  v'^c.  But  since  the  small  arcs  which  represent  the  velocities 
at  A  and  P  must  be  supposed  to  be  described  in  equal  times,  the  corresponding  areas  described 

by  the  radius  vector  will  also  be  equ-il.  Hence  it  is  not 
difficult  tc  see  that  rXAS  =  i>'XSD,  and  v  :  v'  = 
S  D  :  S  A.  We  obtain,  therefore,  / :  /'=  S  D''  X  c': 
S  A''  X  c.  Draw  P  E  perpendicular  to  the  tangent 
P  D,  meeting  the  axis  in  E,  and  draw  E  G  perpendicular 
to  P  E,  and  E  H  perpendicular  to  P  G.  From  the  pro- 
]a  perties  of  the  ellipse,  P  H  is  equal  to  half  the  principal 
parameter,  and  consequently  to  half  of  c,  the  chord  of  the 
circle,  of  equal  curvature  at  A,  which  passes  through  S. 
Also  P  G  is  half  of  c',  the  chord  of  the  equicurve  circle 
at  P,  which  passes  through  S.     Therefore, 

/ :  /'=  2  S  D'  X  P  G :  2  S  AVx  P  H. 
=  S  D'  X  P  G  :  S  A'  X  P  11. 
Now,  from  the  similar  triangles  G  P  E,  E  P  H,  we  have  GP:PE  =  PE:  PH;  hence 
G  P  :  P  H  =  G  P' :  P  El     But  the  triann-les  G  P  E,    PSD  being  also  similar,  G  P'  :  P  E' 
=  P  S'  :  S  D';  therefore,  G  P  :  P  H  =  P  S=  :  S  D^    and   P  S^XP  H  =  S  D=xG  P:  and 
since  it  was  shown  that/:/'=  S  D'XPG  :  S  A'xPH,  wherefore/:/'=P  S'xP  H:  S  A» 
X  P  H ;  or  leaving  the  common  factor  P  H  out  of  the  two  consequents  we  have 
/  :  /'=  P  S=  :  S  Al 
Thus  we  have  arrived  at  this  important  conclusion ;  that  the  force  by  which  the  planets 
revolve  round  the  sun  in  elliptical  orbits,  the  sun  being  in  one  of  the  foci,  and  the  radius 
vector  describing  areas  proportional  to  the  times,  is  always  inversely  as  the  squares  of  the 
distances. 


120  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Pakt  II. 

There  remains  yet  another  point  to  be  determined  respecting  the  forces  which  retain  the 
different  planets  in  their  orbits ;  namely,  whether  there  is  am/  analogy  between  them. 
From  Kepler's  third  law,  we  know  that  the  squares  of  the  pericxlical  times  of  any  two 
of  the  planets  are  proportional  to  the  cubes  of  their  mean  distances  from  the  sun.  This  law 
is  independent  of  the  eccentricities  of  the  orbits;  and  the  same  relation  would  subsist 
between  the  mean  distances  and  the  periodic  times,  though  the  eccentricities  were  to 
become  infinitely  small ;  or,  what  is  the  same  thinfj,  the  orbits  were  to  become  circles.  Let 
us  then  suppose  the  planets  to  move  with  uniform  velocities  in  circular  orbits,  having  the 
sun  in  the  centre.  This  supposition  differs  very  little  from  the  truth.  Put  v,  v'  to  denote 
the  velocities  of  two  of  the  planets,  r,  r'  the  radii  of  their  orijits,  /,  t'  their  periodic  times, 
and/,/'  the  forces  by  which  they  are  retained  in  their  orbits.  From  what  we  have  already 
shown  respecting  a  body  moving  in  a  circle  round  any  point  as  the  centre  of  its  motion,  we 
have/=  l^and/'  =^,  therefore/:/'  =—  :  ■^.  But  since  the  circumferences  of  circles 
are  to  one  another  as  their  radii,  and  the  velocity  or  the  space  passed  over  by  the  planet  in 
the  unit  of  time  is  equal  to  the  circumference  of  its  orbit,  divided  by  the  periodic  time 
expressed  in  that  unit,  it  is  evident  that  v  :  v'=-^  :-p  :  hence  —■  :  ~^-^  :  -^^ »  ^^> 
since  t'^  :  <'-=r^  :  r'^,  -^  :  ''-^=~  :  -^  =  -^  :  -^=r'"  :  r'.     Wherefore  we  obtain/:/' 

=:r'^  :  r^. 

This  result  shows  that  the  forces  which,  acting  on  two  planets,  would  cause  them 
to  describe  circular  orbits,  agreeing  with  Kepler's  third  law,  are  inversely  as  the  squares 
of  the  distances.  Hence  we  may  infer  the  sameness  of  the  force  which  retains  the  planets 
m  their  respective  orbits;  since  it  varies  from  orbit  to  orbit,  according  to  the  very  same  law 
which  regulates  its  intensity  at  different  distances  in  the  same  orbit.  This  conclusion  is 
fully  established  by  the  fact,  that  the  force  which  acts  upon  the  comets  during  their  descent 
to  the  sun,  varies  exactly  according  to  the  law  which  we  have  now  assigned  as  the  law  of 
the  planetary  force.  The  comet  of  1759,  which  was  predicted  by  Dr.  Halley,  came  from 
regions  far  beyond  the  most  distant  of  the  known  planets,  and  approached  nearer  to  the 
sun  than  Venus ;  and  when  it  arrived  at  the  same  distance  from  the  sun  as  any  of  the 
planets,  its  deflection  from  the  rectilineal  course  by  the  action  of  the  centripetal  force,  was 
the  very  same  as  that  of  the  planet.  We  may,  therefore,  conclude,  that  it  is  one  and  the 
same  force  which  deflects  all  the  planets  as  well  as  the  comets. 

From  what  has  now  been  shown,  it  is  evident  that  if  all  the  planets  were  placed  at 
the  same  distance  from  the  sun,  they  would  all  be  deflected  equally  by  the  centripetal  force 
independently  of  the  quantity  of  matter  in  each.  Hence  it  follows  that,  at  equal  distances, 
the  centripetal  force  must  act  equally  on  every  particle  of  matter  of  which  the  planets  are 
composed ;  so  that  if  one  planet  contain  exactly  double  the  quantity  of  matter  that  another 
planet  contains,  and  if  both  are  placed  at  exactly  the  same  distance  from  the  sun,  the  former 
will  receive  a  double  impulse.  We  may  infer,  therefore,  that  another  law  of  the  force 
which  retains  the  planets  in  their  orbits  is,  that,  at  equal  distances,  it  is  proportional  to 
the  mass  on  which  it  acts ;  and  tliat  if  two  bodies  act  on  the  same  particle  of  matter,  the 
forces  which  they  exert  are  proportional  to  their  inasses.  The  force  may  be  supposed  to 
be  produced  either  by  a  cause  residing  in  the  body  which  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  motion, 
or  by  a  cause  residing  in  the  revolving  body.  In  the  former  point  of  view,  it  is  called  a 
force  of  ATTRACTION ;  in  the  latter,  a  force  of  gravitation.  The  truth  is,  however,  that  the 
cause  of  this  force  is  absolutely  unknown.  We  see  only  the  effects  produced,  and  from  these 
we  investigate  the  laws  which  connect  them  with  each  other,  and  the  general  principles  on 
which  they  depend. 

Thus,  fi-om  the  facts  discovered  by  Kepler  respecting  the  planetary  motion,  we 
have  shown  that  each  planet  has  a  tendency  towards  the  sun,  in  consequence  of  which 
from  a  state  of  rest  it  would  move  towards  him,  acquiring  at  every  instant  an  increase  of 
velocity  according  to  a  fixed  and  determinate  rule  or  law  which  applies  alike  to  all  the 
planets.  This  tendency,  if  not  counteracted,  would  bring  the  matter  of  the  sun  and  planets 
into  one  mass.  Tliis,  however,  is  prevented  from  taking  place,  in  consequence  of  an  impulse 
having  been  originally  communicated  to  each  planet,  giving  it  a  constant  tendency  ta  move 
in  a  straight  line  with  an  uniform  velocity.  'The  effects  arising  from  these  two  tendencies 
are  so  adjusted,  as  to  produce  elliptic  orbits.  But  the  law  which  regulates  the  effects  arising 
from  the  tendency  of  the  planets  towards  the  sun  remaining  the  same,  such  a  velocity 
might  have  been  communicated  to  each  planet,  by  the  original  impulse  which  gave  it  its 
tendency  to  move  uniformly  in  a  straight  line,  as  would  have  produced  parabolic  or  hyper- 
bolic orbits.  In  a  circular  orbit,  if  the  centre  of  motion  coincide  v.ith  the  centie  of  the 
orbit,  the  velocity  of  a  planet  is  uniform,  and  of  such  rapidity  as  at  every  point  to  produce  a 
tendency  to  move  in  a  tangent  to  the  orbit,  exactly  sufficient  to  counterbalance  the  tendency 
to  move  towards  the  centre  of  the  orbit.  If  the  orbit  be  elliptical,  and  one  of  the  foci 
the  centre  of  motion,  the  motion  of  the  planet  is  variable,  and  its  tendency  to  move  uni- 
formly in  a  tangent  to  the  orbit  sometunes  exceeds,  and  at  other  tunes  faHs  short  of,  that 


Book  I. 


LAW  OF  UNIVERSAL  GRAVITATION. 


121 


which  would  be  necessary  to  cause  it  to  revolve  in  a  circle  at  the  same  distance  from  the 
centre  of  motion. 

Let  A  D  B  E  be  the  elliptic  orbit  of  a  planet  revolving  about  the  sun,  vsrhich  is  supposed 
to  be  placed  in  the  focus  S.  Suppose  the  planet  to  set  out  from  A  in  the  direction  A  P, 
A  being  the  point  of  its  greatest  distance  from  the  sun.  At  A  the  direction  of  the  planet's 
motion  is  at  right  angles  to  the  radius  vector,  and  if  tlie  velocity  were  such  as  to  produce 
a  tendency  to  move  in  the  direction  of  the  tangent  A  G,  exactly  equivalent  to  the  tendency 
of  the  planet  to  move  towards  the  sun,  the  planet  would  revolve  in  a  circle  of  which  S  is 
the  centre,  and  S  A  the  radius.  But  the  velocity  being  supposed  less,  the  path  of  the 
planet  will  fall  within  the  circle,  and  the  angle  S  P  H  contained  between  the  radius  vector 
and  the  tangent  P  II,  which  shows  the  direction  of  the  planet's  motion,  changes  from  a  right 
angle  to  an  acute  angle.     The  tendency  of  tiie  planet  towards  the  sun  is  now  exerted  partly 

in  accelerating  its  velocity  in  its  orbit,  and  partly  in- 
curvating  its  path.  While  the  planet  describes  the 
quadrant  A  P  D,  its  velocity  is  always  less  than  that 
which  would  produce  a  circular  motion ;  until  it  is  at 
the  point  D,  and  then  the  velocity  is  precisely  what 
would  be  sufficient  for  a  circular  motion  about  S,  if  its 
A.  direction  were  perpendicular  to  the  radius  vector :  the 
direction,  however,  being  oblique,  the  planet  is  brought 
still  nearer  to  S.  The  tendency  towards  the  sun  is,  in 
a  great  measure,  still  exerted  in  accelerating  the  motion, 
and  as  soon  as  the  planet  passes  D,  its  velocity  becomes 
greater  than  what  might  produce  a  circular  motion 
about  S.  The  angle  S  I)  K  is,  therefore,  the  least  angle 
which  the  radius  vector  makes  with  the  direction  of  the  planet's  motion,  and  from  the  moment 
when  the  planet  passes  the  point  D,  that  angle  begins  to  increase ;  and  the  effect  of  this  is 
to  cause  the  tendency  of  the  planet  towards  the  sun  to  be  principally  exerted  in  incurvating 
the  orbit.  Its  influence  in  accelerating  the  planet's  motion,  though  it  still  exists,  is  gradually 
diminished,  until  t!ie  planet  arrives  at  the  point  B,  where  it  ceases  altogether,  in  consequence 
of  the  radius  vector  being  at  right  angles  to  the  tangent  B  L. 

As  the  velocity  of  the  planet  at  B  is  greater  than  what  is  sufficient  to  produce  a  motion  in 
a  circle  of  which  the  radius  is  S  B,  the  path  of  the  planet  falls  wholly  without  that  circle; 
and  consequently,  it  is  now  receding  from  the  sun.  The  angle  which  the  radius  vector 
makes  with  the  direction  of  its  motion  becoming  obtuse,  the  tendency  of  the  planet  towards 
the  sun  is  now  partly  employed  in  retarding  its  motion,  so  that  its  velocity  is  diminished. 
The  angle  contained  between  the  radius  vector  and  the  direction  of  the  planet's  motion 
increases  while  the  planet  is  moving  from  B  to  E,  and  decreases  from  E  to  A,  when  it  be- 
comes a  right  angle,  as  it  had  formerly  decreased  from  A  to  D,  and  increased  from  D  to  B. 
The  velocity  of  the  planet  in  its  orbit  must,  therefore,  decrease  from  B  to  A,  as  it  had  for- 
merly increased  from  A  to  B ;  at  the  point  E  it  will  be  equal  to  what  it  was  at  D,  and  from 
E  to  A,  the  influence  of  the  planet's  tendency  towards  the  sun  to  diminish  its  velocity  will 
become  less  and  less,  until  when  tlie  planet  has  arrived  at  A,  it  will  cease  altogether.  The 
velocity  is  then  the  same  as  at  first,  and  the  motion  goes  on  in  this  way  for  ever. 

Whatever  has  now  been  deduced  fi-om  Kepler's  Laws  respecting  the  orbits  of  the  pri- 
mary planets,  and  the  law  of  the  force  by  which  they  are  described,  will  apply  equally  to 
the  orbits  of  the  secondary  planets :  for  in  each  of  these  little  systems,  there  is  the  same 
analogy  between  the  periodic  times  and  the  distances,  which  takes  place  in  the  general 
system ;  the  figure  of  the  orbits  is  also  elliptic,  and  the  areas  described  by  the  radius  vector 
is  proportional  to  the  times.  We  may  legitimately  conclude,  therefore,  that  the  satellites 
revolving  about  any  planet,  are  retained  in  their  orbits  by  a  force  inversely  proportional  to 
the  squares  of  their  distances  from  their  primary  planet ;  so  that  all  the  celestial  motions 
are  produced  by  forces  regulated  by  this  general  law. 

The  force  that  keeps  the  Moon  in  her  orbit  is,  then,  the  attraction  of  the  earth,  or  her  gra- 
vitation towards  the  earth.  But  we  find  that  the  earth  attracts  all  the  bodies  near  its  surface 
by  a  force  which  is  proportional  to  the  mass  of  the  body  attracted.  Whatever  be  the  weight 
of  a  body,  it  falls  to  the  earth  from  the  same  height  in  the  same  time,  and  with  the  same 
velocity.  Thus,  if  the  resistance  of  the  atmosphere  be  removed,  it  is  found  by  experiment 
tliat  the  lightest  feather  falls  to  the  earth,  from  a  given  height,  in  the  very  same  time,  and 
with  tiie  very  same  velocity,  as  a  stone,  however  great  its  weight.  Let  us  inquire  whetlier 
the  force  which  retains  the  moon  in  its  orbit  may  not  be  identified  with  this  attractive  force 
wliich  causes  the  descent  of  heavy  bodies  to  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

We  may  without  great  error  suppose  the  lunar  orbit  to  be  circular,  and  its  semidiameter 
to  be  equal  to  sixty  semidiameters  of  the  earth.     Let  it  be  represented  by  the  circle  C  M  A, 
the  earth  being  supposed  to  be  placed  at  the  centre  E ;  and  let  M  C  be  the  small  portion 
Vol.  I.  11  Q 


122  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Paht  H, 

of  the  orbit  which  the  moon  describes  in  a  second  of  time. 
Draw  M  B  a  tang-ent  to  the  orbit  at  M :  draw  also  C  D  paral- 
lel to  M  B,  and  C  B  parallel  to  M  A,  the  diameter  of  the  orbit. 
The  arch  M  C  may  be  regarded  as  coincident  with  its  chord; 
therefore,  joining  A  C,  it  is  evident  that  in  the  right  angled 
triangle  ACM  we  have  A  M  :  M  C=M  C  :  M  D.  Hence, 
since  A  M  and  M  C  are  known,  M  D  or  B  C,  the  deflection 
of  the  moon  ftom  the  tangent  in  a  second,  by  the  attraction  of 
the  earth,  may  be  found. 

The  moon  describes  her  orbit  round  the  earth  in  about  27>' 
T''  43™  or  2,360,580  seconds  ;  the  circumference  of  her  orbit  is 
about  60  times  the  circumference  of  the  earth,  that  is,  if  we 
reckon  69.j  English  miles  to  a  degree,  7,926,336,000  feet ; 
therefore  the  length  of  the  arc  M  C,  which  the  moon  describes 
in  a  second,  will  be  found  nearly  equal  to  3358  feet.  Again,  A  M,  the  diameter  of  the 
moon's  orbit,  is  about  2,523,031,140  feet.  Hence  we  obtain  M  D  equal  to  00447  feet  nearly. 
This  small  fractional  part  of  a  foot  is  the  space  which  a  body,  placed  at  the  distance  of  the 
moon,  and  falling  from  a  state  of  rest  by  the  action  of  the  force  which  retains  the  moon  in 
her  orbit,  would  pass  over  in  the  first  second  of  time.  Observing,  now,  that  this  force  increases 
as  the  squares  of  the  distances  decrease,  we  may  determine  the  space  which  a  body  at  the  sur- 
face oi  the  earth  (or  at  the  distance  of  one  semidiameter  from  the  earth's  centre),  and  falling 
from  a  state  of  rest,  would  pass  over  in  the  first  second  of  time,  if  urged  by  the  same  force. 
For,  since  the  moon's  distance  from  the  earth  is  equal  to  about  sixty  times  the  semidiameter 
of  the  earth,  we  have  1^:  60^^00447:  the  space  required,  which  is  found  to  be  16'09  feet. 
Now,  this  is  exactly  the  space  which  a  body,  falling  from  rest  by  its  owti  weight,  is  found 
by  experiment  to  pass  over  in  the  first  second  of  time.  Hence  we  may  infer,  that  the  moon 
is  retained  in  its  orbit  by  the  very  saine  force  which  produces  pressure  in  a  body  supported, 
or  causes  a  body  when  unsupported  to  fall  to  the  ground. 

Though, the  attraction  of  tlie  earth  on  bodies  near  its  surface  is  only  a  particular  case  of 
a  general  principle,  which  produces  all  the  planetary  motions,  the  effects  are,  to  appearance, 
considerably  modified.  At  all  the  heights  to  which  we  are  able  to  ascend  above  the  general 
surface  of  the  earth,  or  to  which  we  can  project  a  body,  the  force  of  gravity  acts,  as  to  sense, 
uniformly :  it  also  acts  in  the  direction  of  straight  lines,  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  and 
therefore  parallel  to  one  another,  for  the  greatest  range  that  can  be  giwfen  to  a  projectile. 
Hence  the  phenomena,  which  depend  on  the  force  diminishing  in  intensity,  as  the  stjuare 
of  the  distance  increases,  and  on  its  emanating  in  the  direction  of  straight  lines  drawn  to 
the  centre  of  the  attracting  spliere,  become  imperceptible.  In  consequence  of  the  compa- 
ratively small  velocity  with  which  human  power  can  project  a  body,  its  path  always  meets 
the  earth,  and  its  motion  terminates.  But  if  the  whole  matter  of  the  earth  were  collected 
into  a  point  at  the  centre,  a  body  projected  from  a  point  4000  mUes  distant  from  the  centre, 
and  with  such  a  velocity  as  human  power  can  communicate,  would  be  acted  upon  by  the 
same  forces,  with  a  body  similarly  projected  from  the  surface  of  the  earth.  But  on  the  sup- 
position now  made,  the  body  would  meet  with  no  obstacle,  but  would  approach  within  a  cer- 
tain distance  of  the  centre,  and  would  then  recede  from  it  until  it  reached  another  limit, 
when  it  would  again  approach,  and  go  on  in  this  manner,  approaching  and  receding  alter- 
nately, for  ever.  The  path  of  the  body  would  be  an  ellipse,  resembling  in  figure  the  orbit 
of  a  comet.  The  extreme  portions  of  the  path  would,  as  to  sense,  be  portions  of  a  parabola. 
Hence  it  is  usually  laid  down  as  a  law  regulating  the  motion  of  projectiles,  that  if  a  heavy 
body  be  projected  in  a  straight  line,  not  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  it  will  describe  a 
parabola  situated  in  the  vertical  plane  passing  through  that  straight  line,  and  having  its 
axis  perpendicular  to  the  horizon.     This  physical  truth  was  first  discovered  by  Galileo. 

The  force  of  gravity  near  the  surface  of  the  earth  being  uniform  in  its  action,  it  is  found 
that  the  motion  which  it  produces  corresponds  in  all  its  circumstances  with  that  wliich 
mathematical  reasoning  shows  should  result  from  the  action  of  a  constant  force.  The  spaces 
through  which  the  body  falls  are  proportional  to  the  squares  of  the  times,  and  the  velocity 
is  proportional  to  the  time  during  which  the  body  has  been  falling. 

From  the  third  law  of  Kepler,  it  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  the  periodic  time  of  a  planet 
in  its  orbit  is  determined  entirely  by  the  mean  distance,  that  is,  half  the  transverse  axis; 
and  is  not  at  all  aflfected  by  the  increase  or  decrease  of  the  conjugate  axis.  By  supposing, 
then,  the  conjugate  axis  to  be  continually  diminished,  we  are  led  to  this  conclusion,  that  the 
time  in  which  a  body  would  descend  to  the  sun,  if  allowed  to  fall  from  a  state  of  rest  at  any 
distance  from  him,  is  equal  to  half  the  time  of  revolution  in  an  ellipse  the  semitransverse 
axis  of  which  is  half  of  that  distance.  Let  T  be  the  time  of  revolution  of  a  planet  at  any 
distance,  and  t  the  time  of  revolution  at  half  that  distance ;  then,  by  the  third  law  of  Kepler, 

T  T 

T* :  «' :  2' :  1' ;  hence  we  have  t  =  yT'  and  ^t  =  .ysl.     But  U  is  the  time  in  which  a  body 
would  fall  from  the  distance  corresponding  to  T.     Hence  the  time  in  which  a  planet  would 


Book  I. 


LAW  OF  UNIVERSAL  GRAVITATION. 


123 


fall  to  the  sun  by  the  action  of  the  centripetal  force  is  equal  to  the  periodic  time  divided 
by  "v/^"  ;  or  (what  amounts  to  the  same  thing)  to  the  periodic  time  multiplied  by  0176776, 
the  reciprocal  of  the  square  root  of  32.  By  this  general  rule,  the  times  in  which  the  dif- 
ferent planets  would  reach  the  sun,  if  the  action  of  their  centrifiigal  force  entirely  ceased 
at  the  moment  when  they  are  at  their  mean  distances,  are  as  follow : 


Days.  Hrs. 

Mercury  in 15  13 

Veniis 39  17 

The  Earth 64  13 

Mars .' 121  10 

Ceres 237  6    ■ 

Pallas 301  4 


Days.  Hrs. 

Juno 354  19 

Vesta 205      0 

•Iiipiter 705  jg 

Saturn moi      0 

Georjiiiim  Sidus 5425      0 

The' Moon  would  fall  to  the  Earth  in. .        4  20 


The  principle  in  the  Newtonian  pliilosophy,  that  the  effects  produced  by  the  attraction 
of  a  body  depend  very  much  upon  the  quantity  of  matter  which  it  contains,  furnishes  the 
means  of  resolving  a  problem  which  at  first  sight  may  appear  of  such  difficulty  as  to  tran- 
scend the  powers  of  the  human  mind ;  namely,  to  determine  the  quantity  of  matter  in  the 
sun  and  planets.  Let  /  and  /'  denote  the  forces  by  which  two  bodies  revolve  in  circular 
orbits  round  two  central  bodies,  of  which  the  masses  are  denoted  by  in  and  m'.  Let  r  and 
r  be  the  radii  of  the  orbits,  and  t  and  t'  the  periodic  times.  From  what  we  have  already 
proved  with  regard  to  a  force  that  retains  a  body  in  a  circular  orbit,  we  have 


/:/'  =  - 


But  we  have  also/  :  /'  =  —  :  — ;  therefore,  —  :  — =:■ 

r2         r'2  r2         r'2 


— ;  and 


consequently,  m  :  m'  =  —  ;  — • 

(2  ('2 

Thus  it  appears  that  the  masses  of  matter  in  the  bodies  which  compose  the  solar  system 
are  directly  as  the  cubes  of  the  mean  distances  of  any  bodies  which  revolve  round  them, 
and  inversely  as  the  squares  of  the  times  in  which  the  revolutions  are  performed.  By 
means  of  this  principle,  the  masses  of  the  sim  and  of  the  planets  which  have  satellites  may 
be  compared  with  one  another.  With  regard  to  the  planets  which  have  no  satellites,  the 
quantity  of  matter  contained  in  them  can  only  be  guessed  from  the  effects  they  produce  on 
the  motions  of  the  other  planets.  The  quantity  of  matter  in  the  moon  can,  however,  be 
determined  with  greater  certainty,  by  comparing  together  the  influence  of  the  sun  and  moon 
in  producing  the  tides  and  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes.  Hence  we  learn,  that  the  mat- 
ter in  the  moon  is  about  Vn  of  the  matter  in  the  earth. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  masses  of  the  planets,  that  of  the  sun  being  considered 
as  unity: 

TABLE. 


Mercury 
Venus 
The  Earth 
Mars 


Jupiter 
Saturn 
Uranus 


If  we  add  together  the  numbers  given  in  this  table,  it  will  be  found  that  the  whole  matter 
in  all  the  planets  is  not  one-six-hundredth  part  of  the  matter  in  the  sun. 

Knowing  the  masses  of  the  planets  and  their  diameters,  we  can  determine  the  force  of 
gravity  at  their  surfaces ;  for,  supposing  them  to  be  spherical  bodies,  and  to  have  no  rotation 
on  their  axes,  the  forces  with  which  a  body  placed  on  their  surfaces  gravitates  to  them  will 
be  proportional  to  their  masses,  divided  by  the  squares  of  their  diameters. 

From  the  masses  of  Jupiter  and  the  earth,  La  Place  calculates  that  if  we  suppose  them 
to  have  no  rotation,  a  body  which  at  the  earth's  equator  weighs  one  pound  would,  if  carried 
to  the  equator  of  Jupiter,  weigh  2..509  pounds,  supposing  the  weights  to  be  measured  by 
the  pressures  exerted  in  the  two  situations.  If  the  centrifugal  force  produced  by  the  rota- 
tion of  the  planets  be  taken  into  account,  however,  this  weight  must  be  diminished  by  about 
one-ninth  part.  The  same  body  would  weigh  about  27.6.5  pounds  at  the  surfiice  of  the  sun. 
Hence  it  follows  that  a  heavy  body  would  there  descend  about  425  feet  in  the  first  second 
of  time. 

We  have  hitherto  attended  chiefly  to  the  action  of  tlie  central  body  upon  that  which 
revolves  round  it;  but,  in  reality,  the  action  is  mutual.  The  planets  attract  the  sun  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  sun  attracts  the  planets;  and  the  same  action  and  re-action  have  place 
among  the  primary  planets  and  their  satellites.  Indeed,  the  gravitation  of  all  the  great 
bodies  of  the  system  towards  one  another,  appears  only  to  be  a  consequence  of  a  similar 
action  between  every  particle  of  matter  and  every  other  particle  of  matter.  This  great 
fact,  to  which  all  the  celestial  phenomena  are  ultimately  to  be  referred — that  the  particles 
of  matter  mutually  attract  each  other  by  a  force  varying  inversely  as  the  squares  of  the 
distances — is  commonly  called  the  principle  of  Universal  Gravitation. 

The  mutual  attraction  of  the  bodies  composing  the  planetary  system  gives  rise  to  a  train 
of  consequences  which  it  has  required  the  utmost  efforts  of  human  ingenuity  to  unfold. 
We  have  already  remarked  that  the  planetary  motions  are  liable  to  a  variety  of  irregular!- 


124  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  Part  U 

ties  with  which  accurate  observation  has  made  us  acquainted.  Now,  here  we  see  the  cause 
to  which  all  these  irregularities  are  to  be  referred.  If  the  sun  were  fixed  immovable  in  the 
centre,  and  only  one  planet  revolving  round  him,  then  the  path  of  that  planet  would  be  an 
ellipse,  from  which  there  would  not  be  the  least  deviation ;  and  that  focus  which  is  the 
centre  of  motion  would  coincide  with  the  centre  of  the  sun,  supposing  that  body  to  be 
splierical  and  composed  of  matter  of  uniform  density.  But  since  the  planet  attracts  the  sun 
as  well  as  tlie  sun  attracts  the  planet,  with  a  force  directly  proportional  to  the  mass. and 
inversely  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  distance,  it  follows  that  the  sun  must  also  move 
in  an  elliptic  orbit  round  that  point  of  which  the  condition  is  in  no  way  disturbed  by  the 
mutual  action  of  the  revolving  bodies,  namely,  their  centre  of  gravity.  It  is  with  this 
point  that  the  focus  of  the  orbit  of  the  planet,  and  that  of  the  solar  orbit,  would  coincide, 
and  about  which  tlie  radius  vector  of  each  would  describe  areas  proportional  to  the  times. 
In  reference  to  this  pomt  also,  the  squares  of  the  periodic  times  would  be  proportional  to  the 
cubes  of  the  distances. 

If  we  suppose  two  or  more  planets  to  revolve  about  the  sun,  it  is  evident  that  the  motions 
of  all  would  be  disturbed  by  their  mutual  gravitation.  The  immense  magnitude  of  the 
sun  compared  with  that  of  any  of  the  planets,  or  of  all  the  planets  taken  together,  might, 
however,  give  to  his  attraction  such  a  preponderance  as  would  preserve  all  the  planetary 
orbits  nearly  elliptical;  while  his  own  orbit  would  become  a  more  complicated  curve,  but 
such  as  to  furnish  a  centrithgal  force  in  respect  of  each  planet,  just  able  to  counterbalance 
the  gravitation  towards  it.  The  centre  of  gravity  of  the  whole  system  would  be  a  point  to 
which  all  their  motions  are  to  be  referred.  Now  this  is  actually  the  case  of  the  planetary 
system.  Accurate  observation  proves  that  the  sun  is  not  at  rest  in  the  centre,  though  his 
motion  is  very  small.  His  centre  is  never  distant  from  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  system 
so  much  as  his  own  diameter ;  and  hence  the  orbit  which  he  describes  must  be  very  incon- 
siderable, when  compared  with  the  orbits  of  the  planets.  With  regard  to  those  planets 
which  are  accompanied  by  satellites,  it  is  not  the  centre  of  the  primary  which  traces  the 
elliptic  orbit  round  the  sun,  but  the  common  centre  of  gravity  of  the  primary  planet  and 
secondary  planets  which  revolve  round  it. 

The  perturbations  which  the  mutual  attraction  of  the  planets  produce  in  each  other's  mo- 
tions are  divided  into  two  classes.  The  one  class  affect  the  figure  and  position  of  the  elliptic 
orbits,  and  increase  with  extreme  slowness :  these  are  called  secular  inequalities.  The 
other  class  depend  on  the  mutual  situation  of  the  different  planets,  and  acquire  the  same 
amount  whenever  the  same  relative  positions  occur:  these  are  called  periodic  inequalities. 
Both  these  classes  of  inequalities  have  been  demonstrated  to  be  periodical ;  that  is,  they 
increase  only  to  a  certain  extent,  and  then  decrease.  Amidst  all  the  changes  which  arise 
from  the  mutual  actions  of  the  heavenly  bodie.s,  there  are  two  things  which  remain  perpetu- 
ally the  same ;  namely,  the  greater  axis  of  the  orbit  which  the  planet  describes,  and  its 
periodic  time.     Thus  the  permanency  of  the  planetary  system  is  secured. 

To  subject  to  calculation  the  perturbations  of  the  system,  requires  the  solution  of  the 
following  problem :  three  bodies  of  given  magnitudes,  as  the  sun,  the  earth,  and  the  moon, 
being  projected  into  space  with  given  velocities,  and  in  given  directions,  and  attracting  each 
other  according  to  a  given  law,  namely,  inversely  as  the  squares  of  their  distances  from  each 
other,  and  directly  as  their  masses ;  it  is  required  to  determine  the  natjire  of  the  curve,  that 
one  of  them,  as  the  moon,  describes  about  one  of  the  other  two,  as  the  earth.  This  is  the 
celebrated  problem  of  the  three  bodies,  stated  in  all  its  generality,  but  under  this  aspect 
its  solution  is  beyond  the  reach  of  the  most  refined  methods  of  analysis  which  the  mathe- 
matical sciences  in  their  present  state  furnish.  In  its  application  to  the  purposes  of  physical 
astronomy,  there  are  certain  conditions  which  render  the  problem  less  difficult:  viz.  1, 
That  the  sun  greatly  exceeds  in  magnitude  the  other  two  bodies,  and  is  nearly  at  rest.  2, 
Its  distance  from  the  earth  and  moon  is  so  great,  that  it  may  be  considered  the  same  for  both. 
This  condition  fails,  however,  in  reference  to  the  action  of  the  primary  planets  on  one 
another,  a  circumstance  which  augments  the  difiiculty  of  investigating  the  perturbations 
arising  from  their  mutual  gravitation.  3.  The  planetary  orbits  are  nearly  elliptical,  and 
the  aberrations  from  the  ellipses  in  reference  to  each,  are  all  that  is  required.  Even  with 
these  limitations  the  problem  is  sufficiently  difficult,  and  has  engaged  the  attention,^  and 
exercised  the  skill  of  the  most  celebrated  mathematicians  of  modern  times. 

The  general  view  which  we  have  now  given  of  the  planetary  disturbances  is  all  that  onr 
present  object  requires.  We  shall  only,  therefore,  farther  advert  to  the  explanation  which 
the  theory  of  gravitation  affords  of  the  figure  of  the  earth,  and  of  the  tides. 


CHAPTER  X\^. 

FIGURE  A^^)  COXSTITUTIOX  OF  THE  EARTH  DEDUCED  FROM  THE  THEORY  OF  GRAVITATION 

In  the  beginning  (Chap.  III.)  we  proved  that  the  earth  must  be  nearly  spherical,  in  order 

to  account  for  the  general  phenomena  which   we  constantly  observe.     As  soon,  however. 


Book  I.  FIGURE  OF  THE  EARTH.  ll'o 

as  the  general  law  of  gravitation  was  discovered,  it  was  a  necessary  consequence  that  the 
earth  could  not  be  a  perfect  spliere,  but  must  rather  be  an  oblate  spheroid  flattened  at  the 
poles,  and  swelled  out  at  the  equator,  and  this  inference  is  independent  of  all  actual  measure- 
ment, but  may  be  confirmed  by  observation,  and  in  fact  has  been  so,  as  will  be  afterwards 
fully  proved.  This  deviation  from  the  spherical  figure  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  influence 
of  tiie  centrifugal  force,  arising  from  the  earth's  diurnal  rotation,  in  diminishing  the  force  of 
gravity  from  the  pole  towards  the  equator,  where  the  centrifugal  force,  in  reference  to  the 
surface,  is  the  greatest  possible.  This  tendency  which  every  particle  of  matter  in  the  earth 
has  to  fly  oft"  in  the  direction  of  a  tangent  to  the  circle  in  which  the  particle  is  carried  by 
the  earth's  motion  of  rotation  would  be  increased  if  that  motion  were  to  be  accelerated : 
and  may  be  conceived  to  be  increased  to  such  power  as  not  only  to  overcome  tlie  force  of 
gravity,  but  also  the  force  by  which  the  particles  adhere  to  one  another,  and  so  to  cause  the 
earth  to  separate  into  fragments.  Suppose  a  small  satellite  to  revolve  round  the  earth  close 
to  its  surface  at  the  equator ;  its  periodic  time  may  be  deduced  from  that  of  the  moon,  on 
tlie  principle  that  the  squares  of  their  periodic  times  would  be  to  one  another  as  the  cubes 
of  tlieir  distances.  For  we  liave  (since  the  moon's  distance  is  about  sixty  times  the  semi- 
diameter  of  the  earth,  and  the  time  of  her  periodic  revolution  39343  minutes), 

60^:  l'=39343'':  sq.  of  the  periodic  time  of  the  satellite. 
Hence  we  obtain  the  periodic  time  nearly  equal  to  84j  minutes.  If  the  earth  revolved 
about  its  axis  in  84j  minutes  while  such  a  satellite  described  a  circular  orbit  close  to  its 
surface,  the  satellite  would  therefore  appear  to  be  at  rest  on  the  surface,  but  would  not  in 
the  least  degree  press  upon  it,  because  the  force  of  gravity  would  be  exactly  counterbalanced 
by  the  centrifugal  force  produced  by  the  motion  of  the  satellite  in  its  orbit.  Now,  all  the 
objects  on  the  surface  at  the  equator  would  be  in  the  very  same  circumstances  with  the 
satellite ;  for  they  actually  describe  circles  in  consequence  of  the  earth's  motion,  and  if  the 
earth  revolved  in  84^  minutes,  their  centrifugal  force  would  become  exactly  equal  to  the 
force  of  gravity  ;  so  that  they  would  no  longer  have  weight.  If  the  earth's  motion  of  rota- 
tion became  still  more  rapid,  they  would  fly  off  from  the  surface. 

At  the  equator  a  body  describes  a  circle  of  which  the  circumference  is  about  132,105,600 
feet  in  23''  56"'  nearly  :  it  must  therefore  describe  an  arc  of  about  1528  feet  in  a  second 
of  time.  From  what  we  have  shown  already  respecting  central  forces,  it  is  evident  that,  by 
dividing  the  square  of  this  arc  by  the  diameter  of  the  earth,  we  shall  find  the  deflection 
from  the  tangent  in  a  second,  wliich  will  be  the  measure  of  the  centrifiigal  force.  This 
deflection  amounts  to  about  j'n'n  of  an  inch,  or  ^f^  of  I672  feet,  the  space  through  which  a 
body  would  fall  in  a  second  by  the  force  of  apparent  gravity.  The  centrifugal  force  at  the 
equator  is  therefore  the  jl^  P^rt  of  the  sensible  weight  of  a  body,  or  o^g  part  of  its  real 
weight.  Suppose,  then,  a  body,  when  weighed  at  the  equator  by  a  spring-steel  yard,  to  be 
found  capable  of  drawing  out  the  spring  to  the  division  288 :  if  that  body  were  weighed  at 
tlie  pole,  where  the  centrifugal  force  vanishes,  it  would  draw  out  the  spring  to  the 
division  289. 

It  admits  of  being  demonstrated  that,  proceeding  from  the  equator  where  the  centrifiigal 
force  is  the  greatest  toward  eitlier  pole,  where  it  vanishes,  the  increase  of  gravity  in  different 
latitudes  is  as  the  sqxtare  of  the  sine  of  the  latitude. 

Such  being  the  nature  of  the  forces  that  act  upon  every  particle  of  matter  of  which  the 
earth  is  composed,  the  dttermination  of  its  figure  from  physical  principles  involves  the 
solution  of  the  two  following  problems : — 

1.  Wliat'  is  the  law  accordmg  to  which  a  particle  will  gravitate  towards  a  solid  of  a 
given  form  and  constitution,  the  particle  being  supposed  situated  either  within  or  without 
the  solid  ? 

2.  What  figure  will  a  mass  of  matter,  either  wholly  or  partly  fluid,  assume  in  conse- 
quence of  the  joint  effect  of  the  attraction  of  its  particles  (thai  attraction  varying  inversely 
as  the  squares  of  their  distances),  and  a  centrifiigal  force  arising  from  the  rotation  of  the 
mass  about  an  axisi  Both  these  problems  mvolve  a  great  degree  of  difficulty;  and  the 
second  is  even  more  intricate  than  the  first,  in  consequence  of  the  reciprocal  relations 
subsisting  between  the  figure  of  the  attracting  body  and  the  law  of  gravitation  at  its  surface, 
which  renders  a  knowledge  of  the  one  necessary  to  the  determination  of  the  other. 
Assuming  that  an  homogeneous  fluid  of  tlie  same  mean  density  with  the  earth  has  the 
figure  of  an  oblate  spheroid,  and  revolves  on  its  axis  in  23"  56™  4'  of  solar  time,  it  would  be 
in  eqiiilibrio,  if  the  axis  of  revolution  were  to  the  equatorial  diameter  in  tlie  proportion  of 
229  to  230.  This  is  the  figure  wliich  Newton  ascribed  to  tlie  earth ;  and  though  the 
assumption  which  he  made  of  such  a  figure  was  certainly  gratuitous,  the  result  of  his  inves- 
tigation is  almost  the  same  as  later  writers  have  obtained  by  a  more  rigorous  as  well  as 
direct  mode  of  reasoning  tlian  that  which  he  employed.  Again,  it  has  been  demonstrated  by 
La  Place,  that  a  fluid  and  homogeneous  mass,  of  the  mean  density  of  the  earth,  cannot 
remain  in  equilibrium  and  possess  at  the  same  time  an  elliptic  figure,  if  the  time  of  rts 
rotation  be  less  than  2"  25™  17".  If  the  time  of  revolution  exceed  this,  there  may  always  be 
two  elliptic  spheroids,  and  not  more,  in  wliich  the  equilibrium  may  be  maintained.     In  the 

II* 


126  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

case  of  the  mass  revolving  in  23''  56™  4%  the  one  spheroid  is  tliat  which  lias  already  heen 
mentioned ;  the  other  is  one  in  whicli  the  polar  diameter  is  to  the  equatorial  in  the  ratio  of 
I  to  t)81.  The  extreme  flatness  of  tliis  spheroid  must  render  the  force  of  gravity  at  the 
equator  almost  nothing ;  the  fluid,  therefore,  would  be  so  easily  dissipated  that  this  equdibriura 
can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  stable. 

Another  conclusion  on  this  subject,  deduced  by  Clairault,  is,  that  if  the  fluid  mass  supposed 
to  revolve  on  its  axis,  instead  of  being  homogeneous,  be  composed  of  strata  wliich  increase 
in  density  towards  the  centre,  hi  order  to  remain  in  equilibrium,  it  must  still  possess  the  figure 
of  an  elliptic  spheroid,  but  the  oblatcness  will  be  diminished. 

The  oblateness  of  the  earth  at  its  poles  is  a  phenomenon  whicli  the  measurements  that 
Jiave  been  made  of  arcs  of  the  meridian  have  placed  beyond  all  doubt ;  but  there  is  still  an 
uncertainty  as  to  the  exact  quantity  of  the  compression.  The  results  obtained,  however, 
render  it  highly  probable  that  it  is  less  than  250,  which  Newton,  proceeding  on  the  supposition 
of  a  uniform  density,  assigned  for  the  compression.  Hence  we  may  conclude,  that  if  the 
earth  is  a  spheroid  of  equilibrium,  it  is  denser  in  the  interior  than  at  its  surface.  This 
inference  has  been  verified  by  very  accurate  experiments  made  by  the  late  Dr.  Maskelyne 
on  the  sides  of  the  mountain  Schehallien,  in  Perthshire.  The  object  was  to  determine  the 
derangement  of  the  plummet  by  the  vicinity  of  this  lofty  and  solid  mountain ;  and  the  results, 
obtained  from  observation  made  at  two  stations  on  tlie  south  and  north  sides  of  it,  showed 
that  the  plummet  deviated  from  the  direction  of  gravity  towards  the  mountain  more  than 
7".  The  quantity  of  this  change  of  direction  gives  the  ratio  of  the  attraction  of  the  mountain 
to  tliat  of  the  whole  earth,  or  to  the  force  of  gravity,  equal  to  the  ratio  of  1  to  17804.  But 
the  bulk  and  figure  of  the  mountain  being  also  obtained  by  a  trigonometrical  survey,  its  mean 
density  was  found  to  be  to  the  mean  density  of  the  earth  nearly  as  5  to  9.  Thus  it  appears 
that  the  mean  density  of  the  earth  is  not  much  less  than  double  the  density  of  the  rocks 
which  compose  the  mountain  Schehallien ;  and  these,  again,  seem  considerably  more  dense 
than  the  mean  of  those  which  form  the  exterior  crust  of  the  earth. 

It  may  appear  an  objection  to  this  mode  of  reasoning  concernmg  the  figure  of  the  earth, 
that  it  is  not  evident  how  a  centrifugal  force  should  produce  the  same  effect  on  a  solid  body, 
like  the  earth,  that  it  does  upon  a  fluid  mass.  But  the  fact  that  the  earth  has  made  an 
approxhnation  to  the  spheroid  of  equilibrium,  is  an  indication  that  either  the  entire  mass 
was  originally  fluid,  from  whatever  cause ;  or  the  repeated  waste  and  reconsolidation  of  the 
parts  near  the  surface  has  gradually  produced  the  spheroidal  figure.  In  either  of  these 
modes  the  power  of  cohesion,  which  in  the  solid  body  resists  the  effects  of  the  centriftigal 
force,  may  have  been  overcome.  However  irregular  a  body,  whose  surface  is  composed  of 
land  and  water,  may  be  in  its  primitive  form ;  by  the  process  of  constant  waste,  the  more 
prominent  parts  are  gradually  worn  down,  and  the  matter  which  composed  them  is  deposited 
in  the  lower  parts  which  are  occupied  by  the  water :  here  it  acquires  a  horizontal  stratifica- 
tion ;  and  having,  by  certain  mineral  operations,  under  the  transforming  hand  of  nature,  been 
consolidated  into  stone,  the  water  being  removed,  it  may  again  form  a  part  of  the  solid  crust 
of  the  earth.  In  this  manner  the  primitive  irregular  form  will  gradually  disappear,  and  the 
surface  in  the  course  of  ages  acquire  a  position  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  gravity; 
so  that,  by  the  action  of  the  centrifugal  force,  there  will  be  a  constant  approximation  made 
to  the  spheroid  of  equilibrium.  The  irregular  distribution  of  the  heterogeneous  materials 
which  compose  this  terraqueous  globe  may,  perhaps,  prevent  the  coincidence  from  ever 
being  complete. 

It  admits  of  being  demonstrated,  that  if  the  earth  were  a  perfect  sphere,  and  composed  of 
matter  of  uniform  density  at  equal  distances  from  its  centre,  the  action  of  the  solar  and 
lunar  attraction  upon  it  would  be  the  same  as  if  the  whole  terraqueous  mass  we^-e  condensed 
into  a  point  at  the  centre.  Hence  the  position  of  its  axis  would  not,  in  tliat  case,  be  in  the 
least  degree  affected  by  its  gravitation  towards  the  sun  and  moon,  but  would  remain  parallel 
to  itself  while  the  earth  performed  its  annual  revolution.  In  consequence  of  the  spheroidal 
figure,  however,  the  earth  may  be  considered  as  composed  of  a  sphere  of  which  the  radius  is 
half  the  polar  axis,  and  of  a  quantity  of  redundant  matter,  which  is  distributed  over  it  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  swell  out  the  equatorial  regions.  The  action  of  the  solar  and  lunar 
attraction  on  this  redundant  matter  produces  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  and  the  nutation 
of  the  earth's  axis.  The  complete  explanation  of  these  phenomena  affords  one  of  the  hap- 
piest illustrations  of  the  Newtonian  doctrine  of  attraction ;  but  requires  at  the  same  time 
^he  aid  of  some  of  the  most  abstruse  theories  both  in  pure  mathematics  and  mechanics. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

THE  TIDES. 
The  alternate  rise  and  fall  of  tlie  surface  of  the  sea,  or  it  flux  and  reflux,  known  by  the 
name  of  the  tide.s,  is  a  phenomenon  which  has  attracted  the  attention  of  mankind  from  the 
earliest  periods.     Herodotus  and  Diodorus  Siculus  take  notice  of  the  daily  flux  and  reflux 


Book  I. 


THE  TIDES. 


127 


of  the  waters  of  the  Red  Sea  or  Arabian  Gulf,  the  latter  historian  describing'  it  as  a  great 
and  rapid  tide ;  but  neither  of  these  writers  forms  any  conjecture  respecting  its  cause.  Ob- 
servation must  soon  have  shown,  that  this  periodical  ebbing  and  flowing  of  the  waters  of  the 
ocean  had  an  intimate  connexion  with  the  position  of  the  sun  and  moon  in  the  heavens;  and, 
accordingly,  we  find  that  Pliny  not  only  describes  the  phenomena  of  tides,  but  expressly 
attributes  them  to  the  action  of  these  luminaries. 

It  was  not,  however,  until  Newton  applied  the  principle  of  universal  gravitation  to  explain 
these  phenomena  that  the  theory  of  the  tides  was  fully  understood.  The  weight  of  a  body 
on  the  surface  of  the  earth  arises  from  the  tendency  which  the  particles  composing  it  have 
to  the  centre  (or  to  a  point  near  the  centre),  in  obedience  to  the  law  of  gravity.  But  as 
every  object  on  the  earth's  surface  gravitates  towards  the  sun  and  moon,  as  well  as  towards 
the  earth,  it  follows  that  the  solar  and  lunar  attraction  must  affect  the  weight  of  terrestrial 
objects.  Upon  solid  bodies,  between  the  particles  of  which  adhesive  force  is  powerful,  no 
discernible  effects  are  produced  by  this  attraction.  But  the  case  is  altogether  different  with 
regard  to  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  the  component  particles  of  which  yield  to  the  slightest 
impulse;  so  that  any  alteration  in  their  weight  that  does  not  equally  affect  the  whole  must 
be  followed  immediately  by  a  motion  of  the  parts  of  the  fluid  mass,  which  will  continue 
until,  by  a  new  arrangement  of  the  particles,  the  equilibrium  is  restored. 

To  see  what  must  be  the  general  effect,  arismg  from  the  action  of  the  sun,  if  the  whole 
surface  of  the  globe  were  covered  with  water ;  let  A  C  B  O  (Jig.  39.)  be  the  watery  sphere,  S  the 

39 


sun,  and  E  the  centre  of  the  earth.  Let  the  gravitation  of  the  central  particlaE  to  the  sun 
be  represented  by  tlie  line  E  S,  and  the  gravitation  of  any  other  particle  M  by  the  line 
M  S  D.  Let  the  force  M  D  be  resolved  into  two  forces,  M  H  equal  and  parallel  to  E  S,  and 
M  G.  The  force  M  H  does  not  in  the  least  degree  affect  the  gravitation  of  the  particle  M 
towards  the  centre  E ;  and  M  G  is,  thereiore,  the  only  disturbing  force.  If  S  M  be  pro- 
duced to  meet  the  circle  A  C  B  O  in  the  point  m,  the  action  of  the  sun  on  a  particle  situated 
at  in  is  less  than  its  action  on  the  central  particle  E ;  so  that  if  m  d  represent  the  gravita- 
tion of  the  particle  m  towards  the  sun,  the  point  d  will  fall  on  the  opposite  side  of  S  fi-om 
the  point  D ;  and  the  force  m  d  being  resolved  into  two  forces,  m  h  equal  and  parallel  to  E  S, 
and  the  disturbing  force  m  g,  it  is  evident  that  the  tendency  of  the  force  wi  ^  is  to  dimmish 
the  gravity  of  the  particle  m,  in  like  manner  as  tlie  force  M  G  diminishes  the  gravity  of  the 
particle  M.  When  the  point  M  coincides  with  A,  the  angle  E  S  M  is  the  angle  under 
which  the  semidiameter  of  the  earth  is  seen  from  tlie  sun ;  therefore  E  S  M  can  never  ex- 
ceed Sg" :  whence,  in  determining  the  direction  and  quantity  of  the  disturbing  force  from 
the  geometrical  relations  of  the  lines,  we  may  consider  the  lines  D  G,  S  L,  and  D  M  as  . 
coincident,  and  M  L  may  be  taken  for  the  disturbing  force.     Again,  the  difference  between 


128  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

S  M  and  S  E  is  greatest  when  the  point  M  coincides  witli  C  or  O.  But  if  we  consider 
that  C  E,  tlie  difference  between  S  E  and  S  M  when  greatest,  is  only  about  r^rhn  part  of 
S  E,  it  is  evident  that  we  commit  but  a  very  small  error  in  supposing  S  M,  S  N,  and  S  E 
in  every  position  equal.  Now,  since  S  E  and  D  M  represent  the  gravitation  of  the  parti- 
cles E  and  M  towards  tlie  sun  respectively,  we  have  S  E  :  D  M  =  S  M^  :  S  E- ;  therefore, 

SN3 
since  S  E  and  S  N  may  be  considered  equal,  D  M  =  g^^.    But  S  N  =  S  M  +  M  N,  there- 
fore S  N*  =  S  i\P  +  3  S  M^  X  M  N  +  3  S  M  X  M  N^  +  M  Nl     The  quantity  M  N  is  so 
small,  compared  with  S  M,  that  the  two  last  terms  of  this  expression  for  S  W  may  be  ne- 

SN^ 
glected :  we  have,  therefore,  S  N^  =  S  ]VP  +  3  S  M^  X  M  N,  and  g^2  =  S  M  +  3  M  N : 

wlierefore,  also,  D  M  =  S  M  +  3  M  N ;  and  taking  S  M  from  each,  we  find  S  D  =  3  M  N. 
Now,  since  G  D  may  be  considered  equal  to  L  S  +  S  D,  and  E  S  is  by  construction  equal 
to  G  D,  it  is  evident  that  ES=LS-t-  SD,  or  taking  L  S  from  each,  E  L  =  S  D.  Hence 
E  L  ^  3  M  N,  and  the  disturbing  force  for  any  pomt  M  is  detennmed  both  in  direction  and 
magnitude. 

Suppose  now  that  A  C  B  O  (fig.  40.)  is  the  terraqueous  globe,  E  S  a  line  directed  to  the 
sun,  and  A  E  B  a  section  by  that  circle  which  separates  the  enlightened  from  the  dark 
hemisphere.  Let  M  be  any  particle  on  or  within  the  mass.  Through  the  point  M  draw  a 
straight  line  M  N  perpendicular  to  the  plane  A  E  B,  and  in  E  S  take  E  L,  equal  to  3  M  N : 
join  L  M ;  then  L  M  represents  the  direction  and  intensity  of  the  disturbing  force  which 
the  sun  exerts  on  the  particle  M.  Let  the  force  L  M  be  resolved  into  two  forces,  one,  M  E, 
directed  towards  the  centre  of  the  earth,  and  the  other,  M  R,  tending  from  the  plane  A  E  B 
towards  the  sun.  Suppose  the  same  construction  to  be  made  for  every  point  of  the  sphere, 
the  whole  being  supposed  covered  with  water,  it  is  evident  that  the  forces  represented  by 
M  E  will  balance  one  another,  and  therefore  need  not  be  considered.  But  the  force  repre- 
sented by  M  R  will  diminish  the  gravity  of  every  particle  M,  reckoned  in  the  direction  of 
a  line  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  that  great  circle  of  the  earth  which  separates  the  illu- 
minated from  the  dark  hemisphere.  The  force  thus  diminishing  tlie  gravity  will  be  propor- 
tional to  three  times  the  distance  of  the  particle  from  tlie  same  plane ;  for  R  M  is  equal  to 
L  E  or  3  M  N.  Every  particle  in  any  column  M  N  being  thus  acted  on  by  a  force  which 
evidently  tends  to  destroy  the  equilibrium  of  the  fluid  mass,  the  water  in  that  column  can- 
not remain  at  rest.  Its  equilibrium  may  be  restored,  however,  by  the  addition  of  a  small 
portion  M  ?«,  which,  by  restoring  the  weight  of  the  column,  enables  it  to  resist  the  pressure 
of  the  adjacent  columns.  A  similar  addition  may  be  made  to  each  column,  perpendicular 
to  the  plane  A  E  B :  and  the  result  will  be  that,  from  being  spherical,  the  figure  of  the  globe 
will  be  changed  into  that  of  an  oblong  elliptical  spheroid,  having  its  axis  directed  towards 
the  sun,  and  its  poles  in  those  points  of  the  surface  which  have  the  sun  in  the  zenith  and 
nadir. 

Let  the  figure  into  which  the  watery  sphere  would  be  transformed  by  the  solar  action  be 
represented  by  the  ellipse  ac  bo  (fig.  41.) :  the  points  o  and  c  are  the  poles  of  the  spheroid ; 
and  at  these  points  the  waters  are  highest  above  the  sphere  A  C  B  O  of  equal  capacity,  while 
all  round  the  circumference  B  E  A  the  waters  are  below  their  natural  level.  By  calculation 
it  is  found  that  the  difl^erence  between  E  c  and  E  a  is  about  twenty-four  and  a  half  inches ; 
so  that  the  deviation  from  the  spherical  figure  is  not  great. 

The  figure  which  tlie  watery  spheroid  assumes  must  be  in  a  slight  degree  influenced  by 
the  spheroidal  figure  of  the  earth ;  but  the  deviation  from  the  spherical  figure  is  so  small, 
that  its  eflfect  in  changing  the  spheroidal  figure  of  the  waters  on  the  surface  of  the  earth 
must  be  quite  inconsiderable.  If  the  earth  were  at  rest,  the  watery  spheroid  would  acquire 
that  form  which  would  produce  an  equilibrium  among  all  its  particles.  This,  however,  can 
never  happen  under  the  actual  circumstances  of  the  case,  because  some  time  must  elapse 
before  an  accelerating  force  can  produce  a  finite  change  in  the  disposition  of  the  waters ; 
but,  by  the  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  the  disturbing  force  is  every  instant  applied  to  a 
different  part  of  the  surface,  so  that  the  position  of  equilibrium  can  never  actually  be  attain- 
ed. Such,  then,  is  the  general  effect  which  the  solar  action  would  produce  if  the  whole 
globe  were  fluid,  or  a  spherical  nucleus  covered  with  a  fluid  of  equal  density.  To  explain 
the  phenomena  of  the  tides,  however,  it  is  indispensably  necessary  to  take  into  account  the 
action  of  the  moon. 

It  is  with  the  moon  that  the  tides  are  principally  connected ;  and  the  sun's  influence  is 
known  only  by  its  increasing  or  diminishing  the  effects  of  her  nicre  powerful  action.  This 
greater  influence  of  the  moon  in  producing  the  tides  arises  from  her  vicinity  to  the  earth, 
when  compared  with  the  sun,  her  distance  being  only  about  ^^  part  of  his.  It  must  be 
carefully  kept  in  view,  that  it  is  not  the  more  action  of  the  sun  and  moon  that  produces  the 
tides  in  the  ocean,  but  the  inequalities  in  the  action  of  each :  and  the  gravitation  of  the 
waters  of  the  ocean  to  the  moon  is  much  more  unequal  than  their  gravitation  to  the  sun. 
Whatever  has  been  proved  with  regard  to  the  influence  of  the  sun  in  producing  tides  in  the 


Book  I.  THE  TIDES.  129 

ocean  is  equally  applicable  to  the  moon.  The  waters  will  be  accumulated  immediately 
under  lier,  and  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  globe,  producing  a  spheroid  of  the  same  kind  with 
that  wliich  we  have  shown  must  be  produced  by  the  unequal  action  of  the  sun,  but  more 
elongated ;  and  this  spheroid,  directed  toward  the  moon,  will  follow  her  in  her  apparent 
daily  revolution  about  the  earth.  In  consequence  of  this  simultaneous  gravitation  towards 
both  luminaries,  the  ocean  must  assume  a  figure  different  from  both  of  these  spheroids ; 
which  will  become  blended  and  undistinguishable.  The  resulting  figure  resembles  each  of 
the  spheroids  in  being  elongated,  and  its  most  elevated  parts  are  found  to  follow  the  more 
powerful  of  the  disturbing  bodies,  namely,  the  moon,  in  her  apparent  diurnal  revolution  about 
the  earth.  We  may,  without  sensible  error,  suppose  that  the  change  produced  in  any  part 
of  the  ocean  by  the  combined  action  of  the  sun  and  moon,  is  the  sum  or  the  difference  of  the 
changes  which  they  would  have  produced  if  acting  separately. 

We  have  already  remarked  that  the  rapid  motion  of  the  waters,  in  consequence  of  the 
diurnal  motion,  prevents  them  from  ever  assuming  the  figure  which  would  be  requisite  for 

>e  equilibrium  of  the  forces  acting  on  them;  so  tliat  they  oscillate  continually,  alternately 
H-oaching  to  that  figure  and  receding  from  it.  The  motion  thus  communicated  to  them 
one  not  of  transference,  but  of  undulation,  one  part  rising  and  another  sinking,  unless 
/vlien  from  want  of  depth  of  water  the  balance  between  the  adjacent  columns  is  destroyed. 
We  may,  therefore,  regard  the  two  elevations  produced  in  the  ocean  by  the  inequalities  in 
the  solar  and  lunar  actions  as  two  vast  waves  which  follow  the  moon  in  her  apparent  diurnal 
motion.  The  line  joining  the  tops  of  these  two  waves  is  not  directed  to  the  moon,  as  would 
be  the  case  if  the  earth  and  moon  were  at  rest,  but  is  directed  to  a  point  about  30°  to  the 
eastward  of  the  moon.  This  arises  from  the  inertia  of  the  water,  which  causes  it,  when 
once  put  in  motion,  to  continue  to  rise  for  a  time  after  the  impulse  communicated  has  ceased. 
If  we  consider  the  tides  relatively  to  the  whole  surface  of  the  globe,  there  is  a  meridian,  there- 
fore, about  30°  eastward  of  the  moon  where  it  is  always  high  water,  both  in  the  hemisphere 
where  the  moon  is,  and  the  opposite  hemisphere.  On  the  west  side  of  the  meridian  the  tide 
is  flowing,  and  on  the  east  side  of  it  the  tide  is  ebbing.  On  the  meridian  which  is  at  right 
angles  to  the  former,  it  is  everywhere  low  water.  If  we  suppose,  then,  the  sun  and  moon 
to  be  in  the  equator,  and  an  observer  to  be  situated  on  the  surface  of  the  water  under  the 
equator ;  when  the  moon  has  risen  30°  above  his  horizon,  the  state  of  the  tide  to  that  observer 
will  be  low  water.  As  the  moon  advances  towards  his  zenitli,  tlie  tide  will  flow ;  and  when 
she  has  reached  a  point  about  30°  to  the  westward  of  his  zenith,  the  summit  of  the  wave  will 
reach  him,  and  then  the  state  of  the  tide  will  be  high  water.  As  the  moon  approaches  the 
western  horizon,  the  observer  will  see  the  water  gradually  subside  as  it  had  formerly  risen; 
and  when  she  has  descended  30°  below  the  horizon,  it  is  again  low  water.  As  the  moon 
continues  her  course  below  the  horizon,  the  waters  again  gradually  rise  by  the  approach  of 
the  other  wave  until  its  summit  arrives  at  the  observer,  and  agam  produces  high  water ; 
when  the  moon  has  passed  the  opposite  meridian,  and  reached  a  point  30°  beyond  it,  the  tide 
again  begins  to  ebb  as  the  wave  rolls  on,  and  the  same  phenomena  are  repeated  in  the  same 
order.  Thus,  in  the  space  of  time  in  which  the  moon  performs  her  diurnal  revolution,  which 
may  be  called  a  lunar  day,  and  consists  of  nearly  24''  50'",  there  occur  two  tides  of  flood  and 
two  of  ebb.  The  time  between  one  high  water  to  the  ne.xt  is  about  12"  25"",  and  the  instant 
of  low  water  is  nearly  but  not  exactly  the  middle  of  this  interval,  the  tide  in  general  taking 
about  nine  or  ten  minutes  more  in  ebbing  than  in  flowing. 

Spring  and  neap  tides.  As  the  magnitude  of  the  two  waves  which  produce  the  rise  and 
fall  of  the  tide  depends  on  the  action  of  the  sun  as  well  as  on  that  of  the  moon,  it  is  evident 
that  the  height  to  which  tlie  water  rises  and  falls  must  be  affected  by  the  relative  position 
of  the  two  luminaries.  At  new  moon  and  full  moon  the  actions  of  the  sun  and  moon  are 
combined,  but  at  tlie  quadratures  they  counteract  each  other.  In  the  former  case,  the  two 
spheroids  produced  by  tlie  solar  and  lunar  actions  have  their  axes  coincident  or  nearly  so ; 
in  the  latter,  their  axes  are  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  Hence,  at  new  and  fiill  moon  the 
flood  tide  will  rise  higher,  and  the  ebb  tide  will  sink  lower,  than  usual.  The  reverse  of  this 
will  happen  when  the  moon  is  in  either  of  her  quadratures:  the  flood  tide  will  not  rise  so 
high  as  usual,  nor  will  the  ebb  tide  sink  so  low.  This  is  exactly  coincident  witli  experience  ; 
and  we  here  perceive  tlie  cause  of  what  are  called  spring  tides  and  neap  tides.  About 
the  time  of  full  moon  and  change  tlie  tides  rise  higher  than  when  the  moon  presents  any 
other  phasis.  The  highest  tide  does  not  happen,  however,  the  first  after  the  opposition  or 
conjunction,  though  the  disturbing  forces  are  then  united,  but  some  time  after;  and  the 
cause  of  this  is  the  same  which  prevents  the  time  of  high  water  of  any  one  tide  coinciding 
with  the  time  of  the  moon  being  on  that  meridian  under  which  the  tide  happens ;  namely, 
the  inertia  of  the  water,  or  that  tendency  which  all  matter  has  to  retain  its  state  whether 
of  rest  or  motion.  At  Brest,  where  an  accurate  register  was  kept  of  the  phenomena  of  the 
tides  about  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  it  was  found  tliat  the  highest  tide  happened 
about  a  day  and  a  half  after  the  new  and  full  moon.  If  the  time  of  high  water  coincide  with 
the  very  time  of  conjunction  or  opposition,  the  third  high  water  after  that  is  the  highest  of  all. 
This  is  called    le  speino  tide.     From  this  period  the  tides  gradually  decrease,  until  the  third 

Vol,  I.  R 


130  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

high  water  after  the  moon's  quadrature,  which  is  the  lowest  of  all,  and  is  called  the  neap 
TIDE.  But  having  reached  their  utmost  depression,  the  tides  again  increase  until  the  occur- 
rence of  the  next  spring  tide;  and  so  on  continually.  The  higher  the  tide  of  flood  rises,  the 
lower  the  ebb  tide  generally  sinks  on  that  day.  The  total  magnitude  of  the  tide  is  estimated 
by  the  diflbrence  between  high  and  low  water.  At  Brest  the  medium  spring  tide  is  about 
19  feet,  and  the  medium  neap  tide  about  9  feet. 

Effect  in  different  hemispheres.  Let  us  ne.xt  suppose  the  sun  and  moon  to  be  situated  in 
one  of  tiie  tropics ;  the  two  waves  raised  in  the  ocean  by  their  actions  on  opposite  sides  of 
the  globe  will  now  roll  along  under  the  tropics.  If  an  observer  be  placed  on  the  surface  of 
the  water,  and  under  the  same  tropic  in  wliich  the  sun  and  moon  are  situated,  he  will  still 
see  two  tides  of  flood  and  two  of  ebb;  but  they  will  not  correspond  in  all  their  circumstances, 
as  they  did  on  the  former  supposition.  The  deptii  of  the  high  water  produced  by  the  wave 
situated  in  the  same  hemisphere  with  the  moon,  will  evidently  be  greater  than  that  of  the 
high  water  produced  by  the  wave  which  rolls  along  under  the  other  tropic  in  the  opposite 
hemisphere  from  the  moon ;  for  the  observer  will  see  the  very  summit  of  the  one  wave,  and 
only  the  sloping  side  of  the  other.  To  an  observer  situated  under  the  tropic  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  equator  from  the  sun  and  moon,  the  case  would  be  reversed ;  and  if  he  were  so 
far  removed  from  the  equator  as  to  be  situated  under  the  polar  circle,  no  part  of  the  wave 
accumulated  in  the  same  hemisphere  with  the  moon  would  reach  him ;  so  that  he  would 
see  only  one  tide  of  flood  and  one  tide  of  ebb  daily  produced  by  the  motion  of  the  other 
wave. 

This  also  is  consistent  with  what  we  know  respecting  the  tides  from  observation.  All  the 
phenomena  are  found  to  be  modified  by  the  latitude  of  the  place  of  observation ;  and  some 
phenomena  are  found  to  occur  in  high  latitudes,  which  are  not  at  all  seen  when  the  place 
of  observation  is  under  the  equator.  In  particular  when  the  moon  and  the  observer  are  on 
the  same  side  of  the  equator,  that  tide  in  which  the  moon  is  above  the  horizon  is  greater 
than  the  other  tide  of  the  same  day  which  happens  when  the  moon  is  below  the  horizon. 
The  contrary  takes  place  when  the  moon  and  the  observer  are  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
equator :  in  this  latter  case,  if  the  polar  distance  of  the  observer  be  equal  to  the  moon's 
declination,  he  will  see  but  one  tide  in  the  day,  continuing  to  flow  for  twelve  hours  and  to 
ebb  for  twelve  hours.  We  have  supposed  for  simplicity  the  sun  and  moon  to  be  in  the  equa- 
tor, or  in  one  of  the  tropics ;  but  it  is  evident  that  this  can  seldom  be  the  case.  The  two 
luminaries  are  capable  of  an  infinite  variety  of  positions  in  reference  to  each  other,  as  well 
as  in  reference  to  any  particular  point  of  the  earth's  surface.  The  phenomena  with  regard 
to  particular  places  must,  therefore,  be  endlessly  diversified ;  but  by  tracing  the  general 
features,  the  principles  become  apparent  upon  which  all  the  phenomena  depend. 

The  influence  of  the  sun  and  moon  in  producing  tides  in  the  ocean  will  evidently  be  aug* 
niented  when  these  bodies  are  nearer  to  the  earth,  and  diminished  when  their  distances  are 
increased.  From  this  cause  it  arises,  that  when  the  moon  is  in  that  part  of  her  orbit  wliere 
she  approaches  nearest  to  the  earth,  the  spring  tide  which  happens  at  that  time  is  the  highest, 
and  tlie  next  spring  tide  is  the  smallest ;  because  the  moon  is  then  nearly  at  her  greatest 
distance  from  the  earth.  This  makes  a  difference  of  2'j  feet  from  the  mean  height  of  the 
spring  tide  at  Brest ;  and  consequently  of  double  that  quantity,  or  5^  feet,  between  the 
greatest  spring  tide  and  the  least.  The  neap  tide  which  happens  between  these  two  very 
unequal  spring  tides  is  regular,  because  the  moon  is  then  nearly  at  her  mean  distance.  The 
reverse  of  this  takes  place  when  the  moon  is  at  her  mean  distance  at  the  time  of  the  change  : 
the  spring  tide  is  regular,  but  the  two  neap  tides  differ  considerably  in  height.  The  increased 
distance  of  tlie  sun  is  the  reason  why  the  spring  tides  in  our  summer  are  not  so  great  as  in 
our  winter.  At  the  mean  intensities  of  the  disturbing  forces,  the  sun  tends  to  raise  the 
waters  about  24^  inches,  and  the  moon  about  58.  Hence  the  spring  tide  should  be  about 
58-1-24^=82^  inches,  and  the  neap  tide  about  58—24^=33^  mclies. 

Variations  caused  by  continents,  islands,  <^c.  We  have  hitherto  supposed  the  two 
waves  which  produce  the  phenomena  of  the  tides  to  meet  with  no  interruption  in  their  pro- 
gress round  the  world.  This  is,  however,  far  from  being  the  case  ;  they  are  interrupted  by 
contments  and  islands,  and  may  be  propelled  or  retarded  by  the  action  of  the  wind ;  their 
velocity  and  direction  may  also  be  changed  by  irregularities  in  the  bed  of  the  ocean  :  so  that, 
to  explain  all  the  phenomena  at  any  particular  place,  the  effect  of  local  circumstances, 
which  is  often  great,  must  be  taken  into  the  account.  The  great  Pacific  Ocean  is,  perhaps, 
the  only  part  of  the  terraqueous  globe  in  which  all  the  forces  have  room  to  operate.  But 
the  wave  which  they  form  must,  in  rolling  westward,  encounter  tlie  coasts  of  Asia  and  New 
Holland,  with  the  interjacent  islands ;  and  amidst  these  obstacles  it  must  force  its  way  to  the 
Indian  Ocean.  Its  figure  will  thus  be  .changed,  and  the  phenomena  of  the  tides,  which  it 
produces,  powerfully  modified.  On  its  eastern  side  the  Pacific  is  bounded  by  a  vast  stretch 
of  coast,  extending  without  interruption  fi-om  Cape  Horn  to  Behring's  Straits.  This  barrier 
prevents  all  supply  from  the  eastward  for  making  up  the  watery  spheroid,  and  must  be 
equally  effectual  in  arresting  the  progress  of  the  waters  accumulated  to  the  eastward  of  the 
American  continent.     So  far  as  we  have  information  respectmg  the  tides  in  the  Pacific 


Book  1.  THE  TIDES.  131 

Ocean,  they  appear  to  be  very  unlike  the  European  tides,  until  we  reach  about  40°  or  50° 
west  from  the  coast  of  America.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  that  coast,  scarcely  any  tide 
occurs  when  the  moon  is  below  the  horizon.  Even  in  the  middle  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  the 
tides  are  very  small,  but  at  the  same  time  very  regular. 

As  a  great  extent  of  surface  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  sea  should  be  sensibly  affected 
by  the  inequalities  in  the  actions  of  the  sun  and  moon,  the  tides  which  are  experienced  in 
narrow  seas,  and  on  shores  far  removed  from  the  main  body  of  the  ocean,  are  not  produced 
in  those  seas,  but  are  waves  propagated  from  the  great  diurnal  undulation,  and  moving  with 
much  less  velocity.  The  tides  which  visit  the  coasts  of  England,  must,  in  a  great  measure, 
be  supplied  from  the  accumulation  of  water  in  the  Indian  and  Ethiopic  Ocean,  from  the  east- 
ward, and  by  what  is  brought  or  kept  back  from  the  South  Sea.  The  undulations  will  be 
diffused  as  proceeding  from  a  collection  coming  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  roimd 
Cape  Horn.  Consistently  with  this  supposition,  it  is  found  that  high  water,  which  occurs  at 
tlie  Cape  of  Good  Hope  at  new  and  full  moon  about  three  o'clock,  is  later  and  later  as  we 
proceed  northward  along  the  coast  of  Africa ;  later  and  later  still  as  we  follow  it  along  the 
western  coasts  of  Spain  and  France,  until  we  reach  the  mouth  of  the  English  Channel.  The 
wave  now  divides  itself  into  three  branches ;  one  part  passing  up  St.  George's  Channel, 
another  proceeding  northward  along  the  western  coast  of  Ireland,  and  the  third  passing  up 
the  English  Channel,  between  the  British  and  French  coasts.  The  two  branches  that  pro- 
ceed along  the  east  and  west  sides  of  Ireland  unite  and  form  one  ridge  or  wave,  wliich  con- 
tinues its  progress  along  the  western  coasts  and  islands  of  Scotland,  and  then  diffuses  itself 
eastward  towards  Norway  and  Denmark,  and  circling  round  the  eastern  coasts  of  Britain, 
comes  southward  through  the  German  Ocean,  until  it  reaches  Dover,  where  it  meets  the 
branch  which  passes  up  the  English  Channel.  It  is  to  be  remarked,  however,  that  this  tide 
whicli  comes  up  the  channel  is  not  the  same  with  that  which  meets  it  from  the  north,  but  is 
a  whole  tide  earlier  if  not  two,  as  appears  "from  the  fact  of  the  spring  tide  at  Rye  being  a 
tide  earlier  than  the  spring  tide  at  the  Nore :  it  even  seems  two  tides  earlier,  for  it  appears 
the  one  as  often  as  the  other.  By  tracing  the  hour  of  high  water  from  the  lizard  up  St. 
George's  Channel,  and  along  the  west  coasts  of  Scotland,  it  appears  that  the  two  tides  which 
pass  along  the  east  and  west  sides  of  Ireland  and  unite  into  one  wave  to  the  north  of  it, 
travel  round  Britam  in  about  twenty-eight  hours,  in  which  time  the  primitive  tide  has  gone 
round  the  whole  circumference  of  the  earth,  and  nearly  45  degrees  more.  By  attending 
also  to  the  successive  hours  of  high  water  along  the  western  coasts  of  Africa  and  Europe, 
it  appears  that  the  wave,  which  divides  into  three  branches  at  the  mouth  of  the  English 
Channel,  takes  up  nearly  two  days,  or  between  four  and  five  tides,  in  travelling  thither  from 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  A  similar  progress  of  the  same  high  water  from  the  southward  is 
observed  along  the  eastern  shores  of  South  America ;  but  beyond  Brazil  and  Surinam  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  is  sufficiently  extensive  to  contribute  greatly  to  the  formation  of  the  regular 
spheroid ;  so  that  the  effect  of  this  high  water  from  the  southward,  being  blended  with  the 
tide  raised  in  the  Atlantic  itself,  becomes  insensible.  In  an  ocean  of  such  a  breadth  from 
east  to  west  as  the  Atlantic,  the  water  can  rise  on  the  one  shore  only  by  descending  on  the 
other.  In  the  middle,  therefore,  it  will  retain  nearly  the  mean  height  between  its  elevations 
on  the  two  opposite  coasts  :  this  appears  to  be  the  reason  why  the  tides  are  small  in  islands 
that  are  very  far  distant  from  the  shores. 

The  reflection  of  the  tide  from  shore  to  shore  is  a  great  cause  of  irregularity  in  the  tides. 
The  coasts  may  be  so  situated  that  the  time  in  which  the  undulation  that  constitutes  the 
tide  would  of  itself  vibrate  backward  and  forward  from  shore  to  shore,  may  be  so  exactly 
accommodated  to  the  recurring  action  of  the  moon  that  the  succeeding  impulses,  being 
always  added  to  the  natural  undulation,  may  raise  it  to  a  height  altogether  disproportioned 
to  what  the  action  of  the  moon  can  produce  in  the  open  sea,  where  the  undulation  diffuses 
itself  to  a  vast  distance. 

The  inequalities  which  undoubtedly  obtain  in  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  affect  the  tides,  by 
changing  the  direction  of  the  waters ;  also  their  velocity  either  absolutely  or  in  respect  of 
particular  places.  They  may  also  influence  the  height  by  causing  the  tide  to  rush  with 
increasing  velocity  towards  a  particular  point,  where  the  waters  must  at  length  be  suddenly 
checked,  and  therefore  be  accumulated  in  an  extraordinary  degree :  this  appears  to  be  the 
cause  of  the  astonishingly  high  tides  which  occur  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  The  high  water  of 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  at  St.  Helena  does  not  exceed  four  or  five  feet ;  but,  setting  in  obliquely 
on  the  coast  of  North  America,  it  seems  to  range  along  that  coast  in  a  channel  or  bed, 
gradually  narrowing  till  it  is  stopped  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  where  tlie  accumulation  of  the 
waters  becomes  tremendous.  The  tide  approaches  with  a  prodigious  noise  in  one  vast  wave, 
that  is  seen  many  miles  off,  and  the  waters  rise  to  the  height  of  more  than  seventy  feet  in 
the  gulf  of  Cumberland  basin ;  the  rapidity  of  the  waters  is  so  great  as  to  overtake  animals 
feeding  on  the  shores. 

In  consequence  of  the  length  of  time  required  for  a  tide  to  propagate  itself  up  a  great 
river,  one  or  two  succeeding  tides  may  reach  the  mouth  of  the  river  before  the  first  tide  has 
arrived  at  the  highest  point  to  which  it  ranges  up  the  stream.     The  second  tide  will  also 


132  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  IL 

have  propa^ted  itself  so  far  up  the  river,  by  the  time  tliat  the  third  tide  reaches  the  mouth  ; 
and  thus  there  may  be  three  co-existent  high  waters  in  the  river.  The  two  intervenino;  low 
waters  in  the  ocean  will  also  produce  two  corresponding  low  waters  in  the  river:  tliese 
changes  in  the  depth  of  the  stream  are  produced  by  the  high  waters  whicli  arrive  at  its 
mouth  checking  its  velocity,  and  the  low  waters  accelerating  it.  To  cause  high  water  at 
any  particular  point,  it  is  by  no  means  necessary  that  tlie  water  should  be  raised  totliat  level 
all  the  way  from  tliat  point  to  the  mouth  of  the  river.  Before  such  an  accumulation  could 
take  place,  in  many  instances,  places  farther  down  the  stream  would  be  inundated.  At  many 
places  that  are  far  from  the  sea,  the  stream  at  the  moment  of  high  water  is  down  the  river, 
and  sometimes  it  is  considerable.  At  Quebec,  the  current  in  the  St.  Lawrence  runs  at  the 
rate  of  not  less  than  three  miles  per  hour :  this  is  a  clear  proof  that  the  water  is  not  heaped 
up,  for  tliere  can  be  no  stream  without  a  declivity.  The  phenomenon  termed  the  bore  of  a 
river,  which  occurs  chiefly  in  large  rivers  that  have  a  wide  outlet,  and  wliere  the  greatest 
tides  are  experienced,  arises  from  the  waters  accumulated  m  the  gulf  or  outlet  by  one  tide 
not  being,  in  such  circumstances,  discharged  before  the  approach  of-  tlie  ensuing  tide. 
These  accumulated  waters  encounter,  therefore,  the  waters  of  the  ocean  flowing  in  an  op- 
posite direction ;  so  that  the  re-action  of  the  conflicting  waves  produces  an  elevation  of  tlie 
water  far  above  the  natural  level.  Tlie  surge  Ibrmed  in  this  manner  rolls  up  the  river  with 
irresistible  force,  overwhelming  every  thing  which  it  encounters ;  until,  exhausted  by  the 
resistance  which  it  has  to  overcome,  it  at  length  sinks  into  a  feeble  undulation.  The  vio- 
lence and  elevation  witli  whicli  the  bore  rushes  along  in  some  rivers  is  almost  incredible :  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Severn  the  flood  comes  up  in  one  head  about  ten  feet  in  height ;  but  in  the 
great  rivers  of  America,  and  particularly  in  the  Amazon,  it  becomes  a  rolling  mountain  of 
water,  which  is  said  to  attain  the  height  of  180  feet. 

In  confined  seas  of  small  extent,  such  as  the  Caspian,  the  Euxine,  the  Baltic,  and  the 
great  lakes  of  North  America,  the  tides  must  necessarily  be  almost  insensible ;  the  dis- 
turbing forces  in  such  situations  have  not  room  to  act  to  any  extent :  the  greatest  height  to 
which  the  waters  of  the  Caspian  can  rise  above  their  level  on  the  shore,  in  consequence  of 
a  spheroidal  shape  being  given  to  them  by  the  lunar  action,  does  not  exceed  seven  inches; 
an  accumulation  w^ich  a  slight  breeze  of  wind  is  sufficient  to  counteract.  Even  in  cases 
where  a  confined  sea  is  connected  with  the  ocean  by  a  narrow  channel,  no  sensible  tide  can 
happen ;  for  the  tide  in  the  ocean  cannot  diffuse  itself  through  the  contracted  inlet  during 
the  period  that  elapses  between  two  consecutive  tides. 

The  Mediterranean  is  a  confined  sea  of  considerable  extent ;  and  the  tides  there  might  be 
A'ery  sensible  if  the  eflfects  of  the  solar  and  lunar  actions  were  not  diminished  by  its  distance 
from  the  equator.  As  the  moon  approaches  the  meridian  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, there  is  a  considerable  elevation  of  the  waters  on  tlie  Syrian  coast,  and  a  con- 
siderable depression  at  Gibraltar.  In  the  middle  of  the  length  the  water  is  at  the  mean 
height;  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  an  open  and  extensive  surface  of  water,  the  regular  spheroid- 
al form  is  nearly  attained,  and  the  water  stands  considerably  higher  on  the  outside  of  the 
straits  than  on  the  inside  ;  it  is  nearly  low  water  within,  while  it  is  about  one  third  or  one 
half  flood  without.  Notwithstanding  this  accumulation,  the  communication  is  too  narrow 
to  allow  the  tide  of  the  ocean  to  diffiise  itself  in  a  regular  manner  into  the  basin  of  the 
Mediterranean.  As  the  moon  moves  westward,  toward  Gibraltar,  the  water  will  begin  to 
rise,  but  slowly,  within  the  straits,  while  without  it  is  flowing  very  rapidly.  The  accu- 
mulation within  increases  with  the  progress  of  the  moon  westward,  until  it  reaches  higli 
water ;  but  by  this  time  the  tide  has  been  ebbing  for  some  hours  without  the  straits.  It  will 
now  be  low  water  on  the  coast  of  Syria ;  and  during  all  this  time  the  water  at  the  middle 
between  the  eastern  and  western  extremities  will  not  have  sensibly  altered  its  depth. 

The  singular  currents  which  prevail  in  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  appear  in  a  great  measure 
explained  by  these  peculiarities  with  regard  to  the  tides  in  the  JMediterranean  Sea  and 
Atlantic  Ocean.  Changes  of  tide,  always  different  and  frequently  quite  opposite,  are 
observed  on  the  east  and  west  sides  of  the  narrow  neck  which  connects  the  rock  with  Spain ; 
and  the  general  tenor  of  those  changes  has  a  very  great  analogy  with  what  has  now  been 
described. 

It  is  a  fact  which  strikes  the  attention,  upon  the  most  cursory  observation  of  the  pheno- 
mena of  the  tides,  that  they  fall  later  every  day.  Tills  variation  in  the  interval  of  the  tides 
is  called  the  priming  or  lagging  of  the  tides,  according  as  we  refer  them  to  lunar  or  solar 
time.  If  we  suppose  the  sun  and  moon  to  be  in  the  equator,  and  the  watery  spheroid  to 
attain  instantaneously  the  form  suited  to  its  equilibrium,  then  the  line  joining  the  summits 
of  the  two  waves  produced  in  the  ocean  by  their  combined  actions  will  always  be  directed  to 
a  point  situated  between  their  centres;  except  in  the  case  of  the  sun  and  moon  being  in  con- 
junction or  opposition,  when  it  will  be  directed  towards  their  centres.  The  following  table, 
calculated  on  the  above  supposition,  and  for  the  mean  distances  of  the  sun  and  moon  from 
the  earth,  exhibits  the  minutes  of  solar  time  that  the  moment  of  high  water  precedes  or  fol- 
lo\\-s  the  moon's  southing,  corresponding  to  every  tenth  degree  of  the  moon's  elongation  (east- 
ward) from  the  sun  or  from  the  point  opposite  to  the  sun.     It  shows  also  the  hour  and  minute 


Book  I. 


THE  TIDES. 


133 


of  the  day,  nearly,  when  it  is  high  water ;  and  the  height  of  the  tide,  supposing  the  height 
of  a  spring  tide  to  be  1000: — 


o 

M  = 

c  ■:: 
5| 

go 

o 

Time  of  High  Water. 

HeiEht 

of 
Tide. 

Time  of  High  Water. 

3 

^^f°'f          Afternoon 
sSn^g.     or  Midnight. 

Afternoon 
or  Midnight. 

After 
Moon's 
southing. 

Deg. 

Min.           Ho.  Min. 

1000 
987 
949 
887 
806 
715 
610 
518 
453 
429 

Ho.  Min. 

Min. 

Deg. 

0 
10 

20 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 

0 

m 

22 
31i 
40 
45 
46i 
40i 
25 
0 

0      0 

0    28i 

0  58 

1  28J 

2  0 

2  35 

3  13i 

3  59J 

4  55 
6      0 

12      0 

11    31 

11      2 

10    31 

10      0  . 
9    25 
8    46A 
8      01 
7      5 
6      0 

0 

Hi 
22 

40 
45 
401 
401 
25 
0 

180 
170 
ICO 
150 
140 
130 
120 
110 
100 

<;o 

If  we  note  the  exact  time  of  high  water  of  spring  tide  for  any  harbour,  and  tlie  exact 
position  of  the  sun  and  moon  at  that  time,  we  can  easily  make  a  table  of  the  monthly  series 
for  that  port,  by  noticing  the  difference  of  that  time  from  the  table,  and  making  the  same 
difference  for  every  succeeding  phasis  of  the  tide. 


CHAPTER  XVm. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  SOLAR  SYSTE3I. 

Ten  stars,  among  the  countless  number  with  which,  in  a  clear  night,  the  heavens  appear 
so  resplendent,  have  been  proved,  by  the  observations  and  reasonings  of  which  we  have  now 
given  a  brief  outline,  to  be  planets  revolving  about  the  sun,  and  deriving  their  light  from 
him.  The  earth  which  we  inhabit  lias  been  proved  to  have  a  similar  motion,  and  to  belong 
to  the  same  class  of  bodies.  Several  of  these  primary  planets  are  accompanied  by  satellites; 
and  the  whole  are  preserved  in  their  respective  orbits  by  a  centripetal  combined  with  a 
centrifugal  force.  Thus  there  subsist  among  these  bodies  relations  which  are  regarded  as 
uniting  them  in  one  system,  having  the  sun  in  the  centre ;  and  which  is  therefore  called  the 

SOLAR  SY.STEM. 

In  regard  to  the  other  planets,  as  we  have  employed  the  obvious  analogy  subsisting 
between  them  and  our  earth,  in  proving  its  annual  and  diurnal  motion ;  so,  on  the  other 
hand,  from  the  same  grounds,  it  seems  reasonable  to  conclude  that,  like  the  earth,  they  are 
designed  and  fitted  by  Infinite  Wisdom  for  the  accommodation  of  inhabitants,  and  that  in 
all  probability  millions  of  beings  are  placed  upon  them.  Though  our  observations  in  relation 
to  the  subserviency  of  the  arrangements  of  nature  to  the  enjoyment  of  sentient  beings  is 
confined  to  this  narrow  scene ;  yet,  seeing  this  small  portion  of  the  universe  crowded  with 
examples  of  utility,  why  sliould  we  imagine  that  Divine  Goodness  has  not  throughout  the 
system  in  like  manner  difiiised  its  bounty  1  As  our  knowledge  of  the  celestial  phenomena 
is  extended,  the  probability  becomes  proportionably  stronger  that  the  other  planets  are  stored 
with  inhabitants  who  share  in  the  blessings  of  rational  and  sentient  existence.  Their  rota 
tion,  their  atmospheres,  of  which  the  telescope  has  enabled  us  to  detect  the  existence,  and 
the  changes  which  we  see  going  on  in  these  atmospheres,  so  much  resemble  what  we  expe- 
rience on  the  earth,  that  no  man  who  clearly  conceives  tliem  can  divest  his  mind  of  the 
thought  that  this  is  not  the  only  part  of  the  system  where  the  Creator  has  displayed  his 
bounty  by  giving  existence  to  sentient  beings.  There  is  nothing  that  forbids  us  to  suppose 
that  in  each  of  the  other  planets  there  is  the  same  inexhaustible  store  of  subordinate 
contrivances  that  we  see  here  for  living  creatures  in  every  situation,  possessing  appropriate 
forms,  desires,  and  abilities.  Before  abandoning  such  an  opinion,  there  may  surely  be 
expected,  from  those  wlio  require  us  to  do  so,  some  good  reason  for  its  rejection. 

In  regard  to  the  fixed  stars,  as  the  sun,  if  viewed  from  a  sufficient  distance,  would  be 
diminished  into  a  luminous  point,  wliile  the  planets  that  revolve  round  him  would  become 
invisible;  so,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  highly  probable  that  each  fixed  star  is  itself  a  sun,  and 
the  centre  of  a  particular  system,  being  surrounded  with  a  certain  number  of  planets  and 
comets,  which,  at  different  distances  and  in  different  periods,  perform  their  revolutions 
around  it. 

There  appears  strong  reason  to  suppose  that  the  sun,  icith  his  accompanying  planets,  has 
a  motion  among  the  fixed  stars,  round  a  centre.    From  a  comparison  of  ancient  and  modern 

Vol.  I.  12 


134 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


observations,  it  appears  that  while  the  stars  in  one  quarter  of  the  heavens  are  recedinnf  from 
each  other,  those  in  the  opposite  region  are  gradually  approaching.  Dr.  Herschel  has 
found  that  these  motions  of  the  stars  are  nearly  in  the  direction  that  would  result  from  a 
motion  of  the  sun  towards  the  constellation  of  Hercules.  It  is  the  opinion  of  Lalande  that 
there  is  a  kind  of  equilibrium  among  all  the  systems  of  the  universe,  and  that  they  have  a 
periodic  circulation  about  thou"  common  centre  of  gravity. 

TABULAR  VIEW  OF  THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 

L     SECONDARY  PLANETS. 

1.     The  3I00N. 


Svnodical 29  Vi  44  2.9 

Anomalistic 27  13  18  37.4 

Sidereal 27  7  43  11.5 

Tropical 27  7  43  4.7 

Nodical 27  5  5  3ti.O 


Inclination  of  Orbit  to  (     --  „,  ,_,,  „ 
plane  of  Ecliptic...  (     o    c  -i,    .j 
Greater  semi-axis  of  Orbit  =  1.000000 
Eccentricity  =  .054844 


Semidiameter  of  Terrestrial  Equator  =  1. 
3Ioon's  mean  distance  =  50.96435. 

in  miles  =  237000. 
Moon's  mean  diameter  ^  2160  miles. 
Her  volume  =  ^  of  volume  of  the  Earth. 
Her  mass  =  ^j-j  of  mass  of  the  Earth. 
Her  density  =  —^  =  .615  of  density  of  the  Earth. 
Her  licht  is  — ?— th  of  the  light  of  the  Sun. 

»  300000  ° 


2.  Satellites  of  Jupiter. 


3.  Satellites  of  S.\turn. 


4.  Satellites  of  Uranus. 


c 

Mean  distance 

— 

Sidereal 

in  seniidiame- 

"a 

Revolution. 

ters  of  Jupiter's 

s 

Equator. 

D.      H.      M. 

1 

1     18    28 

6.049 

2 

3     13     14 

9.623 

3 

7      8    43 

15.3.50 

4 

16    16    32 

26.998 

^ 

Mean  distance 

.- 

Sidereal 

in  semidiame- 

CJ 

Revolution. 

ters  of  Saturn's 

X 

Equator. 

D.      H.      M. 

1 

0    22    38 

3.351 

2 

1      8    53 

4..300 

3 

1    21     18 

5.284 

4 

2    n    45 

6.819 

5 

4     12    45 

9.524 

6 

15    22    41 

22.081 

7 

79      7    55 

64.359 

s 

Mean  distance 

2 

Sidereal 

in  semidiame- 

Q) 

Revolution. 

ters     of    Ura- 

a 

nus's  Equator. 

D.      H.      M. 

1 

5    21    25 

13.120 

t) 

8     16    58 

17.022 

3 

10    23      4 

19.845 

4 

13    10    56 

22.752 

5 

38      1    48 

45.507 

6 

107    16    40 

91.008 

n.    PRIMARY  PLANETS  AND  SUN. 


Mercury 


Sidereal  Period. 


S7.96925P0 
Z24.7CI07S69 
36'.2563612 
686.97S6458 
1323.7431 
1592.660S 
1681.3931 
1686  53S8 
4332.S84S212 
10759.2198174 
306S6.8208296 


0.3870981 
0.72M116 
1.0000000 
1. 5236923 
2.3678700 
2.6690090 
2.7672450 
2.7T28860 
5.2027760 


.20551494 
.00686074 
.0:678357 
.09330700 
.08913000 
.2.5781800 
.07843900 
.24164!- 00 
.04816210 
.05615050 
.04667938 


Me.in  Lon^tude 
Jan  1,  1801. 


(-278 
;J  200 
i  1  123 

(.108 


0  48.6 
33  30 
39  10.2 
22  55.5 
30    0.4 

r6  19.1 
16  11.9 
24  57.9 
15  23.0 
20  6.5 
48  23.0 


74  21  46.! 
128  43  53. 

99  30  5  ( 
332  23  56 ( 
249  23  44.' 

53  33  46.( 
147  7  31..- 
121     7    4; 

13     8  34.i 

89  9  29.i 
167  31  16.: 


10  37  I 
34  34  i 

1  IS  • 

2  29  : 
0  46  ! 


Lnng.  Nodes.        Mein  Daily 
Jan.  1, 1801.      Motion  in  Orbit 


48  0  3.5 
rl03  13  I''.2 
I  171  7  40.4 
I  80  41  24.0 
Ll72  39  26.8 

98  26  18.9 
III  56  37.4 

72  59  35.3 


4  5  32.6 
I  36  7.8 
0  59  8.3 
0  31  26.7 
0  16  17.9 
0  13  32.9 
0  12  50.9 
0  12  48  4 
0  4  59.3 
0  2  0.6 
0    0  42.4 


Planets 
and 
Sun. 

True 
Diameter. 

Volume. 

Mass. 

Density. 

Gravi- 

ty. 

Sidereal  Ro- 
tation. 

Inclination  of  Axis 
to  Axis  of  Ecliptic. 

Light 
and 
Heat. 

Mercury 

0.398 

0.398 

2Tr2l?'8To 

1.03 

h.    m.  s. 
24    5  28 

0           '          " 

not  known 

6.680 

Venus 

0.975 

0.927 

1 

4  0 a?7 : 

-      . 

0.98123  21     7 

not  exactly  known 

1.911 

Earth 

1.000 

1.000 

334937 

3.9326 

1.00I24   0   0 

23    27    56.5 

1.000 

Mars 

O.oU 

0.139 

204^720 

.    . 

.3324  39  21 

30     19    10.8 

0.431 

Jupiter 

10.860 

1280.900 

To  TO.  5 

.9924 

2.72  9  55  50 

3      5    30.0 

0.037 

Saturn 

9.982 

995.000 

1 

3:5X2 

.5500 

1.0110  29  17 

31     19      0 

0.011 

Uranus 

4.332 

80.490 

TT9iF 

1.1000 

-     -    unknown 

not  known 

0.003 

Sun 

111.454 

1384472.000 

1 

1.0000 

27.90,25  12    0 

7    30       0 

Moon 

.0275 

.000  TB^2T2Tnr 

2.4185 

0.16i27    7  43 

1     30     10.8 

1.000 

Book  I.         FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  EARTH.  135 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  EARTH. 

We  have  sufficiently  established  the  important  proposition  that  the  earth  is  a  round  body ; 
and  have  inferred  from  the  figure  of  its  shadow,  as  seen  on  the  moon's  disc  in  lunar  eclipses, 
that  it  must  be  a  sphere,  or  at  least  tliat  it  approaches  to  that  figure.  The  liypothesis  of  its 
being  exactly  spherical  is  sufficient  to  explain,  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  the  general  appear- 
ance of  the  heavens,  as  seen  from  different  points  of  its  surface ;  and  before  the  true  doctrine 
of  motion  and  the  law  of  gravitation,  which  connects  the  most  remote  bodies  in  the  universe, 
were  discovered,  a  sphere  was  considered  to  be  an  exact  representation  of  its  shape,  and  the 
ingenuity  of  mathematicians  was  exerted  to  discover  its  magnitude. 

The  determination  of  the  magnitude  of  the  earth  might  appear,  to  one  altogether  ignorant 
of  mathemaiical  science,  as  a  problem  of  insuperable  difficulty,  and,  indeed,  as  too  sublime  to 
be  resolved  by  a  human  being.  If,  however,  we  suppose  the  earth  an  exact  sphere,  the 
theory  of  the  solution  is  by  no  means  difficult;  it  is  within  the  bounds  of  elementary  geome- 
try, and  has  been  known  from  the  earliest  ages :  but  the  case  is  very  different  with  the 
practice.  In  the  actual  resolution,  instruments  of  the  greatest  nicety  are  required ;  and  to 
produce  these,  the  ingenuity  of  man  has  been  tasked  to  the  utmost  during  the  last  two 
hundred  years ;  besides,  the  application  of  them  demands,  in  addition  to  the  principles  of 
geometry,  some  of  the  most  refined  theories  in  physics :  so  that,  on  the  whole,  few  problems 
present  a  more  ample  field  for  the  exertion  of  the  mmd  of  man,  or  have  more  extensively 
called  forth  the  assistance  of  arts  and  sciences. 

It  is  now  about  two  thousand  years  since  Eratosthenes  attempted  to  resolve  this  important 
problem.  He  knew  that  on  the  day  of  the  summer  solstice 
the  sun  illuminated  the  bottom  of  a  well  at  Syene.  At  the 
same  instant  he  observed  at  Alexandria  that  the  sun  was  7° 
12'  from  the  zenith :  and  it  was  supposed  that  Syene  was  due 
south  from  that  place,  and  therefore  that  both  were  under  the 
same  meridian.  Let  C  (Jig.  42.)  be  the  earth's  centre,  A 
Alexandria,  Z  its  zenith  in  the  heavens,  B  Syene,  and  S  the 
sun  at  the  instant  when  it  illuminated  the  bottom  of  the  well, 
and  consequently  was  in  the  zenith  of  that  place.  The  angu- 
lar measure  of  the  celestial  arc  Z  S,  or  the  corresponding  ter- 
restrial arc  A  B,  is  the  angle  Z  C  S  at  the  earth's  centre. 
Eratosthenes  observed  the  angle  Z  A  S,  which  by  the  elements 
of  geometry,  is  less  than  the  former  by  the  angle  A  S  C. 
However,  this  diflference  is  so  small,  that  it  may  be  altogether 
neglected  in  the  present  case ;  and  thus  the  angle  A  C  B  will 
be  nearly  7°  12',  that  is,  one  fiftieth  part  of  360° ;  and  conse- 
quently the  arc  A  B  of  the  terrestrial  meridian  one  fiftieth  of 
tlie  earth's  circumference.  The  distance  between  Alexandria  and  Syene  had  been  deter- 
mined to  be  5000  stadia.  Hence  it  immediately  followed  that  the  earth's  circumference  was 
250,000  stadia.  As  it  could  not  be  supposed  that  this  result  was  very  accurate,  Eratos- 
thenes reckoned  the  circumference  to  be  252,000  stadia,  which  give  in  round  numbers  700 
stadia  to  the  length  of  a  degree. 

The  geometrical  principle  here  employed  u^as  quite  correct,  and  indeed  was  the  same 
which  is  used  at  this  time ;  but  the  data  were  very  inaccurate  and  uncertain,  for  Syene, 
instead  of  being  exactly  south  from  Alexandria,  lies  considerably  to  the  east;  and  it  may 
well  be  supposed  that  the  assigned  distance  between  Alexandria  and  Syene  was  not  an 
accurate  measurement,  but  merely  a  rude  approximation.  It  is  impossible,  however,  now  to 
determine  how  near  Eratosthenes  came  to  the  truth,  for  want  of  a  knowledge  of  the  exact 
length  of  the  stadium  by  which  the  distance  was  reckoned. 

The  principles  by  which  Eratosthenes  was  directed  in  his  measurement  of  the  earth 
appear  to  have  been  afterwards  employed  by  Posidonius.  This  astronomer  liad  remarked, 
that  at  Rhodes  the  star  Canopus  was  just  visible  in  the  horizon,  but  never  rose  above  it ; 
wliile  at  Alexandria  it  attained  an  altitude  of  75°,  or  ^'jjth  part  of  the  circumference  of  a  great 
circle.  The  direct  distance  between  these  two  places,  which  were  supposed  to  be  on  the 
same  meridian,  was  accounted  to  be  .5000  stadia ;  and  therefore,  according  to  this  observa- 
tion, the  circumference  should  have  been  240,000 :  but  here  the  uncertainty  of  a  distance 
reckoned  by  a  sea-voyage,  not  to  speak  of  other  causes  of  error,  renders  the  conclusion  of 
no  value. 

About  the  year  800  of  the  Christian  era,  the  caliph  Almaman  directed  that  his  astro- 
nomers should  measure  a  degree  of  the  meridian  in  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia.  The  method 
which  they  employed  was  susceptible  of  greater  accuracy  than  that  of  the  Greeks.  They 
divided  themselves  into  two  parties:  after  observing  the  altitude  of  the  pole,  one  went 
directly  north  and  the  other  south,  measuring  as  they  proceeded,  and  taking  from  time  to 


136  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

time  the  altitude  of  tlie  pole,  until  each  party  had  changed  its  latitude  by  a  degree.  Thus 
the  measure  of  two  degrees  was  obtained ;  but,  at  the  present  time,  our  ignorance  of  the 
exact  lengtli  of  tlie  unit  of  measure  renders  all  their  labour  useless  to  us,  even  if  (wliat  is 
very  unlikely)  its  accuracy  might  have  been  relied  on.  It  appears,  however,  that  their 
estimation  of  the  earth's  magnitude  was  less  accurate  than  that  of  the  astronomer  of 
Alexandria. 

The  method  of  Eratosthenes  was  practised  in  modern  times,  first  by  Fernel,  a  Flemish 
physician.  He  travelled  from  Paris  towards  Amiens,  which  places  are  nearly  under  tiie 
same  meridian,  until  lie  had  passed  over  a  degree  of  latitude  ;  and,  by  a  contrivance  attached 
to  the  wlieel  of  his  carriage,  he  ascertained  the  number  of  revolutions  it  made  in  that  dis- 
tance.    In  this  way  he  found  the  length  of  tlie  degree  to  be  57,070  French  toises. 

The  same  degree  was  afterwards  measured  by  La  Caille,  and  found  to  be  57,074  toises. 
The  near  agreement  of  Fernel's  result  with  this  last,  obtained  by  a  more  accurate  and 
scientific  process,  is  very  remarkable. 

The  Dutch  astronomer  Snellius  was  the  first  who  attempted  to  resolve  this  most  inter- 
esting and  difficult  problem  in  practical  geometry  with  those  scientific  aids  which  its  import- 
ance required.  In  t!ie  year  1(517  he  published  his  Eratosthenes  Batavus,  in  which  he  has 
detailed  the  whole  process.  The  extreme  points  of  his  meridional  arc  are  terminated  in  the 
parallels  of  Alcmaer,  in  lat.  52°  4O2',  and  Bergen-op-Zoom,  lat.  51°  29',  the  arc  between 
tliem  being  1°  II5'.  He  formed  a  series  of  triangles  between  these  places  along  the  earth's 
surface,  and  determined  (as  well  as  the  imperfect  instruments  of  tiie  time  enabled  him  to 
determine)  their  angles ;  and  by  several  base  lines,  actually  measured,  he  found  their  sides. 
He  reduced  the  positions  of  his  stations  to  the  meridian ;  and  he  concluded  that  a  degree  of 
the  meridian  was  28,500  perches,  which  were  equivalent  to  55,100  toises  of  tliat  period ; 
wiiich,  however,  were  rather  longer  than  the  toise  as  it  is  now  estimated.  The  error  of 
Snellius  appears  to  have  been  about  2000  toises  on  the  length  of  a  degi^ee,  of  which  1900 
miiy  have  arisen  from  the  error  in  measuring  the  celestial  arc,  and  the  rest  from  the  imper- 
fection of  his  geodetical  measurements.  Snellius  measured  his  original  base  over  again, 
and  corrected  his  conclusion :  he  died,  however,  before  he  could  publish  the  result.  Cassini 
made  certain  corrections  in  his  calculations,  by  whicli  the  length  of  the  degree  came  out 
56,675  toises ;  and  Muschenbroek,  by  an  examination  of  Snellius's  papers,  found  that  the 
degree  ought  to  have  been  reckoned  57,033  toises. 

Richard  Norwood  made  a  remarkable  approximation  to  the  true  length  of  a  degree  in 
1635,  by  apparently  inadequate  means.  He  measured  tlic  distance  between  London  and 
York,  observing  the  bearings  as  he  proceeded,  and  reducing  all  to  the  direction  of  the 
meridian  and  the  horizontal  plane.  He  determined  the  difference  of  latitude  to  be  2°  28' ;  and 
from  the  whole  distance  he  determined  the  degree  to  be  367,176  feet  English,  or  57,800  toises. 

As  far  as  pure  mathematical  tlieory  was  concerned,  the  method  of  Snellius  was  excellent ; 
the  chief  imperfection  was  in  his  instruments :  but  an  immense  improvement  was  made  by 
Picard,  in  the  application  of  the  telescope  and  the  micrometer  to  the  measurement  of 
angles ;  and,  with  the  assistnnce  of  instruments  constructed  on  the  new  principle,  this  astro- 
nomer, by  tlie  direction  of  the  French  Academy,  began  the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  the 
meridian,  taking  for  its  extremities  the  parallels  of  Sourdon  near  Amiens,  and  Malvoisine. 
His  general  manner  of  conducting  the  process  was  the  same  as  that  of  Snellius.  He  con- 
nected tlie  extreme  parallels  by  a  series  of  triangles,  the  sides  of  wliich  w^ere  determined 
from  a  base  of  5663  toises,  measured  twice  with  great  care  at  one  extremity  of  the  series. 
There  was  a  base  of  verification  of  3902  toises  measured  at  the  other  extremity.  The 
horizontal  angles  were  measured  by  a  quadrant  of  thirty-eight  inches'  radius ;  and  the 
celestial  arc,  which  was  about  1°  12',  by  a  sector  ten  feet  in  radius.  He  concluded  the 
length  of  a  degree  to  be  57,060  toises. 

This  was  the  first  measurement  in  which  confidence  could  be  placed.  It  is  true  there 
were  several  elements  wanting  in  the  determination  of  the  celestial  arc,  owing  to  the  imper- 
fect state  of  astronomical  science  at  tliat  time ;  but,  by  a  fortunate  compensation,  the  errors 
thence  arising  corrected  each  other.  This  measurement  of  Picard  was  of  service  to  Newton, 
in  verifying  his  happy  thought  of  the  law  of  universal  gravitation. 

The  measurement  begun  by  Picard  was  continued  northward  to  Dunkirk  by  La  Hire ; 
and  in  the  opposite  direction,  as  far  as  Perpignan,  by  the  second  Cassini,  who  published  the 
whole  in  1718,  in  a  work  on  the  magnitude  and  figure  of  the  earth. 

The  labour  of  the  French  astronomers  determined  the  magnitude  of  the  earth  with  a 
degree  of  accuracy  sufficient  for  the  general  purposes  of  geography ;  but  science  was  now 
proceeding  with  rapid  strides,  and  a  new  question  was  agitated, — Is  the  earth  an  exact 
sphere,  as  had  been  iiitherto  supposed  7  or,  if  it  be  not  a  sphere,  what  is  its  true  figure ! 

Huygens  and  Newton  liad  established  the  doctrine  of  the  centrifugal  force  of  bodies 
revolving  in  circles  ;  and  from  tliis  it  was  justly  inferred  that  the  earth,  in  consequence  of 
its  rotation  on  an  axis,  must  necessarily  deviate  from  a  spherical  figure,  and  assume  that  of 
an  oblate  spheroid ;  that  is,  a  solid  generated  by  the  revolution  of  an  ellipse  on  its  lesser 
axis,  the  extremities  of  which  in  this  case  were  the  poles. 


Book  I.  FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  EARTH.  137 

This  opinion  received  support  from  some  astronomical  observations  made  by  Richer,  who 
was  sent  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  in  1672,  to  Cayenne.  He  there  found  that  his  clock, 
which  had  been  regulated  to  mean  time  at  Paris,  went  slower  by  a  sensible  quantity.  This 
interesting  observation  showed  that  the  weight  of  the  pendulum  was  less  at  the  equator  than 
it  had  been  at  Paris ;  and  hence  the  increase  of  the  force  of  gravity  in  proceeding  ti-om  the 
equator  towards  tlie  pole,  as  shown  theoretically  by  Newton,  was  completely  established ; 
and  consequently  also  the  oblateness  of  the  earth  at  the  poles,  and  its  elevation  at  the  equator, 
which  are  the  consequence  of  this  diminution. 

43  If  the  earth  were  a  perfect  sphere,  then  all  the  degrees 

of  the  terrestrial  meridian  fr'om  the  equator  to  the  pole 
would  be  equal  in  length.  But  this  will  by  no  means  be 
the  case  if  the  earth  be  a  spheroid.  For,  supposing  the 
earth  to  be  an  oblate  spheroid  {fig.  43.),  of  which  the 
lesser  axis  is  P  P',  that  diameter  of  the  eartli  which 
"jQ  passes  through  P  P'  the  poles.  Let  E  Q,  be  any  equa- 
torial diameter,  and  E  P  Q  P'  a  section  of  the  earth, 
through  the  axis  P  P',  which  will  therefore  be  a  terres- 
trial meridian.  Because  the  direction  of  gravity  is  always 
in  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  earth's  surface ;  at  the 
poles  and  equator,  the  direction  of  gravity  will  pass 
through  the  centre.  It  will  be  otherwise,  however,  at  any  point,  D,  between  the  equator 
and  poles ;  ibr,  by  the  nature  of  the  ellipse,  a  line,  D  Y,  drawn  perpendicular  to  the  curve 
at  D  will  pass  on  one  side  of  the  centre.  Now  let  us  suppose  that  D  F,  H  F,  are  two  straight 
lines  perpendicular  to  the  earth's  surface  at  D  and  H,  which  meet  in  F,  and  contain  an 
angle  D  F  H,  of  one  degree ;  also  let  G  K,  L  K,  be  other  two  lines  perpendicular  to  the 
earth's  surface  at  points  nearer  the  pole ;  and  suppose  these  also  to  contain  an  angle  G  K  L, 
of  one  degree.  The  elliptic  arc  D  H,  because  of  its  smallness,  may  be  considered  as  an  arc 
of  a  circle  of  which  D  F  or  H  F  is  the  radius ;  and  similarly  the  elliptic  arc  G  L  may  be 
considered  as  an  arc  of  a  circle  whose  radius  is  G  K  or  L  K.  The  curvature  of  the  ellipse 
is  greatest  at  E,  the  extremity  of  the  greater  axis,  and  gradually  deci'eases  to  P,  the 
extremity  of  the  lesser  axis,  where  it  is  least.  Hence  the  arc  D  H  will  be  more  incurvated 
than  G  F ;  and  since  the  angles  at  F  and  K  are  equal,  each  being  one  degree,  the  almost 
equal  lines  G  K,  L  K,  will  be  greater  tiian  the  almost  equal  lines  D  H,  H  F ;  and  the  aro 
G  L  must  therefore  be  greater  than  the  arc  D  H.  Thus,  if  the  earth  is  an  oblate  spheroid, 
a  degree  of  the  terrestrial  meridian  will,  by  actual  measurement,  be  found  to  be  least  at  the 
equator ;  and  the  degrees  will  gradually  increase  as  we  proceed  towards  either  pole. 

It  is  manifest  that  the  case  would  be  just  the  reverse  if  the  eartli  were  an  oblong  spheroid, 
generated  by  the  rotation  of  an  ellipse  on  its  greater  axis  E  Q.  Hence  the  important  question. 
What  is  the  figure  of  the  terrestrial  meridian  ]  may  be  resolved  by  measuring  arcs  of  the 
meridian  in  different  latitudes. 

None  of  the  measurements  before  that  begun  by  Picard  were  made  with  such  accuracy 
as  to  enable  mathematicians  to  resolve  the  question.  But  it  was  then  supposed  that  this 
had  been  performed  with  such  care  as  to  afford  the  necessary  data.  Such,  however,  appears 
not  to  have  been  tlie  case.  The  degrees  actually  measured  were  found,  to  be  unequal; 
but,  instead  of  increasing  in  going  from  south  to  north,  the  reverse  was  supposed  to  be  the 
fact ;  and  had  this  been  really  true,  the  polar  axis  would  have  been  greater  than  the  equa- 
torial,— a  conclusion  quite  in  opposition  to  that  derivable  from  the  doctrine  of  centrifugal 
force. 

To  determine  this  most  important  question,  the  Academy  of  Sciences  resolved  that  degrees 
of  the  meridian  should  be  measured  in  various  latitudes  which  might  differ  as  much  as 
possible ;  and  it  was  determined  that  one  party  should  be  sent  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
equator,  and  anotlier  to  the  polar  circle.  Twa  scientific  expeditions  were  accordmgiy 
undertaken.  Maupertuis,  Clairaut,  Comus,  Lemonnier,  and  Outhier,  went  to  Lapland,  where 
the  Swedish  astronomer  Celsius  joined  them ;  and  there  they  measured  an  arc  of  fifty-seven 
minutes  of  a  degree,  from  which  they  concluded  that  a  degree  under  the  polar  circle,  viz.  in 
lat.  Qii'^  20',  was  57,419  toises,  that  is,  about  349  toises  greater  than  that  of  Paris.  This 
degree  has  been  since  remeasured  with  great  care  by  Svanberg  and  other  Swedish  mathe- 
maticians, who  found  it  to  be  57,196  toises.  This  is  223  toises  less  than  the  determination 
of  tiie  French  academicans ;  but  it  is  certainly  more  correct. 

The  other  party,  composed  of  Godin,  Bouguer,  and  La  Condamine,  performed  a  similar 
but  more  extensive  operation  in  Peru.  After  ten  years'  labour,  they,  with  the  assistance  of 
two  Spanish  officers,  Don  Jorge  Juan  and  Antonio  de  Ulloa,  accomplished  the  measurement 
of  an  arc  of  about  3°  7'.  From  this  they  concluded  that  the  length  of  a  degree  was  56,758 
toises,  which  was  shorter  than  tlie  French  degree  by  302  toises.  These  measurements  set 
the  question  completely  at  rest.  Tiiere  could  no  longer  be  any  doubt  that  the  polar  diame- 
ter of  the  eartli  was  shorter  tlian  the  equatorial. 

The  measurement  of  different  degrees  has  been  since  performed  many  times  in  different 
Vol.  I.  12*  S 


138  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  H. 

countries ;  as  ag'ain  in  France,  and  also  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  by  La  Caille ;  in  Italy,  by 
Maire,  Boscovich,  and  Beccaria ;  in  Pennsylvania,  by  Mason  and  Dixon ;  in  Hungary,  by 
Lifsganig ;  in  India,  by  Lambton. 

There  have  been,  in  addition  to  these,  two  admeasurements  of  arcs  of  the  meridian  which 
deserve  particular  notice,  on  account  of  their  extent,  the  excellence  of  the  instruments 
employed,  and  the  skill  with  which  the  operations  have  been  conducted.  We  are  indebted 
to  the  spirit  of  reform  and  improvement  which  sprung  out  of  the  French  revolution  for  one 
of  these,  and  to  the  liberal  and  enlightened  views  of  the  English  government  for  the  other. 

The  great  diversity  in  the  units  of  a  measure  is  an  evil  which  has  been  long  felt  and  com- 
plained of  in  every  commeicial  country.  The  French  Constitutional  Assembly  took  np  this 
most  important  subject  in  the  year  1790 ;  and,  at  the  suggestion  of  Talleyrand,  it  was  decreed, 
that  the  king  should  request  his  Britannic  majesty  to  engage  the  parliament  of  England  to 
concur  with  the  National  Assembly  in  fixing  a  natural  unit  of  weights  and  measures ;  that, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  two  nations,  commissioners  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  an 
equal  number  of  members  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  should  determine  the  length  of 
the  pendulum  in  the  latitude  of  45°,  or  otiier  preferable  latitude,  and  from  this  deduce  an 
invariable  standard  for  all  weights  and  measures. 

The  Academy  named  a  commission,  composed  of  Borda,  Lagrange,  Laplace,  Monge,  and 
Condorcet,  Avho  gave  a  report,  which  is  printed  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  for  1789. 
Three  different  fundamental  units  were  suggested  in  their  repoit.  The  first  is  the  pendulum 
which  beats  seconds  in  a  given  parallel.  That  of  45°  was  thought  preferable  to  any  otiier, 
because  there  the  pendulum  is  a  mean  among  all  those  which  beat  seconds  in  the  different 
latitudes  between  the  equator  and  the  pole.  They  observed,  however,  that  the  pendulum 
contains  a  heterogeneous  element,  namely,  time ;  and  an  arbitrarj'  element,  viz.  the  division 
of  the  day  into  86,400  seconds.  They,  tiierefore,  considered  it  to  be  less  proper  as  a  standard 
unit  of  lineal  measure,  than  another  which  they  regarded  as  unexceptionable.  This  is  the 
length  of  a  quadrant  of  the  meridian,  a  linear  magnitude  of  the  same  kind  as  the  thing  to 
be  determined,  and  therefore  more  natural  than  the  pendulum,  which  involved  the  considera- 
tion of  time.  There  is  yet  another  linear  unit,  namely,  the  circumference  of  the  earth's 
equator.  But  this  is  not  better  known  than  the  elliptic  meridian  ;  nor  does  it  admit  of  being 
determined  with  so  much  precision.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  it  was  recommended  that  the 
quadrant  of  the  meridian  should  be  taken  as  the  primary  unit,  and  that  its  ten-millionth  part 
(a  lineal  space  about  39!-^  Ensrlish  inches)  should  be  the  ordinary  unit  for  the  measurements 
which  occur  in  the  affairs  of  life.     This  was  named  a  metre. 

Although  in  the  beginning  it  had  been  proposed  to  invite  the  English  philosophers  to  assist 
in  establishing  a  standard  unit,  yet,  as  the  object  to  be  attained  could  be  accomplished  per- 
fectly by  the  PVench  mathematicians,  without  any  foreign  aid,  it  was  recommended  to 
commence  immediately  the  measurement  of  the  arc  of  the  meridian  between  Dunkirk  and 
Barcelona,  an  extent  of  nearly  9^  degrees.  The  operations  necessary  for  this  labour  were, 
1.  To  determine  the  difference  of  latitude  between  Dunkirk  and  Barcelona ;  and,  in  general, 
to  make  such  astronomical  observations  on  the  whole  line  as  might  be  thought  useful.  2.  To 
measure  again  the  bases  which  had  served  for  the  measurement  of  the  degree  made  at  Paris, 
and  the  con-struction  of  the  map  of  PVance.  3.  To  verify  by  new  observations  the  series  of 
triangles  which  had  formerly  been  emploj^ed  for  the  measurement  of  the  meridian,  and  to 
prolong  them  to  Barcelona.  4.  To  make,  at  the  45th  degree,  such  observations  as  might 
determine  the  number  of  vibrations  which  a  pendulum  equal  in  length  to  one  ten-millionth 
part  of  the  meridian  would  make  in  a  day,  in  a  vacuum  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  at  the 
temperature  of  melting  ice,  in  order  that,  this  number  being  once  known,  the  metre  might  be 
determined  at  any  time  by  the  length  of  the  pendulum.  In  this  way  the  advantages  of  the 
two  methods  of  forming  a  standard  would  be  united.  5.  To  verify  by  new  experiments  the 
specific  gravity  of  pure  water  in  a  vacuum,  and  at  the  temperature  of  water  just  beginning 
to  freeze.  6.  And  lastly,  To  reduce  all  the  old  measures  of  every  kind  employed  in  com- 
merce to  the  new  standards. 

To  accomplish  these  objects,  it  was  recommended  that  six  distinct  commissioners  should 
be  appointed.  This  was  done  by  a  decree  of  the  National  Assembly,  dated  26th  March, 
1791 ;  only  it  was  thought  to  be  better  to  commit  tlie  astronomical  and  geodetical  observa- 
tions to  a  single  commission.  Immediately  directions  were  given  for  the  construction  of  the 
necessary  instruments.  Lenoir,  a  celebrated  French  artist,  was  employed  to  make  repeating 
circles,  long  rules  of  platina  for  the  measurement  of  the  bases,  and  a  shorter  rule ;  also,  balls 
of  platina  and  gold  for  the  pendulum  observations. 

About  tlie  middle  of  the  year  1792,  Cassini  and  Borda  began  a  series  of  experiments  on 
the  pendulum ;  and,  in  the  following  year,  Lavoisier  was  engaged  in  experiments  on  the 
expansion  of  metals.  And  about  the  same  time  Mechain  began  his  operations  for  the  deter- 
mination of  the  portion  of  the  meridian  between  Rodez  and  Barcelona,  an  extent  of  170,000 
toises.  Delambre  had  undertaken  the  portion  of  the  arc  between  Dunkirk  and  Rodez, 
IjS.OOO  toises  in  extent.  Tiiis,  however,  had  been  twice  measured  before ;  and  for  this 
reason  the  labour  was  expected  to  be  less  than  was  requisite  for  the  other  portion,  which 


Book  I. 


FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  EARTH. 


139 


was  entirely  new.  Besides  the  privations  and  hardships,  the  ordinary  accompaniments  of  a 
service  which  requires  those  who  perform  it  to  live  in  elevated  situations,  with  little  shelter, 
with  few  of  the  comforts  to  which  they  have  been  accustomed,  and  exposed  to  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  heat  and  cold,  and  the  influence  of  the  nocturnal  dews,  they  had  to  encounter  the 
perils  arising  from  a  disorganized  state  of  society.  Mechain  was  stopped  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Paris;  but  when  he  pursued  his  labours  at  a  distance  from  the  capital,  he  met 
with  no  farther  interruption ;  while  Delambre,  in  the  north  of  France,  was  often  exposed 
to  the  most  imminent  danger.  In  the  heat  o^  the  French  revolution,  the  people  were 
jealous  of  what  they  did  not  understand ;  and  the  astronomers  were  at  once  exposed  to  the 
machinations  of  their  enemies  at  Paris,  and  to  the  brutality  of  the  ignorant  peasants  in  the 
provinces. 

In  the  course  of  their  operations  they  measured  two  bases,  on  the  accurate  determination 
of  which  the  utility  of  all  their  labours  was  to  depend.  One  base,  of  6075.9  toises,  was 
measured  by  Delambre  at  Melun ;  and  the  other,  of  6006.2478  toises,  at  Perpignan.  The 
distance  between  them  was  360,330  toises,  about  436  English  miles.  They  were  connected 
by  a  chain  of  triangles,  the  sides  and  angles  of  which  were  all  known ;  so  that  the  length 
of  one  base  being  known,  that  of  the  other  might  be  found  by  computation.  It  is  a  remark- 
able fact,  that  when  the  base  of  Perpignan  was  inferred  by  calculation  from  that  of  Melun, 
the  result  was  found  to  be  only  ten  or  eleven  inches  less  than  that  obtained  by  actual  mea- 
surement. This  striking  agreement  affords  a  strong  presumptive  proof  of  the  accuracy  with 
which  the  operations  had  been  conducted. 

The  determination  of  the  latitudes  of  the  two  extremities  of  the  arc  was  also  a  matter 
of  the  utmost  importance.  The  pains  which  the  astronomers  took  to  arrive  at  true  results 
are  almost  incredible.  Delambre  made  800  observations  to  ascertain  the  true  latitude  of  the 
Dunkirk  extremity ;  and  a  corresponding  degree  of  attention  was  bestowed  on  different 
intermediate  points. 

Tliis  most  important  undertaking  was  at  last,  after  seven  years'  labour,  brought  to  a  con- 
clusion in  the  year  1799.  Although  the  result  was,  in  its  first  application,  to  be  directed  to 
the  establishment  of  a  standard  unit  of  lineal  measure  for  the  French  nation,  yet  the  advan- 
tages which  may  be  deduced  from  it  extended  much  farther,  and  were  available  to  every 
nation  enlightened  by  science.  For  this  reason,  the  states  living  in  peace  with  France  had 
been  invited  to  send  eminent  mathematicians  and  astronomers  to  assist  in  a  rigorous  exami- 
nation of  every  step  of  the  operation.  The  astronomical  and  geodetical  observations,  in 
particular,  were  subjected  to  the  examination  of  Tralles,  the  deputy  of  the  Helvetian  republic; 
Van  Swinden,  the  Batavian  deputy  ;  and  the  two  French  philosophers  Laplace  and  Legendre. 
They  entered  into  all  the  details  of  the  measurement  of  the  bases ;  and  they  examined  the 
three  angles  of  every  triangle,  and  determined  their  values.  The  calculations  were  then 
separately  performed  by  four  different  persons — Tralles,  Van  Swinden,  Legendre,  and  De- 
lambre ;  and  this  last  astronomer  calculated  the  length  of  the  meridian  by  four  different  and 
independent  methods ;  and  a  report  was  made  to  the  National  Institute  at  Paris,  in  June 
1799,  in  the  name  of  the  Class  of  Physical  and  Mathematical  Sciences,  on  the  Measure  of 
tlie  Meridian  of  France,  and  its  Results. 

The  general  fact,  that  the  degrees  of  the  meridian  increase  as  we  recede  from  the  equator 
towards  the  pole,  was  again  fully  confirmed ;  so  that  the  oblateness  of  the  earth  in  the 
direction  of  the  polar  axis  is  a  truth  now  placed  beyond  all  controversy.  Notwitiistanding, 
however,  the  almost  incredible  care  with  which  the  operations  were  conducted,  the  exact 
quantity  of  this  compression  was  still  left  in  some  uncertainty.  The  limits  between  which 
the  true  measure  of  the  oblateness  is  contained  are,  however,  narrower ;  and  it  is  likely 
that  the  problem,  What  is  the  exact  proportion  of  the  polar  to  the  equatorial  axis  ?  does 
not,  from  its  nature,  admit  of  a  nearer  approximation  to  the  truth  than  has  been  already 
obtained. 

If  we  could  suppose  the  measurements  of  lines  and  angles  to  be  perfectly  correct,  it 
would  follow,  that  although  on  the  whole,  taking  considerable  intervals,  the  length  of  arcs 
of  the  meridian  corresponding  to  equal  celestial  arcs  go  on  increasing  from  south  to  north, 
yet  the  law  of  the  increase  is  irregular,  and  not  that  which  ought  to  result  from  an  exact 
elliptic  meridian.     The  result  of  the  measurement  will  be  seen  in  the  following  table : — 


Latitudes. 

Intervals. 

Intervals  in 
Toises. 

Length  of  a 
Degree. 

Moan 
Latitude. 

Arc  of  one 
Second. 

1     O        -            1, 

Dunkirk              51      2      9.20 

Pantheon          !  48    50    49  37 
Evanx                  46     10    42.54 
Carcassone       1  43    12    54.30 
Montjouy         '  41    21     44.96 

0  1           II 

2    11     19.83 
2    40      6.83 
2    57    48.24 

1  51      9.34 

124944.8 
152293.1 
1()8846.7 
105499.0 

Tnisp.^J. 
57082.63 
57069.31 
56977.80 
56946.68 

O        '            " 

49    56    29.30 
47    30    45.91 
44    41    48.37 
42    17    19.60 

Toises 
15.85(i283 
15.8.52586 
15.827167 
15.818508 

140  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

From  this  table  we  see  that  tlie  length  of  a  degree  in  the  four  mean  latitudes  goes  on  in- 
creasing. Also,  from  the  column  of  mean  latitudes,  and  that  of  the  length  of  a  degree,  it 
appears  that  a  diminution  of  2°  25'  43".39  in  the  first  mean  latitude  corresponds  to  a 
diminution  of  13.13  toises  in  the  terrestrial  meridian:  this  gives  5.5  toises  to  a  degree. 
Again,  that  a  farther  diminution  of  2°  43'  57  ".54  produces  a  diminution  of  91.51  toises, 
which  is  at  the  rate  of  32.4  toises  to  a  degree.  Lastly,  that  a  third  diminution  of  2°  24' 
28". 77  gives  a  diminution  of  31.17  toises,  which  is  at  tlie  rate  of  about  12.9  toises  to  a 
degree.  These  changes  of  5.5,  32.4,  and  31.17  toises  in  the  lengtli  of  a  degree  in  going 
southward  evidently  do  not  follow  a  regular  law,  svich  as  should  result  from  a  continuous 
increase  of  curvature.  We  may,  therefore,  reasonably  suppose  that  all  the  observations 
have  not  been  equally  perfect,  or  that,  in  addition  to  unavoidable  errors  in  the  estimation  of 
lines  and  angles,  some  disturbing  cause  must  have  operated:  probably,  an  inequality  of 
density,  in  the  density  of  the  strata  over  which  the  measurement  was  performed,  may  have 
had  great  influence  in  producing  the  irregularity. 

The  small  discrepancies  in  the  results  of  the  observations  must  produce  corresponding 
uncertainty  in  tlie  determination  of  the  great  objects  to  be  attained.  On  the  whole,  how- 
ever, it  was  concluded  that  the  length  of  the  terrestrial  meridian  between  the  pole  and  the 
equator  was  5,130,740  toises ;  and  hence  the  metre,  or  ten-millionth  part  of  the  meridian, 
was  .513074  of  a  toise,  which  is  443.295986  lines. 

Another  mo.=jt  important  result,  deducible  from  these  observations,  was  the  ratio  of  the 
polar  axis  of  the  earth  to  the  equatorial  axis.  This  must  partake  of  tlie  uncertainty  of  the 
data  by  which  it  is  to  be  determined.  We  may,  however,  assume,  without  sensible  error, 
that  tlie  equatorial  axis  is  to  tlie  polar  as  334  to  333.  The  difference,  therefore,  of  the 
semi-a.xes,  compared  with  the  equatorial  radius,  will  be  one  part  in  334.  The  fraction  354- — 
that  is,  the  difference  of  the  semi-axes  divided  by  the  equatorial  radius, — is  called  the  com- 
pression of  the  earth  at  the  poles. 

The  astronomer  Mechain  had  contemplated  the  extension  of  the  measurement  of  the 
meridian  beyond  the  limit  at  first  proposed  ;  but  he  did  not  live  to  carry  his  views  into  execu- 
tion. However,  the  undertaking  was  resumed,  after  a  cessation  of  three  years,  by  Blot  and 
Arago,  Frencli  astronomers,  with  whom  were  associated  MM.  Chai.x  and  Rodriguez,  Span- 
iards, all  eminently  distinguislied  for  their  talent  and  devotedness  to  the  object  to  be  ac- 
complished. By  their  exertions,  a  train  of  triangles  was  carried  southward  from  the  point 
where  Mechain  and  Dekimbre  had  stopped,  to  Formentera,  a  small  island  near  Ivica,  in  the 
Mediterranean.  This  is  the  soutliern  limit  of  a  most  interesting  labour :  but,  if  ever 
European  civilization  extends  into  Africa,  the  measurement  may  be  extended  to  Cape  de 
Gata,  and  thence  across  the  Mediterranean  to  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  continued  to  the  city 
of  Algiers,  which  is  nearly  in  the  meridian  of  Paris ;  so  that  in  time  the  southern  extremity 
may  be  actually  carried  to  the  summit  of  Mount  Atlas. 

The  other  measurement  of  a  considerable  portion  of  the  earth,  to  which  we  have  alluded, 
was  begun  under  the  auspices  and  at  the  expense  of  the  British  government  as  long  ago  as 
the  year  1784.  At  that  time  a  memoir,  drawn  up  by  Cassini  de  Thury,  was  presented  to 
the  minister  (Mr.  Fox)  by  the  French  ambassador.  It  stated  the  advantages  which  would 
accrue  to  geography  and  astronomy  by  determining  the  difference  of  longitude  between  the 
observatories  of  Greenwich  and  Paris,  by  means  of  a  series  of  triangles  from  the  former  to 
Dunkirk,  to  whicli  place  the  meridian  of  Paris  had  previously  been  extended.  The  proposal 
was  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society ;  and  having  been  approved  of,  the  execution  was 
committed  to  general  Roy.  "The  first  step  was  to  measure  a  base,  from  the  length  of  which 
the  sides  of  all  the  triangles  might  be  inferred ;  and  a  line  rather  more  than  five  miles  in 
length  was  traced  out  on  Hounslow  Heath,  and  measured  with  the  most  scrupulous  care. 
It  may  at  first  sight  appear  a  very  simple  matter  to  measure  a  straight  line  on  the  ground ; 
but  if  the  utmost  exactness  is  required,  the  operation  must  be  performed  with  instruments 
constructed  with  the  greatest  ingenuity,  and  the  application  of  much  physical  knowledge. 
Generally  all  solid  bodies  expand  by  heat,  and  contract  by  cold  ;  and,  moreover,  some  change 
their  dimensions  by  moisture  and  dryness.  To  counteract  or  to  estimate  precisely  these 
changes,  so  as  to  allow  for  them  in  the  final  result,  is  a  matter  of  great  difficulty,  and  only 
to  be  accomplished  by  infinite  care  and  perseverance. 

The  measurement  of  the  base  was  first  undertaken  with  deal  rods,  twenty  feet  in  length. 
These,  however,  were  found  to  be  much  affected  by  the  changes  in  the  atmosphere  from 
moisture  to  dryness :  tliey  were  therefore  laid  aside ;  and  instead  of  them  glass  rods,  of  the 
same  length  in  frames,  were  employed.  This  substance  was  chosen,  from  a  belief  that  it 
was  less  affected  by  changes  of  temperature  than  the  metals.  The  measurement,  which 
had  been  begun  about  the  middle  of  June,  was  completed  in  the  end  of  October ;  and  it  was 
found  that  the  base  measured  exactly  27404.08  feet,  or  5.19  miles. 

The  work  in  the  field  was  not  carried  farther  at  that  time :  it  was,  however,  resumed  in 
1787.  A  theodolite  of  greater  dimensions  than  had  ever  been  employed  in  geodetical  opera- 
tions was  constructed  by  the  celebrated  artist  Ramsden.  The  series  of  observations  was 
begun  at  the  base  in  the  beginning  of  August,  by  General  Roy,  assisted  by  Isaac  Dalby,  an 


Book  I. 


FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  EARTH 


141 


excellent  mathematician,  and  most  veracious  astronomical  observer.  After  continuing  to  a 
certain  length,  it  was  judged  to  be  expedient  to  break  off,  and  proceed  with  the  instruments 
to  Dover.  A  series  of  observations  was  there  made,  in  conjunction  with  the  French  acade- 
micians Cassini,  Mechain,  and  Legendre,  by  which  the  triangulation  between  Paris  and 
Dunkirk  might  be  connected  with  that  between  Dover  and  Greenwich.  As  a  check  on  the 
operations,  a  base  of  verification  was  also  measured  on  Romney  Marsh ;  and  in  this,  instead 
of  the  glass  rods,  a  steel  chain,  constructed  for  the  purpose  by  Ramsden,  was  employed  ;  it 
having  been  found  by  experience  that  there  was  no  sensible  difference  in  point  of  accuracy 
between  this  and  the  gkss  rods,  while  the  chain  manifestly  was  more  convenient.  Afler- 
wards,  when  the  two  bases  were  connected  by  calculating  the  sides  of  the  triangles,  it  was 
found  that  the  measured  base  differed  from  its  computed  value  by  only  twenty-eight  inches, 
althouo-h  Romney  Marsh  is  more  than  sixty  miles  from  Ilounslow  Heath.  The  junction  of 
the  observatories  of  Greenwich  and  Paris,  by  a  series  of  triangles,  was  completed  in  1788, 
and  an  account  of  the  operations  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society ;  but  the  death  of  Gene- 
ral Roy  again  suspended  the  survey  until  the  year  1791. 

At  this  time,  by  tlie  exertions  of  the  Duke  of  Richmond,  Master-general  of  the  Ordnance, 
the  survey  was  resumed  w'ith  great  vigour.  A  new  theodolite,  and  various  other  instruments, 
in  addition  to  those  formerly  employed,  were  liberally  supplied,  and  placed  under  the 
direction  of  Captain  (afterwards  Colonel)  Mudge  of  the  Royal  Artillery,  and  Mr.  Dalby. 
Beginning  their  labours  by  a  re-measurement  of  tlie  base  on  Hounslov/  Heath  with  steel 
chains,  they  found  the  diilerence  between  this  and  the  former,  in  which  glass  rods  were 
employed,  to  be  no  more  than  two  inches  and  three  quarters.  They  also  measured  another 
base  of  verification,  36574.4  feet  in  length,  on  Salisbury  Plain.  When  this  was  connected 
by  a  chain  of  triangles  with  the  base  on  Hounslow  Heath,  and  its  length  computed,  the 
result  did  not  difl'er  more  than  an  inch  from  the  actual  measurement ;  a  convincing  proof  of 
the  accuracy  with  which  all  the  operations  had  been  conducted. 

Although  an  accurate  survey  of  the  island  was  the  main  object  for  which  all  this  labour 
was  undertaken,  yet,  as  its  complete  accomplishment  requires  a  knowledge  of  the  figure  and 
dimensions  of  the  earth,  no  opportunity  of  solving  this  grand  problem  is  to  be  neglected.  The 
1  44  two  stations  of  Beachy  Head  in  Sussex,  and  Dunnose  in  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  are  visible  from  each  other,  and  more  than  sixty-four  miles 
asunder,  nearly  in  a  direction  fi-om  east  to  west :  their  exact  distance 
w-as  found  by  the  geodetical  operations  to  be  339397  feet.  The  azi- 
muth, or  bearing  of  the  line  between  them  with  respect  to  the  meri- 
dian, also  the  latitude  of  Beachy  Head,  were  determined  by  astro- 
nomical observations.  From  these  data  the  length  of  a  degree  per- 
pendicular to  the  meridian  was  computed ;  and  this,  compared  with 
the  length  of  a  meridional  degree  in  the  same  latitude,  gave  the  pro- 
portion of  the  polar  to  the  equatorial  axis.    - 

The  result  thus  obtained,  however,  differed  considerably  from  that 
obtained  by  meridional  degrees.  It  has  been  found  impossible  to  ex- 
plain the  want  of  agreement  in  a  satisfactory  way  ;  and,  for  this  reason, 
it  has  been  thought  better  to  rest  the  solution  of  the  problem  entirely 
on  the  measurement  of  degrees  of  the  meridian  in  different  lati- 
tudes, which,  on  the  whole,  give  results  more  consistent  with  one 
another. 

Without  noticing  in  detail  all  the  steps  by  which  the  survey  has 
advanced,  we  shall  next  advert  to  the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  the 
meridian  between  Dunnose,  in  the  Isle  of  Wigiit,  and  Clifton,  near 
Doncaster ;  the  former  in  lat.  50°  37'  5",  and  the  latter  in  53°  27'  30". 
To  accomplish  this,  the  ingenuity  of  the  artist  Ramsden  was  again 
exercised  in  the  construction  of  an  instrument,  a  zenith  sector,  for 
finding  tlie  latitude  of  the  different  points  of  the  arc :  this  was  almost 
the  last  work  of  a  man  to  whose  genius  astronomy  and  geography  are 
highly  indebted ;  and  it  was  superior  to  any  thing  of  the  kind  ever 
before  constructed. 
To  give  the  reader  a  distinct  notion  of  this  most  important  operation,  we  here  present  a 
sketch  {fig.  44.)  of  the  series  of  triangles,  twenty-two  in  number,  which  connect  the  extreme 
points  togetiier  with  the  angles  contained  by  the  straight  lines  which  join  the  different 
stations,  and  the  length  of  their  sides.  The  numbers  marked  on  the  diagram  indicate  the 
names  of  the  stations,  by  referring  to  the  following  table.  The  northern  extremity  of  the 
base,  Beacon  Hill,  or  Clifton,  is  marked  No.  3. ;  and  the  southern  extremity,  Dunnose,  is  23. 
The  names  of  the  intermediate  points  may  be  seen  in  the  tabic. 


142 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II 


TrVa"ng"u.s.             Names  of  Stations. 

Angles  corrected 
for  Calculation. 

Distance. 

Feet. 

Biit«er  Hill ("■'>) 

O      '       " 

76  12  21.5 
48    4  3). 75 
55  43    C.75 

From  Dun  nose  to 

Biitser  Hill 

140580.4 
183490.2 

1. 

n,...l.noo C91\ 

D.'ari  Hill (21) 

2.            Biit-pr  Hill (22) 

Hi^'liclnrc (19) 

62  22  47 
48  28  40 
69    8  33 

Dean  Hill  from 

Bi'tser  Hill 

1.W122.1 
1250^4.9 

3. 

liiitscr  Hill (22) 

Hiiiil  Head (20) 

Hiffhclere (19) 

81  31  44.5 
66  15  54.25 
29  12  21.25 

Butser  Hill  from 

Hind  Head - 

78?t05.7 
148031.0 

Hi2hcl."re 

4. 

Hishclere (19) 

Hind  Head (20) 

Ba<.'iilint  Heath (18) 

34  46  15 
83  20  14 
61  53  31 

Hifihclere  from 

142352.6 
100972.2 

Hind  Head 

5. 

BaL'sliot  Heath (18) 

Hiu'liclpre :  .(19) 

Nrirticiii ?l^.^ 

55  :«  25.2.5 
46  10  17.73 

76  17  17 

Nuffield  frnm 

105321.2 
120374. 

6. 

White  Horse  Hill (17) 

Hiihrlere (19) 

Nuffield (16) 

63    7  53.5 
63  18  17 
53  .33  49.5 

While  Horse  Hill  from 

Nutfield 

Hipliclere 

120.557.7 
108503.1 

7. 

White  Horse  Hill (17) 

Nuffield (16) 

Brill (15) 

38  48  12.5 
86    4  15 
55    7  32.5 

Brill  from 

White  Horse  Hill 

14fiC03,2 
92805.5 

Nuffield 

a 

Brill (15) 

White  Horse  Hill (17) 

Plow  on  the  Wold (14) 

50  14  45 
64  45  42.5 
64  59  32.5 

Stow  from 

White  Horse  Hill 

124305.6 

140320.3 

Brill 

9. 

Brill (15) 

32  34  42.25 
60  56    5  5 
86  29  12.25 

Epwell  from 

Stow 

Prill 

78938.2 
128140 

Stow  on  the  Weld (M) 

Epwell (13) 

10. 

Brill (15) 

Epwell (1.3) 

Arhiiry  Hill (12) 

34  23  57  5 
85    0  17.5 
60  35  45 

Arhurv  Hill  from 

Epwel'l 

Brill 

83098.4 
146530 

11. 

Arhiirv  Hill (12) 

Epwell (13) 

Corle V (11) 

89  57    5.5 
54  45  18.25 
.35  17  36.2.5 

Cor  ley  frnm 

Arburv  Hill 

117463 
143827.8 

Epwel'l 

The  distance  of  Butser  Hill  (22.)  from  Dunnose,  140.580.4  feet,  had  been  previously  found, 
by  a  series  of  triangles  connecting  these  stations  with  the  bases  measured  on  Hounslow 
Heath  and  Salisbury  Plain ;  but,  for  greater  security  against  error,  a  new  base  of  26342.7 
feet  was  measured  on  Misterton  Carr,  in  the  northern  part  of  Lincolnshire.  From  this  the 
sides  of  the  triangles  proceeding  from  the  north  to  the  south  were  computed,  as  exhibited 
in  the  remainder  of  the  table. 


No.  of 
Triangles. 

Names  of  Stations. 

Angle?  corrected 
for  Calculation. 

Distance. 

Feet. 

12. 

Beacon  Hill (.3) 

O      '       " 

20  47  20 
60  17  13 
98  55  27 

Beacon  Hill  from 

64461.7 
73321.9 

North  end  of  Base (1) 

South  end  of  Base (2) 

13. 

Beacon  Hill (.3) 

34  44  42 

74  46  56 
70  28  22 

Gririfiley  from 

North  end  of  Base 

44338.2 
75068.0 

North  end  of  Base m 

Griuffley (4) 

14. 

Beacon  Hill (3) 

Grinelev (4) 

South  end  of  Base (2) 

13  57  23 
51  11     5 
114  51  52 

Gringley  from 

75068.2 

15. 

Heathersedge (5) 

Beacon  Hill (3) 

Gringley (4) 

18  40  38 
138    9  16 
23  10    6 

Heathersedge  from 

92227.2 
156384.8 

Gringley 

16. 

Sutton  Ashfield (6) 

Heathersodge (5) 

78  47     1 
54  52  35 

-Ifi    9n    OA 

Sutton  Ashfield  from 
Grineley 

130399.7 
115339.9 

17. 

Orpit (-) 

Heatliersedce (5) 

Sutton  Ashfield (6) 

80  28  57 

39   8  as 

60  22  25 

Orpit  from 

101000  3 
73826.6 

Sutton  Ashfield 

18. 

Hollan  Hill (8) 

Sutton  Ashfield (6) 

Orpit (7) 

'      44  43  31 
113  49    7 
21  27  22 

Hollan  Hill  frnm 

3a375.^ 
95975  3 

19. 

Bardon  Hill (10) 

Hollan  Hill (8) 

Orpit (7) 

42  5fl  59 
74  52  37 
62    8  "4 

Bardon  Hill  from 

Hollan  Hill 

1244.54.7 
135895  3 

20. 

Castle  Rin" (9) 

55  .32  43 
68  24     3 

56  3  14 

Castle  Ring  from 

Orpit 

Bardon  Hill 

153235.2 
136717.8 

Bardon  HilT (lO) 

Orpit (7) 

21. 

Cnrlev (11) 

72  32  46 
47  .54  42 
59  32  32 

Corley  from 

1063.57.3 
12.3539.7 

Castle  Bins (<l) 

Bardon  Hill (10) 

22. 

Arbury  Hill (12) 

34  14  33 
107  20  14 
38  25  13 

Arbury  Hill  from 

180426.0 
117457.1 

Bardon  Hill (lo) 

Corley 

Book  I. 


FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  EARTH. 


143 


From  the  last  triangle  the  distance  between  Corley  and  Arbury  Hill  comes  out  117457.1 
foot.  This  result  has  been  found  from  the  base  on  Misterton  Carr :  but  the  same  distance, 
deduced  from  the  bases  on  Hounslow  Heath  and  Salisbury  Plain,  either  of  which  is  m.ore  than 
150  miles  distant  from  Misterton  Carr,  was  found  to  be  117,46:3  feet,  only  six  feet  diiferent.  Here 
we  have  a  remarkable  proof  of  the  extreme  accuracy  with  whicli  the  operations  have  been 
conducted;  so  that,  from  whatever  cause  any  uncertainty  in  the  conclusion  sought  may 
proceed,  it  can  hardly  be  found  either  in  the  want  of  perfection  in  the  instruments,  or  of 
care  in  those  who  used  them. 

By  observations  on  tlie  pole  star,  the  exact  bearing  of  Butser  Hill  from  Dunnose  (that  is, 
the  azimuth  or  angle  which  the  line  joining  them  makes  with  the  meridian,)  was  found : 
and  by  like  observations  the  bearing  of  the  station  at  Gringley  from  Clifton  was  determin- 
ed. By  these  data,  and  by  the  known  lengtlis  of  the  sides  of  the  triangles,  the  portions 
of  the  meridian  intercepted  by  perpendiculars  on  it  from  the  stations  was  obtained.  Their 
sum  gave  1,036,337  feet  for  the  meridional  distance  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  between 
Dunnose  and  Clifton.  Moreover,  by  the  zenith  sector,  the  arc  of  the  celestial  meridian 
between  them  was  found  to  be  2^  50' 23"  .38,  or  2.8398  of  diflerence  of  latitude.  The 
length  of  the  measured  arc  of  the  meridian,  viz.  1,036,337  feet,  divided  by  this  number, 
gives  364,933  feet,  or  6082  fathoms  for  the  length  of  a  degree  in  the  parallel  midway 
between  Dunnose  and  Clifton,  whi-ch  is  50°  2'  20". 

In  the  same  way  that  the  length  of  a  degree,  at  the  middle  point  between  Clifton  and 
Dunnose,  was  determined,  the  length  of  degrees  at  other  intermediate  points  was  found.  The 
latitude  of  the  station  at  Arbury  Hill  was  carefully  observed  with  the  sector.  The  latitude 
of  Greenwich  was  well  known ;  and  that  of  Blenheim,  an  observatory  belonging  to  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough,  had  been  determined  from  five  years'  observations.  The  two  observa- 
tories were  assumed  as  stations,  in  addition  to  those  in  the  meridional  chain  of  triangles, 
and  their  position  in  respect  of  the  others  was  found. 

By  comparing  the  celestial  with  the  terrestrial  arcs,  the  length  of  degrees  in  various 
parallels  was  determined,  as  in  the  following  table : — 


Arbury  Hill  and  Clifton.. .. 

Blenheim  and  Clifton 

Oreenwich  and  Clifton 

Dunnose  and  Clifton 

Arbury  Hill  and  Greenwich 
Dinnose  and  Arbury  Hill.. 

Blenheim  and  Dunnose 

Dunnose  and  Greenwich  . . 


Latit 

jde  of  Middle 
Point. 

Fathoms. 

.52° 

50'    29".  8 

e0,766 

52 

38      56.1 

60,769 

52 

28        5-7 

60,794 

52 

2      19.8 

60,820 

51 

51        4.1 

60,849 

51 

35      18.2 

i;0,864 

51 

13      18.2 

(:0,890 

51 

2      54.2 

C0,884 

This  table  presents  a  singular  deviation  from  the  common  rule ;  for,  instead  of  the  degrees 
increasing  as  we  proceed  from  north  to  south,  they  appear  to  decrease,  as  if  the  earth  were 
an  oblong  instead  of  an  oblate  spheroid.  The  oblateness  of  the  earth  at  the  poles  is,  how- 
ever, a  fact  so  well  established  by  more  extensive  measurements,  that  we  must  suppose 
either  that  some  error  has  been  committed  in  tlie  observations, — a  thing,  however,  not 
probable ;  or  else,  what  is  more  probable,  that  by  inequality  in  the  density  of  the  strata, 
producing  a  local  attraction,  the  plumb-line  of  the  sector  has  suffered  a  deflection  at  some 
of  the  stations. 

Notwithstanding  the  discrepancy  of  the  results  of  the  measurements  in  this  particular 
arc,  t^ie  length  of  a  degree  at  the  middle  station  (viz.  lat.  52°  2'  20")  agrees  very  well  with 
the  measurements  of  the  meridian  in  France  and  other  places.  Indeed,  the  measurements 
of  the  small  arcs  of  the  meridian  in  other  countries  have  presented  similar  anomalie.s, 
although  in  general  not  so  remarkable.  It  is,  therefore,  only  by  comparison  of  the  measures 
of  extensive  arcs  at  considerable  intervals  that  we  can  arrive  at  certain  conclusions.  The 
British  survey  has  now  been  extended  from  the  southern  parts  of  the  island  to  Unst,  the 
northernmost  of  the  Shetland  Islands.  At  present  the  engineer  officers  who  carried  it  on 
are  employed  in  the  survey  of  Ireland ;  but  we  may  expect  that  at  no  remote  period  they 
will  resume  the  British  survey,  and  supply  tlie  observations  still  wanting.  When  tliis  is 
done,  and  the  complete  triangulation  is  published,  it  will  then  appear  how  far  local  attrac- 
tion may  have  disturbed  the  plummet  in  passing  over  the  variety  of  rocks  throughout  the 
island. 

Although  the  compression  of  the  earth  be  small,  yet  an  exact  knowledge  of  its  quantity 
is  of  great  importance,  because  of  the  deductions  which  are  to  be  made  from  it.  It  has 
been  explained,  that  the  direction  of  a  plumb-line  is  always  perpendicular  to  the  earth' 
surface ;  therefore,  and  because  of  the  continual  change  of  curvature  of  the  meridian  in 
going  from  nortli  to  south,  the  direction  of  gravity  can  only  pass  tlirough  the  earth's  centre 
at  the  poles  and  equator.  Tims  it  appears  that  there  is  a  necessary  connexion  between  the 
form  of  tlie  earth  and  terrestrial  gravity  ;  so  that  the  small  variations  in  the  latter,  which 
are  owing  to  the  deviations  from  the  exact  spherical  figure,  being  loiown,  that  deviation 
itself  may  be  determined. 


144  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

If  the  earth  were  spherical  and  liomogenous,  the  attraction  of  its  mass  upon  diflerent 
points  of  its  surface,  or  the  force  which  solicits  every  particle  of  matter  at  its  surface 
towards  the  centre,  would  be  everywhere  tiie  same.  But  the  elliptic  form  produces  a  small 
deviation  from  tliis  equality,  wiiich  increases  in  S'oing-  from  the  equator  towards  the  poles, 
as  the  square  of  the  sine  of  the  latitude ;  and  this  would  be  true  even  if  the  earth  were  at 
rest:  but,  by  its  revolution  about  its  shorter  axis,  there  is  produced  a  centrifugal  force, 
which  acts  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  that  axis,  and  therefore  diminishes  tiic  force  of 
gravity  most  of  all  at  tlie  equator,  because  there  the  two  forces  act  in  contrary  directions. 
At  the  pole  its  direction  is  perpendicular  to  the  direction  of  gravity,  and  produces  no  effect. 
By  tiie  united  operation  of  these  two  causes,  in  going  from  the  equator  towards  the  poles, 
is  produced  a  variation  in  tiie  degree  of  quickness  of  descent  of  a  heavy  body,  which  increases 
as  tlie  square  of  the  sine  of  the  latitude. 

The  oscillations  of  a  pendulum  afford  a  simple  means  of  verifying  this  fact.  The  increase 
of  weiglit  in  a  heavy  body, — that  is,  tlie  force  of  gravity  in  proceeding  from  the  equator  to 
the  poles, — will  be  indicated  by  a  diminution  of  the  time  in  wliich  an  invariable  pendulum 
performs  a  vibration.  Accordingly  the  pendulum  has  been  employed  to  determine  the  figure 
of  the  earth ;  and  the  results  obtained  have  been  found  to  accord  perfectly  with  the  geo- 
detical  measurements  which  we  have  described. 

The  Britisli  and  French  governments  have  both  mstituted  observations  on  the  pendulum. 
The  latter,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  directed  tliat  tlie  intensity 
of  the  force  of  gravity  should  be  determined  at  ditferent  points  of  the  arc  of  the  meridian 
between  Dunkirk  and  Formentera;  and  committed  the  labour  to  MM.  Biot,  Arago,  Mathieu, 
Bouvard,  and  Chaix :  subsequently,  Biot  extended  his  observations  to  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  British  islands.  These  operations  were  begun  in  the  year  1807.  At  a  somewhat 
later  period  the  British  government,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Royal  Society,  employed 
Captain  Kater,  an  eminent  observer  and  experimenter,  in  the  same  labour ;  and  also  sent 
Captain  Sabine,  a  British  artillery  officer,  with  invariable  pendulums,  to  the  equator  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  highest  accessible  latitudes  of  the  northern  hemisphere  on  the  other.  It 
was  expected  that,  by  thus  mulliph'ing  the  places  of  observation,  the  combination  of  results 
would  destroy  the  irregular  influences  of  local  density,  and  give  the  true  variations  of  the 
force  of  gravity,  which  are  owing  to  the  eartli's  ellipticity.  From  a  mean  of  all  the  obser- 
vations made  by  the  British  and  French  experimenters,  it  was  found  that  the  compression  or 
ellipticity  of  the  earth  was  about  jsVt  or  2?ff-??  Laplace  had  previously  concluded,  from 
the  combined  measurements  of  terrestrial  degrees  and  pendulum  experiments,  and  the  lunar 
inequalities  dependent  on  the  figure  of  tiie  earth,  that  tlie  same  important  element  was 
gTri-YTf-  There  is  a  difference  between  the  two  conclusions ;  but,  on  the  whole,  all  the  results 
which' have  been  obtained  are  comprehended  within  limits  which  may  be  deemed  moderate, 
considering  the  difficulty  of  the  inquiry. 

The  following  tables  exhibit  numerical  values  of  the  magnitudes  of  the  degrees  of  latitude 
and  longitude,  and  their  proportion  to  each  other. 

The  first  is  from  a  valuable  collection  of  astronomical  tables  and  formula?  by  F.  Baily, 
Esq.,  President  of  the  Astronomical  Society  of  London.  It  shows  the  length  of  a  degree 
of  latitude  and  longitude  on  the  earth's  surface,  assuming  the  compression  to  be  j'r,  toge- 
ther with  the  length  of  the  pendulum  beating  seconds  there,  supposing  the  compression  to 
be-grU,  the  measures  at  the  equator  being  considered  as  unity;  also  the  increase  in  the 
number  of  vibrations  of  an  invariable  pendulum  beating  seconds  at  the  equator  on  proceeding 
towards  the  pole.     This  merely  shows  the  relative  values  of  the  quantities  therein  stated. 

The  second  and  third  tables  are  from  Mendoza's  Tables  for  Navigation  and  Nautical 
Astronomy.  And  the  fourth  is  fi"om  the  very  valuable  Introduction  to  Practical  Astronomy 
by  Dr.  Pearson,  where  it  is  stated  to  be  computed  from  a  Formula  given  by  Lieut.-Col. 
Lambton  in  the  Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  xii. 

The  tables  are  constructed  from  different  values  of  the  earth's  compression  at  the  poles. 
The  uncertainty  of  this  important  element,  in  all  questions  of  geography  and  astronomy,  is 
an  inconvenience  which  cannot  yet  be  got  rid  of 

In  Tables  II.  and  III.,  the  dimensions  of  the  degrees  of  latitude  and  longitude  are  given 
in  minutes  of  the  equator.  To  change  these  into  feet  or  fathoms,  we  must  know  the  number 
of  them  in  a  degree  of  the  equator. 

According  to  Puissant  and  Svanberg,  the  equatorial  degree,  or  60  geographical  miles,  is 
60,847  fathoms. 

Cagnoli  has  assumed  =  60,893  fathoms. 

Lieut.-Col.  Lambton  reckoned  it  to  be  60,857  fathoms. 

General  Mudge  concluded  it  to  be  60,84."j  fathoms. 

Mr.  Baily,  as  an  accompaniment  to  his  table  (Table  I.),  assumes  the  equatorial  diameter 
of  the  earth  to  be  7924  miles,  and  the  polar  =  7916  miles.  A  degree  of  longitude  at  the 
equator  will,  on  this  supposition,  be  69.15  miles,  =  60,852  fathoms,  =  365,110  feet:  so  one 
second  of  time,  or  fifteen  seconds  of  a  degree  of  longitude,  will  be  1521  feet. 

Table  IV.  gives  the  measure  of  each  degree  of  latitude  and  longitude  in  fathoms. 


Book  I. 


FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  EARTH. 
Table  I. 


145 


Compression 

—    1 

3  0  0- 

Compression  =  gj,. 

Lat 

Degree  of 

Degree  of 

Length  of  tlie 

Increase  of 

Longitude. 

Latitude. 

Pendulum. 

Vibrations. 

o 
0 

1.00000 

1.000000 

1.00000 

II 
0.0 

5 

0.9.9622 

1.000076 

1.00004 

1.77 

10 

.98490 

1.000301 

1.00016 

7.02 

15 

.96614 

1.000669 

1.00036 

15.60 

20 

.94006 

1.001168 

1.00063 

27.24 

25 

.90685 

1.001783 

1.00096 

41.59 

30 

.86675 

1.002496 

1.00135 

58.21 

35 

.82005 

1.003284 

1.00177 

76.60 

40 

.76710 

1.004125 

1.00223 

96.21 

45 

.70828 

1.004992 

1.00269 

116.42 

50 

.64404 

1.005858 

1.00316 

136.64 

55 

.57485 

1.006699 

1.00362 

156.25 

60 

.50126 

1.007487 

1.00404 

174.63 

65 

.42377 

1.008200 

1.00443 

191.26 

70 

.34302 

1.008815 

1.00476 

205.61 

75 

.25960 

1.009315 

1.00503 

217.25 

80 

.17421 

1.009682 

1.00523 

225.82 

85 

.08764 

1.009907 

1.005.35 

231.08 

90 

.00000 

1.009983 

1.00539 

232.85 

Table  II. 


The  Measure  of  a  Degree  of  Longitude,  on  each  Parallel  of  Latitude  in  Minutes  of  the 

Par. 

Equator,  on  the  Sphere  and  Spheroid.     Compression  =  -^\-^. 

Par. 

Par. 

of 

Degree  on  the 

Degree  on  the 

of 

Degree  on  tlie 

Degree  on  the 

of 

Degree  on  the 

Degree  on  the 

Lat. 

Sphere, 

Spheroid. 

Lat. 

Sphere. 

Spheroid. 

Lat. 

Sphere. 

Spheroid. 

o 
0 

60.000 

/ 
60.000 

o 
30 

51.962 

/ 

52.002 

0 

60 

30.000 

30.070 

1 

59.991 

59.991 

31 

51.430- 

51.473 

61 

29.089 

29.158 

2 

59.963 

59.964 

32 

50.883 

50.927 

62 

28.168 

28.237 

3 

59.918 

59.918 

33 

50.320 

50.367 

63 

27.239 

27.307 

4 

59.854 

59.855 

34 

49.742 

49.791 

64 

26.302 

26.369 

5 

59.772 

59.773 

35 

49.149 

49.199 

65 

25.357 

25.422 

6 

59.671 

59.673 

36 

48.541 

48.593 

66 

24.404 

24.468 

7 

59.553 

59.556 

37 

47.918 

47.972 

67 

23.444 

23.506 

8 

59.416 

59.420 

38 

47.281 

47.336 

68 

22.476 

22.537 

9 

59.261 

59.266 

39 

46.629 

46.686 

69 

21.502 

21.562 

10 

59.088 

59.094 

40 

45.963 

46.022 

70 

20.521 

20.578 

11 

58.898 

59.904 

41 

45.283 

45.343 

71 

19.534 

19.589 

12 

58.689 

58.697 

42 

44.589 

44.651 

72 

18.541 

18.593 

13 

58.462 

58.471 

43 

43.881 

43.945 

73 

17.542 

17.592 

14 

58.218 

58.228 

44 

43.160 

43.225 

74 

16.538 

10.586 

15 

57.958 

57.963 

45 

42.426 

42.493 

75 

15.529 

15.574 

16 

57.676 

57.689 

46 

41.680 

41.747 

76 

14.515 

14.558 

17 

57.378 

57.394 

47 

40.920 

40.988 

77 

13.497 

13.537 

18 

57.063 

57.080 

48 

40.148 

40.217 

78 

12.475 

12.512 

19 

56.731 

56.750 

49 

39.364 

39.434 

79 

11.449 

11.483 

20 

56.382 

56.402 

50 

38.567 

38.638 

80 

10.419 

10.450 

21 

56.015 

56.037 

51 

37.759 

37.831 

81 

9.386 

9.414 

22 

55.631 

55.665 

52 

36.940 

37.011 

82 

8.350 

8.376 

23 

55.230 

55.257 

53 

30.109 

36.181 

83 

7.312 

7.335 

24 

54.813 

54.841 

54 

35.267 

35.339- 

84 

6.272 

6.292 

25 

54.378 

54.409 

55 

34.415 

34.487 

85 

5.229 

5.246 

26 

53.928 

53.960 

56 

33.552 

33.624 

86 

4.185 

4.193 

27 

53.460 

53.495 

57 

32.678 

32.750 

87 

3.140 

3.149 

28 

52.997 

.5,3.013 

58 

31.795 

31.866 

88 

2.094 

2.100 

29 

52.477 

52.002 

59 

30.902 

30.973         89 
30.070         90 

1.047 

1.050 

30 

51.962 

52.002 

60 

30.000 

0.000 

0.000 

Vol,  I. 


13 


146 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 
Table  III. 


Part  II. 


The  Measures  of  different  Arcs  of  the  Meridian  in  the  Spheroid  from  tlie  Equator  to  the  Pole; 
and  also  the  respective  Degrees  of  Latitude  in  Minutes  of  the  Equator.  Compres- 
sion =  3^. 


0.000 
5!t.li28 
Uit.257 
178.887 
2;W.5I8 
29^.150 
307.784 
417.420 
477.058 
530.099 


590.343 
65.5.990 
715.041 
775.296 
834.955 
894,018 
954.286 
1013.959 
]  073.038 
1133.323 


1193.014 
1252.711 
1312.414 
1372.124 
1431  841 
1491.505 
1551.297 
1011.036 
1070.783 
1730.5:18 
1790.302 


59.628 
59.629 
59.030 
.■i'j.OSl 
59.032 
59.6:M 
59.036 
59.638 
59.641 

59.644 

59.047 
59.651 
59.055 
59.059 
59.003 
59.068 
59.673 
59.679 
59.685 

59.69] 

59.697 
59.703 
59.710 
59.717 
59.724 
59.732 
59.739 
59.747 
59.755 
59.704 


1790.302 
1  (•.'50.074 
r.;()9.t-55 
]9()9.044 
2(^J9.-l-12 
2l)-'.1.249 
214'.i.O(;.5 

22(i3.720 
2328.570 


2.3P8.424 
2448.2^*7 
2508.  lliO 
2508.043 
2027.936 
20,-<7.83rf 
2747.750 
2f07.t>72 
2.^^07.003 
2927.544 


2987.495 
3047.455 
3107.425 
3107.404 
3227. 3!13 
32S7.3'.ll 
334T.3!I8 
3407.414 
3407.439 
3527.473 
3587.515 


59.772 
59.781 
59.7r9 
59.798 
59.t07 
59.816 
59.t20 
59.835 
59.844 

59.854 

59.803 
59.873 
59.883 
59.893 
.59.902 
59.912 
59.922 
59.931 
59.941 

59.951 

59.9ri0 
59.970 
59.979 
59.98-9 
59.998 
00.007 
60.010 
00.025 
00034 
00.042 


3587.515 
3047.500 
3707.025 
3707.092 
3827.707 
3887.849 
3947.939 
4008.036 
4008.140 
4128.251 


4188.308 
4248.492 
4308.622 
4308.757 
4428.898 
4489.044 
4549.195 
4(09.350 
4609.510 
4729.074 


4789.841 
4850  012 
4910.186 
4970.302 
5030.541 
50'.0.722 
515O.!04 
5211.088 
5271.273 
5331.458 
5391.644 


C0.051 
CO.O.'ig 
00.007 
C0.()75 
0O.OC2 
CU.O'.O 
00.097 
60  J  04 
CO. Ill 

CO.  117 

to.  124 

CO  i:io 

CO.  135 
CO.  141 
CO.  140 
CO.  161 
CO. 155 
60.  ICO 
00.104 

60.107 

60.171 
CO.  174 
CO. 170 
00.179 
e0.181 
CO.li-2 
00.184 
eO.li-5 
GO  185 
C0.186 


Table  IV. 


The  Measure  of  each  Degree 

of  Latitude  and  of  a  Degree  of  Longitude  in  each  Parallel  of 

Latitude  from  the  Equator  to  either  Pole.     Compression  ~^, 

Par. 

Depree  of 

Degree  of 

Par. 

Decree  of 

Decree  of 

Par. 

Decree  of 

Decree  of 

of 

L'atitude  in 

Loneitiide  in 

of 

Latitude  in 

Loiiffiliide  in 

of 

LBtitiide  in 

Loiicitiidn  in 

Lat. 

Fathoms. 

Fathoms. 

Lat. 

Fathoms. 

Fathoms. 

Lat. 

Fathoms. 

Fathoms. 

o 
0 

60458.6 

60857.1 

o 
30 

60607.4 

52746.9 

o 
00 

60906.6 

30503.5 

1 

60458.8 

60847.8 

31 

60616.5 

52210.0 

01 

00915.7 

2!'578.2 

2 

60459.8 

60820.2 

32 

6062.5.8 

51057.2 

02 

00924.5 

28043.8 

3 

60400.3 

00774.2 

33 

00(535.2 

510.^8.6 

03 

C0933.1 

27700.6 

4 

60461.5 

60709.8 

34 

60044.8 

5t;504.5 

04 

00941.4 

2li748.8 

5 

60403.2 

60ti27.0 

35 

60654.5 

49i:04.9 

05 

GOl'49.6 

25788.7 

6 

00405.1 

60525.8 

36 

000(54.4 

49290.2 

06 

C0957.5 

24820.7 

7 

00407.5 

60406.4 

37 

0C0T4.3 

480(-0.3 

67 

60905.3 

23845.0 

8 

00470.1 

60208.6 

38 

60t>84.4 

48015.6 

68 

00972.7 

22801.9 

9 

604732 

60112.6 

39 

60694.6 

47355  2 

69 

60979.8 

21871.7 

10 

60470.5 

59938.4 

40 

00704.8 

40ri82.4 

70 

60986.7 

20874.8 

11 

60480.3 

59740. 1 

41 

00715.1 

45994.2 

71 

00993.4 

19871.4 

12 

60484.3 

59535.0 

42 

00725.4 

452n2.0 

72 

00999.7 

18801.8  . 

13 

00488.7 

59307.1 

43 

C0735.8 

44570.0 

73 

61005.7 

17840.4 

14 

60493.4 

59060.6 

44 

C074G.3 

43840.2 

74 

61011.5 

]08'.j4 

15 

60498  4 

58796.3 

45 

00750.7 

43103.0 

75 

01010.8 

15799.3 

10 

60.503.8 

58514.1 

46 

C0767.2 

42310.6 

76 

01022.0 

147('8.2 

17 

60509.4 

58214.2 

47 

00777.6 

41.577.3 

77 

01020.7 

137:i2^ 

18 

60515.4 

57«90.6 

48 

60788.0 

40795.1 

78 

01031.2 

12092.7 

19 

60521.6 

57561.4 

49 

60798.4 

40000.5 

79 

01035.3 

1 1048.9 

20 

60528.2 

57208.8 

50 

00808.7 

39193.5 

80 

01039.1 

10(01.4 

21 

6053.5.0 

56838.9 

51 

00819.0 

38374.5 

81 

01042.5 

9.5.50.7 

W) 

60542.0 

56451.6 

i 

00829.2 

37.543.7 

82 

61045.0 

8497.0 

23 

00549.4 

50047.2 

008.39.3 

.30701.4 

83 

0104H.3 

7440.6 

24 

00.557.0 

55i;25.8 

54 

C0849.3 

35r'47.8 

84 

01050.7 

o:if-2.o 

25 

C05C.4.8 

55187.5 

55 

G0859.3 

34983.1 

85 

610.52.7 

5.321.4 

20 

00.572.9 

54732.4 

.56 

008(59.0 

34107.6 

86 

61054.3 

4259.1 

27 

00581.2 

542C0.6 

57 

00878.7 

33221.5 

87 

61055.6 

3195.5 

23 

60589.7 

53772.4 

58 

(^0888.2 

32:»25.5 

88 

610.50.5 

2130.9 

29 

60598.1 

5:}267.8 

59 

60897.5 

31419.4 

89 

61057.1 

]0(-5.6 

30 

60607.4 

52746.9 

60 

00900.6 

30503.5 

90 

01057.2 

0000.0 

Book  I.  LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE.  147 

CHAPTER  XX. 

DETERMINATION  OF  LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE. 

There  are  three  important  problems  in  geography  which  require  for  their  solution  the 
doctrines  of  astronomy.  The  first  requires  to  find  the  direction  of  the  meridian  at  any  point 
of  the  earth's  surface ;  the  second,  to  find  the  latitude  of  any  place ;  and  the  third,  to  find 
the  longitude. 

Problem  I. — To  determine  the  Meridian,  or  to  draio  a  Meridian  Linf 

This  problem,  like  many  others  in  practical  astronomy,  admits  of  a  comparatively  easy 
solution,  if  no  great  degree  of  accuracy  is  required ;  but  to  obtain  a  very  accurate  result, 
mucli  care,  and  instruments  of  the  most  perfect  construction,  are  indispensable. 

The  general  principle  of  the  solution  is  the  fact,  that  the  celestial  bodies  which  do  not 
sensibly  change  their  declination  in  the  course  of  a  day,  have  the  same  apparent  altitude  at 
equal  intervals  of  time  before  and  after  passing  the  meridian :  also,  that  their  altitude  is 
greatest  or  least  when  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian ;  that  is,  when  they  are  due  south  or  due 
north. 

About  the  time  of  the  summer  and  winter  solstice,  the  sun  changes  his  declination  very 
little  in  the  course  of  a  day :  and  hence  it  happens  that  the  shadow  of  an  upright  rod  or 
gnomon  is  almost  exactly  of  the  same  length  when  the  sun  is  at  equal  distances  from  the 
meridian.  To  determine  the  position  of  the  meridian,  then,  let  a  number  of  concentric 
circles  be  described  on  a  horizontal  plane,  and  let  a  wire  or  rod  be  placed  directly  over 
their  common  centre,  and  perpendicular  to  the  plane ;  and,  the  sun  shining  on  the  plane,  let 
the  two  points  in  which  the  extremity  of  the  shadow  of  the  wire  crosses  each  circle  be 
exactly  noted.  Then,  through  any  point  of  the  plane  which  is  at  equal  distances,  from  each 
pair  of  intersections  draw  a  straight  line  through  the  centre  of  the  circle;,  and  this  will  be 
in  the  plane  of  the  meridian,  or  will  be  a  meridian  line.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  one  circle, 
and  one  pair  of  intersections  of  the  path  of  the  extremity  of  the  shadow  and  the  circle, 
would  be  sufficient :  but  several  circles  will  fulfil  the  object  with  greater  accuracy  and 
more  certainty  ;  because  a  mean  position  of  the  meridian  line  may  be  found  among  all  the 
results ;  and  besides,  one  of  a  pair,  or  both,  may  be  lost  by  clouds  intercepting  the  light  of 
the  sun. 

The  imperfection  of  this  method  of  finding  the  meridian  arises  fi-om  the  indistinctness  of 
the  termination  of  the  shadow  of  the  upright  wire,  and  from  the  change  of  the  sun's  decli- 
nation between  the  observations.  There  is,  however,  another  as  simple  and  exact  as  can 
be  expected,  without  the  assistance  of  a  telescope.  It  is  known  that  the  pole  star  and  the 
star  Alioth,  or  «  of  the  Great  Bear,  pass  the  meridian  within  about  nine  minutes  of  each 
other.  If,  therefore,  we  suspend  two  plummets  by  threads  to  the  ends  of  a  rod  which  turns 
horizontally  on  a  pivot,  and  by  moving  the  rod,  keep  the  two  plumb-lines  exactly  between 
the  eye  and  Alioth  when  near  the  meridian,  then,  at  the  moment  when  the  pole  star  is  also 
seen  along  the  two  plumb-lines,  the  two  stars  and  the  plumb-lines  will  be  all  nearly  in  the 
plane  of  the  meridian.  To  keep  the  plumb-lines  steady  in  the  vertical  plane,  the  plummets 
may  hang  in  vessels  filled  with  water. 

If  we  could  determine  tlie  position  of  a  star  when  its  altitude  is  greatest  or  least,  we 
would  then  have  a  point  of  the  heavens  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian :  but  that  position  cannot 
be  found  with  certainty,  because  the  change  of  altitude  is  imperceptible  to  a  sensible  distance 
on  each  side  of  the  meridian. 

The  exact  determination  of  the  meridian  requires  the  aid  of  the  telescope,  a  well-regulated 
clock,  and  an  instrument  for  determining  the  altitude  of  the  sun  or  a  star :  Hadley's  sextant, 
or  a  reflecting  circle,  are  the  proper  instruments  for  this  purpose.  By  the  sextant  we  can 
determine  two  instants  of  time  when  the  star  has  the  same  altitude;  the  clock  will  give  the 
interval  of  time  between  them :  and  half  this  interval  will  be  the  time  between  each  obser- 
vation and  the  passage  of  the  star  over  the  meridian.  If  we  next  day  note  the  time  by  the 
clock  when  the  star  again  attains  that  altitude,  and  add  to  that  time  the  above-mentioned 
half  interval,  we  shall  have  the  time  by  the  clock  wlien  the  star  will  be  on  the  meridian. 
If  at  that  instant  a  telescope,  moveable  in  a  vertical  plane,  be  directed  to  the  star,  so  that  in 
passing  the  meridian  the  star  may  be  in  the  axis  of  the  telescope,  the  position  of  the  plane 
of  tlie  meridian  will  be  obtained :  and  if  the  telescope  be  fixed  to  a  horizontal  axis  which  is 
perpendicular  to  that  plane,  it  will  have  a  vertical  motion  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian,  and 
will  be  what  is  called  a  transit  instrument.  By  this  instrument  the  exact  instant  when 
any  celestial  phenomenon  is  on  the  meridian  is  known.  It  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  most 
essential  instruments  in  an  observatory. 

In  a  variable  climate,  it  may  happen  that  the  observations  necessary  to  determine  the 
meridian  may  be  interrupted  by  cloudy  weather.  This,  however,  is  an  inconvenience  to 
which  all  astronomical  observations  are  liable.  It  must  also  be  observed,  that  a  single  set 
of  observations  will  not  give  so  perfect  a  result  as  a  considerable  number  of  sets,  from 
which  a  mean  may  be  deduced. 


148  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Pa»t  II. 

If  the  celestial  object  change  its  position  otherwise  than  by  the  diurnal  motions  of  the 
earth,  as  happens  when  it  is  the  sun,  still  the  problem  maybe  resolved,  as  has  been  explained, 
by  making  allowance  for  the  change  of  position,  by  applymg  the  principles  of  spherical  trigo- 
nometry to  the  laws  of  the  motion. 

Problem  II. — To  determine  the  Latitude. 

In  treating  of  the  doctrine  of  the  sphere,  it  has  been  already  shown  that  the  distance  of 
the  pole  of  the  world  (that  is,  the  point  of  the  heavens  about  which  ail  the  stars  turn)  from 
the  horizon  of  any  place  is  equal  to  its  latitude.  Now,  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours, 
every  star  passes  the  meridian  twice,  at  equal  distances  from  the  pole,  and  on  opposite  sides 
of  it.  When  the  star  passes  the  meridian  below  the  pole, — that  is,  between  the  pole  and 
the  horizon, — its  altitude  is  the  least  possible ;  and  when  it  crasses  the  meridian  above  the 
pole,  or  between  the  pole  and  the  south  part  of  tlie  horizon,  its  distance  from  the  north  point 
of  the  horizon  will  be  the  greatest  possible.  If,  therefore,  with  a  suitable  instrument,  (a 
quadrant  for  instance,)  we  take  the  star's  altitude  when  it  is  least,  and  also  when  it  is  greatest, 
and  correct  these  for  refraction,  it  is  manifest  that  half  their  sum  will  be  the  latitude  of  the 
place  where  the  observations  were  made. 

We  have  supposed  the  star  to  pass  the  meridian  between  the  pole  and  the  zenith,  and  then 
its  greatest  altitude  will  be  its  distance  fiom  tlie  north  point  of  the  horizon :  but  it  may  pass 
to  the  south  of  the  zenith,  and  then  its  altitude,  reckoned  trom  the  south,  must  be  subtracted 
from  180°  to  get  its  distance  from  the  north  pomt  of  the  horizon ;  and  half  the  sum  of  the 
two  distances,  as  before,  will  be  tlie  latitude. 

Any  one  star  that  never  sets,  the  pole  star  for  instance,  will  serve  to  determine  the  latitude : 
but  it  will  be  proper,  if  circumstances  allow,  to  observe  various  stars,  and  the  mean  of  all 
the  observations  may  be  expected  to  be  more  correct  than  a  single  pair. 

If,  instead  of  the  greatest  and  least  altitudes  of  a  star,  its  greatest  and  least  distances  from 
the  zenith  be  found,  then  half  their  sum  will  be  the  complement  of  the  latitude ;  that  is,  the 
difference  between  the  latitude  and  ninety  degrees. 

For  example,  by  observations  made  on  the  pole  star  at  the  Dublin  Observatory,  it  was  found 
that 

Its  greatest  zenith  distance,  corrected  for  refraction,  was  -     -    -    38'^  19'  43".ll 

Le^t 34    53   49.55 

The  sum 73    13    32 .  66 

Half  the  sum,  or  co-latitude  of  the  observatory 36    36    46  .  33 

The  latitude 53    23    13.67 

When  the  latitude  of  one  place  is  known,  the  latitude  of  another  place  may  be  found  by 
observing  with  a  quadrant,  or  other  suitable  instrument,  the  zenith  distances  of  any  star  at 
both  places.  The  difference  of  these  zenith  distances,  when  corrected  for  refraction,  will  be 
the  difference  of  latitude  of  the  two  places. 

Thus,  for  example,  to  determine  the  difference  between  the  latitudes  of  Greenwich  Ob- 
servatory and  Dunnose  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  it  wa^  found  that 

At  Dunnose  the  z.  d.  of  ^  Draconis  was 1°  50'  5".24 

And  at  Greenwich 0    58    33.13 

Difference  of  latitude 0    51    32.11 

The  latitude  of  Greenwich  was  known  to  be       -------  51    28    30.05 

The  latitude  of  Dunnose  is 50    37     8^39 

The  navigator  has  daily  occasion  to  determine  his  latitude  at  sea.  For  this  purpose,  he 
finds  the  sun's  zenith  distance,  or  its  altitude  at  noon,  by  Hadley's  sextant.  The  Nautical 
Almanac  gives  him  the  sun's  declination,  or  distance  from  the  equator  at  the  time  he  makes 
his  observation :  the  sum  or  difference  of  these  is  his  latitude,  according  as  the  ship  and  the 
sun  are  on  the  same  or  opposite  sides  of  the  equator. 

Ex.  On  July  24,  1783,  at  a  place  in  longitude  54°  (3"  36"")  west  of  Greenwich,  the  alti- 
tude of  the  sun's  lower  limb,  when  cleared  from  refraction  and  parallax,  was  observed  by  a 
sextant  to  be  59°  15'  30".  By  the  Nautical  Almanac,  the  sun's  semidiameter  was  15'  48", 
and  his  declination  at  the  time  of  noon  in  that  longitude  19°  51'  N.  The  calculation  for 
the  latitude  will  stand  thus : — 

Altitude  of  the  sun's  lower  limb 59°  15'  30" 

Add  sun's  semidiameter --.--.--  15    48 

Subtract  altitude  of  smi's  centre      -----------    59    31    18 

From - 90      0      0 

To  sun's  zenith  distance 30    28    42 

Add  sun's  declination    ---------------     19    51      0 

The  latitude  of  the  place  is 50    19   42 


Book  L  LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE.  149 

The  navigator  cannot  always  obtain  an  observation  of  the  sun  or  a  star  when  on  the  me- 
ridian. He  may,  however,  be  able  to  observe  two  latitudes  out  of  the  meridian,  and  the 
interval  of  time  between  them.  With  these  data,  and  the  aid  of  spherical  trigonometry  and 
the  Nautical  Almanac,  he  may  find  his  latitude  by  rules  given  by  writers  on  navigation  and 
astronomy.  It  is,  in  general,  by  one  or  other  of  these  methods  that  the  recorded  latitudes 
of  all  places  have  been  obtained,  and  arranged  in  a  table  for  the  use  of  the  geographer  and 
navigator. 

Problem  III. — To  determine  the  Longitude. 

The  interval  of  time  between  two  successive  passages  of  the  sun  over  the  meridian  of  any 
place  is  twenty-four  hours.  If,  therefore,  we  suppose  a  number  of  meridians  to  be  drawn 
at  equal  intervals, — that  is,  to  form  successively  with  each  other  equal  angles  at  the  poles, — 
then,  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours,  each  of  these  meridians  (supposing  their  planes 
produced)  will  pass  through  tlie  sun.  Therefore  twenty-four  hours  of  mean  solar  time  will 
correspond  to  360  degrees  of  longitude ;  for  the  whole  scale  of  longitude  must  be  contained 
between  the  eastern  and  western  sides  of  the  meridian  at  the  same  place.  At  places  situated 
on  the  meridian  opposite  that  on  which  the  sun  was  at  0\  or,  in  civil  reckoning,  at  12  at 
noon,  the  time  would  be  12",  or  12  at  night ;  and  12''  would  correspond  to  180  degrees  of 
longitude.  At  places  situated  on  the  meridian  at  right  angles  to  the  former,  tlie  time  would 
be  6"  or  IS*",  or,  in  civil  reckoning,  six  in  the  morning  or  six  in  the  evening ;  and,  accord- 
ingly, six  hours  and  eighteen  hours  of  mean  solar  time  will  correspond  to  90°  or  270^  of 
longitude  ;  and  so  on  for  intermediate  meridians. 

The  selection  of  a  meridian,  from  vvhicli  the  longitude  is  to  be  reckoned,  is  entirely  arbi- 
trary. The  English  take  the  meridian  passing  through  Greenwich  Observatory  for  the^r.s^ 
meridian,  and  reckon  its  longitude  to  be  0°  or  0".  The  first  meridian  of  the  French  is  that 
which  passes  through  the  observatory  of  Paris.  An  interval  of  9°"  21'  elapses  between  the 
passages  of  the  sun  over  the  meridians  of  Paris  and  Greenwich :  the  longitude  of  Paris 
Observatory  is,  therefore,  by  English  geographers,  accounted  to  be  9°"  21'  east  in  time ;  or 
in  degrees,  2°  20'  15". 

Since  it  is  noon  at  all  places  on  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  from  pole  to  pole  at  the  same 
instant,  it  will  be  an  liour  past  noon,  or  l"",  at  all  places  on  the  meridian  15°  to  the  east  of 
that  of  Greenwich ;  and  two  liours  past  noon,  or  2\  at  all  places  on  the  meridian  30°  east 
from  that  of  Greenwich ;  and  so  on.  On  the  other  hand,  it  will  want  an  hour  to  noon,  or 
will  be  11\  at  all  places  on  the  meridian  15°  west  from  that  of  Greenwich ;  and  it  will  be 
two  hours  before  noon,  or  lO'',  at  places  on  the  meridian  30°  west  from  tliat  of  Greenwich ; 
and  so  on,  reckoning  an  hour,  or  sixty  minutes  of  time,  to  correspond  to  fifteen  degrees,  and 
four  minutes  of  time  to  one  degree. 

Since  it  appears  that  all  places  on  the  same  meridian  have  noon,  or  any  assumed  hour, 
at  the  same  instant,  and  that  the  instant  of  noon  is  different  at  places  on  different  meridians, — 
being  earlier  or  later  on  meridians  having  west  longitude,  according  as  they  are  nearer  to 
or  farther  from  the  first  meridian,  and  the  reverse  on  meridians  having  east  longitude ;  and 
moreover,  that  the  difference  between  the  time  of  noon  on  two  meridians  is  proportional  to 
the  difference  of  their  longitude,  and  therefore  a  measure  of  that  difference ;  it  follows  that 
if,  knowing  the  hour  of  the  day  at  any  place,  we  can  at  the  same  instant  by  any  means  know 
the  hour  at  a  place  on  any  other  meridian,  then  we  can  determine  the  difference  of  longitude 
between  the  meridians :  for  it  will  be  the  difference  between  the  times  of  the  day,  as  esti- 
mated on  the  two  meridians,  reckoned  in  hours,  minutes,  &c. ;  and  this  may  be  converted 
into  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds,  by  reckoning  fifteen  degrees  to  an  liour,  and  proportionally 
for  minutes  and  seconds  of  time. 

The  practical  methods  of  determining  the  longitude  are  the  following : — 

1.  By  a  Chronometer  or  Time-keeper. 

Let  us  suppose  that  a  traveller  departs  from  any  place,  (St.  Paul's,  London,  for  example,) 
and  carries  with  him  a  watch  regulated  to  mean  solar  time,  and  which  indicates  12'"  at  the 
instant  of  mean  noon  at  London :  then,  supposing  the  watch  to  go  with  perfect  regularity, 
if  he  go  to  Edinburgh,  and  compare  the  estimated  solar  time  there  with  that  shown  by  his 
watch,  he  will  find  that  they  differ  by  twelves  minutes  twenty-one  seconds ;  so  that  when  it  is 
12"  at  Edinburgh  Observatory,  it  will  be  12"  12""  2J'  by  his  watch.  He  may  therefore  con- 
clude, that  the  difference  of  longitude  between  London  and  Edinburgh  is  12™  21' west; 
and  since  St.  Paul's  is  twenty-three  seconds  of  time  west  from  Greenwich,  the  longitude  of 
Edinburgh  Observatory  is  12™  44'  west,  which  corresponds  to  3°  11'.  If,  leaving  London,  he 
had  gone  to  Paris,  he  would  there  have  found  the  estimated  time  to  be  9""  44'  earlier  than 
that  shown  by  his  watch :  hence  the  difference  between  the  meridians  of  London  and  Paris 
is  9""  44',  and  the  longitude  of  Paris  (from  Greenwich)  9"  21'  ^ast. 

In  the  same  way  the  navigator  at  sea  may  determine  his  longitude  by  a  good  chronometer. 
He  can  determine  the  hour  of  the  day  by  the  sun's  altitude,  and  the  principles  of  spherical 

lo  ' 


150  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

trigonometry.  Or  he  may  take  equal  altitudes,  noting  the  times ;  the  middle  point  of  time 
between  them  will  be  the  instant  of  noon,  as  shown  by  the  watch :  he  must,  however,  make 
a  correction  lor  tiie  change  of  the  sun's  declination,  and  the  distance  run  by  the  ship  in  the 
interval.  Supposing  now  the  chronometer  to  have  been  set  to  the  true  time  at  the  port  from 
whence  he  sailed,  and  to  have  gone  uniformly  witii  a  small  known  daily  acceleration  or 
retardation,  called  its  rate ;  this  correction  being  applied,  he  will  have  the  time  at  ihe  port 
correspondmg  to  his  observed  time  of  noon,  and  their  difference  will  be  the  longitude  of  the 
ship  eastward  or  westward  from  the  meridian  whence  slie  sailed. 

The  longitude  of  any  point  on  the  earth,  either  at  sea  or  on  land,  may  be  determined  by 
a  good  chronometer;  in  the  latter  case,  however,  the  jolting  it  must  suffer  by  carriage  will 
disturb  its  motion,  and  render  the  result  sought  uncertain.  At  sea,  the  mode  of  transport  is 
not  so  liable  to  sudden  jerks;  and,  therefore,  the  chronometer  may  be  expected  to  go  with 
more  regularity.  If  several  be  employed,  considerable  accuracy  may  be  obtained.  The 
Board  of  Admiralty  sent  ten  or  twelve  chronometers  from  Greenwich  to  Falmouth,  and 
thence  in  a  vessel  to  Madeira,  and  in  this  way  determined  the  longitude  of  Funchal  from  a 
mean  of  their  results. 

The  facility  of  this  mode  of  determining  the  longitude  makes  perfection  in  the  construc- 
tion of  chronometers  an  object  of  high  importance  in  a  maritime  nation  like  Britain.  It  was, 
therefore,  for  many  years  encouraged  by  acts  of  parliament  offering  high  rewards  for  pre- 
scribed degrees  of  excellence.  These,  however,  are  now  repealed ;  but  the  government  has 
not  lost  sight  of  this  important  subject. 

2.     The  Longitude  by  Eclipses  of  Jupiter'' s  Satellites. 

If  a  celestial  phenomenon  can  be  seen  at  the  same  absolute  instant  of  time  in  two  dif- 
ferent places  of  the  earth,  this  appearance  gives  the  means  of  determining  the  difference  of 
their  longitudes ;  for  if  the  phenomenon  be  seen  at  both  places,  and  tlie  times,  according  to 
their  reckoning,  be  noted,  it  is  manifest  that  their  difference  will  be  the  difference  of  longi- 
tude, in  time,  of  the  two  places. 

Now  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter's  moons  are  phenomena  of  this  kind.  They  may  be  seen, 
almost  at  tlie  same  instant,  everywhere  in  the  hemisphere  in  which  Jupiter  is  visible :  and 
such  is  the  perfection  of  astronomy,  that  tlie  times  at  uhich  they  will  happen  can  be  pre- 
dicted with  considerable  accuracy.  These  are  computed  according  to  Greenwich  time,  and 
published,  along  with  various  other  matters,  in  the  Nautical  Almanac,  several  years  before 
they  happen,  for  the  benefit  of  travellers.  This  method  of  finding  the  longitude  can,  how- 
ever, only  be  applied  on  land ;  for  at  sea  the  rolling  of  the  ship  makes  it  next  to  impossible 
to  direct  a  telescope  so  steadily  to  Jupiter  as  to  view  the  eclipse  of  a  satellite. 

Example. — Suppose  an  immersion  of  the  first  satellite  should  be  observed  at  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  April  16,  1805,  at  13''  25"'  35'  mean  time ;  the  predicted  time  given  by  the 
Ephemeris  being  12*'  12""  2'  at  Greenwich.  Here  the  difference  is  1''  13""  33';  whence  the 
longitude  of  the  Cape  should  be  18°  23'  15"  east  of  Greenwich. 

In  this  example,  the  observed  time  at  the  Cape  is  compared  with  the  computed  time  of 
the  eclipse  at  Greenwich.  If,  instead  of  this,  the  observed  time  at  Greenwich  had  been 
used,  greater  accuracy  might  have  been  expected. 

This  method  is  easy,  and  therefore  much  practised ;  but  it  is  liable  to  uncertainty :  for 
two  observers  in  the  same  room,  but  using  different  telescopes,  will  sometimes  differ  in  noting 
the  time  of  an  eclipse  of  the  first  satellite  by  as  much  as  fifteen  or  twenty  seconds.  Delam- 
bre  thinks  that  the  time  of  an  eclipse  of  the  fourth  satellite  may  be  doubtfiil  to  the  amount 
of  four  minutes. 

3.    Longitude  by  an  Eclipse  of  the  Moon. 

An  eclipse  of  the  moon  has  exactly  the  same  appearance,  at  the  same  instant,  wherever 
seen ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  be  quite  sure,  by  observation,  of  the  exact  time  of  their  begin- 
ning or  end,  because  of  the  penumbra  which  bounds  the  earth's  shadow.  The  results  to  be 
obtained  from  them  are  therefore  uncertain,  to  perhaps  two  minutes  of  time ;  and  therefore 
only  to  be  regarded  as  approximations  to  the  truth. 

Example.  An  eclipse  of  the  moon  was  observed  Aug.  28.  1729,  by  the  astronomer  Cas- 
eini  at  Paris,  and  by  Mr.  Stephenson  at  Barbadoes. 

At  Paris,  Imm.  )         -     12"    19'"  13'        Emer.  )    -     13''   59"" 
At  Barbadoes,  Imm.  )        8     110        Emer.  )    -      9    51 

1      8    13  4      8 


By  the  mean  of  the  two,  the  difference  of  longitude  is  4''  8"  6"5 ;  that  is,  Barbadoes  is 
62°  1' 30"  west  of  Paris. 


Book  I.  LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE.  151 

4.  Longitude  by  Lunar  Distances,  or  by  Occultations  of  Stars  by  the  Moon. 

The  moon  is,  of  all  the  celestial  bodies,  the  most  convenient  for  determining-  the  longi- 
tude, because  of  tlie  greater  quickness  of  her  apparent  motfon  among  the  stars.  She  makes 
the  complete  circuit  of  the  heavens  in  27''  7''  43'"  4'.7  (tliis  is  her  mean  sidereal  revolu- 
tion) :  tlierefore  she  changes  her  place  among  the  stars  more  than  half  a  degree,  or  her  own 
apparent  diameter,  in  an  hour ;  so  that  in  two  minutes  of  time  she  passes  over  one  minute 
of  a  degree.     This,  or  even  its  half,  is  quite  a  measurable  quantity  by  a  good  sextant. 

By  the  theory  of  the  moon's  motion,  lier  place  among  the  stars  is  known  at  any  time: 
that  is,  knowing  the  time  of  the  day  at  Greenwich,  the  place  of  tlie  moon  is  laiown ;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  knowing  the  place  of  the  moon,  the  time  at  Greenwich  is  known.  The 
Nautical  Almanac  gives  the  distance  of  the  moon's  centre  from  the  sun,  and  some  of  the 
brighter  stars,  as  it  would  be  seen  from  the  earth's  centre,  for  every  third  liour  of  the  day, 
Greenwich  time.  If,  therefore,  the  Almanac  show  that  the  moon,  considered  as  seen  from 
the  earth's  centre,  will  be  10"^  from  a  certain  fi.xed  star  at  six  o'clock  in  the  evenmg  at 
Greenwicli ;  and  we  make  an  observation  at  a  distant  place,  and  find  that  the  moon's  dis- 
tance from  the  same  star,  reduced  by  computation  to  what  it  would  be  if  seen  at  tlie  earth's 
centre,  is  10'^,  we  immediately  conclude  that  at  that  instant  it  is  six  o'clock  at  Greenwich. 
Tims  the  moon,  with  the  brighter  fixed  stars  near  her  path,  serve  tlie  purpose  of  a  chrono- 
meter. 

To  determine  the  longitude  in  this  way,  one  observer  measures  the  moon's  distance  from 
the  sun  or  a  bright  star  (one  of  those  in  the  Ephemeris) ;  another  observer  at  the  same  time 
finds  the  altitudes  of  the  moon  and  star ;  and  a  third  should  observe  the  exact  time  by  a 
chronometer  or  good  watch  at  which  the  observations  were  made.  These  observations, 
corrected  for  refraction,  give  data  for  finding  what  would  be  the  apparent  place  of  the  moon 
in  the  heavens,  if  it  could  be  seen  from  the  centre  of  the  earth  at  that  time.  The  Nautical 
Almanac  enables  the  observer  to  find  the  hour  at  Greenwich,  when  the  position  of  the  moon 
in  the  heavens  was  such  as  he  observed  it,  and  the  interval  between  the  Greenwich  tune 
and  his  own  gives  him  his  longitude. 

This  method  of  finding  the  longitude  is  commonly  practised  in  the  service  of  the  East 
India  Company,  and  in  the  navy.  By  it  the  longitude  may  be  generally  known  to  within 
twenty  miles,  and  very  often  much  nearer.  Tliis,  although  less  accurate  than  the  latitude, 
is  yet  an  invaluable  acquisition  to  the  navigator.  A  striking  proof  how  much  it  may  be 
depended  on  has  been  given  by  a  distinguished  navigator  (Capt.  Basil  Hall,  R.  N.).  After 
a  voyage  of  8000  miles,  occupying  eighty-nine  days,  he  arrived  oft'  Rio  de  Janeiro,  having 
passed  through  the  Pacific  Ocean,  rounded  Cape  Horn,  and  crossed  tlie  South  Atlantic, 
without  making  any  land.  When  within  a  week's  sail  of  Rio,  he  set  about  determining, 
by  lunar  observations,  the  ship's  course  and  place  at  a  determinate  moment ;  and  having 
found  this,  within  from  five  to  ten  miles,  he  trusted  to  the  ordinary  and  more  compendious 
way  of  finding  his  position,  such  as  is  used  in  short  trips,  for  the  remainder  of  his  voyage. 
When  he  arrived  w'ithin  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  of  the  coast  (accordmg  to  his  estimation), 
he  hove  to  at  four  in  the  morning,  waiting  for  day-break.  He  then  proceeded,  although  the 
weather  was  hazy ;  but  about  eight  it  become  so  foggy  that  he  did  not  like  to  stand  in 
farther.  The  fog  suddenly  cleared  oft',  and  then  he  had  the  satisfaction  to  see  the  Great 
Sugar-loaf  Rock,  which  stands  on  one  side  of  the  harbour,  so  nearly  right  a-head,  that  lie 
had  not  to  alter  his  course  above  a  point  in  order  to  hit  the  entrance  of  Rio. 

Occultations  of  stars  by  the  moon  serve  exactly  the  same  purpose  as  a  distance  of  the 
moon  from  a  star  :  these,  however,  are  not  so  generally  observed  at  sea  as  on  land.  They 
give  the  distance  of  the  moon  from  the  star  with  almost  perfect  accuracy,  and  therefore  are 
an  excellent  method  of  determining  the  longitude.  When  an  occultation  has  been  observed, 
we  can,  by  the  lunar  tables  or  the  Nautical  Almanac,  which  is  a  species  of  lunar  and  solar 
tables,  compute  the  distance  between  the  centre  of  the  moon  and  star  as  it  would  appear  at 
the  earth's  centre  at  the  moment  tl;e  occultation  was  observed,  provided  we  know  tlie  lon- 
gitude of  the  place  where  the  observation  was  made :  but  this  longitude  is  the  very  tiling 
we  want;  therefore  w^e  cannot  proceed  by  a  direct  process.  However,  we  may  know  the 
longitude  nearly  by  some  other  means ;  an  eclipse  of  one  of  .Tupiter's  satellites,  for  exam- 
ple. With  this,  as  if  it  were  the  true  longitude,  we  may  calculate  the  apparent  distance 
between  the  star  and  centre  of  the  moon  reduced  to  the  eartli's  centre  at  the  time  the  occul- 
tation w^as  seer  If  the  longitude  had  been  correctly  assumed,  this  would  liave  been  exactly 
the  moon's  semidiameter ;  but  it  will  differ  more  or  less,  according  to  the  magnitude  of  the 
error  we  have  made  in  the  assumed  longitude.  There  will,  however,  ba  such  a  determi- 
nate connexion  between  the  error  of  the  longitude  and  the  difl^erence  between  the  moon's 
semidiameter  and  computed  distance  of  the  star  and  moon's  centre,  tliat  the  one  will  be  dedii- 
cible  from  the  other  by  calculation.  In  this  way,  then,  the  error  may  be  estimated,  and  a 
nearer  approximation  to  the  longitude  obtained ;  and  a  repetition  of  the  process  will  give  a 
still  more  correct  result. 


162  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  U. 

5.  Longitude  by  the  Transit  of  the  Moon  over  the  Meridian. 

Let  T  be  the  time  by  the  clock  when  the  moon  is  observed  on  the  meridian  of  any  place, 
t  the  time  of  transit  of  a  known  fixed  star,  24  +  a:  tlie  interval  between  two  successive 
transits  of  tlio  same  star:  then  24  +  x  :  T  -  t  :  :  5360°  :  difference  of  right  ascension  of  the 
moon  and  star  at  the  instant  the  moon  was  on  the  meridian ;  to  which  adding  tiie  known 
right  ascension  of  the  star,  the  right  ascension  (A)  of -the  moon  when  on  the  meridian  is 
determined.  Now  the  moon's  right  ascension  when  on  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  is  given 
in  the  Nautical  Almanac  for  every  day  of  the  year,  from  whence  the  daily  increment  of  her 
right  ascension  may  be  determined :  let,  therefore,  a  be  the  moon's  right  ascension  when  on 
the  meridian  of  Greenwich,  E  the  increment  of  right  ascension  in  the  timie  between  two 
successive  transits  over  the  same  meridian ;  then,  considering  the  change  of  right  ascension 
as  uniform, 

E  :  a  -  A  :  :  360°  :  the  required  longitude. 

6.  Longitude  by  Signals. 

The  most  accurate  way  of  determining  small  differences  of  longitude  is  by  signals  made 
on  the  earth's  surface.  A  rocket  fired  from  an  elevated  spot  on  a  clear  night  may  be  seen 
distinctly  with  a  telescope  at  the  distance  of  twenty  or  thirty  miles:  therefore,  by  observmg 
the  times  at  which  tlie  same  explosion  is  seen  at  two  places,  the  difference  of  longitude  of 
the  places  may  be  found. 

The  same  method  will  apply  to  places  at  any  distance,  if  they  be  connected  by  a  cliain 
of  stations  sufficiently  near  to  each  otlier  to  admit  of  a  rocket  to  be  seen  from  every  two 
adjoining  stations.  The  difference  of  longitude  between  Greenwich  and  Paris  was  deter- 
mined in  1825  in  this  way.  Rockets  were  exploded  at  Wrotham,  and  seen  simultaneously 
at  Greenwich  and  Fairlight  Down :  also  at  La  Canche  on  the  French  coast,  whicli  were 
seen  at  Fairlight  and  Ligniers ;  and  at  Mont  Javoult,  which  were  observed  at  Ligniers  and 
Paris. 

In  the  same  way  the  diflierence  of  longitude  between  Geneva  and  Milan  has  been  deter- 
mined by  signals  made  by  illumination  on  the  tops  of  intermediate  mountains. 

The  intensely  brilliant  light  which  Lieutenant  Drummond,  of  the  Royal  Engineers,  has 
proposed  for  light-houses,  and  which  is  produced  by  placing  a  ball  of  lime,  about  the  size  of 
a  pea,  in  a  flame  supported  by  oxygen  gas,  may  be  employed  in  determining  differences  of 
longitude.  We  believe  that,  in  favourable  weather,  this  light  exhibited  on  the  top  of  Ben 
Lomond  may  be  seen  at  the  same  time  at  Edinburgli  and  in  Ireland :  indeed,  we  know  thai 
it  has  actually  been  seen  in  the  north  of  Ireland.  Here,  tlien,  we  have  the  means  of  deter 
mining  with  great  exactness  the  difference  between  the  longitude  of  Dublui  and  Edinburgh. 

7.  Longitude  by  Triangulation. 
The  trigonometrical  survey  of  Britain  has  determined  the  longitude  of  all  the  principal 
points  on  the  coast,  as  well  as  the  mountains  and  cities  in  the  interior,  particularly  in  Eng- 
land. At  present  the  survey  is  suspended  in  Britain,  but  is  going  on  in  Ireland.  When 
this  is  completed,  the  British  survey  will  doubtless  be  resumed,  and  the  geography  of  the 
northern  part  of  the  island  made  as  perfect  in  its  minute  details  as  the  soutliern,  which, 
from  its  proximity  to  the  continent,  is  more  necessary  to  be  known  in  preparing  plans  of 
national  defence. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


The  most  natural  and  correct  representation  which  can  be  given  of  the  geographical  divi- 
sions of  the  earth's  surface  is  that  which  is  made  on  a  sphere  or  globe.  In  this  way  the 
different  countries  may  be  truly  delineated,  so  as  to  exhibit  perfectly  to  the  eye  their  relative 
position,  their  magnitude,  and  boundaries ;  and  by  such  a  representation  of  the  earth,  all  the 
problems  in  geography  may  be  resolved  with  elegance  and  facility. 

But  although  the  surface  of  a  solid  having  the  exact  figure  of  the  earth,  or  differing  but 
little  fi-om  it,  affords  in  theory  the  most  complete  and  the  only  perfect  representation  of  any 
considerable  tract  of  country,  yet  there  is  a  limit  in  practice  to  this  precious  advantage.  A 
globe  of  a  moderate  size  serves  very  well  to  give  a  distinct  notion  of  the  figure,  the  magni- 
tude, the  position,  and  general  features  of  the  great  continents  and  islands :  but  the  largest 
globe  that  can  conveniently  be  constructed  is  insufficient  for  minute  details ;  and  then  we 
must  have  recourse  to  the  more  simple,  although  less  perfect,  representations  of  Maps. 

It  is  impossible  to  represent  on  a  plane  a  large  extent  of  the  earth's  surface,  so  that  the 
distances  of  places  in  the  plane  map  shall  have  to  each  other  preciselj^  the  same  proportion 
as  their  distances  on  the  globe.  To  obviate  this  difficulty,  geographers  have  had  recourse 
to  different  methods  of  representmg  portions  of  the  globe  on  a  plane. 


Book  I.  REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  EARTH.  153 

By  one  method  the  countries  are  represented  by  the  rules  of  perspective,  as  they  would 
appear  to  an  eye  that  should  view  them  on  the  surface  of  a  sphere  from  a  given  point.  The 
different  positions  which  may  be  assumed  for  the  point  from  which  the  sphere  is  viewed  give 
rise  to  different  projections,  which  all  answer  very  well  when  the  surface  to  be  represented 
is  of  small  extent,  and  tlie  point  of  view,  or  projecting  point,  is  nearly  over  its  centre. 
However,  when  the  surface  is  of  great  extent,  a  whole  hemispliere  for  instance,  those  places 
which  lie  near  the  border  of  the  projection  are  in  them  all  much  distorted. 

According  to  another  method,  the  spherical  surface  to  be  represented  is  supposed  to  be  a 
cone  whose  vertex  is  somewhere  in  the  polar  axis  produced,  and  its  curved  surface  either 
touches  the  sphere  at  the  middle  parallel  of  the  map,  or  falls  within  the  sphere  at  the  mid- 
dle parallel,  and  without  it  at  the  extreme  parallels.  The  surface  of  the  cone  is  then  sup- 
posed to  be  extended  into  a  plane.  This  way  of  constructing  maps  is  called  the  method  of 
development. 

There  are  other  mathematical  hypotheses  according  to  which  maps  are  delineated,  and 
one  in  particular  by  which  marine  charts  are  constructed.  In  this,  the  parallels  of  latitude 
and  circles  of  longitude  are  all  represented  by  straight  lines  (that  is,  a  line  making  always 
the  same  angle  with  the  meridian),  and  the  course  of  a  ship  sailing  always  on  the  same 
rhomb  is  also  a  straight  line.  A  representation  of  the  earth  in  this  way  is  commonly 
called  Mercator''s  chart,  although  the  invention  is  due  to  an  English  mathematician,  Edward 
Wright.     Charts  of  this  construction  are  of  great  importance  in  navigation. 

I.    CONSTRUCTION  OF  MAPS  BY  PROJECTION. 

There  are  two  projections  of  the  sphere  by  which  portions  of  its  surface  may  be  truly 
delineated  by  the  rules  of  perspective :  the  orthographic  and  the  stereographic.  In  each, 
the  plane  on  which  the  projection  is  made  is  called  the  plane  of  projection. 

1.    orthographic  PROJECTION. 

To  project  any  point  in  space  orthographically  on  a  plane,  a  perpendicular  is  to  be  drawn 
from  the  point  on  the  plane  and  the  bottom  of  the  perpendicular ;  that  is,  the  point  in  which 
it  meets  the  plane  is  the  orthographic  projection  of  the  point. 

The  orthographic  projection  of  a  line  of  any  kind  on  a  plane  is  found  by  supposing  per- 
pendiculars to  be  drawn  from  every  point  in  the  line,  and  that  line  on  the  plane  which  passes 
through  the  bottom  of  all  the  perpendiculars  in  the  orthographic  projection  of  the  proposed 
line. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  orthographic  projection  of  a  straight  line  must  be  a  straight  line, 
because  the  perpendiculars  drawn  from  every  point  in  it  to  the  plane  of  projection  will  all 
lie  in  a  plane,  and  the  common  section  of  two  planes  is  a  straight  line.  It  is  also  apparent 
that  the  projection  of  a  rectilineal  figure  will  be  a  rectilineal  figure. 

If  a  circle  be  parallel  to  the  plane  of  projection,  its  orthographic  projection  or  representa- 
tion will  be  a  circle :  for  tlie  perpendiculars  supposed  to  be  drawn  from  every  point  in  the 
circle  to  the  plane  of  projection  will  all  be  on  the  curve  surface  of  a  cylinder,  and  they  may 
be  considered  as  constituting  that  surfice.  The  circle  and  its  projection  will  be  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  cylinder  ;  and  since  they  are  parallel,  they  will  be  alike  and  equal. 

If  the  plane  in  which  a  circle  lies  be  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  projection,  its  projec- 
tion will  manifestly  be  a  straight  line,  wliich  will  be  equal  in  length  to  the  diameter ;  and 
the  projection  of  any  arc  reckoned  from  the  extremities  of  the  diameter  will  be  projected 
into  its  versed  sine ;  also  the  complement  of  the  arc,  or  what  it  wants  of  ninety  degrees,  will 
be  projected  into  its  sine. 

But  if  a  circle  be  in  a  plane  which  is  neither  parallel  nor  perpendicular  to  fhe  plane  of 
projection,  then  its  projection  will  neither  be  a  circle  nor  a  straight  line;  it  will  be  an  oval 
figure.  The  bounding  line  will  be  an  ellipse,  a  curve  formed  by  cutting  a  cylinder  by  a 
plane  oblique  to  its  axis ;  and  it  is  also  one  of  the  conic  sections. 

An  exact  notion  may  be  formed  of  the  orthographic  projection  of  any  line' or  figure  by 
holding  it  in  the  light  of  the  sun,  and  observing  its  shadow  formed  on  a  plane  which  is  per- 
pendicular to  the  direction  of  the  solar  rays.  The  rays  which  pass  close  to  the  figure  are 
the  perpendiculars  to  the  plane,  and  the  shadow  is  the  projection  of  the  figure. 

The  plans  and  sections  by  which  artificers  execute  different  constructions  are  no  other 
tlian  orthographic  projections  of  the  things  to  be  constructed ;  with  these  all  workmen  are 
familiar. 

The  orthographic  projection  of  any  object, — the  terrestrial  glebe,  for  example, — with  all 
its  circles,  and  the  continents  and  islands  on  its  surface,  is  nearly  the  representation  or  pic- 
ture whicli  an  artist  would  delineate  on  a  plane  surface,  if  he  meant  to  represent  the  globe 
at  a  great  distance  from  the  eye;  and  it  is  exactly  the  appearance  which  the  globe  would 
have,  supposing  an  eye  could  view  it  at  an  infinite  distance. 

From  the  nature  of  this  projection,  it  appears  that  the  orthographic  representation  of  half 
the  surface  of  the  globe  will  show  nearly  the  true  figure  and  proportions  of  countries  about 
the  middle ;  that  is,  directly  opposite  to  the  supposed  position  of  the  eye  v  but,  towards  the 

Vol.  I.  U 


154 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


II. 


extremities  of  the  map,  the  graphic  representations  of  places  will  imperfectly  exhibit  their 
true  figure  and  position.  For  this  reason  it  is  seldom  employed  in  geography,  although  its 
use  is  frequent  in  astronomy. 

(A.)     To  project  the  Sphere  orthographically  on  the  Plane  of  the  Equator. 

About  any  point,  C,  as  a  centre  (fg.  45),  with  any  radius,  C  A,  describe  a  circle  B  A  90 

to  represent  the  equator.  Draw  two  diameters, 
A  C  180,  B  C  90,  perpendicular  to  eacli  other : 
these  will  be  the  projections  of  meridians  distant 
90"  from  each  other,  and  C  will  be  the  projection 
of  the  pole. 

Divide  each  quadrant  into  six  equal  parts,  and 
let  A  15,  15  30  be  two  of  these ;  draw  diameters 
through  15  and  30,  and  these  will  be  the  projec- 
tions of  meridians  15°  and  30°  from  A  C  180 ;  and, 
in  this  way,  meridians  dividing  the  equator  into 
twenty-four  equal  parts  may  be  represented.  Of 
these,  any  one,  C  A,  may  be  assumed  as  the  first 
meridian. 

To  project  the  parallels  of  latitude :  divide  A  B, 

one  of  the  quadrants,  into  nine  equal  parts ;  let  80, 

70,  <30  be  tlie  throe  of  these  points  of  division  ad- 

„^  joining  to  B :  draw  perpendiculars  from  these,  and 

all  the  other  points  on  the  radius  A  C  meeting  it 

in  80,  70,  60,  &c.     About  C  as  a  centre  at  the  distances  C  80,  C  70,  C  60,  &c.  describe 

circles,  and  these  will  be  the  projections  of  parallels  of  latitude  at  the  distance  of  ten 

degrees. 

The  polar  circles  and  tropics  may  be  found  by  laying  oflT  an  arc  of  23|°  from  A  towards 
B,  and  from  B  towards  A,  and  drawing  perpendiculars  from  the  points  thus  determined  on 
C  A,  circles  described  about  C,  through  the  bottoms  of  the  perpendiculars,  will  be  the  pro- 
jections of  the  polar  circle  and  tropic.     In  this  way,  the  projection  may  be  completed. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  regions  within  the  polar  circle  may  be  represented  by  this  pro- 
jection so  as  to  give  a  tolerable  notion  of  their  position  and  magnitude,  judging  by  the  eye ; 
but  that  the  appearance  of  the  equatorial  regions  will  be  altogether  distorted. 

(B.)  To  project  the  Sphere  orthographically  on  the  Plane  of  the  Meridian. 
Describe  any  circle,  N  E  S  Q  (Jig.  46.),  to  represent  the  meridian,  and  draw  two  diame- 
ters, E  C  Q,  N  C  S,  perpendicular  to  each  other; 
the  former  may  be  taken  as  the  projection  of  the 
equator,  and  then  the  latter  will  represent  a  meri- 
dian 90°  from  the  meridian  N  E  S. 

To  represent  other  meridians :  divide  a  quadrant 
S  E  into  six  equal  parts,  as  at  15,  30,  &.c. ;  from 
these  points  of  division  draw  perpendiculars  15  a, 
10  30  6,  &c.  on  E  Q.  Describe  ellipses  N  a  S,  N  b  S, 
Q  having  a  common  transverse  axis  N  S,  and  the  lines 
C  a,  C  b,  &LC.  for  tlieir  semiconjugate  axes;  and 
these  will  be  the  projections  of  meridians  which  pass 
through  every  fifteentli  degree  of  the  equator.  Or, 
by  dividing  E  S  into  nine  equal  parts,  they  may  be 
made  to  pass  through  every  tenth  degree. 

For  the  parallels  of  latitude :  divide  the  quadrants 
E  N,  N  Q  each  into  nine  equal  parts  at  10,  20,  30, 
&c. ;  join  the  corresponding  numbers  by  straight 
lines,  and  these  will  be  the  projections  of  parallels  of  latitude  at  distances  of  10°,  20°,  30°, 
&c.  from  the  equator.  The  tropics  and  polar  circles  are  to  be  drawn  in  the  same  way  ;  the 
former  at  285°  on  each  side  of  the  equator,  and  the  latter  23-2°  from  the  poles. 

In  this  projection,  the  polar  regions,  and  all  places  near  the  meridian  N  E  S  Q,  are  very 
much  distorted  in  appearance  to  the  eye  :  it  is  only  towards  the  centre  that  there  is  any  con- 
siderable resemblance  of  a  projected  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  to  its  appearance  on  a 
globe.    - 

2.    STEREOGRAPHIC    PROJECTION. 

In  the  stereographic  projection,  the  eye  is  supposed  to  be  situated  at  a  point  in  the  surface 
of  the  sphere,  and  the  plane  on  which  the  projection  is  to  be  made  is  the  plane  of  that  great 
circle,  which  is  everywhere  90°  distant  from  the  position  of  the  eye :  hence  it  must  be  evi- 


Book  I. 


REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


155 


dent  that  the  eye  can  see  only  the  inside  or  concave  surface ;  however,  we  may  suppose  the 
sphere  to  be  transparent,  and  its  various  circles,  and  the  islands,  continents,  &c.  delineated 
on  its  surface  to  be  seen  through  it.  If  we  now  conceive  a  line  to  be  drawn  from  the  eye 
to  any  point  on  the  concave  surface,  the  point  in  which  that  line  cuts  the  plane  of  projection 
will  be  the  projection  of  the  point  on  the  spherical  surface. 

To  illustrate  what  has  been  said,  let  E  A  C  B  (Jig.  47.)  be  a  great  circle  of  the  sphere, 

p  q  r  s  a.  plane  passing  through  its  centre,  and  perpen- 
dicular to  the  plane  of  the  great  circle ;  let  C  E  be  a 
diameter  of  the  sphere  perpendicular  to  the  plane  ;  then 
assuming  p  q  r  s  as  the  plane  of  projection,  E,  one  end 
of  that  diameter,  may  be  taken  as  the  place  of  the  eye 
or  projecting  point.  If,  now,  straight  lines  E  A,  E  B, 
EC,  ED,  &c.  be  drawn  to  A,  B,  C,  D,  any  points  on 
the  surface  of  the  sphere,  the  points  a,  b,  c,  d,  &c.  in 
which  these  lines  meet  the  plane  p  r,  will  be  the  pro- 
jections of  the  corresponding  points  on  the  surface  of 
the  sphere.  Let  A  D  B  be  any  circle  of  the  sphere : 
conceive  a  straight  line  to  be  drawn  from  E,  the  place 
of  the  eye,  to  D,  any  point  in  the  circumference.  If  D, 
the  end  of  this  line,  be  now  carried  round  the  circle, 
supposing  it  always  to  pass  through  the  fixed  point  E,  the  line  will  generate  the  surface  of 
a  cone  whose  base  is  the  circle,  and  vertex  the  place  of  the  eye ;  and  the  curve  line  a  d  b, 
which  is  the  common  section  of  the  plane  p  r,  and  the  surface  of  the  cone  will  be  the  pro- 
jection of  the  circle. 

It  will  now  be  sufficiently  obvious, 

1.  That  every  circle  which  passes  through  the  eye  will  be  projected  into  or  represented 
by  a  straight  line  on  the  plane  of  projection. 

2.  That  every  circle  whose  plane  is  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  circle  will  be  projected 
into  a  circle. 

These  two  properties  hold  true  whei'ever  the  eye  he  situated.  The  assumption,  however, 
that  it  is  in  the  surface  of  the  sphere  gives  rise  to  geometrical  properties  which  are  peculiar 
to  this  projection,  and  which  by  their  simplicity  and  elegance  give  it  great  value. 

One  geometrical  property  is  this :  whatever  be  the  position  of  the  circle  A  D  B  (or  base 
of  the  cone)  on  the  surface  of  the  sphere,  the  portion  of  the  cone  between  the  projecting 
point  E  and  the  plane  of  projection  p  r  is  always  similar  to  the  whole  cone.  If  the  plane 
of  the  base  be  parallel  to  the  plane  of  projection,  the  truth  of  this  proposition  is  obvious ; 
but  writers  on  geometry  prove,  that  when  it  is  oblique,  still  the  cones  whose  bases  are  A  D  B 
and  adb,  and  common  vertex  E,  are  similar;  only  they  have  contrary  positions.  From  the 
similarity  of  the  whole  cone  to  the  part  cut  off,  it  follows  that, 

8.  In  the  slereographical  projection  of  the  sphere,  the  representation  of  any  circle  that 
does  not  pass  through  the  eye  toill  always  be  a  circle. 

There  is  another  proposition  demonstrated  by  writers  on  spherical  geometry  which  is  of 
great  importance  in  this  projection ;  viz.  if  two  straight  lines  be  drawn  from  any  point  on 
the  surface  of  the  sphere  to  touch  it  in  that  point,  their  representation  on  the  plane  of  pro- 
jection will  contain  an  angle  exactly  equal  to  the  angle  contained  by  the  lines  themselves. 
Since  straight  lines  touching  the  surface  of  a  sphere  at  any  point  may  be  regarded  as  tan- 
gents to  any  circles  of  the  sphere  passing  through  that  point,  we  have  this  other  remarkable 
property : — 

4.  The  angle  made  on  the  surface  of  the  sphere  by  two  circles  which  cut  each  other,  and 
the  angle  made  by  circles  which  are  their  representations,  are  in  all  cases  equal. 

This  projection  is  extremely  convenient  in  practice,  because  a  circle  may  be  easily  de- 
scribed when  three  points  in  its  circumference  are  given,  or  when  two  points  and  its  radius 
are  known ;  also,  the  property  of  lines  making  angles  at  their  intersection  en  the  surface  of 
the  sphere  equal  to  those  formed  by  their  projections,  is  of  great  value  in  the  representation 
of  the  surface  of  the  sphere  of  a  plane.  Moreover,  the  contraction  of  the  map  towards  the 
extremities  of  an  hemisphere  is  not  so  great  as  in  the  orthographical  projection;  on  all  these 
accounts,  the  stereographical  projection  deserves  a  preference. 

Supposing  E  to  be  the  projecting  point,  or  place  of  the  eye,  and  p  r  the  plane  of  projection, 
let  C  be  the  point  of  the  sphere  opposite  to  E,  and  therefore  90°  everywhere  from  the  circle, 
which  is  the  common  section  of  the  sphere  and  plane  of  projection ;  it  is  evident  that  any 
arc,  A  C,  of  a  great  circle  passing  through  C  and  E  will  be  projected  into  a  straight  line  «  c: 
now  this  line  is  manifestly  the  tangent  of  the  angle  A  E  C  to  tlie  radius  E  c,  and  the  measure 
of  this  angle  is  half  the  arc  A  C. 

5.  Hence  it  follows,  that  if  a  great  circle  pass  through  the  projecting  point,  any  arc  of 
that  circle,  reckoned  from  the  opposite  point  of  the  sphere,  is  projected  into  a  straight  line 
nassing  through  the  centre,  and  equal  to  the  tangent  of  that  arc. 


156 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


(A)   To  project  the  Sphere  stereographically  on  the  Plane  of  the  Equator. 


Describe  a  circle,  A  B  D  {fig.  48.),  to  represent  the  equator,  and  draw  any  diameter 

A  C  D  and  a  radius  C  B  perpendicular  to  A  D. 
Supposing  now  that  the  parallels  of  latitude  to  every 
tenth  degree  are  to  be  represented  in  the  map, 
divide  A  B,  a  quadrant  of  the  circle,  into  nine  equal 
parts,  as  at  the  points  10,  20,  30,  «&c.  and  draw 
straight  lines  from  the  points  of  division  to  D,  the 
extremity  of  the  diameter  A  C  D,  meeting  the 
radius  B  C  in  the  points  10,  20,  30,  &c.  Then, 
about  the  centre  C  describe  circles  to  pass  through 
the  points  10,  20,  30,  &:c.,  and  these  will  represent 
the  parallels  of  10,  20,  30,  &c.  degrees  of  lati- 
tude. In  this  way,  all  the  parallels  of  latitude  may 
be  found,  as  also  the  tropic  and  polar  circle,  bj'  lay- 
ing oft' arcs  of  231°  and  66'°  from  B  towards  A. 

Next  divide  the  circumference  of  the  circle  into 

into  24  equal  parts,  and  draw  radii  from  the  centre 

These  will  represent  the  meridians  which  differ  in  longitude  by 


to  the  points  of  division, 
one  hour. 


8o_Jl|i 


(B)   To  project  the  Sphere  strreographically  on  the  Plane  of  a  Meridian. 
Describe  any  circle  N  Q  S  E  (fig.  49.),  to  represent  the  meridian  on  which  the  projection 

is  to  be  made ;  which  should  be  so  chosen  as  to  include 
nearly  one  of  the  continents, — the  eastern,  for  in- 
stance :  this  will  be  accomplished  if  N  E  S  be  the 
meridian  20°  west  from  London.  Draw  the  diameter 
N  C  S,  which  will  represent  the  meridian  that 
passes  through  the  projecting  point,  and  therefore  is 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  projection.  Then  N 
will  represent  the  north,  and  S  the  south  pole ;  draw 
■JQ  another  diameter,  E  C  Q,  which  will  represent  the 
equator. 

Since,  by  the  nature  of  the  projection,  all  the 
meridians  will  be  represented  by  circles  which  pass 
through  the  poles  N,  S,  it  will  be  sufficient  if  we 
determine  the  points  in  which  they  cut  the  equator : 
we  shall  suppose  the  meridians  to  pass  through  every 
tenth  degree  of  longitude  :  the  points  where  they  cut 
the  equator  will  be  found  by  dividing  one  of  the 
quadrantal  arcs,  N  Q,  into  nine  equal  parts,  as  at  10,  20,  30,  &c.,  and  drawing  straight 
lines  from  S  to  the  points  of  division,  meeting  C  Q,  in  1,  2,  3,  &c.  Then,  a  circle  described 
through  the  points  N  1  S  will  represent  the  meridian  which  cuts  the  equator  10°  from  Q, 
and  a  circle  through  N  2  S  will  be  the  meridian  that  cuts  the  equator  20°  from  Q.  The 
remaining  meridians  N  3  S,  &c.  will  be  determined  e.x.actly  in  the  same  way ;  and  it  appears 
from  the  construction,  that  the  centres  of  the  circles  will  be  in  the  diameter  E  Q  and  its 
prolongation,  and  their  distances  from  the  centre  will  be  the  tangents  of  10°,  20°,  &c. ;  viz. 
the  inclination  of  the  circles  to  the  plane  of  the  primitive;  also,  that  their  radii  will  be  the 
secants  of  the  same  inclinations. 

To  describe  the  parallels  of  latitude,  divide  the  four  quadrants  each  into  nine  equal  parts, 
as  at  80,  70,  60,  &c.,  and  draw  straight  lines  from  E,  one  end  of  the  diameter  E  Q,  to  the 
points  of  division,  meeting  N  S  in  8,  7,  6,  &c.  Then  circles  described  through  80,  8,  80  ; 
70,  7,  70,  &c.,  will  represent  the  parallels  of  80°,  70°,  &c.  The  centres  of  all  the  circles 
will  be  in  the  line  N  S,  and  distant  from  it  by  the  secants  of  the  distances  of  the  parallels 
from  the  pole :  also,  the  radii  will  be  the  tangents  of  the  same  distances.  The  polar  circles 
and  tropics  being  described  by  the  same  rules  at  the  distances  23^°  and  66|°  from  the  poles, 
the  projection  will  be  completed. 

(C.)   To  project  the  Sphere  stereographically  on  the  Plane  of  the  Horizon  for  a  given 

Latitude. 

In  this  projection,  the  eye  is  supposed  to  be  in  the  nadir  of  the  place  for  which  the  pro- 
jection is  made. 

On  C  {fig.  50.)  and  C  {fig.  51.)  as  centres  with  any  radius,  describe  circles  W  N  E  S, 
W'N'E'S',  of  which^^n-.  ,50.  is  to  be  the  primitive  or  horizon;  the  other,_^^.  51.,  is  to  serve 
for  determining  the  position  of  the  circles  to  be  described  on  fig.  50.  Draw  the  diameters 
N  S,  W  E,  N'S',  W'E'  in  both  circles  perpendicular  to  one  another ;  then  N  S  in  fig.  50.  will 
be  the  projection  of  the  meridian,  and  W  E  the  projection  of  the  circle  passing  through 


Hook  I, 


REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


the  east  and  west  points  of  tlio  horizon  and  tlie  zenith, — that  is,  the  prime  vertical ; 
be  the  north  pomt  of  the  horizon,  S  tlie  south,  and  E  and  W  the  east  and  west 


157 

N  will 
points. 


51      ^__j>L.4o 

■''  \^^° 

'fix       \''    V\ 

/ 

/                N.            • 

1 

Wr 

ff-y^ 

■^v 

"''"'.                  y^ 

V"---- 

--^40 

\ 

^'~y^ 

\ 

/ 

\          y''^  ''  ■^ 

N. 

/ 

\      y'^           "'' 

\ 

/ 

30  13  i\.  15 

Make  the  arc  NT',  or  the  angle  N'  C  P',  fig.  51.,  equal  to  the  latitude  of  the  place;  join 
W'P'  cuttmg  C  N'  in  P;  make  C  P  in  fig.  50.  eqi^al  to  C  P  in  ^5-.  51.,  and  V,fig.  50.,  will 
be  the  projection  of  the  north  pole.  Draw  the  diameter  E  Q,  fig.  51.,  perpendicular  to 
P'  Cp' ;  join  W'Q' meeting  C  S'  in  Q'.  Take  C  Q,  fig.  50.,  equal  to  C  Q',  fig.  51. ;  de- 
scribe a  circle  through  the  points  W,  Q,  E,  and  the  arc  W  Q,  E  will  represent  the  equator. 
Next,  to  project  the  parallels  of  latitude, — for  example,  those  which  are  40°  and  20°  from 
the  pole,— from  P',  fig.  51.,  take  P'  40  and  P'  40,  each  arcs  of  40°  on  opposite  sides  of  P' ; 
also,  P'  20,  P'  20,  arcs  of  20°.  Join  W  40,  W  40,  meeting  C  N'  in  m  and  n  ;  also  W  20, 
W  20,  meeting  C  N'  in  r  and  s.  In  N  C  S,  fig.  50.,  take  C  m,  Cn,Cr,Cs,  equal  to  C  m, 
C  71,  C  r,  C  5,  fig.  51. ;  describe  circles  on  vi  n,  r  s  as  diameters,  and  these  will  be  projections 
of  parallels  of  latitude  at  the  distances  of  40°  and  20°  from  the  pole.  In  this  way  may  all 
the  parallels,  also  the  tropics  and  polar  circle,  be  projected. 

To  project  the  meridian:  in  fig.  51.  draw  S'  B  perpendicular  to  N'  S',  meeting  P' ^' 
produced  in  B;  take  C  A,  fig.  50.,  equal  to  S'  B,  fig.  51.,  and  through  A  draw  a  perpen- 
dicular to  C  A.  Let  us  suppose  that  the  meridians  are  to  make  with  each  other  angles  of 
15° :  at  P,  in  the  line  P  A,  draw  P  15  and  P  15  on  each  side  of  P  A,  making  angles  with 
it  of  15° ;  and,  in  like  manner,  P  30,  P  30,  making  angles  of  30°,  and  so  on  to  angles  of 
75°.  On  A,  as  a  centre,  describe  a  circle  to  pass  through  P ;  tliis  will  pass  through  W  and 
E,  and  will  be  the  projection  of  the  six  o'clock  hour  circle  in  the  heavens,  or  that  meridian 
on  the  globe  that  is  perpendicular  to  the  meridian  of  the  place  for  which  the  projection  is 
made.  On  the  points  15,  15  describe  arcs  a  P  a',  a  P  a'  to  pass  tlirough  P,  and  meet  the 
projection  of  the  horizon  in  a,  a' ;  a,  a' ;  and  in  like  manner  on  30,  30  as  centres  describe 
the  arcs  bFb',bP  b',  &c.  all  passing  through  P :  these  will  be  the  projections  of  meridians 
on  tlie  terrestrial  sphere,  or  of  hour  circles  on  tlie  celestial  sphere.  In  this  way,  the  pro- 
jection may  be  completed. 

3.    GLOBULAR  PROJECTION. 

In  the  orthographic  projection,  equal  portions  of  the  earth's  splierical  surface  are  repre- 
sented by  unequal  plane  surfaces ;  and  the  deviation  from  equality  in  tlie  surface  to  be 
represented,  and  its  plane  representation,  increases  from  the  centre  to  the  circumference  of 
the  projection. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  stereographic  projection,  but  with  this  difference,  that  the  dis- 
tortion in  the  representation  of  the  figure  of  any  portion  of  the  spherical  surfaces  proceeds 
in  a  contrary  direction :  in  the  former  case,  the  degrees  of  longitude  and  latitude  are  gra- 
dually contracted  from  the  centre  to  the  circumference ;  but  in  the  latter,  they  are  enlarged. 

In  the  jtereographic  projection,  the  projecting  point,  or  point  of  view,  is  the  pole  of  the 
circle  on  which  the  projection  is  made ;  aiid  in  the  orthographic,  it  may  be  supposed  in  the 
axis,  and  at  a  very  great,  or  rather  indefinitely  great,  distance.  It  is  this  change  of  position 
of  the  point  of  view  that  produces  the  change  in  the  direction  in  which  the  degrees  of  lati- 
tude or  longitude  are  contracted.  Hence  it  maybe  supposed,  that,  by  taking  a  point  of  view 
at  some  finite  distance  greater  than  the  radius  of  the  spliere,  a  perspective  representation  will 
be  obtained,  in  v/hich  the  degrees  in  the  representation  will  be  nearly  equal,  and  the  deviation 
from  equality  in  the  representation  of  equal  portions  of  the  spherical  surface  in  some  mea- 
sure corrected. 

Vol.  I.  14 


158 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II 


Let  A  D  B  {fig.  52.)  be  a  section  of  the  spliere 
by  a  plane  passing  through  E,  the  point  of  view, 
and  C  the  centre ;  draw  the  diameter  F  D  to  pass 
through  E,  and  draw  A  C  B  perpendicular  to  D  F. 
Since  the  whole  quadrant  A  F  is  to  be  projected 
into  the  radius  A  C,  if  it  be  possible  to  make  he 
representations  of  equal  portions  of  it  nearly  equal, 
its  halves  A  K  and  K  F  may  be  assumed  as  repre- 
sented by  A  H  and  H  C,  halves  of  the  radius : 
therefore,  a  line  drawn  from  K  to  E  must  bisect 
the  radius  in  H.  This  determines  D  E,  the  dis- 
tance of  the  projecting  point,  to  be  equal  to  K  G, 
a  perpendicular  from  the  middle  of  the  quadrant. 
To  prove  this  geometrical  proposition,  draw  A  F 
and  K  C  intersecting  in  I,  and  join  H  I.  Then  A 
1=1  F  and  A  I  :  I  F  :  :  A  H :  H  C ;  therefore  H  I 
is  parallel  to  C  F  :  hence,  KI:IC::KH:HE:: 
G  C  :  C  E.  Now,  K  I=F  G  and  I  C=G  C  ;  there- 
fore F  G :  G  C  : :  G  C  :  G  E :  hence  F  GC  E=G 
C'=K  G==F  G-G  D;  therefore  C  E=G  D,  and, 
taking  away  the  line  C  D  common  to  both,  D  E  is 
equal  to  C  G  or  to  K  G. 
Hence  it  appears  that  the  distance  D  E  is  the  sine  of  45^ ;  and  therefore  nearly  71  of 
such  parts  as  the  radius  C  A  contains  100.  This  projection  was  first  suggested  by  M.  Dela- 
hire,  and  is  now  commonly  called  the  Globular  projection.  If  we  suppose  the  quadrant  A 
F  divided  into  ten  equal  parts,  then  the  projections  of  the  arcs  of  9°,  reckoning  from  F  to  A, 
will  be  as  in  this  table,  in  which  the  radius  C  A  is  supposed  to  be  10. 


Arc. 

Representation. 

Arc. 

Representation. 

OO.. 

90 

.991 

4-50.. 

540 

1.017 

9  .. 

18 

.994 

54  .. 

63 

1.020 

18  .. 

27 

.999 

63  .. 

72 

1.015 

27  ... 

36 

1.004 

72  . . 

81 

.907 

36  ... 

45 

1.013 

81   .. 

90 

.950 

3V  SO 


From  this  table  it  appears,  that  the  appro.ximation  to  equality  in  the  projection  of  equal  arcs 
of  a  circle  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  projection  is  considerable. 

According  to  the  principles  of  perspective,  in  this  projection  the  circles  of  the  sphere  will 
be  represented  by  ellipses ;  and  they  have  been  so  delineated  in  two  hemispheres,  projected, 
drawn,  and  beautifully  engraved  by  Mr.  Joseph  Lowry,  of  London.  He  has  placed  London 
at  the  centre  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  instead  of  .707,  Delahire's  distance  of  the 
projecting  point,  he  has  made  it  .68  of  the  radius. 

In  general,  however,  the  projection  is  made  on  a  meridian,  and  the  circles  of  the  sphere 
are  represented  by  circles,  and  without  any  regard  to  the  distance  of  a  point  of  view.  Also, 
the  degrees  of  longitude  on  the  equator,  and  of  latitude  on  a  meridian,  are  made  all  equal. 
With  these  simplifications,  the  meridians  and  parallels  on  a  hemisphere  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face may  be  represented  by  the  following  construction  : — 

Let  us  suppose  the  parallels  of  latitude  to  be  traced  through  every  tenth  degree,  and  that 
the  meridians  are  to  be  an  hour  from  each  other. 

Describe  a  circle,  E  N  Q  S  (^fig.  53.),  for  the 
representation  of  the  meridian.  Draw  the  diame- 
ters E  Q,  N  S  perpendicular  to  each  other ;  one,  E 
Q,  to  represent  the  equator,  and  the  other,  N  S,  the 
meridian,  whicli  is  90°  from  that  on  which  the  pro- 
jection is  made ;  N  being  the  north,  and  S  the  south 
pole. 

Divide  the  quadrants  E  N,  Q  N,  and  the  radius 
Q  C  N,  each  into  nine  equal  parts ;  let  N  80,  80  70, 
&LC.  be  the  equal  divisions  of  the  quadrants,  and  N  c, 
c  d,  &.C.  the  equal  divisions  of  the  radius :  describe 
a  circle  through  the  three  points  80,  c,  80,  and  it 
will  be  the  representation  of  the  parallel  of  80°  of 
latitude ;  in  like  manner  a  circle  described  through 
the  points  70,  rf,  70  will  represent  the  parallel  of 
70° ;  the  remaining  parallels,  the  tropics  and  polar 
circles,  on  both  sides  of  E  Q,  the  equator,  are  to  he 
found  in  the  same  maimer. 


Book  I. 


REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


159 


Next  for  the  meridians :  divide  the  radii  C  E,  C  Q  each  into  six  equal  parts  at  the  points 
a,  b,  &LC,. :  describe  circles  through  the  points  N  a  S,  N  i  S,  &c.  and  these  will  be  the  repre- 
sentations of  the  meridians,  any  one  of  which,  in  laying  down  the  positions  of  places  by 
their  latitude  and  longitude,  may  be  assumed  as  the  first  meridian. 

II.    CONSTRUCTION  OF  MAPS  BY  DEVELOPEMENT. 

The  three  methods  of  projection  which  have  been  explained  are  usually  employed  in 
the  representation  of  a  hemispnere,  but  are  seldom  used  in  delineating  the  geographical 
features  of  a  single  country.  For  these,  the  method  of  developement  is  commonly  em- 
ployed. 

A  perfect  geographical  representation  of  a  country  should  represent  all  its  parts  in  just 
proportion,  and  should  exhibit  its  true  figure.  This  is  exactly  done  on  the  sphere ;  but  it 
can  only  be  nearly  accomplished  on  a  plane  surface. 

The  purposes  of  civil  government  require  maps  that  give  the  true  figure  and  dimensions 
of  territory.  Military  affairs  require  such  as  give  correct  distances ;  and  navigation  demands 
the  exact  bearing  of  one  place  from  another.  Ordinary  maps  fiilfil  approximately  the  two 
first  purposes.  The  last  is  completely  satisfied  by  a  map  of  a  peculiar  construction,  called 
Mercator's  chart;  but  this  is  not  immediately  applicable  to  the  other  purposes. 

It  is  a  known  property  of  a  cone  that  its  curve  surface  can  be  expanded  into  a  plane : 
hence  any  figure  delineated  on  it  can  always  be  exhibited  exactly  in  all  its  dimensions  on  a 
plane  surface.  Now,  a  part  of  the  surface  of  a  sphere  contained  between  two  parallels  of 
latitude,  not  very  remote,  will  not  differ  much  from  the  surface  of  a  frustum  of  a  cone  that 
touches  the  sphere  in  the  parallel  midway  between  them ;  and  this  will  also  be  true  if  it 
pass  along  the  chord,  or  if  it  pass  partly  within  and  partly  without  the  sphere,  cutting  it  be- 
tween the  middle  and  extreme  parallels :  in  each  case  the  length  of  the  slant  side  of  the 
frustum  must  be  supposed  equal  to  the  length  of  the  meridian  between  the  extreme  paral- 
lels. On  this  principle,  different  constructions  have  been  given  for  representing  the  surface 
of  a  sphere  on  a  plane. 

1.  Conical  Developement. 

Let  P  A  Q,  (Jig.  54.)  be  a  section  of  the  meridian,  P  Q  the  axis,  C  the  centre,  E  C  the 
radius  of  the  equator,  B  D  any  arc  of  the  meridian,  and  A  the  middle  point  between  B  and 
D :  draw  the  tangent  A  O,  meeting  the  axis  in  O.  Suppose  now  the  plane  figure  O  A  E 
to  revolve  about  the  axis  P  Q ;  the  semicircle  P  A  Q  will  generate  a  sphere,  and  the  tangent 
O  A  will  generate  the  surface  of  a  cone  which  touches  the  sphere  in  A.  The  points  B,  A,  D 
will  generate  the  parallels  of  latitude  B  6,  A  H  a,  D  d,  of  which  the  middle  parallel  A  H  a 
will  be  a  section  of  the  cone  perpendicular  to  its  axis. 

Take  H  any  point  in  the  parallel  A  H  a ;  draw  F  H  to  its  centre,  and  join  H  O.  Con- 
ceive now  the  cone  to  be  expanded  into  a 
plane,  and  that  the  surface  O  A  H  be- 
comes, by  developement,  O'  A'  H'.  The 
expansion  of  A  H,  tlie  arc  of  the  parallel 
of  latitude  on  the  sphere,  whose  radius  is 
F  H,  the  cosine  of  the  latitude,  will  now 
become  A'  H',  an  arc  of  a  circle  whose 
radius  is  A'  O'  =  A  O,  the  cotangent  of 
the  latitude  of  the  parallel. 

In  O'  A'  take  A'  B'  and  A'  D',  each 
equal  to  A  B  or  A  D,  and  with  the  radii 
O'  B',  O'  D'  describe  arcs  B'  ?n,  D'  n. 
n'  The  plane  figure  B'  m  n  D'  may  now  be 
taken  as  nearly  equal  to  the  spherical  sur- 
II  face  bounded  by  meridians  passing  through 
A  and  H,  and  the  portions  of  the  paral- 
lels B  b,  A  a  intercepted  between  them : 
and  any  tract  of  country  delineated  on  the 
sphere  may  be  nearly  sliown  by  a  delinea- 
tion on  the  plane ;  the  approximation  be- 
ing the  more  accurate  as  the  breadth  of 
the  spherical  zone  is  less. 
Let  the  middle  latitude  E  A  and  the  angle  A  F  H,  or  breadth  in  longitude  of  the  spheri- 
cal surface,  be  supposed  given,  to  determine  the  radius  O'  A'  and  the  angle  O'  A'  H'. 
Because  the  middle  latitude  is  known,  its  cotangent  O  H  is  given  in  parts  of  the  radius  by 
the  trigonometrical  tables,  or  it  may  be  expressed  in  minutes  of  latitude,  by  considering  that 
half  the  circumference  (to  radius  =  1)  is  3.1416;  therefore,  the  radius  in  minutes  will  be 
expressed. 


60  X  180 
3 . 1416 


=  3437.7'. 


160  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  P.vrt  II. 

Hence  O'  A',  the  radius  of  the  middle  parallel  in  the  developement,  will  be  expressed  in 
minutes  of  latitude  by 

3437.7'  X  cot.  middle  lat. 

Next^  to  find  the  angle  A'  O'  H'.  The  arc  A  II  on  the  sphere  and  the  arc  A'  H'  on  tlie 
plane  being  equal ;  by  tlic  principles  of  geometry,  tiie  angle  A  F  II  will  be  to  tlie  angle 
A'  O'  H'  as  A'  O'  to  A  F :  now,  A'  O'  ^  A  O  is  the  cotangent  of  the  middle  latitude,  and 
A  F  is  its  cosine,  and  the  cotangent  is  to  the  cosine  as  radius  to  the  sine ;  therefore,  putting 
L  to  denote  the  degrees  of  longitude  between  two  meridians  on  the  sphere,  the  angle  A'  O'  H  , 
contained  by  the  straight  lines  which  represent  tliem  in  the  developement,  will  be  in  degrees 

L  X  Sine  middle  lat. 
The  angle  O',  and  the  lines  O'  A',  A'  B',  A'  D',  in  the  developement,  are  now  known ;  it 
remains  only  to  divide  B'  D',  the  representation  of  the  arc  of  the  meridian,  and  B'  m,  D'  n, 
the  parallels  of  latitude,  into  equal  parts  to  form  scales  of  latitude  and  longitude  :  then, 
circles  described  about  O'  as  a  centre,  through  the  proper  divisions  of  B'  D',  will  form  the 
parallels  of  latitude;  and  straight  lines  drawn  joining  corresponding  degrees  on  the  extreme 
parallels  B'  7n,  D'  n,  will  represent  the  meridians  on  tlie  map;  which  is  now  ready  for  the 
delineation  of  the  geographical  features  of  tlie  tract  it  is  to  represent.  This  is  the  way  in 
which  the  common  maps  are  constructed. 

Example.  Let  it  be  required  to  construct  a  map  to  comprehend  the  British  islands, 
which  extend  from  .50^  to  about  61°  of  north  latitude,  and  from  2°  east  to  11°  west,  about  13° 
of  longitude.  The  middle  latitude  is  .55°  30',  of  which  the  cotangent  in  the  tables  is  .68728 
and  sine  =  .82413.  From  these  data,  O'  A',  the  radius  of  the  middle  parallel,  is 
3437.7  X  .68728  =  2362'  .7 :  the  length  of  the  arc  B  D  is  11°  =  660' ;  therefore,  A'  B'  = 
A'  D',  its  half,  is  330,  and  hence 

O  B  =  2362.7  X  330  =  2692'.7 
O  A  =  2362.7  —  330  =  2032'.7. 

The  number  of  degrees  of  longitude  (L)  in  this  case  is  13° ;  therefore,  angle  A'  O'  H' 
=  13°  X  .82413  =  10°  42. 

Knowing  now  the  radii  O'  B',  O'  T>',  and  the  angle  O',  we  can  find  the  arcs  B'  m,D'n; 
or  we  can  find  their  chords. 

Thus  we  have, 

chord  of  arc  B'  ?«  =  2  O  B  Sin.  i  O'  =  375'  .6. 
chord  of  arc  D'  n  =  2  O  D  Sin.  i  O'  =  502'  .1. 

We  have  now  obtained  the  chords  of  13°  of  longitude  on  the  extreme  parallels,  and  the 
meridians  whicli  form  their  extremities  in  minutes  of  a  degree  of  the  meridian ;  also  the 
radii  of  the  parallels  of  latitude :  with  these,  the  intelligent  student  of  geography  will  find 
no  difficulty  in  constructing  a  map  of  Britain. 

2.  Murdocli's  Conical  Developement. 

There  have  been  various  modifications  of  the  conical  developement :  of  these,  one  was 
given  by  the  Rev.  Patrick  Murdoch,  in  the  Lond.  Phil.  Trans.  1758.  Let  M  denote  the  ari 
of  the  meridian  which  is  to  be  represented  in  a  map :  he  proposed  to  make  O'  A',  the  radius 
of  the  middle  parallel,  equal  to 

chord  of  arc  M 

"~  ^rv X  Cot.  mid.  lat. 

arc  JVI 

the  cotangent  being  supposed  expressed  by  the  radius  of  the  sphere.     The  remainder  of  the 

construction  is  t!ie  same  as  the  ordinary  conical  projection. 

By  IMurdocIi's  method,  the  surface  of  the  developement  is  exactly  equal  to  the  spherical 

surface  which  it  represents,  and  tlie  cone  passes  through  points  of  the  meridian  between  the 

middle  latitudes  and  the  extremities  of  the  projected  arc,  its  side  being  parallel  to  the  tangent 

at  the  middle  latitude. 

3.  De  LisWs  Conical  Developement. 

The  astronomer  De  Lisle  employed  the  conical  projection  in  constructing  a  general  chart 
of  the  Russian  empire,  which  extended  from  40°  to  70°  of  north  latitude.  He,  however, 
supposed  the  cone  to  enter  the  sphere  so  as  to  cut  it  in  two  parallels  midway  between  tlie 
mean  and  extreme  parallels :  these,  in  the  developement,  had  the  same  dimensions  as  the 
corresponding  circles  of  the  sphere,  and  its  whole  extent  differed  but  little  from  that  of  the 
tract  it  was  meant  to  represent ;  because  the  excess  at  the  two  extremities  of  the  chart  was 
compensated,  at  least  in  part,  by  tlie  opposite  error  in  the  middle. 

4.  Euler's  Method. 
Euler  was  also  occupied  with  this  projection :  but  he  substituted  for  the  determination  of 
parallels  v.hicli  should  be  common  with  the  sphere,  that  of  the  point  of  concourse  of  straight 
lines  which  represent  tlie  meridians,  and  of  the  angle  which  they  make  when  tney  contain 
one  degree  of  longiturie.  Ilis  calculations  rest  on  the  following  conditions : — 1.  That  the 
errors  are  equal  at  tiio  northern  and  southern  extremities  of  the  mao.     2.  That  they  are 


Book  T. 


REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


161 


//^^ 

\\\V' 

fjrr 

\  \\\ 

P  \  f 

^^  u 

n  \  r 

^^\  n 

South. 


also  equal  to  the  greatest  of  those  towards  its  middle.  Hence  he  concluded  that  the  point 
of  concourse  of  the  meridians  should  be  situated  beyond  the  pole  by  a  quantity  equal  to  5° 
of  latitude,  and  that  the  angle  of  two  consecutive  meridians  should  be  48°  44'. 

5.  Flamsteed's  Projection. 

The  English  astronomer  Flamstced,  in  constructing  his  celestial  atlas,  developed  all  the 
parallels  of  latitude  on  the  sphere  into  straight  lines,  and  also  one  of  the  meridians ;  viz.  that 
which  passes  through  the  middle  of  tlie  chart :  then  the  parallels,  which  are  all  perpen- 
dicular to  that  meridian,  are  exactly  of  the  same  length  as  on  the  globe,  and  consequently 
the  degrees  of  longitude  on  the  parallels  will  be  shown  in  their  just  proportion,  that  is,  as 
the  cosines  of  the  latitude.  If,  now,  the  parallels  on  the  map  be  divided  into  equal  parts, 
just  as  the  parallels  on  the  globe  are,  by  the  meridians,  curve  lines  traced  through  corre- 
sponding points  of  division  will  represent  the  meridians. 

jjgi.j^  Tlie  adjoining  figure  {Jig.  55.)  exhibits  a  sketch  of  a  map  of 

this  construction. 

According  to  Flamsteed's  method,  any  distance  on  the  map  in 
the  direction  of  the  parallels  is  everywhere  equal  to  the  corre- 
sponding distance  on  the  globe ;  but  the  configuration  of  places 
near  the  extremities  is  considerably  distorted  by  the  obliquity  of 
the  meridians  to  the  parallels,  so  tiiat  the  spherical  quadrilaterals, 
the  sides  of  which  cross  at  right  angles,  are  in  the  map  represented 
by  mixtilineal  trapeziums,  of  which  the  angles  are  very  unequal.  Flamsteed  employed  thia 
projection  in  representing  the  positions  of  the  stars ;  but  it  is  also  employed  in  geography, 
particularly  in  delineating  countries  which  extend  on  both  sides  of  the  equator :  Africa,  for 
instance. 

6.  Modification  of  Flamsteecfs  Projection. 

There  is  a  modification  of  Flamsteed's  projection  (fig.  56.),  which  has  been  extensively 
employed,  and  which  deserves  particular  attention,  because  it 
corrects,  in  part,  the  defect  of  the  obliquity  of  the  meridians. 
This  substitutes  arcs  of  concentric  circles  for  the  straight  lines, 
which  he  proposed  to  represent  the  parallels  of  latitude.  The 
common  centre  of  the  circles  is  in  a  straight  line  drawn 
through  the  middle  of  the  map  as  an  axis,  and  which  repre- 
sents a  meridian  ;  and  its  position  in  the  axis  ought  to  be  such, 
that  the  obliquity  of  the  angles  made  at  the  intersection  of  the 
curves  which  represent  the  meridians,  and  the  circles  which 
represent  the  parallels,  should  be  as  little  as  possible. 

The  position  of  the  centre  is  so  assumed,  that  the  radius  of 
the  middle  parallel  of  latitude  is  equal  to  its  cotangent ;  and 
in  this  the  modified  projection  of  Flamsteed  agrees  with  the 
\g  ordinary  conical  projection. 

To  exemplify  this  construction,  let  it  be  proposed  to  describe 
the  parallels  and  meridians  for  a  map  of  Europe,  which  shall 
extend  from  35°  north  latitude  to  70°. 

Let  us,  as  before,  assume  a  minute  of  a  degree  of  latitude  for  the  unit  of  the  scale 
from  which  tlie  measures  of  the  lines  are  to  be  taken.  Therefore,  as  before,  the  radius  of 
the  sphere,  of  which  a  portion  of  the  spherical  surface  is  to  be  represented,  will  be  3437.7 
minutes. 

Let  O  A  C  1}  (fig.  56.)  be  assumed  as  the  axis  or  middle  meridian  of  the  map;  and  let 
A  D,  B  E  be  the  halves  of  the  part  of  the  extreme  parallels  of  latitude  to  be  represented, 
and  C  the  point  in  which  the  middle  parallel  (52°  30')  cuts  the  axis;  also,  let  O  be  the 
centre  of  the  circles;  arcs  of  which  are  to  represent  the  parallels. 

By  the  nature  of  the  projection,  O  C  must  be  taken  equal  to  the  cotangent  of  52°  30' ; 
this,  to  radius  =  1,  is  .76733,  and  to  a  radius  expressed  by  minutes,  we  have 
O  C  =  .76733  X  3437.7  =  2637'.8. 
Having  found  O  C,  the  radius  of  the  middle  parallel,  the  radius  of  any  other  parallel  may 
be  found  by  adding  or  subtracting  its  distance  in  minutes  of  the  meridian  from  the  middle 
parallel.     Thus  we  find  the  radii  of  parallels  differing  by  5°,  as  in  the  annexed  table : — 

Next,  we  must  find  tlie  points  in  which  some  one  meri- 
dian cuts  all  the  parallels.  We  shall  suppose  it  to  be  30° 
of  longitude  from  O  C,  the  axis  of  the  map. 

From  the  nature  of  the  developement,  the  arc  of  longi- 
tude on  any  parallel  in  the  map  is  equal  to  the  arc  of  the 
parallel  on  the  sphere  which  it  represents.     This  has  to  an  arc  of  the  same  number  of 
degrees  of  the  meridian  the  proportion  of  the  cosine  of  the  latitude  of  the  parallel  to  the 
VOL.L  14*  V 


Parallel. 

Radius. 

Parallel. 

Radius. 

350 

3687.8 

55 

2487.8 

40 

3387.8 

(iO 

2187.8 

45 

3087.8 

(15 

1887.8 

50 

2787.8 

70 

1587.8  ! 

162  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

radius.     Therefore,  an  arc  of  30°  =  1800'  on  a  parallel  whose  latitude  is  L  will  be  in 

minutes, 

1800  X  cosine  L. 
By  this  formula,  the  lengths  of  the  arcs  may  be  easily  computed  by  a  table  of  logarithmic 
Bines ;  but,  for  a  practical  construction,  it  will  be  more  convenient  to  have  the  chords  of  the 
arcs.  Now,  in  arcs  not  exceeding  30°,  the  arc  diminished  by  a  fraction  whose  numerator  is 
the  cube  of  the  arc,  and  denominator  24  times  the  square  of  the  radius,  is  very  near  equal 
to  the  chord ;  that  is,  a  being  put  for  any  arc,  and  r  its  radius, 

chord  a^a — ^^""a  nearly. 

From  this  formula,  the  chords  may  easily  be  deduced  from  the  arcs. 
As  an  example,  let  the  arc  of  30°  of  longitude,  and  its  chord  on  the  parallel  35°,  be 
required.     For  facility  of  calculation,  we  shall  use  logarithms. 


Calculation  of  Arc. 

Calculation  of  Log.  of  24r>. 

Logarithms- 

Logarithn.s. 
Radius  of  arc  667.8 3.50077 

Conine   35^   9-9^  336 

Arp /7      1474'.'; 3  16863 

Log.  of  square  of  radius 7.13.'!54 

iM 1.38021 

Logarithm    34r2 8.51375 

3 

Differ,  of  arc  and  chord  9' .8 099214 

Par.  of  Lat. 

Arcs. 

Chord  of  Arc. 

35 

1474.5 

1464.7 

40 

1378.9 

1309.4 

45 

1272.8 

1263.8 

50 

1157.0 

1148.7 

55 

1032.4 

1025.0 

60 

900.0 

893.6 

65 

760.7 

755.5 

70 

015.6 

611.8 

Thus,  by  an  easy  logarithmic  calculation,  we  have  found  the  arc 
to  be  1474'.5,  and  its  excess  above  the  chord  to  be  9'.8.  There- 
fore, the  chord  is  14G4'.7  of  the  meridian.  By  a  like  process, 
we  have  found  the  arcs  of  30°  of  longitude,  and  their  chords 
on  the  parallels  to  every  fifth  degree,  as  in  this  table. 

Having  now  found  the  chord  of  30°  of  longitude  on  the  paral- 
lel of  35°  to  be  1464'.7  of  the  meridian,  we  must,  with  com- 
passes, place  that  distance  taken  from  a  scale  of  minutes  from 
B  to  E,  and  to  e ;  and  the  points  E,  e  will  be  in  the  representations  of  meridians  30°  of  lon- 
gitude from  the  axis  on  each  side.  In  the  same  way,  the  intersections  of  these  meridians 
with  the  other  parallels  are  found.  Curve  lines  E  D,  e  (Z  must  now  be  traced  through  all 
the  intersections,  and  these  will  be  the  meridians  on  the  map. 

The  intersections  of  the  intermediate  meridians  with  the  parallels  may  be  found  by  divid- 
ing each  parallel  into  thirty  equal  parts,  from  the  axis  both  ways ;  and  as  many  meridian 
lines  may  be  exhibited  as  may  be  thought  necessary.  In  the  figure  here  given,  they  are 
traced  to  every  tenth  degree. 

If  the  map  is  to  extend  further  than  30°  on  each  side  of  its  middle  meridian,  the  divisions 
of  the  parallels  may  be  repeated  on  each,  and  meridians  draAvn. 

This  construction  of  a  map  is  memorable,  because  it  was  adopted  by  the  general  depot  of 
war  of  France,  about  the  year  1803,  as  the  groundwork  of  a  system  of  geographical  charts 
which  should  exhibit  the  French  original  territory,  as  well  as  the  additions  which  had  been 
made,  and  were  expected  to  be  made,  by  conquest  or  negotiation. 

Developement  of  the  Curve  Surface  of  a  Cylinder. 

The  mariner,  in  navigating  a  ship  between  remote  points  on  the  globe,  directs  his  course 
by  the  compass  ;  steering  as  nearly  as  possible  always  in  the  same  direction,  supposing  there 
are  no  obstacles  to  prevent  him.  If  the  place  from  which  he  sets  out,  and  that  of  his  des- 
tination, be  due  north  and  south  from  each  other,  the  ship's  path  will  evidently  be  a  great 
circle,  viz.  the  meridian  passing  through  tliem.  If,  again,  they  have  the  same  latitude,  he 
must  sail  on  a  parallel  of  latitude ;  that  is,  his  course  must  be  due  east  or  west.  But  if  the 
places  difl^er  both  in  latitude  and  longitu^.e,  then  it  becomes  a  question,  what  is  the  nature 
of  the  line  on  the  globe  along  which  a  ship  must  sail,  with  her  head  always  in  the  same 
direction,  as  indicated  by  the  compass,  so  as  to  pass  from  one  to  the  other? 

The  line  in  question,  which  is  called  a  rhumb  line  or  loxodromic  line,  has  manifestly  this 
property, — it  cuts  all  the  meridians  on  the  globe  at  the  same  angle.  By  this  property,  a 
ship  sailing  along  it  will  move  always  in  the  same  direction,  as  shown  by  a  compass :  but  it 
will  not  be  a  great  circle ;  for  the  equator  is  the  only  great  circle  that  cuts  all  the  meridians 
at  the  same  angle ;  and  hence  it  appears  that  the  line  on  the  globe  by  which  a  sliip  passes 
from  one  place  to  another  is  never  the  shortest  possible,  except  when  they  are  on  the  same 
meridian,  or  on  the  equator. 

Supposing  a  navigator  had  a  perfect  delineation  of  the  earth  on  a  sphere,  it  is  by  no  means 
evident  how  he  should  find  the  course  he  ought  to  steer  to  reach  a  remote  port.  By  due  con- 
sideration, however,  he  wpuld  see  that  the  path  must  be  a  spiral.     It  would  also  be  repre- 


Book  I. 


REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


165 


land,  than  to  be  used  in  navigation  at  the  sea."  It  is  curious  to  observe  that  logaritlims,  the 
other  grand  auxiliary  of  navigation,  met  with  a  like  reception  from  the  German  mathema- 
ticians that  were  somewhat  advanced  in  years. 

Mercator's  chart  may  be  produced  by  developement,  as  follows : — Conceive  that  a  sphere 
with  the  meridians  and  parallels  and  countries  delineated  on  it,  is  inclosed  in  a  hollow  cyl- 
inder, and  that  the  axis  of  the  sphere  coincides  with  that  of  the  cylinder.  Imagine  now  that 
the  sphere  is  expanded  in  its  dimensions,  just  as  a  soap-bubble  is  produced  by  blowing  air  into 
it,  or  as  a  bladder  would  swell  in  all  directions  by  inflation,  the  parts  always  stretching  uni- 
formly ;  the  meridians  will  lengthen  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  parallels,  till  every  point 
of  the  expanding  spherical  surface  comes  into  contact  with  the  concave  surface  of  the  cyl- 
inder :  the  meridians  will  at  last  become  straight  lines,  and  the  parallels,  circles  on  that 
surface ;  the  former  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  and  the  latter  parallel  to  its  base,  which 
is  the  equator.  Suppose  now  the  surface  of  the  cylinder  to  be  cut  open  along  one  of  the 
meridians,  and  spread  into  a  plane ;  the  surface  thus  produced  will  be  Mercator's  chart. 

Mercator's  chart  is  constructed,  then,  on  the  following  geometrical  principles : — 1.  The 
meridians  are  parallel  straight  lines  at  equal  distances,  for  equal  differences  of  longitude ; 
and  the  parallels  of  latitude  are  also  straight  lines,  perpendicular  to  the  meridians.  2.  Sup- 
posing a  meridian  on  the  globe  be  divided  into  mhmtes  of  a  degree ;  one  of  these,  at  any 
parallel  of  latitude,  will  be  to  a  minute  of  longitude  taken  on  that  parallel  in  the  proportion 
of  the  radius  of  the  equator  to  the  radius  of  the  parallel,  whicli  is  the  cosine  of  the  latitude ; 
tliat  is,  as  the  secant  of  the  latitude  to  radius.  Now  the  same  holds  true  in  the  chart ;  that 
is,  a  minute  of  the  meridian,  at  any  parallel,  has  to  a  minute  of  longitude  in  that  parallel  the 
proportion  of  the  secant  of  the  latitude  of  the  parallel  to  radius. 

By  the  first  of  these  properties  a  minute  of  longitude  in  the  map  is  represented  by  a  line 
of  the  same  length  in  every  parallel ;  therefore,  by  the  second  the  minutes  of  the  meridian 
will  be  represented  by  lines  which  go  on  increasing  from  the  equator  towards  the  poles. 
From  this  it  follows  that,  if  a  minute  on  the  equator  be  taken  as  the  unit  of  a  scale,  and  that 
unit  be  considered  as  the  radius  of  a  circle,  then  the  representation  of  a  minute  of  the 
meridian,  at  any  latitude,  will  be  expressed  by  the  number  in  the  trigonometrical  tables 
which  is  the  secant  of  that  latitude.  Thus  it  appears  that,  while  the  degrees  of  longitude 
on  the  equator  form  a  scale  of  which  the  divisions  are  all  equal  in  the  map,  the  degrees  of 
latitude  marked  on  a  meridian  form  a  scale  of  which  the  divisions  go  on  increasing  from  the 
equator  towards  both  poles,  each  being  the  sum  of  the  secants  of  all  the  minutes  in  the 
degree. 

The  numbers  which  result  from  the  addition  of  the  secants  of  1  minute,  2  minutes,  and  so 
on  to  the  last  minute  of  any  arc  of  the  meridian,  reckoned  from  the  equator,  are  given  in 
books  on  navigation.  They  form  the  table  of  vieridional  parts,  and  serve  for  laying  down 
the  position  of  any  place  in  the  chart.  The  addition  of  the  secants  is,  however,  only  an 
approximation  to  the  true  length  of  the  enlarged  meridian  in  the  chart;  but  it  is  sufficiently 
near  the  truth  for  nautical  or  geographical  purposes.  In  strictness,  also,  it  must  be  considered 
that  the  earth  is  not  a  sphere,  but  a  spheroid,  and  on  that  account  allowance  ought  to  be 
made  for  its  compression  at  the  poles.  The  following  short  table  shows  the  length  of  the 
enlarged  meridian,  both  on  the  sphere  and  the  spheroid,  to  every  fifth  degree  of  latitude. 
The  compression  is  assumed  to  be  ^'}.  ^ 


Lat. 

Meridional  Parts. 

Lat. 

Meridional  Parts. 

Sphere. 

Spheroid. 
0.00 

Sphere. 

Spheroid. 

0° 

0.00 

50O 

3474.47 

3457.39 

5 

300.38 

208.37 

55 

3967  97 

3950.57 

10 

603.07 

599.01 

60 

4527.37 

4509.41 

15 

910.46 

905.28 

65 

5178.81 

^159.93 

20 

1225.14 

1217.69 

70 

5965.92 

5945.51 

25 

1549.99 

1541.17 

75 

6970.34 

6951.07 

30 

1888.38 

1877.99 

80 

8375.29 

8.352.24 

35 

iK44.29 

2232.09 

85 

10764.62 

10741.75 

40 

2622.09 

2608.35 

90 

Infinite. 

Infinite. 

45 

3029.94 

3014.41 

! 

To  construct  Mercator's  chart  (Jiir.  57.),  draw  two  straight  lines  W  E,  N  S  at  right 
angles  to  each  otlier,  intersecting  in  C ;  of  these  W  E  is  to  represent  the  equator,  and  N  S 
a  meridian,  in  the  middle  of  the  chart :  from  any  convenient  scale  lay  off  equal  parts  along: 
the  equator,  from  C  both  ways,  to  represent  degrees  of  longitude,  and  each  of  which  sliould, 
if  there  bo  room,  contain  60  subdivisions  for  minutes. 

Assuming  the  equator  as  a  scale  of  minutes,  lay  off  from  C,  north  and  south  on  the  middle 
meridian,  the  number  of  minutes  in  tlie  enlarged  meridian,  corresponding  to  each  degree  of 
latitude  as  shown  by  a  table  of  meridional  parts,  of  which  that  just  given  is  an  abridgement. 

Dra:w  straight  lines  through  every  fiflh  or  every  tenth  degree  of  the  equator  and  divided 
meridian,  and  perpendicular  to  them.  The  perpendiculars  to  the  equator  will  be  meridians, 
and  the  lines  parallel  to  it  parallels  of  latitude. 


166 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 
Fig.  57. 


Part  II. 


/I 

/ 

L 

30 
60 

>r 

1 

40 

20 

W 

h: 

160 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

C 

20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

120 

140 

160 

20 

40 

s 

60 

80 

To  put  any  place  in  its  proper  position  on  the  chart,  assume  some  one  meridian  for  the 
first,  and  lay  off  from  its  intersection  with  tlie  equator,  and  along  it  in  the  proper  direction, 
the  longitude  of  the  place  in  minutes;  draw  a  line  through  the  point  thus  found  perpen- 
dicular to  the  equator :  this  will  be  the  meridian  of  the  place. 

On  this  meridian  lay  off  the  latitude,  as  shown  by  the  table  of  meridional  parts ;  and  the 
point  thus  determined  will  be  the  true  position  of  the  place  in  the  chart. 

To  find  the  bearing  of  one  point  from  another,  or  course  in  which  a  ship  ought  to  sail  in 
passing  from  one  to  the  other,  draw  a  straight  line  joining  the  two  points,  and  the  angle 
which  that  line  makes  with  the  meridians  is  the  course  or  bearing. 

Thus,  if  L  be  the  Lizard  Point  on  the  chart,  and  M  the  east  end  of  the  Island  of  Madeira, 
draw  L  I  parallel  to  the  meridian  N  S,  and  the  angle  I  L  M  will  be  the  course  on  which  a 
ship  ought  to  steer  from  the  Lizard  to  reach  Madeira. 

The  course  may  be  found  by  a  trigonometrical  calculation,  by  considering  that  the  meri- 
dional difference  of  latitude  of  the  two  places  (as  given  by  the  table  of  meridional  parts), 
and  the  difference  of  longitude  in  minutes,  are  the  sides  of  a  right-angled  triangle,  of  which 
the  line  joining  the  places  is  the  hypotenuse,  and  the  course  one  of  the  acute  angles,  viz. 
that  made  by  the  meridian  and  line  joining  the  places. 

Again,  the  distance  of  the  places,  measured  on  the  rhumb  line  passing  through  them, 
may  also  be  found  by  trigonometry.  It  is  the  hypotenuse  of  a  right-angled  triangle,  of 
which  the  proper  difference  of  latitude  (not  the  meridional  difference)  is  one  side,  and  the 
course  the  adjncent  angle. 

These  properties  of  the  chart  apply  alike  to  the  bearings  and  distances  of  all  places  on 
the  globe  measured  on  rhumb  lines.  The  bearing  and  distances  of  London,  Edinburgh,  and 
Dublin,  for  instance,  from  each,  may  be  found  in  this  way  from  a  table  of  meridional  parts 
and  their  known  latitudes  and  longitudes. 

It  is  evident  that  Mercator's  chart  does  not  serve  well  to  show  the  figure  of  the  countries 
on  the  globe,  nor  their  relative  magnitudes.  These  are  purposes,  however,  which  it  is  not 
intended  to  serve ;  but  it  does  serve  perfectly  the  purposes  for  which  it  was  first  constructed, 
and  which,  before  its  invention,  were  a  desideratum  in  geography. 


Book  II.  METEOROLOGY.  169 

of  suction  fluids  might  be  raised  to  any  height  whatever.  But  Galileo,  though  still  inclining 
to  the  old  opinion,  remarked  that  water  did  not  rise  in  a  common  pump  unless  the  sucker  oi 
bucket  reached  within  34  feet  of  its  surface  in  the  well.  Hence  he  was  forced  to  conjec- 
ture, that  not  the  power  of  suction,  but  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  surface  of  the 
well,  was  the  cause  of  the  water's  ascent;  that  a  column  of  water  34  feet  high  was  a  coun- 
terpoise to  one  of  air  on  an  ecjual  base,  but  reaching  to  the  top  of  the  atmosphere;  and  that, 
for  this  reason,  water  could  not  follow  the  sucker  any  farther. 

Torricelli,  a  disciple  of  Galileo,  profited  by  this  hint.  It  occurred  to  him  that  the  same 
force  wliich  supported  water  to  the  height  of  34  feet  would  sustain  a  column  of  any  other 
fluid  which  weighed  as  much  on  an  equal  base ;  and  therefore  mercury,  being  13.6  times  as 
heavy  as  water,  should  only  be  suspended  to  the  height  of  29  or  30  inches.  Accordingly, 
he  took  a  glass  tube  fi-om  three  to  four  feet  long,  and  closed  at  one  end ;  this  he  filled  with 
mercury ;  then,  stopping  its  mouth  witli  his  finger,  he  inverted  the  tube,  and  on  re-opening 
its  mouth  in  a  vessel  of  quicksilver  the  result  verified  his  expectation.  The  mercury, 
obeying  the  laws  of  hydrostatics,  descended  in  the  tube  till  the  vertical  column  was  about 
30  inches  above  the  level  of  the  cistern,  leaving  the  remaining  space  at  the  top  empty  or 
nearly  a  vacuum.  Hence  he  inferred  that  it  was  only  the  weight  or  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  on  the  mercury  in  tlie  cistern,  which  balanced  the  column  in  the  tube.  This 
is  usually  called  the  Toricellian  experiment,  and  is  the  foundation  of  the  barometer. 

The  mean  pressure  is  everywhere  the  same  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  equal  to  about 
14^  lbs.  on  the  square  inch.  It  becomes  less  as  the  place  is  elevated  above  the  sea,  and 
greater  if  below  its  level.  The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  as  measured  by  the  mercurial 
column,  varies  somewhat  at  every  place  on  the  earth's  surface.  Generally  speaking,  its 
variations  are  greatest  in  the  temperate  zones,  decreasing  towards  the  equator  and  poles. 
The  annual  range  rarely  exceeds  half  an  inch  in  the  torrid  zone.  It  is  about  two  inches  at 
London,  and  the  same  at  St.  Petersburg,  but  rather  less  at  Melville  Island.  It  nowhere 
exceeds  3^  inches.  The  annual  range  is  more  considerable  at  the  level  of  the  sea  than  on 
mountains ;  and  under  the  same  latitude  it  is  less,  as  the  height  of  the  place  above  the  sea 
is  greater.  Tlie  barometer  has  a  tendency  to  rise  from  4  P.  M.  to  10  P.  M. ;  to  fall  from 
10  P.  M.  to  4  A.  M. ;  to  rise  from  4  A.  M.  to  10  A.  M. ;  and  again  to  fall  from  10  A.  M.  to 
4  P.  M.  Different  authors,  however,  differ  a  little  both  as  to  the  hours  and  the  amount  of 
the  diurnal  variation,  which  appears  to  be  greater  as  the  latitude  is  lower.  The  barometer 
is  likewise  elevated  a  little  at  the  quarters  of  the  moon,  and  depressed  at  the  new  and  full. 
The  range  of  this  instrument  is  greater  in  winter  than  in  summer. 

The  barometer  ranges  higher  in  proportion  as  the  weather  is  more  serene  and  settled ; 
calm  weather,  with  a  tendency  to  i-ain,  depresses  it;  high  winds  have  a  similar  effect.  In 
extra-tropical  climates,  a  fall  in  the  barometer,  with  a  change  or  rise  of  wind,  is  usually 
followed  by  rain. 

The  law  which  regulates  the  elasticity  of  the  air  formed  the  next  important  step,  after  the 
discovery  of  the  pressure.  Boyle  in  England,  and  Mariotte  in  France,  discovered,  much 
about  the  same  time,  that  the  temperature  being  the  same,  the  pressure  or  elastic  force  of 
air  is  directly  as  its  density,  or  inversely  as  the  space  it  occupies.  This  law,  though  received 
as  correct  at  the  time  of  its  discovery,  continued  to  be  suspected  till  within  these  few  years. 
But  Uulong  and  Petit  have  recently  examined  it  through  a  wide  range  of  temperature ; 
Professor  Oersted  has  tried  it  under  a  great  variety  of  pressures ;  and  within  the  limits  of 
their  experiments  it  was  found  to  hold  good. 

The  variable  capacity  for  heat  forms  another  property  of  air  of  no  less  importance,  but 
which  seems  to  have  been  little  known  or  attended  to  till  towards  the  end  of  the  last  cen- 
tury. When  air  undergoes  a  change  of  volume,  it  at  the  same  time  changes  its  capacity  for 
heat ;  becoming  hotter  by  compression,  and  colder  by  rarefaction.  The  want  of  acquaintance 
with  this  circumstance  led  Newton,  and  many  others  after  him,  into  the  mistake  of  con- 
cluding, that  the  particles  of  elastic  fluids  repel  each  other  with  forces  inversely  as  their 
central  distances ;  which  cannot  be  the  case  if  the  capacity  be  afl^ected,  no  matter  in  what 
manner  or  degree,  by  a  change  of  density.  But  very  extensive  experiments,  made  by  some 
of  tlie  most  eminent  scientific  men  in  France,  and  repeated  in  England,  are  favourable  to  the 
idea  that  the  particles  of  air  observe  the  same  law  as  magnetism  and  electricity,  repellmg 
each  other  with  forces  inversely  as  the  squares  of  their  distances. 

There  is  a  gradation  of  density  in  the  air.  Being,  as  already  stated,  a  compressible  body, 
it  is  obvious  that  the  lower  parts  of  the  atmosphere,  by  sustaining  the  greater  weight  or 
pressure  of  tlie  air  above  them,  must  be  so  much  the  more  condensed ;  and  therefore,  as  we 
ascend  in  the  atmosphere,  the  density  will  continually  diminish.  Accordingly,  it  may  be 
show-n  from  the  principles  already  laid  down,  that  were  the  temperature  and  the  force  of 
gravity  uniform  at  all  heights  above  tlie  earth's  surface,  the  densities  of  the  strata  would 
decrease  in  geometrical  progression  for  altitudes  taken  in  aritlimetical  progression,  so  as 
nearly  to  halve  the  density  for  every  3.5  miles  of  ascent.  But,  independently  of  a  trifling 
change  in  the  force  of  gravity,  this  is  not  exactly  the  law  of  nature;  for  it  is  found  that  the 
temperature  generally  decreases  as  v/e  go  upward,  and  that  not  according  to  any  fixed  law. 

Vol.  I,  15  W 


170 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pakt  II. 


Hence  the  relation  between  the  density  and  altitude  is  not  of  a  steady  character,  and  can 
only  be  obtained  in  any  particular  case  from  observing  the  pressure,  temperature,  and  hygro- 
metric  state  of  the  air.  This  is  a  research  to  Avhicli  many  eminent  men  have  turned  their 
attention  ;  and  their  successive  labours  have  led  to  the  formation  of  convenient  rules,  by 
which  the  heights  of  mountains  can  be  obtained  to  a  considerable  degree  of  accuracy,  and 
with  great  facility,  by  means  of  the  barometer,  &c. 

The  height  and  form  of  the  atmosphere  are  objects  of  interest.  With  an  uniform  tem- 
perature, the  law  of  Boyle  would  involve  the  notion  that  its  height  is  infinite;  but  this  is  an 
idea  which  has  scarcely  any  supporters,  and  is  generally  believed  to  be  incompatible  with 
the  laws  of  motion.  Dr.  Wollaston,  whose  opinion  is  entitled  to  great  deference,  main- 
tains that  the  atmosphere  must  terminate  at  the  height  where  the  repulsive  force  between 
its  particles  equals  their  tendency  to  gravitate  towards  the  earth.  The  law  of  gravity  may 
be  admitted  as  known,  but  the  same  can  hardly  be  affirmed  of  the  law  which  regulates  the 
repulsive  force,  so  long  as  the  temperature  at  great  heights  is  unknown  ;  and  this  circum- 
stance leaves  the  boundary  undetermined.  A  doubt  of  a  more  serious  nature,  however, 
attaches  to  this  speculation,  on  the  ground  that  we  are  totally  ignorant  with  what  materials 
the  air  may  be  mixed  at  great  elevations.  The  atmosphere  is  generally  supposed  to  be 
higher  at  the  equator  than  at  the  poles ;  but  we  have  neither  data  for  computing  the  heights, 
nor  the  proportion  in  which  they  differ :  so  that  the  oblate  spheroidal  figure  which  some  give 
to  the  atmosphere  can  be  considered  as  little  else  than  an  ingenious  conjecture. 

The  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  has  great  influence  on  most  meteorological  pheno- 
mena ;  but  it  is  exceedingly  variable,  and  can  as  yet  be  determined  only  by  actual  observa- 
tion on  the  spot.  Nothing  would  tend  to  throw  greater  light  on  many  of  the  unresolved 
questions  in  meteorology,  than  a  ready  mode  of  computing  with  certainty  the  temperature 
which  obtains  at  any  instant  in  a  point  of  tlie  atmosphere  remote  from  the  contact  of  the 
earth's  surface,  and  at  any  point  on  the  surface  remote  from  the  observer :  but  these  are 
likely  to  continue  desiderata.  The  very  little  that  is  known  of  the  temperature  of  air  remote 
from  the  earth's  surface  has  been  derived  from  a  few  aeronautic  excursions,  particularly  the 
ascent  of  M.  Gay-Lussac  to  the  height  of  7630  yards. 

The  heat  of  the  air  in  one  shape  or  another  is  no  doubt  greatly  derived  from  the  sun, 
either  immediately,  by  intercepting  the  solar  rays,  or  indirectly,  from  its  contact  with  the 
earth's  surface,  which  is  more  or  less  heated  according  as  it  is  turned  more  or  less  towards 
the  sun :  but  whether  heat,  in  return,  be  projected  from  the  earth  or  its  atmosphere  towards 
other  regions  of  space,  is  a  disputed  question.  Professor  Leslie  maintains  that  heat,  which 
is  not  accompanied  with  or  rather  is  not  in  the  state  of  light,  cannot  pass  through  a  vacuum, 
and,  of  course,  that  it  cannot  pass  the  boundary  of  the  atmosphere.  If  so,  it  would  follow 
that  the  atmosphere  does  not  continually  draw  off  heat  from  the  earth,  but  may  oftener  be 
the  warmer  of  the  two.  Many  philosophers,  however,  are  of  a  different  opinion,  among 
whom  was  the  ingenious  Dr.  Wells,  with  most  of  those  who  embraced  his  theory  of  dew. 
These  allege,  that  heat  is  constantly  projected  from  the  earth  and  atmosphere  towards  the 
boundless  regions  of  space.  Observation  shows,  that  much  heat  passes  upward  from  the 
earth's  surface,  especially  when  the  air  is  clear.  In  this  way,  the  stratum  of  air  in  contact 
with  the  surface  is  cooled  more  than  that  which  is  somewhat  higher.  It  is  probable  that 
there  exists  a  natural  tendency  in  the  atmosphere,  as  in  most  other  bodies,  towards  an  uni- 
form temperature  throughout  its  whole  height ;  and  since  currents  in  its  upper  regions  usually 
come  from  a  warmer  quarter,  and  the  lower  currents  from  a  colder,  there  is  upon  the  whole, 
independently  of  aeronautic  observations,  some  ground  for  supposing  that  the  decrease  of 
temperature  on  ascending  in  the  atmosphere  should  be  slower  than  the  law  of  capacity  as 
increased  by  dilatation  requires. 

The  following  list  of  temperatures,  chiefly  observed  at  stations  employed  in  the  barome- 
trical measurements  of  heights,  is  taken  from  M.  Ramond's  work  on  that  subject.  Only  a 
few  of  these  measurements  embrace  the  whole  heights  of  the  mountains  on  which  they 
were  made,  and  the  first  case  is  of  a  different  class.  We  have  reduced  the  temperatures  to 
Fahrenheit's  scale  : — 


Placea. 

Heieht. 

Temp, 
at  bot. 

Temp, 
at  top. 

Placea. 

Height. 

Temp, 
at  bot. 

Temp. 
at  top. 

Tar.18. 
1630 
6127 

47fc2 

4077 
4070 
3540 
3408 
3346 
3174 
3858 

2606 
2354 

67.4 
77.6 
82.9 
81  7 
76.8 
73.4 
73.6 
78.1 
76.8 
694 
81.6 
67.3 
725 
74.3 
65.8 
66.4 
56.6 
70.9 
77.0 

14.9 
29  I 

26.8 
29.1 
47.1 
26.8 
S9.9 
44.4 
40.1 
8(^.1 
62  9 
47.5 
46.6 
60.7 
46.6 
39.2 
397 
40.1 
44.4 

Yards 
33(7 
2244 
1808 

1163 

611 

Bin 

415 

79.3 
6t.l 
80  1 
71  4 
70.3 
653 
60.6 
64.0 
66.0 
65.1 
70  3 
64  0 
65.5 
76  6 
91.2 
61  6 
32.5 
74.6 

51.8 
37.6 
61.5 
46  4 
40.8 
42  8 
36  6 
44.6 
42.4 
41.4 
57.9 
61.4 
53.1 
SO  4 
74. 1 
46.4 
26.8 
71.2 

Pic  da  Mi  li    Iter  VeV 

Fina .'....;v...::.:;::;'.::.":'.::::::::; 

Puv  de  Dome.  Clermont 

D  tto                         

^.,, 

Ditlo 

J;I      

jy.l      

n  rf  t  ii  ^^ T"tl  

Beoa    ou  tlag  ^^^  '  *"*        

ronl  ilu  Herges,    ^r™        

L .,  _°° ...  „. /'.?"; : 

Book  U. 


METEOROLOGY. 


171 


Height  in 

English 

feet. 


0 
3195 
6393 
9587 
152792 
15965 


Mean 
Temp. 


81.5  j 
71.2  i 
65.1 

57.7  S 

44.6 

34.7 


Differ- 
ence. 


10.3 
6.1 
7.4 

13.1 
9.9 


Mean 
Temp. 


53.6  ( 
41.0  j 
31.6  i 
23.4  I 


12.6 
9.4 

8.2 


T^'is  table  shows,  in  a  very  striking  manner,  with  how  little  certainty  the  decrease  of 
temperature  can  be  estimated  from  the  increase  of  height ;  and  how  unsteady  the  rate  of 
decrease  is  often  at  the  same  place.  M.  Ramond,  however,  has  collected  some  cases  which 
arc  still  more  discordant. 

Tlie  preceding  table  contains  the  temperatures  of  the  air  at  different  heights  for  one  or  a 
{cw  particular  instants;  but  we  shall  now  add  a  table  from  Baron  Humboldt  of  the  mean 
temperatures  of  elevated  situatioAs,  as  deduced  from  several  years'  observations.  The 
degrees  are  those  of  Fahrenheit's  scale. 

From  this  table  it  appears,  that,  in  the  mean  state  of  the  atmosphere,  the  temperature 

— — j  does  not  decrease  uniformly  for  a  uniform  ascent. 

Equatorial  zone   |  Temperate  zone      ^^  t^g  gquator,  the  thermometer  falls  10°  in  the 

froralat.O^tolOO.  ,fromlat.  4oO  to4/0  .   mnn         j       ^  4.  u      ^tac     oirv^     .. 

first  1000  yards  of  ascent,  or  about  1°  for  310  feet. 
In  the  next  1000  yards,  it  is  only  1°  for  524  feet ; 
but  in  the  third  and  fourth  stages  there  is  a  re- 
markable acceleration,  which  having  attained  its 
maximum  rate,  is  diminished  again  in  the  fifth 
stage  to  somewhat  less  than  it  was  in  the  first,  or 
to  1°  in  320  feet.  The  mean  rate  in  the  varia- 
tion of  temperature,  throughout  the  whole  height 
of  15965  feet,  at  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow,  is  1° 
for  every  341  feet.  The  smaller  rate  of  decrease  in  the  second  and  third  stages  is  ascribed 
by  Humboldt  to  the  large  dense  clouds  which  are  suspended  in  this  region,  and  which,  he 
alleges,  have  the  triple  effect  of  absorbing  the  sun's  rays,  forming  rain,  and  intercepting 
the  radiation  of  heat  from  the  earth.  In  the  temperate  zone,  the  decrease  is  at  the  rate  of 
1°  for  253  feet,  during  the  first  1000  yards  of  ascent.  But  throughout  the  whole  height  of 
9587  feet,  to  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow,  where  the  mean  temperature  is  23.4°,  the  decrease 
is  1°  for  317  feet,  or  almost  1°  for  100  yards.  As  already  remarked,  observations  made  in 
the  free  regions  of  the  atmosphere  have  not  yet  been  so  numerous  as  to  warrant  any  certain 
conclusion  regarding  the  temperature ;  but,  so  far  as  such  observations  go,  they  do  not  differ 
very  widely  from  the  mean  of  those  observed  on  the  sides  and  summits  of  mountains.  But 
generally  in  the  temperate  zone,  a  difference  of  1000  yards  in  height  will  produce  a  difference 
of  12°  of  temperature ;  and  so  on  in  proportion  for  smaller  heights.  In  higher  regions,  the 
difference  between  the  heats  of  day  and  night,  summer  and  winter,  seem  to  be  less  than  at 
the  level  of  the  sea ;  though  from  this  there  are  some  exceptions.  Extensive  table-lands 
are  usually  warmer  than  insulated  peaks  of  the  same  height.  Humboldt  calculates  that,  in 
tlie  temperate  zone,  an  ascent  of  110  yards  diminishes  the  temperature  as  much  as  an  addi- 
tional degree  of  latitude. 

Temperature  of  air  in  mines.  Having  thus  noticed  the  lower  temperatures  which  obtain 
in  more  elevated  situations,  we  shall  now  give  some  account  of  the  increased  temperature 
which  generally  prevails  in  air  occupying  deep  caverns  and  mines.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
as  to  such  facts,  but  the  source  of  the  heat  is  still  a  subject  of  controversy.  There  are  some 
mines  intensely  cold ;  and  as  these  were  first  observed,  the  explanation  offered  was,  that 
the  colder  portions  of  air  liad,  by  their  greater  weight,  descended  into  the  mines  :  but  this 
solution  entirely  vanished  when  it  was  known  that  mines  are  generally  hot.  The  heat  of 
the  workmen,  their  fires  and  lights,  have  been  stated  as  sources  of  heat ;  as  likewise  the 
chemical  action  of  air  and  water  on  the  minerals.  Some  again  allege  that  a  high  tempera- 
ture obtains  m  the  inte.'"ior  of  our  globe,  and  consequently  that  the  heat  will  always  be 
greater  as  we  penetrate  farther.  However,  it  is  found  that  on  bormg  into  the  solid  strata  in 
the  bottom  of  warm  mines,  and  letting  down  a  thermometer,  the  temperature,  so  far  fi-om 
increasing,  comes  short  of  that  in  the  mine.  This  sufficiently  proves  that,  whatever  be  the 
sources  of  heat,  some  of  them  at  least  nmst  opera.te  in  or  be  situated  about  the  mine  itself 
That  a  high  temperature  obtains  in  the  interior,  is  in  many  instances  evident  from  the 
streams  of  hot  water  and  vapour  which  issue  from  fissures  in  the  strata :  but  in  many  warm 
mines  nothing  of  this  is  observable.  Professor  Leslie,  Dr.  Forbes,  and  afterwards  Mr.  Mat- 
thew Miller,  have  suggested  the  heat  evolved  by  a  current  of  air,  wliile  it  undergoes  an 
increase  of  pressure  in  descending  into  the  mine.  The  first  two  of  these  philosophers  did 
not  deem  this  an  adequate  source  of  heitt ;  and  Mr.  Miller  seems  to  entertain  similar  doubts. 
But  from  what  is  now  known  of  the  great  heat  evolved  by  the  compression  of  air,  there  can 
be  little  room  to  question  that  this  furnishes  a  considerable  supply,  wherever  there  is  a  suf- 
ficient current  of  air.  Tims,  if  air  at  the  temperature  of  62°  F.  have  its  density  suddenly 
increased  by  the  170th  part,  the  temperature  will  be  raised  1° ;  supposing  no  heat  to  be  lost 
on  the  sides  of  the  shaft.  This  would  give  1°  for  a  descent  of  170  feet,  which  is  still  short 
of  the  rate  at  which  the  temperature  is  observed  to  increase  in  British  mines ;  but  when 
added  to  the  heat  caused  by  the  presence  of  the  workmen  and  horses,  their  lights,  blasting 
of  rocks,  fires,  &c.  together  with  some  increase  of  temperature  belonging  to  the  deeper 
strata,  there  does  not  seem  any  mystery  in  tlie  heat  of  some,  although  probably  not  of  all, 
>nines.     Those  mines,  again,  in  which  there  is  almost  no  circulation  of  air,  and  which  pre- 


172 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  li 


sent  a  wide  mouth  to  a  clear  sky,  may  have  their  temperature  reduced  by  radiating  heal 
upwards,  in  the  s;ime  way  that  plants  are  starved  with  cold  by  being  too  much  sheltered 
from  the  wind  while  they  are  exposed  to  a  clear  sky. 

An  immense  collection  of  facts  and  observations  relating  to  this  subject  may  be  seen  in 
the  Transactions  of  tjie  Geological  Society  of  Cornwall,  and  in  the  first  number  of  the 
Edin.  Phil.  Journal.  From  the  latter  we  extract  the  foUowmg  suimnary  of  Mr.  Bald's 
observations,  made  in  the  deepest  coal-mines  m  Great  Britain : — 

Water  at  depth  of  444  feet 610  F 

Air  at  same  depth 68 


Whitehaven  Colliery,  County  of  Cumberland. 

Air  at  tlie  surface     550  F 

A  spring  at  surface 49 

Water  at  depth  of  480  feet     60 

Air  at  same  depth     63 

Air  at  depth  of  600  feet  66 

Workington  Colliery,  Cumberland. 

Air  at  the  surface     56 

A  spring  at  surface 48 

Water  at  depth  of  180  feet     50 

Water  504  feet  beneath  the  surface  of  the  Irish 
Sea       60 

Teem  Colliery,  County  of  Durham. 

Water  at  surface      49 


Percy  Main  Colliery,  J^orthumberland. 

Air  at  the  surface  42 

Water  at  surface 49 

Air  at  depth  of  900  feet  below  the  level  of  the 
sea,  and  immediately  under  the  bed  of  the_ 

river  Ty"^   "'^ 

Water  at  same  depth 68 

Here  Leslie's  hygrometer  indicated  dryness  . . .  -83 

Jarrom  Colliery,  County  of  Durham. 

Air  at  the  surface   49i 

Water  at  surface 49 

Air  at  depth  of  882  feet 70 

Water  at  same  depth 68 


The  engine  pit  of  Jarrow  is  the  deepest  perpendicular  shaft  in  Britain,  bemg  900  feet  to 
the  foot  of  the  pumps,  where  the  temperature  of  the  air  was  64°. 


Killingworth  Colliery,  JVorthumbcrlund. 

Air  at  surface  480  F 

Water  at  surface 49 

Air  at  bottom  of  shaft  700  feet  deep 51 

Air  at  depth  of  000  feet,  and  a  mile  and  half  from 
bottom  of  down-cast  pit 70 


Water  at  most  distant  forehead  and  1200  feet 

below  surface 74°  F 

Air  at  same  depth 77 

At  this  depth,  distilled  water  boiled  at 213 

When  at  surface  it  boiled  at 210S 


The  temperature  of  springs  and  caverns,  m  many  places,  coincides  with  the  mean  anntial 
temperature  of  the  air :  but  Humboldt  alleges  that,  in  latitudes  above  45°,  the  mean  heat  of 
springs  and  caves  exceeds  that  of  the  atmosphere.  As  connected  with  this  subject,  Mr. 
Ferguson,  of  Raith,  had  four  large  thermometers  sunk  in  his  garden,  to  the  respective  depths 
of  1,  2,  4,  and  8  feet,  in  lat.  56°  10',  and  50  feet  above  the  sea.  The  stems  and  scales  rose 
above  ground,  and  indicated  the  following  monthly  mean  temperatures : 


1816. 

1817. 

1  Foot. 

2  Feet. 

4  Feet. 

8  Feet. 

1  Foot. 

2  Feet. 

4  Feet. 

40.50 

41.6 

41.7 

42.6 

44.6 

47.6 

51.4 

52.0 

52.0 

40.4 

47.0 

44.9 

8  Feet. 

45.10 

42.7 

42.5 

42.6 

44.2 

47.8 

40.6 

50.0 

50.7 

40.8 

47.6 

46.4 

33.00 

33.7 

35.0 

39.7 

40.0 

51.6 

54.0 

50.0 

51.6 

47.0 

40.8 

35.7 

36.30 

36.0 

30.7 

38.4 

43.3 

50.0 

52.5 

52.5 

51.3 

49.3 

43.8 

40.0 

40.70 

39.0 

39.6 

41.4 

43.4 

47.1 

50.4 

50.6 

51.8 

49.7 

4,6.3 

43.0 

43.00 

42.0 

42.3 

43.8 

44.0 

45.8 

47.7 

49.4 

50.0 

49.6 

45.6 

40.0 

35.60 

37.0 

.30.4 

45.0 

46.8 

51  1 

55.2 

.53.4 

53.0 

45.7 

41.0 

35.0 

38.70 

40.0 

40.2 

42.4 

44.7 

49.4 

55.0 

.S).9 

52.7 

40.4 

44.7 

40.8 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

December 

Mean  of  the  Year 
1 

43.8 

44.1 

45.1 

46.8 

44.9 

45.9 

46.2 

46.6 

Had  the  thermometers  been  sunk  considerably  deeper,  they  might  have  been  expected  to 
have  indicated  47°  7',  which  is  the  constant  temperature  of  a  neighbouring  spring  issuing 
fi-om  a  trap  rock. 

The  local  temperature  or  climate  of  a  country  depends  very  much  upon  its  distance  from 
the  equator,  and  its  height  above  the  level  of  the  sea :  but  the  nature  of  the  surface,  the 
proportion  of  humidity,  the  distance  of  the  sea,  of  lakes,  of  mountains,  of  arid  or  frozen 
plains,  and  perhaps,  also,  the  internal  heat  of  the  earth,  have  each  their  share  in  the  fertility 
or  salubrity  of  a  country.  The  decrease  of  heat  as  we  r.ecede  from  the  equator  follows  dif- 
n  ferent  laws  in  the  two  hemispheres,  being  greater  in  the 
southern  than  in  the  northern,  and  is  also  aifected  by  the 
longitude.  On  the  west  of  Europe,  the  cold  increases  less 
with  the  latitude  than  in  any  other  quarter.  Under  meri- 
dians which  are  90°  either  east  or  west  of  London,  the 
increase  of  cold,  as  we  go  northward,  is  more  rapid  than  in 
England.  According  to  Humboldt,  continents  and  large 
islands  are  warmer  on  their  western  sides  than  on  the  eastern. 
The  annexed  table  shows  the  mean  temperatures  of  western 
Europe  and  North  America  continued  to  the  equator. 


Lat. 

Old 
World. 

New 
World. 

Diff. 

00 

8I.50 

8I.50 

00 

20 

77.9 

77.9 

0 

30 

70.7 

67.1 

3.6 

40 

63.5 

54.5 

9.0 

50 

50.0 

38.3 

12.6 

60 

41.0 

25.0 

16.0 

70 

33.0 

0.0 

33.0 

Book  II.  METEOROLOGY.  173 

Isothermal  lines  have  been  considered  as  measuring  the  lieat  and  cold  of  the  eartli.  The 
climate  of  Eastern  Asia  comes  nearer  to  that  of  Eastern  America  than  of  Western  Europe. 
Thus  the  latitudes  of  Naples,  Peking,  and  Philadelphia  are  respectively  41°,  40°,  and  40°, 
whilst  their  mean  temperatures  are  63.3°,  54.8°,  and  53.4°.  Such  differences  are  rendered 
more  sensible  when  we  connect  the  places  having  the  same  mean  temperature  by  lines 
which  Humboldt  denominates  isothermal  lines.  Thus,  the  isothermal  line  of  59°  F.  traverses 
the  latitude  of  43°  in  Europe,  but  descends  to  lat.  36°  in  America ;  the  isothermal  line  of 
41°  F.  passes  from  lat.  60°  in  Europe  to  lat.  48°  in  America :  but  since  the  western  coast 
of  North  America  is  warmer  than  the  eastern,  the  isotliermal  lines,  being  traced  round  the 
northern  hemisphere,  would  have  concave  summits  at  the  east  side  of  both  worlds,  and  con- 
vex at  tlie  west. 

The  difference  between  the  mean  temperature  of  summer  and  winter  is  nothing  at  the 
equator,  and  increases  continually  with  the  latitude.  But  the  extreme  difference  of  the 
seasons  is  comparatively  small  in  Western  Europe,  and  great  where  the  mean  annual  tem- 
perature is  low,  as  on  the  east  coasts  of  Asia  and  America.  If  we  draw  a  line  in  a  north- 
east direction  from  Bordeaux  to  Warsaw,  and  continue  it  to  the  Wolga,  in  lat.  55°,  then 
all  places  under  this  line,  at  the  .same  elevation,  will  have  nearly  the  same  summer  tempera- 
ture of  69°  or  70°  F.  The  lines  of  equal  winter  temperature  decline  in  an  opposite  direc- 
tion. Thus  a  straight  line  drawn  from  Edinburgh  to  Milan,  almost  at  right  angles  to  the 
former  line,  would  pass  over  places  which,  if  equally  elevated,  would  have  nearly  the  same 
winter  temperature  of  37°  or  38°  F. 

The  extremes  of  temperature  are  experienced  chiefly  in  large  inland  tracts,  and  little  felt 
in  small  islands  remote  from  continents.  In  the  United  States  intense  cold  is  felt  when  the 
wind  blows  from  the  frozen  regions  round  Hudson's  Bay.  From  snow-clad  mountains,  gusts 
of  cold  wind,  called  snoto  ivinds,  rush  down  and  cool  the  adjacent  plains.  The  heat  accu- 
mulates to  an  astonishing  degree  when  the  wind  passes  over  extensive  deserts  of  burning 
sand,  which  are  said,  in  some  instances  in  Africa,  to  be  heated  to  the  boiling  point.  This 
fine  sand,  or  rather  dust,  sometimes  rises  in  the  air  and  obscures  it  like  a  fog,  communicating 
to  it  an  intolerable  heat.  In  arctic  countries  the  temperature  is  very  much  regulated  by 
the  freezing  of  the  water  and  the  melting  of  the  ice ;  by  the  freezing  of  the  water  great 
quantities  of  heat  are  given  out  which  moderate  the  severity  of  the  winter's  cold,  and  thus 
save  from  destruction  the  arctic  land  animals,  and  plants ;  while  in  summer,  the  intensity 
of  tlie  heat,  produced  by  the  long  continuance  of  the  sun  above  the  horizon,  is  moderated  by 
the  abstraction  of  a  considerable  portion  of  that  heat  by  the  water  during  the  melting  of  the 
ice.  Had  the  arctic  regions  been  entirely  of  land,  neither  plants  nor  animals  could  have 
existed  in  them :  for  during  summer,  owing  to  the  sun  remaining  above  tlie  horizon  for 
months,  an  elevation  of  atmospheric  temperature  would  have  been  produced  fatal  to  animals 
and  plants  ;  and  in  winter,  the  long  darkness  and  intense  cold  would  have  proved  equally 
fatal  to  animated  beings.  The  cold  of  the  icy  regions  of  the  north  has  been  alleged  to 
reach,  by  currents  of  air,  southern  latitudes,  and  thus  to  lower  their  temperature. 

Baron  Humboldt  has  added  more  to  our  knowledge  of  the  distribution  of  temperature  over 
the  globe  than  any  other  who  had  laboured  in  the  same  boundless'  field  of  research.  The 
table  on  the  following  page  contains  his  general  summary,  to  which  is  added  Melville 
Island.  The  temperatures  have  been  reduced  to  Fahrenheit's  scale,  and  the  longitudes  are 
reckoned  from  Greenwich.  An  asterisk  is  prefixed  to  those  places  whose  temperatures 
have  been  most  accurately  determined,  and  in  general  by  means  of  8000  observations. 

In  treating  on  the  mean  annual  temperature  which  obtains  at  different  places,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  give  a  table  which  makes  the  temperature  depend  entirely  on  the  latitude.  But 
observation  shows,  that  the  temperature  is  usually  higher  at  the  same  latitude  in  the  old 
world  than  in  the  new,  and  in  north  latitude  than  in  south ;  and,  as  was  already  mentioned, 
it  differs  in  the  same  continent  under  different  meridians.  So  that  more  than  one  table  would 
be  required  for  each  quarter  of  the  globe ;  or  else  one  very  extensive  table,  involving  the 
longitude  as  well  as  latitude,  which  is  the  case  with  Humboldt's  table,  so  far  as  it  goes. 

As  the  earth  and  its  atmosphere  are  continually  receiving  heat  from  tlie  sun,  it  is  plain 
that  their  mean  annual  temperature  must  be  continually  on  the  increase,  if  no  heat  be 
thrown  off  by  them  into  surrounding  space.  Professor  Leslie  accordingly  alleges,  that  the 
increase  of  temperature  is  at  the  rate  of  about  1°  in  80  years.  This  would  help  to  explain 
some  of  the  changes  of  climate  which  seem  to  have  been  gradually  taking  place  during 
successive  ages  in  many  places,  and  particularly  in  the  west  of  Europe.  But  the  late  cele- 
brated Marquis  de  la  Place  has  endeavoured  to  show,  from  astronomical  observations,  that 
the  mean  temperature  of  the  earth  has  undergone  no  sensible  change  during  the  last  two 
thousand  years.     His  arguments,  however,  are  not  free  from  objection. 

Sect.  II. — Effect  of  Climate  on  Plants  and  Animals. 
The  geographical  distribution  of  plants  and  animals  appears  to  be  chiefly  regulated  hy  the 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere.    Each  lias  generally  a  particular  climate  in  which  it  thrives 
best,  and  beyond  certain  limits  it  ceases  to  exist.     Since  an  increase  of  height  has  an  effect 

15* 


174 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


Isolher- 
mil 

Baadi. 

Names  of  Places. 

Position. 

.Mean 
Tempera- 
ture of  Ihe 

Vear. 

Mean  Temperalure  of 

Mem  Temperature  of 

La>. 

Long. 

Hghl. 

VVinler. 

Spring. 

Sum- 

Autumn. 

Warniesi 
Moi.th. 

Coldest 

Month. 

2 
£ 

Melville  Island  ... . 

Nain 

*Enontekiea    

Hospice  de  St.  Go-, 
thard  

North  Cape 

*Ulea  

O       ' 

74  47 
57    8 
68  30 

46  30 
71    0 
65    3 

0  ' 

110  48\v. 

01  20  w. 
20  47  E. 

8  23  k. 
25  50  E. 
25  26  E. 
20  16E 
30  19  E. 
10  22  f:. 
37  32  E. 
22  18E 

Feet 
0 
0 

1356 

G390 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
970 
0 

0 

—  2.00 

+26.42 

20.96 

30.38 
32.00 
.35.08 
33.20 
38.84 
39.92 
40.10 
40.28 

0 

—31.33 

—  0.60 

0.68 

18.32 
23.72 
11.84 
12.92 
17.06 
23.72 
10.78 
20.84 

O 

—  6.60 
23.90 
24.98 

26.42 
29.00 
27.14 
33.80 
38.12 
35,24 
44.00 
38.30 

O 

.33.78 
48.38 
54.8f) 

44.96 
43.31 
57.74 
54  80 
02.00 
01.24 
07.10 
01.88 

O 

—  3.84 
33.44 
27.32 

31.82 
32.08 
35.90 
33.44 
38.66 
40.10 
38.30 
40.64 

O 

39.08 
51.80 
59.54 

46.22 
46.58 
61.52 
62.00 
65.66 
64.94 
70.52 

O 

—35.52 
—11.20 
—  0.58 
+15.08 

22.10 
7.70 

11.48 
8  60 

19.58 
6.08 

*Uinea  

*St.  Petersburg 

Drontheim 

03  50 

59  56 
03  24 
55  45 

60  27 

Abo 

o 

g 

2 
o 

S 

3 

ca 

*TJpsal 

*.Slo(kholtn   

59  51 
59  20 
40  47 
59  55 

47  47 
55  41 
.54  17 
51  25 

50  5 

51  .32 
17  22 
55  57 

17  38E. 

18  3e. 
71    Ow. 
10  48E. 

10  34E. 
12  35E. 

2  40  w 
59  59w. 
14  24  E. 

9  53  E. 

8  32e. 

3  10  w- 
21    2e. 

9  30  E. 

6  19w. 

7  26  E. 
0   8e 

8  28e. 
16  22  E. 

0 
0 
0 
0 

3066 

0 

0 

0 

0 

456 

1350 

150 

0 

1876 

0 

1650 

1080 

432 

420 

42.08 
42.20 
41.74 
42.80 

42.98 

45.08 
40.22 
40.94 
49.40 
40.94 
47.84 
47.84 
48.50 
48.92 
49.10 
49.28 
49.28 
50.18 
50.54 

24.98 
25..52 
14.18 
28.78 

28.58 
30.74 
30.8r) 
39..56 
31.40 
30..38 
29.66 
38.66 
28.70 
32..30 
39.20 
32.00 
34.70 
38.80 
32.72 

39.38 
28.30 
38.84 
39.02 

42.08 
41.18 
45.14 
46.58 
47.00 
41.24 
48.20 
46.40 
47.48 
50.00 
47  30 
48.92 
47.66 
49.04 
51.20 

00.20 
01.88 
C8.00 
02.60 

.58.46 
02.00 
56.84 
53.00 
08.90 
(■>4.70 
04.04 
.58.i8 
09.08 
63.32 
.59.54 
0)0.50 
04.94 
07.10 
09.20 

04.40 
70.52 
70.70 
04.58 
03.14 
04.04 
05  81 
()0  20 
67.28 
73.94 
79.10 
72.80 
0(i.O2 
08.51 
82..58 
73.04 
70.88 

42.80 
43.16 
40.04 
41.18 

42.98 
48.38 
40.22 
48.40 
.50.18 
48.74 
48.92 
48  50 
49.40 
50.30 
.50.00 
49.82 
50.00 
49.82 
50.54 

62.42 
04.04 
73.40 
66.74 

59.36 
65.66 
58.10 
55.76 

66.38 
65.C6 
.59.36 
70.34 
G4..58 
61.16 
67.28 
66.56 
08.72 
70.52 

22.46 
22.82 
13.81 
28.41 

30.20 
27.14 

34.88 
37.40 

29.00 
26.78 
.38.30 
27.14 
29.48 
35.42 
30..56 
34.16 
33.44 
26.60 

Christiania 

*Convent  of  Peissen- 

*Copenhagen 

*KendaI 

P'alkiand  Islands  . .  . 
*Prao;ue 

.52  14 
46  50 
53  21 

Duhlin 

Berne 

40    5 
46  12 
49  29 
48  12 

in 
2 

S 
o 
lis 

-s 

*Clermont 

15  40 

47  29 
42  22 

48  50 
.51  30 
51     2 

3  5e. 

19     lE. 

71    7w. 
2  20e. 

0  5w. 
2  22e. 

4  50e. 
4  22e. 
6  22e. 

75  10  w. 

73  58  w. 

84  27  w. 

2    Iw. 

1  32  w. 
116  27  E. 

9  He. 
0  34w. 

1260 

494 
0 

222 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

510 
0 
0 
0 

390 
0 

50.00 
51.08 
50.30 
51.08 
50.36 
50.54 
51 .62 
51.80 
51.80 
53.42 
53.78 
53.78 
54.14 
54.08 
51.86 
5.5.70 
56.48 

34..52 
33.98 
33.98 
38.66 
39.56 
38.48 
36.80 
30.08 
36.68 
32.18 
29.84 
32.90 
42.20 
40.40 
26.42 
36.32 
42.08 

50.54 
51.08 
4700 
49.28 
48.50 
48.50 
51.62 
53.24 
51.08 
51.44 
51.20 
.54.14 
.52.10 
.5-1. .50 
50.30 
50.12 
50.48 

51.26 
52.34 
49.82 
61.44 
50.18 
50.90 
51.62 
51.08 
54.32 
50,  48 
.54. .50 
54.86 
.55.70 
55..58 
54.32 
56.84 
50.30 

66.20 
71.60 
72.86 
65.30 
64.40 
04.70 
00.92 
67.28 
6908 
77.00 
80.70 
74.30 
66.92 
70.52 
84.38 
74.06 
73.04 

28.04 
27.78 
29.81 
30.14 
37.70 
37.70 
.3.5.42 
35.00 
32.90 
.32.72 
25.34 
30.20 
41.74 
39.02 
24.02 
30.14 
41.00 

*Biida 

Cambridge,  Ma.s.s. . . 
♦Paris 

Amsterdam  

Bri].«sels 

52  22 
50  50 
52  30 

39  50 

40  40 
39    0 
48  39 
47  13 
39  54 
45  28 
44  50 

Philadelphia 

New  York 

St.  Malo 

Peking 

♦Milan  

Bordeaux 

43  17 
43  30 
41  53 
43    7 
32  45 
31  34 

5  22e. 

3  .52  E. 

12  27E. 

5  50e. 

129  .55  E. 

91  24 w. 

0 
0 

0 

0 

0 

180 

59.00 
59.30 
60.44 
02.06 
60.80 
64.76 

45..50 
44.00 
45.86 
48.38 
39.38 
48.56 

57.50 
50.00 
57.74 

00.80 
57..50 
65.48 

72.50 
75.74 
75.20 
75.02 
82.94 
79.10 

60.08 
00.98 
62.78 
04.40 
64.22 
66.02 

74.66 
78.08 
77.00 
77.00 
86.90 
79.70 

44.42 
42  08 
42.26 
46.40 
37.40 
46.94 

Montpellier 

*Rome 

Toulon 

Nant^asaki 

♦Natfhez 

GS^to 
723. 

*Fnncliai 

32  37 

30  48 

16  50w. 

3     lE. 

0 
0 

68.54 
69.98 

64.40 
61.52 

65.8 1|  72  50 
65.66  80.24 

72.32 
72.50 

75.56 
82.76 

64.04 
60.08 

56.12 
71,06 
69.98 
7916 

Band 

above 

72=. 

♦Cairo 

♦Vera  Cruz 

♦Havana 

30    2 
19  11 
23  10 

10  27 

3018E. 
90    Iw. 
8213vv. 
05  15w. 

0 
0 
0 
0 

72.32 

77.72 
78.08 
81.86 

58.46 
71.90 
71.24 
80.24 

73.58  85.10 
77.90  81.50 
78.98  83.30 
83.66  82.04 

71.42 

78.62 
78.98 
80.24 

85.82 
81.86 
83.84 
84.38 

Book  II.  METEOROLOGY.  175 

on  climate  in  some  respects  similar  to  an  increase  of  latitude,  it  has  been  commonly  sup- 
posed that  tliere  are  properly  no  plants  peculiar  to  high  latitudes,  because  such  may  be  raised 
on  the  mountains  under  tlie  equator,  which  embrace  every  variety  of  climate  between  their 
summit  and  base,  at  least  in  so  iiir  as  temperature  is  concerned.  In  point  of  atmospheric 
pressure,  however,  tlio  two  situations  differ  essentially ;  and  some  naturalists  allege,  that 
pressure  is  of  vital  importance  to  the  growth  of  plants.  Professor  Dobereiner  is  of  opinion 
that  the  diminutive  size  of  plants,  in  elevated  situations,  depends  more  on  the  diminution  of 
pressure  than  of  temperature.  To  ascertain  this,  he  put  equal  quantities  of  barley  and 
moist  eartli  into  two  equal  receivers:  the  air  in  the  one  had  a  pressure  of  14  inches  of  mer- 
cury, and  the  other  56;  germination  commenced  in  both  at  the  same  time,  and  the  leaves 
had  the  same  green  tint.  At  the  end  of  lifteen  days,  the  shoots  in  the  rarefied  air  were  6 
inches  long,  and  in  the  other  from  9  to  10.  The  first  were  expanded  and  soil  and  wet  on 
the  surface,  especially  towards  their  extremities;  the  others  were  firm,  rolled  round  the  stem, 
and  nearly  dry.  In  some  respects,  this  accords  with  what  Humboldt  observed  of  the  trees 
on  the  Andes,  that  water  transpires  from  them  even  in  the  driest  weather.  But  such  expe- 
riments are  inconclusive,  unless  there  were  some  contrivance  employed  to  renew  the  confined 
air  frequently.  Independently  of  pressure,  the  barley  in  the  condensed  air  had  the  use  of 
four  times  the  quantity  of  air  in  the  other  vessel. 

Plants  are  most  numerous,  and  exhibit  the  greatest  variety  of  species,  and  the  most  luxu- 
riant growth,  within  the  tropics,  beyond  which  they  gradually  diminish.  In  the  arctic 
regions,  and  in  the  north  of  Russia,  the  vegetable  kingdom  has  dwindled  to  almost  nothing. 
The  lines  which  limit  the  growth  of  certain  plants  depend  on  the  average  summer  tempera- 
ture, for  plants  which  require  a  long  and  moderate  heat;  on  the  temperature  of  the  warmest 
month,  for  those  which  require  a  short  but  great  heat ;  and  on  the  temperature  of  the  coldest 
month,  for  those  which  cannot  bear  cold.  The  transparency  of  the  air  is  also  of  importance 
to  many  plants;  but  our  limits  will  not  admit  of  enlarging,  and  therefore  we  shall  confine 
ourselves  to  a  short  account  of  the  climates  of  cultivated  plants.  The  plantain,  which  is  a 
primary  article  of  food  in  tropical  America,  requires  a  temperature  from  82°  to  73°  F., 
which  occurs  between  lat.  0°  and  27° :  but,  in  the  equinoctial  zone  (lat.  0°  to  10°),  its  fruit 
does  not  ripen  at  a  greater  altitude  than  3300  feet.  The  sugar-cane  has  nearly  the  same 
range,  but  is  cultivated,  though  with  less  advantage,  in  the  old  world  to  lat.  36°  5',  where 
the  mean  temperature  is  about  67°.  The  severity  of  the  North  American  winter  prevents 
the  cultivation  of  the  sugar-cane  beyond  lat.  31°  ;  but  it  succeeds  at  an  altitude  of  5700  feet 
on  the  table-land  of  Mexico.  The  favourite  climate  of  the  cotton  plant  lies  between  lat.  0° 
and  34° ;  but  it  succeeds  with  a  mean  summer  heat  of  75°  or  73°  F.,  if  that  of  winter  do 
not  descend  below  36°  or  38°.  In  America,  it  is  cultivated  at  lat.  37°  ;  in  Europe,  at  lat.  40°  ; 
and  in  Astracan,  at  lat.  46°.  The  date  palm  thrives  best  between  lat.  29°  and  35° ;  but, 
when  sheltered  from  the  north  wind,  it  is  cultivated  on  the  shores  of  Italy  to  lat.  44°.  The 
citron  has  nearly  the  same  range,  but  is  cultivated  at  Nice,  at  altitudes  of  400  feet.  This 
tree,  with  the  sweet  orange,  grows  in  Louisiana  to  lat.  30°,  but  beyond  that  it  is  injured  by 
the  cold.  The  olive  ranges  m  Europe  between  lat.  36°  and  44°  5' ;  it  succeeds  wlierever, 
with  a  mean  annual  temperature  from  66°  to  58°  F.,  that  of  summer  is  not  below  71°,  nor 
that  of  the  coldest  month  below  42°,  which  excludes  all  North  America  beyond  lat.  34°. 
The  favourite  clmiate  of  the  vine  in  the  old  world  is  between  lat.  36°  and  48°  ;  but  it  thrives 
wherever  the  mean  temperature  is  from  62°  to  47.5°,  provided  that  of  winter  is  not  below 
33°,  nor  summer  under  66°  or  68°.  Such  is  the  case  on  the  shores  of  Europe  to  lat.  47°, 
and  in  the  interior  to  lat.  50°,  but  only  to  lat.  40°  in  North  America.  The  ccrealia  or  com- 
mon grain,  as  wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  oats,  thrive  where  the  mean  annual  temperature 
descends  to  28°  F.,  provided  that  of  summer  rise  to  52°  or  53°.  In  Lapland,  barley 
ripens  wherever  the  mean  temperature  of  summer  rises  to  47°  or  48°.  The  rapid  growtli 
of  barley  and  oats  adajits  them  to  the  short  simimers  of  the  north :  they  are  found  as  high 
as  lat.  6'i^2°  i'^  Lapland,  along  with  the  potato.  In  some  parts  of  eastern  Russia,  no  grain 
is  found  beyond  lat.  60°.  Wheat,  which  is  a  precarious  crop,  and  little  cultivated  beyond 
lat.  58°  in  western  Europe,  yields  good  returns  in  this  part  of  the  temperate  zone,  when 
the  mean  heat,  while  the  grain  is  on  the  ground,  is  55° ;  but  if  no  more  than  40°,  none  of 
the  cerealia  come  to  maturity.  These  species  of  grain  are  cultivated  at  a  height  of  3500 
feet  on  the  Alps,  in  lat.  46°.  Barley  and  oats  succeed  at  double  that  height  on  Caucasus, 
and  at  almost  a  triple  height  on  the  Andes,  along  with  wheat  and  rye.  In  the  west  of 
Europe,  maize  has  the  same  range  as  the  vine,  but  reaches  iiirther  north  on  the  east.  In  its 
native  American  soil,  it  forms  tlie  chief  article  of  food,  from  the  river  Plata  to  the  lakes  of 
Canada.  Requiring  a  short  but  warm  season  of  four  months,  it  is  well  suited  to  the  climate 
of  the  Ne\v  World  up  to  the  latitude  of  45°.  The  oak  c(^ases  at  lat.  63°  in  Norway,  at 
60°  or  61°  in  Finland,  and  at  57°  in  the  government  of  Perm.  The  pinus  silvestris,  or  ^cots 
fir,  grows  to  a  height  of  60  feet  in  Lapland,  at  lat  70°,  and  850  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea :  there  the  birch  is  found  at  double  that  elevation.  In  eastern  Russia,  the  larch,  pine, 
birch,  and  mountain-ash,  disappear  about  lat.  68°;  and,  at  Hudson's  Bav,  all  trees  cease 
about  lat.  60°. 


176  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  U. 

Sect.  III. — Composition  of  the  Atmosphere. — Aqueous  Meteors. 

Regarding  tlie  composition  of  tlie  atmosphere,  abundantly  vague  and  fanciful  notions 
prevailed  for  many  ages.  The  ancients  considered  air  as  one  of  the  four  simple  elements, 
of  which  tliey  supposed  all  other  bodies  to  be  compounded.  These  were  earth,  air,  fire,  and 
water.  How  far  the  opinion  was  correct,  which  made  fire  an  element,  is  a  question  on 
which  nothing  is  yet  known;  but  the  researches  of  modern  chemistry  have  shown  that  the 
other  three  are  all  compound  bodies.  The  chief,  and  perliaps  the  only  essential,  component 
substances  in  the  atmosphere,  are  the  two  gases  called  oxygen  and  azote ;  its  other  ingre- 
dients, occurring  only  in  small  and  variable  quantities,  are  rather  to  be  considered  as  foreign 
bodies.  The  analysis  of  air  is  a  difficult  problem.  Many  chemists  have  found  it  to  consist 
of  21  parts  by  volume  of  oxygen  to  79  of  azote ;  and  this  proportion  is  sensibly  the  same 
whether  the  air  be  from  the  polar  or  tropical  regions,  from  the  level  of  the  sea  or  a  mountain 
top,  from  the  most  healthy  or  insalubrious  countries.  But  Dr.  Prout,  guided  by  the  laws  of 
definite  proportions,  alleges,  tliat  if  the  two  gases  of  which  air  principally  consists  be  really 
combined,  they  ought  to  be  20  oxygen  to  80  azote ;  and  it  must  be  allowed  that  similar 
conjectures  of  the  same  eminent  chemist  have  been  verified  regarding  the  composition  of 
other  bodies,  whicli  had  apparently  deviated  farther  from  the  atomic  system. 

The  investigation  of  the  component  parts  of  tlie  atmosphere  did  not  keep  pace  with  that 
of  its  mechanical  properties.  Boyle,  however,  and  his  cotemporaries,  put  it  beyond  doubt 
that  it  contained  an  elastic  fluid  and  water  in  the  state  of  vapour.  They  also  conjectured 
that  it  contained  various  other  substances,  which  rose  from  the  earth  in  the  form  of  vapours, 
and  often  altered  its  properties,  rendering  it  no.xious  or  fatal.  Since  the  discovery  of  car- 
bonic acid  by  Dr.  Black,  it  has  been  ascertained  that  this  elastic  fluid  always  constitutes  a 
part,  though  a  very  minute  one,  of  the  atmosphere. 

With  respect  to  moisture,  or  the  state  in  which  water  exists  in  air,  two  opinions  have 
been  formed :  1.  Water  may  be  dissolved  in  air,  in  the  same  manner  as  salt  is  lield  in  solu- 
tion by  water ;  2.  It  may  be  mixed  with  air  in  the  state  of  steam  or  vapour,  after  having 
been  converted  into  vapour.  The  first  of  these  was  hinted  at  by  Dr.  Hooke,  and  afterwards 
proposed  by  Dr.  Halley.  It  has  been  adopted  by  many  others  in  succession,  among  wliom 
is  Professor  Leslie ;  and  it  cannot  be  denied  that  many  of  the  phenomena  agree  with  that 
theory.  The  second  opinion  seems  to  have  originated  with  Mr.  Deluc ;  but  it  is  to  Mr. 
Dalton  and  M.  Gay  Lussac  that  we  are  indebted  for  subjecting  this  theory  to  the  test  of 
experiment. 

Evaporation  from  the  waters  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  undoubtedly  the  source  whence 
the  moisture  which  exists  in  air  is  derived.  Accordingly  we  find  that  water  exposed  to  the 
<iir  suffers  a  gradual  diminution  of  bulk,  till  it  entirely  disappears.  It  is  tlien  said,  in  com- 
mon language,  to  have  dried  up,  or  to  have  evaporated.  Under  an  exhausted  receiver,  water 
diminishes  even  more  rapidly  than  in  the  open  air.  Were  this  owing  to  solution,  the  verj' 
reverse  ought  to  follow ;  because,  in  place  of  vapour  being  caused  by  the  presence  of  air,  it 
goes  on  more  rapidly  in  its  absence.  By  comparing  a  set  of  experiments  made  at  Geneva, 
with  a  similar  set  on  the  Col-du-Geant,  10,95(3  feet  higher,  Saussure  found  that,  supposing 
the  temperature  and  dryness  of  the  air  the  same  at  both  places,  the  evaporation  at  the  upper 
would  be  to  tliat  at  the  lower  nearly  as  7  to  3 ;  so  that  a  diminution  of  about  one  third  in 
tlie  density  of  the  air  more  than  doubled  the  rate  of  evaporation.  It  is  well  known,  that 
cold  is  always  generated  during  spontaneous  evaporation ;  that  is  to  say,  that  water,  as  it 
disappears,  carries  off"  a  quantity  of  heat.  Dr.  Black  has  rendered  it  probable,  that  the 
quantity  of  heat  which  disappears  during  spontaneous  evaporation  is  as  great  as  that  which 
is  required  to  form  water  into  steam.  A  wet  body  is  always  cooled  by  exposure  to  dry  air, 
owing  to  the  evaporation  from  its  surface.  Hence,  in  warm  countries,  liquors  are  cooled  by 
wrapping  wet  cloths  round  the  bottles  and  exposing  them  to  the  air.  M.  Saussure  observed, 
that  the  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  melting  snow  caused  it  to  freeze  again,  when  the 
temperature  of  tlie  air  was  4°  or  5°  above  tlie  freezing  point.  The  simplest  mode  of  illus- 
trating tlie  cooling  influence  of  evaporation,  is  to  cover  the  ball  of  a  thermometer  with  wet 
cloth  and  expose  it  to  the  air,  when  it  will  be  found  to  indicate  a  greater  cr  less  degree  of 
cold.  This,  it  is  true,  does  not  take  place  if  the  air  be  very  damp,  because  there  is  then  no 
evaporation.  Wind  tends  to  promote  evaporation,  both  by  communicating  its  heat  to  the 
colder  evaporating  surface,  and  also  by  sweeping  away  the  vapour  as  it  is  formed.  On  the 
contrary,  there  is  scarcely  any  evaporation  in  perfectly  still  air,  unless  some  substance  be 
present  which  absorbs  the  vapour  as  it  forms. 

On  this  principle.  Professor  Leslie  contrived  an  elegant  mode  of  producing  ice  in  any  cli- 
mate. A  cup  with  water  is  placed  within  the  receiver  of  an  air-pump,  along  with  some 
substance  which  absorbs  the  vapour.  Tlie  rate  of  evaporation  is  then  increased  in  an  aston- 
ishing degree,  by  exliaustintj  the  air  from  the  receiver;  and  the  portion  of  the  water  which 
is  converted  into  vapour  abstracts  so  much  heat  from  the  remamder,  that  the  latter  is  speed- 
ily converted  into  ice. 

Dew  is  a  remarkable  product  of  atmospheric  moisture.     The  quantity  of  aqueous  va})our 


BookII.  meteorology.  IT? 

which  can  exist  in  a  given  space,  as  a  cubic  foot,  is  pretty  generally  believed  to  be  the  same, 
whether  there  be  air  present  in  the  space,  or  nothing  but  the  vapour  alone.  The  quantity 
is  always  (ccbI.  par.)  the  same  at  the  same  temperature,  but  it  is  greater  as  the  temperature 
is  higher ;  and  therefore,  supposing  the  space  to  be  saturated  with  vapour  at  a  particular 
temperature,  a  portion  of  this  will  return  into  drops  of  water  whenever  the  temperature 
falls.  It  is  on  this  principle  that  a  cold  body,  such  as  a  bot»-'.  •  of  liquor,  bemg  carried  into  a 
warm  moist  apartment,  becomes  bedewed  on  the  outside,  till,  perhaps,  the  water  trickles 
down  its  sides :  the  contact  of  the  cold  surface  chills  the  air,  which  in  return  deposits  a  por- 
tion of  its  moisture.  Now  this  is  similar  to  the  mode  in  which  moisture  is  insensibly  depo- 
sited from  the  atmosphere  on  bodies  at  the  earth's  surface,  and  which  is  known  by  the  name 
of  dew.  All  bodies,  placed  in  still  air  and  exposed  to  the  aspect  of  a  clear  sky,  are  found  to 
become  colder  than  they  would  be  if  some  screen  or  awning  were  interposed  between  them 
and  the  sky.  In  such  circumstances,  bodies  often  become  much  colder  than  the  surrounding 
air,  which,  if  sufficiently  moist,  deposits  on  them  a  portion  of  its  moisture  or  dew.  When 
the  temperature  is  low,  the  dew  is  frozen,  and  forms  hoar  frost. 

The  radiation  of  heat  also  deserves  notice.  About  the  commencement  of  the  present 
century.  Professor  Leslie  discovered  that  bodies  possess  very  different  powers  of  radiating 
heat ;  "and  that  this  depends  on  the  nature  and  condition  of  their  surfaces.  Metals  possess 
this  quality  in  a  degree  inferior  to  vitreous  bodies,  and  it  is  diminished  in  all  of  them  by 
polishing  the  surface.  Most  fibrous  and  filamentous  vegetable  substances  are  good  radiators, 
as  are  likewise  bodies  in  general  which  are  bad  conductors  or  bad  reflectors  of  heat.  Now 
the  degrees  of  cooling,  which  different  bodies  undergo  when  exposed  together  to  the  aspect 
of  the  sky,  is  observed  to  follow  the  same  order  as  that  of  their  radiating  powers;  and,  of 
course,  the  order  in  which  they  begin  to  acquire  dew,  as  also  the  quantity  acquired,  is  regu- 
lated by  a  similar  law,  as  will  be  seen  from  what  follows. 

For  the  investigation  of  the  causes  of  dew  we  are  chiefly  indebted  to  the  late  ingenious 
Dr.  Wells.  The  ancients  maintained,  that  dew  appears  only  on  calm  and  clear  nights.  Dr. 
Wells  found  that,  in  opposite  circumstances,  very  little  is  ever  deposited,  and  that  little  only 
when  the  clouds  are  very  high.  Dew  never  occurs  in  nights  both  cloudy  and  windy ;  and 
if  in  the  course  of  the  night,  the  weather,  from  being  serene,  should  become  dark  and  stormy, 
dew  which  had  been  deposited  will  disappear.  In  calm  weather,  more  dew  will  appear  if 
the  sky  be  partially  covered  with  clouds,  than  if  it  were  quite  clear.  It  often  happens,  that 
even  before  sunset,  dew  begins  to  adhere  to  grass  in  spots  which  are  sheltered  from  both  sun 
and  wind ;  for,  in  clear  weather,  such  spots  suffer  much  from  the  chilling  aspect  of  the  sky, 
and  may  often  continue  to  acquire  dew  during  the  whole  niglit,  and  for  some  time  after  sun- 
rise. The  quantity  of  dew  depends  on  the  moistness  of  the  air,  being  greater  after  rain  than 
after  long-continued  dry  weather.  It  is  more  abundant,  in  Europe,  with  southerly  and  west- 
erly winds,  than  with  those  whicli  blow  from  the  opposite  points.  The  reason  of  this  seems 
to  be  the  direction  of  the  sea  rendering  the  wmd  moist ;  for,  in  Egypt,  dew  rarely  occurs 
unless  the  wind  come  from  the  sea.  But  with  a  southerly  wind,  which  has  passed  along  the 
floods  of  the  Nile,  dew  is  usually  observed  in  the  Delta  five  or  six  days  before  the  inunda- 
tion. After  a  long  period  of  drought.  Dr.  Wells  exposed  to  the  clear  sky,  28  minutes  before 
sunset  in  a  calm  evening,  known  weights  of  wool  and  swan-dowTi,  upon  a  smooth,  unpainted, 
dry  fir  table  about  3  feet  in  height,  and  which  had  been  placed  an  hour  before  in  the  sun- 
shine in  a  large  grass  field.  AX  12  minutes  after  sunset  the  wool  was  14°  colder  than  the 
air,  but  had  gained  no  weight.  The  swan-down  was  13°  colder  than  the  air,  but  had  got  no 
additional  weight ;  nor  was  it  any  heavier  at  the  end  of  20  minutes  longer,  but  it  had  then 
become  14^°  colder  than  the  air ;  whilst  the  grass  was  15°  colder  than  the  air  4  feet  above 
ground. — From  these,  and  many  similar  experiments,  Dr.  Wells  concluded  that  bodies  be- 
come colder  than  the  neighbouring  air  before  they  are  dewed. — He  bent  a  sheet  of  paste- 
board mto  the  form  of  a  penthouse,  making  the  angle  of  flexure  90°,  and  leaving  both  ends 
open.  This  was  placed  one  evening,  with  its  ridge  uppermost,  upon  a  grass-plat,  and,  as 
nearly  as  could  be  guessed,  in  the  direction  of  the  wind.  On  the  middle  of  the  spot  of  grass 
sheltered  by  the  roof,  was  placed  10  grains  of  wool,  and  an  equal  quantity  on  a  spot  of  the 
grass  fully  exposed  to  the  sky.  In  the  morning,  the  first  10  grains  were  only  2  grains 
heavier,  whilst  the  other  had  gained  16.  The  wool  does  not  here  acquire  moisture  from  the 
grass  by  capillary  attraction,  for  the  same  effect  happens  if  it  be  placed  in  a  saucer;  nor  is  it 
by  hygrometric  attraction,  for  in  a  cloudy  night,  wool  placed  on  an  elevated  board  scarcely 
gained  any  weight. 

The  quantity  of  dew  varies  according  to'circumstances.  When  wool  is  placed  upon  a  bad 
conductor  of  heat,  as  a  deal  board,  a  few  feet  from  the  ground,  it  will  become  colder  and 
acquire  more  dew  than  if  laid  on  the  grass.  At  the  windward  end  of  the  board,  it  is  less 
bedewed  than  at  the  sheltered  end ;  because,  in  the  former  case,  the  v.'md  keeps  up  tiio 
temperature  nearer  to  that  of  the  atmosphere.  Rough  and  porous  surfaces,  as  shavings  of 
wood,  straw,  (Sz-c,  take  more  dew  than  smooth  and  solid  bodies.  Raw  silk  and  fine  cotton 
collect  more  than  even  wool.  Glass,  being  a  good  radiator  of  heat,  is  much  more  quickly 
coated  with  dew  than  bright  metals,  which,  indeed,  receive  it  more  readily  than  many  other 

Yot.  I,  .  •     '  X 


i78  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

bodies.  This  circumstance  has  given  rise  to  the  strange  idea  that  metals  absorb  dew,  though 
they  be  the  most  compact  bodies  known.  If  we  coat  a  piece  of  glass  partially  with  bright 
tin-foil,  or  silver  leaf,  the  uncovered  portion  of  the  glass  quickly  becomes  cold  by  radiation, 
on  exposure  to  a  clear  nocturnal  sky,  and  acquires  moisture ;  which,  beginning  on  those 
parts  most  remote  from  the  metal,  gradually  approaches  it.  Thus,  also,  if  we  coat  a  part  of 
the  outside  of  a  window-pane  with  tin-foil  in  a  clear  night,  then  moisture  will  be  deposited 
inside,  on  every  part  but  that  opposite  to  the  metal ;  but  if  tlie  metal  be  inside,  then  the 
outside  of  the  coated  part  of  the  pane  will  be  sooner  and  more  copiously  bedewed.  In  the 
first  case,  the  tin-foil  prevents  the  glass  under  it  from  dissipating  its  heat,  and  therefore  it 
can  receive  no  dew ;  in  the  second  case,  the  tin-foil  prevents  the  part  of  the  glass  which  it 
coats  from  receiving  the  calorific  influence  of  the  apartment,  and  hence  it  is  sooner  cooled 
on  the  outside  than  the  rest  of  the  pane.  When  the  night,  after  having  been  clear,  becomes 
cloudy,  though  there  be  no  change  with  respect  to  calmness,  a  rise  in  the  temperature  of  the 
glass  always  ensues.  In  clear  nights  the  temperature  always  falls,  but,  unless  the  air  be 
sufficiently  moist,  dew  does  not  necessarily  follow ;  from  which  it  is  evident,  that  the  cold 
cannot  be  the  effect  of  dew.  For  a  more  particular  account  of  these  interesting  phenomena, 
we  must  refer  the  reader  to  Dr.  Wells's  elegant  Essay  on  Dew. 

Clouds.  The  various  forms  of  clouds  were  first  successfully  attempted  to  be  arranged 
under  a  few  general  modifications  by  Mr.  Luke  Howard,  and  published  in  the  16th  and  17th 
vols,  of  the  Philosoph.  Magazine.  The  modifications  of  clouds  is  a  term  used  to  express  the 
structure  or  manner  of  aggregation,  in  which  the  influence  of  certain  constant  laws  is  suf- 
ficiently evident  amidst  the  endless  subordinate  diversities  resulting  from  occasional  causes. 
Hence  the  principal  modifications  are  as  distinguishable  from  each  other,  as  a  tree  from  a 
hill,  or  the  latter  from  a  lake ;  although  clouds,  in  the  same  modification,  compared  with 
each  other,  have  often  only  the  common  resemblance  which  exists  among  trees,  hills,  and 
lakes,  taken  generally. 

There  are  three  simple  and  distinct  modifications,  which  are  thus  named  and  defined  by 
Mr.  Howard : — 

(1.)  Cirrus.  A  cloud  resembling  a  lock  of  hair  or  a  feather.  Parallel,  flexous,  or  diverg- 
ing fibres,  unlimited  in  their  extent  or  direction. 

(2.)  Cumulus.     A  cloud  which  increases  from  above  in  dense  convex  or  conical  heaps. 

(3.)  Stratus.     An  extended  continuous  level  sheet  of  cloud,  increasing  from  beneath. 

There  are  two  modifications  which  appear  to  be  of  an  intermediate  nature :  these  are — 

(4.)  Cirro-cumulus.  A  connected  system  of  small  roundish  clouds,  in  close  order  or 
contact. 

(5.)  Cirro-stratus.  A  horizontal  or  slightly  inclined  sheet,  attenuated  at  its  circumference, 
concave  downward,  or  undulated.     Groups  or  patches  have  these  characters. 

There  are  two  modifications  which  exhibit  a  compound  structure,  viz. : — 

(6.)  Cumulo-stratus.  A  cloud  in  which  the  structure  of  the  cumulus  is  mixed  with  that 
of  the  cirro-stratus  or  cirro-cumulus.  The  cumulus  flattened  at  top,  and  overhanging  its 
base. 

(7.)  Nimbus.  A  dense  cloud  spreading  out  into  a  crown  of  cirrus,  and  passing  beneath 
into  a  shower. 

Regarding  the  mode  in  which  clouds  are  suspended  in  the  air,  philosophers  are  not  agreed. 
About  the  commencement  of  the  last  century,  it  was  supposed  that  the  aqueous  particles  of 
clouds  were  in  the  form  of  hollow  shells,  specifically  lighter  tlian  the  air  in  which  they  float. 
But  as  no  evidence  or  probability  could  be  adduced  in  favour  of  this  theory,  it  has  given 
place  to  other  speculations  ;  and,  at  present,  many  consider  the  suspension  of  clouds  as  an 
electrical  phenomenon.  On  attentively  observing  the  forms  of  clouds,  it  will  be  found  that 
they  have  a  tendency  to  assume  one  or  other  of  the  seven  distinct  modifications  above  men- 
tioned ;  the  peculiar  characters  of  which  may  be  discovered  in  all  the  endless  configurations 
exhibited  by  clouds  under  different  circumstances.  It  may  be  observed  farther,  that  the 
most  indefinite  and  shapeless  masses  of  clouds,  if  attentively  watched,  will  sooner  or  later 
show  a  tendency  to  assume  the  form  of  some  of  these  modifications ;  a  circumstance  which 
shows  not  only  their  distinct  nature,  but  also  proves  that  there  are  some  general  causes,  as 
yet  undiscovered,  why  aqueous  vapour,  suspended  in  the  air,  should  assume  certain  definable 
and  constant  modifications. 

A  more  minute  description  of  the  formation  and  changes  of  the  clouds,  and  of  the 
prognostics  of  the  weather  to  be  deduced  from  their  peculiar  appearances,  shall  now  be 
attempted. 

The  cirrus  or  curl-cloud*  may  be  distinguished  from  every  other  by  the  lightness  of  its 
nature,  its  fibrous  structure,  and  the  great  and  perpetually  changing  variety  of  figures  which 
it  presents  to  the  eye.  It  is  generally  the  most  elevated  of  clouds,  occupying  the  higher 
regions  of  the  atmosphere.     As  this  cloud,  under  different  circumstances,  presents  consider- 

*  This,  and  the  other  additional  terms  which  follow,  have  been  proposed  as  English  names  by  Dr.  Thomas 
Forster. 


Book  6.  ]\rETEOROLOGY.  179 

able  varieties  of  appearances,  it  will  be  proper  to  consider  these  separately,  with  reference 
to  the  particular  kind  of  weather  in  which  they  prevail.  After  a  continuance  of  clear  fine 
weather,  a  whitish  line  of  cloud  may  often  be  observed  at  a  great  height,  like  a  white 
thread  stretched  across  the  sky,  the  ends  seeming  lost  in  each  horizon :  this  is  often  the  first 
indication  of  a  change  to  wet" weather.  To  this  Ime  of  cirrus,  others  are  added  laterally, 
and  sometimes,  as  it  were,  propagated  from  the  sides  of  the  line  in  an  oblique  or  transverse 
direction ;  the  whole  having  the  appearance  of  net-work.  At  other  times  the  lines  become 
gradually  denser ;  descend  lower  in  the  atmosphere ;  and,  uniting  with  others  below,  pro- 
duce rain  without  exhibiting  the  above-mentioned  transverse  reticulations.  The  above- 
described  varieties  of  cloud,  though  composed  of  straight  lines,  are  ranged  under  the  general 
head  of  cirrus,  from  their  resemblance  to  this  cloud  when  it  appears  under  curved  and  con- 
torted forms.  The  comnid  cirrus,  popularly  known  under  the  name  of  the  grey  mare's  tail, 
is  the  proper  cirrus.  It  somewhat  resembles  a  distended  lock  of  white  hair,  or  a  bunch  of 
combed  wool,  and  from  this  it  got  the  name  comoid.  It  usually  occurs  in  variable  weather, 
and  is  reckoned  a  precursor  of  wind  and  rain.  In  changeable  weather  it  varies  considerarbly 
in  a  few  hours;  but  when  the  fibres  have  a  constant  direction  to  the  same  point  of  the  com- 
pass for  any  considerable  time,  a  gale  of  wind  generally  springs  up  fiom  that  quarter. 
During  warm  changeable  weather,  when  there  are  light  breezes  of  wind,  long  and  obliquely 
descending  bands  of  cirrus  are  often  observed  in  the  air,  and  sometimes  seem  to  connect 
distant  clouds.  Frequently,  by  means  of  the  interposition  of  these  cirri  between  a  cumulus 
and  some  other  cloud,  as,  for  "instance,  cirro-stratus,  the  cumulo-stratus,  and  ultimately  the 
nimbus  or  rain-cloud,  is  formed.  The  cirrus,  when  attentively  examined,  is  found  to  be  in 
constant  motion,  not  merely  changing  its  form,  but  often  exlubiting  an  internal  commotion 
in  the  substance  of  the  cloud,  especially  in  the  larger  end  of  it.  Every  particle  seems  alive 
and  in  motion,  while  the  whole  mass  scarcely  changes  its  place.  This  motion,  on  a  minute 
examination,  often  appears  to  consist  of  the  fibres  which  compose  the  cirrus,  gently  waving 
to  and  fi-om  each  other ;  frequently,  however,  it  seems  like  minute  specks  all  in  commotion. 
This  takes  place  more  fi-equently  in  those  large  and  lofty  cirri,  with  rounded  heads  and 
long  pointed  tails,  so  common  in  dry  winds  during  summer  and  autumn. 

The  formation  of  the  cumulus  is  best  viewed  in  fine  settled  weather,  about  sunrise 
or  a  little  after.  Small  specks  of  cloud  are  seen  here  and  there  in  the  atmosphere.  These 
seem  to  be  the  result  of  small  gatherings  of  the  stratus  or  evening  mist,  which  rising  in  the 
morning  grows  into  small  masses  of  cloud,  wliilst  the  rest  of  the  sky  becomes  clearer.  About 
sunrise  these  clouds  increase ;  two  or  more  of  them  unite,  till  a  large  cloud  be  formed,  which, 
assuming  a  cumulated  and  irregularly  hemispherical  shape,  has  received  the  name  of  cumulus 
or  stacken-cloud.  This  is  properly  the  cloud  of  day,  as  it  usually  subsides  in  the  evening 
by  retracing  the  steps  of  its  formation  in  the  morning.  It  separates  into  small  fragments 
and  evaporates,  giving  place  to  the  stratus  or  fall-cloud,  which  is  therefore  styled  the  cloud 
of  night. 

Some  varieties  in  the  forms  of  the  cumulus  deserve  particular  notice,  as  they  are  sup- 
posed to  be  connected  with  electrical  phenomena.  The  hemispherical  form  is  more  perfect 
in  fine  than  in-  changeable  weather.  When  such  well-formed  cumuli  prevail  during  many 
successive  days,  the  weather  is  settled,  and  the  electrometer  pretty  steady  in  its  indications. 
They  are  whitish  coloured,  and  when  opposed  to  the  sun  reflect  a  silvery  light.  Cumuli 
which  occur  during  intervals  between  showers  are  more  fleecy,  and  variable  in  form  and 
colour.  Sometimes  they  are  blackish,  and  may  at  any  time  increase  till  they  obscure  the 
sky,  or  assume  the  form  of  the  twain-cloud  or  cumulo-stratus. 

The  stratus  or  fall-cloud  comprehends  fogs,  and  all  those  creeping  mists  which,  towards 
evening,  fill  the  valleys,  and  disappear  in  the  morning.  The  cumuli  which  have  prevailed 
during  a  hot  summer's  day  decrease  towards  evening,  and  by  degrees  there  is  formed  a 
white  mist  near  the  ground,  increasing  in  density  till  midnight  or  even  till  morning,  and 
generally  disappearing  atler  sunrise.  In  autumn,  this  cloud  sometimes  lasts  longer  in  tlie 
morning.  In  winter  it  becomes  still  more  dense,  and  sometimes  continues  a  whole  day  or 
many  successive  days.  A  remarkable  instance  of  this  occurred  in  January,  1814,  when  a 
dense  fog  prevailed  for  about  a  fortnight,  extending  over  a  great  part  of  the  south  and  west 
of  England.  It  was  particularly  felt  at  London,  where  the  stagnation  and  subsidence  of 
the  smoke  more  than  doubled  the  dismal  visitation.  The  stratus  is  often  positively  electrified, 
and  its  component  parts  do  not  wet  leaves  or  other  substances  connected  with  the  earth. 
On  this,  however,  it  may  be  remarked  that  dry  bodies,  which  continue  warmer  than  the  fog, 
must  remain  dry  on  tlie  ordinary  principles  of  evaporation.  The  stratus  may  be  distin- 
guislied  from  some  varieties  of  cirro-stratus  which  resemble  it,  by  the  circumstance  that  the 
latter  wets  every  object  it  alights  on. 

The  cirro-cumulus  or  sonder-cloud  is  subject  to  some  variations  in  the  size  and  figure 
of  the  orbicular  masses  of  which  it  is  composed,  and  in  their  distances  from  each  other. 
About  the  time  of  thunder  storms,  the  component  parts  are  denser  in  their  structure,  rounder 
in  their  form,  and  closer  together  than  usual.     This  has  been  frequently  noticed  by  poete  as 


180  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II 

a  prognostic  of  thunder  and  tempestuous  weather.  In  rainy  changeable  weather,  this  cloud 
has  a  light  fleecy  texture,  and  is  very  irregular  in  the  form  of  its  component  parts;  so  that  it 
then  approaches  to  the  form  of  the  cirro-stratus.  Sometimes,  indeed,  it  consists  of  mbcculce, 
so  small  and  light  coloured  as  to  be  scarcely  discernible.  In  fine  summer  weather,  the  cirro- 
cunmlus  is  neither  so  dense  as  the  stormy  variety,  nor  so  light  as  the  one  last  described ;  its 
parts  vary  in  size,  and  in  their  proximity.  During  fine  dry  weather  witii  light  breezes,  small 
detachments  of  cirro-cumulus  rapidly  form  and  subside,  which  do  not  lie  in  one  plane ;  but 
their  arrangement  is  commonly  horizontal.  The  cirro-cumulus  sometimes  conmiences  in  the 
clear  sky.  At  other  times  the  cirrus,  the  cirro-stratus,  or  some  other  cloud,  changes  into 
cirro-cumulus,  and  vice  versa.  In  summer,  tills  cloud  forebodes  heat:  in  winter,  the  break- 
ing up  of  frost,  and  mild  wet  weather. 

The  cirro-stratus  is  remarkable  for  its  shallowness,  compared  with  its  horizontal  extent; 
so  that  when  any  other  cloud  assumes  this  form,  it  seldom  fails  to  end  in  a  cirro-stratus. 
This  cloud  is  constantly  changing  its  form,  and  gradually  subsiding ;  hence  it  has  been 
called  the  wane-cloud.  There  are  many  varieties  in  its  figure ;  sometimes  it  is  disposed 
in  waving  bars  or  streaks,  varying  almost  infinitely  in  size  and  shape.  A  flat  horizontal 
cloud,  consisting  of  such  streaks,  frequently  occurs  during  changeable  summer  weather ;  its 
bars  are  generally  confused  in  the  middle,  but  more  distinct  towards  the  edges.  A  variety 
of  this  sort  constitutes  what  is  called  the  mackerel-back  sky.  It  is  often  very  high  in  the 
atmospliere,  as  is  proved  from  its  still  appearing  high  when  viewed  from  the  top  of  a  lofty 
mountam.  The  cumulus,  on  the  contrary,  may  be  seen  on  a  level  with,  or  even  lower  than, 
the  observer.  The  cirro-stratus  often  appears  in  the  form  of  a  long  plain  streak,  tapering 
towards  the  extremities.  Sometimes  such  a  figure  seems  to  alight  on  the  cumulo-stratus ; 
and,  in  these  cases,  the  density  of  the  latter  increases  in  proportion  as  the  former  alternately 
appears  and  evaporates  again  on  its  summits.  The  usual  result  is  the  formation  of  the 
nimbus,  and  a  fall  of  rain.  Another  principal  variety  of  the  cirro-stratus  consists  of  small 
rows  of  little  clouds,  curved  in  a  peculiar  manner :  it  is  called  the  cijmoid  cirro-stratus,  and 
is  a  sure  indication  of  approaching  storms.  The  last  variety  of  this  cloud  which  we  shall 
now  notice,  is  that  large  and  shallow  veil  of  cloud  whicli  covers  a  large  portion  of  tlie  sky, 
particularly  towards  niglit,  and  through  which  the  sun  and  moon  are  indistinctly  seen. 
Those  peculiar  refractions  of  the  light  of  these  luminaries,  called  halos  and  mock  suns, 
usually  appear  in  this  cloud.  These  are  the  most  certain  signs,  yet  known,  of  approaching 
rain  or  snow. 

The  cumulo-stratus  or  twain-cloud  is  a  stage  towards  the  production  of  rain,  and  is  fre- 
quently formed  in  the  following  manner: — The  cumulus  which  usually  passes  along  in  the 
wind,  seems  retarded  in  its  progress,  grows  denser,  spreads  out  laterally  till  it  overhangs 
the  base  in  dark  and  irregular  protuberances.  This  change  often  takes  place  in  all  the 
cumuli  which  are  near  to  each  other ;  their  bases  unite,  whilst  the  superstructure  remains 
asunder,  rising  up  like  so  many  mountain  summits,  or  masses  of  rocks.  The  cumulo-strati, 
in  which  hail  showers  and  thunder  storms  occur,  look  extremely  black  and  menacing  before 
the  rain  commences.  Sometimes  the  cumulo-stratus  evaporates,  or  changes  agam  to  cumulus, 
but  it  oftener  ends  in  the  nimbus  and  rain. 

The  nimbus  remains  to  be  described ;  a  cloud  which  always  precedes  the  fall  of  rain, 
snow,  or  hail.  Any  of  tlie  others  above  described  may  increase  so  much  as  to  obscure  the 
sky,  without  endmg  in  rain,  before  which  the  peculiar  cliaracteristic  of  the  rain-cloud  may 
always  be  distinguished.  The  best  way  of  obtaining  a  clear  idea  of  tlie  formation  of  the 
nimbus  or  rain-cloud  is  to  observe  a  distant  shower  in  profile,  from  its  first  formation  to  its 
fall  in  rain.  The  cumulus  seems  first  arrested  in  its  progress :  then  a  cirrus  or  cirro-stratus 
may  appear  to  alight  on  the  top  of  it.  The  change  to  cumulo-stratus  then  goes  on  rapidly ; 
and  this  cloud,  increasing  in  density,  assumes  that  black  and  threatening  aspect  which  is  a 
known  indication  of  rain.  This  blackness  is  soon  changed  for  a  more  gray  obscurity ;  and 
this  is  the  criterion  of  the  actual  formation  of  rain  drops,  which  now  begin  to  fall,  while  a 
cirriform  crown  of  fibres  extends  from  the  upper  parts  of  the  clouds,  and  small  cumuli 
enter  into  the  under  part.  After  the  shower  has  spent  itself  the  different  modifications 
appear  again  in  their  several  stations:  tlie  cirrus,  the  cirro-stratus,  or  perhaps  the  cirro- 
cumulus,  appear  in  the  upper  regions  of  the  air;  while  the  remaining  part  of  the  broken 
nimbus  assumes  the  form  of  flocky  cumuli,  and  sails  along  in  the  lower  current  of  wind.  The 
reappearance  of  large  cumulo-strati  indicates  a  return  of  the  rain.  In  showery  weather,  the 
alternate  formation  and  destruction  of  rain-clouds  goes  on  rapidly,  and  is  attended  by  the 
other  modifications  in  succession,  as  above  described.  From  its  connexion  with  local 
showers,  the  nimbus  is  distinguished  almost  exclusively  by  bearing  in  its  broad  field  of  sable 
the  honours  of  the  rainbow. 

Rain.  Theories  of  rain  have  been  founded  on  the  above  observations.  Since,  as  already 
mentioned,  a  greater  quantity  of  moisture  can  exist  in  a  given  space  as  the  temperature  is 
higher,  it  is  plain  tliat  there  is  a  certain  temperature  at  which  air  containing  some  moisture, 
will  just  be  saturated,  and  which  is  called  thg  point  of  deposition,  or  the  dewing  point ;  for^ 


Book  II.  METEOROLOGY,  181 

if  cooled  in  the  least  below  this,  the  air  will  deposit  moisture.  When  the  cooling  in  the 
body  of  air  below  the  dew  point  is  very  slight,  the  eftect  is  merely  to  disturb  the  trans- 
parency, or  produce  a  fog.  In  the  case  of  dew,  formerly  considered,  the  transparency  is  ' 
not  aft'ected ;  because  it  is  not  the  7nass  of  air  that  is  cooled  below  the  point  of  deposition, 
but  only  a  minute  portion  of  it  which  comes  into  contact  with  surfaces  cooled  by  radiation. 
When  the  cooling  in  a  body  of  air  below  the  dewing-  point  is  considerable,  the  water  is 
deposited  more  copiously,  and  collecting  into  drops,  descends  to  the  earth  in  the  form  of 
rain ;  or,  if  tlie  temperature  be  sufficiently  low,  the  drops  are  partially  frozen,  and  form 
sleet ;  if  fully  frozen,  snow ;  and  if  such  drops  be  large  and  compact,  tliey  receive  the  appel- 
lation of  hail. 

Dr.  James  Hutton  of  Edinburgh  made  the  first  attempt  to  account  for  the  phenomena  of 
rain,  &c.  on  known  principles.  Without  deciding  whether  moisture  be  simply  mixed  or 
chemically  combined  in  the  air,  he  conjectured  from  the  phenomena,  as  is  now  established 
by  experiment,  that  the  quantity  of  aqueous  vapour  which  can  exist  in  air  varies  in  a  higher 
ratio  than  the  temperature.  Hence  he  inferred  tliat  whenever  two  volumes  of  air  saturated 
with  moisture  are  mixed  at  different  temperatures,  a  precipitation  of  moisture  must  ensue, 
in  consequence  of  the  mean  temperature  not  being  able  to  support  the  mean  quantity  of 
vapour.  But  if  the  air,  before  mixture,  was  not  fully  saturated  with  moisture,  then  a 
smaller  quantity,  or  none  at  all,  may  be  deposited.  This  theory  has  been  adopted  by  various 
meteorologists,  particularly  Professor  Leslie  and  Mr.  Dalton :  but  Mr.  Luke  Howard  has 
justly  remarked,  that  it  involves  the  assumption  that  the  mixture  should  liave  the  mean 
temperature, — a  point  which  was  then,  and  is  even  yet,  not  quite  settled ;  although  so  far 
as  experiment  goes,  it  is  fully  more  favourable  to  the  theory  than  the  mean  would  be. 

Mr.  Howard  accordingly  rejects  Dr.  Hutton's  tlieory,  and  alleges  that  rain  is  almost 
in  every  instance  the  result  of  the  electrical  action  of  clouds  upon  each  other.  This  idea, 
he  thinks,  is  confirmed  by  observations  made  in  various  ways  upon  the  electrical  state 
of  the  clouds  and  rain ;  and  he  supposes  that  a  thunder  storm  is  only  a  more  sudden 
and  sensible  display  of  those  energies  which  are  incessantly  operating  for  more  general 
purposes. 

There  are  two  circumstances  deserving  of  notice  in  the  formation  of  the  nimbus  or  rain- 
cloud,  the  spreading  of  the  superior  masses  of  cloud  in  all  directions,  until  they  become,  like 
the  stratus,  one  uniform  sheet;  and  the  rapid  motion  and  visible  decrease  of  the  cumulus, 
when  brought  under  the  latter.  The  cirri,  also,  which  so  frequently  stretch  from  the 
superior  sheet  upwards,  like  so  many  bristles,  are  supposed  by  some  to  be  temporary 
conductors  for  the  electricity  evolved  by  the  union  of  minute  particles  of  vapour  into  the 
larger  drops  which  form  the  rain.  In  an  experiment  of  Cavallo's  with  a  kite  sent  up  360 
feet  in  an  interval  between  two  showers,  and  kept  up  during  rain,  it  seems  that  the  superior 
clouds  were  positively  electrified  before  tlie  rain ;  but  on  the  arrival  of  a  large  cumulus,  a 
strong  negative  electricity  took  place,  wliich  lasted  while  the  cumulus  was  passing  over  the 
kite.  We  are  not,  however,  warranted  to  conclude  that  the  cumulus  which  brings  on  rain 
is  always  negative ;  as  the  same  effect  might  ensue  from  a  positive  cumulus  uniting  with  a 
negative  stratus :  yet  the  general  negative  state  of  the  lower  atmosphere  during  rain,  and 
the  positive  indications  commonly  given  by  the  true  stratus,  render  this  the  more  probable 
opinion.  It  is  not,  however,  absolutely  necessary  to  determine  tlie  several  states  of  the 
clouds  which  appear  during  rain ;  since  there  is  sufficient  evidence  in  favour  of  the  con- 
clusion, that  clouds  formed  in  different  parts  of  the  atmosphere  operate  on  each  other  when 
brought  near  enougli,  so  as  to  occasion  tlieir  partial  or  entire  destruction, — an  effect  which 
can  be  attributed  only  to  their  possessing  bef&rehand,  or  acquiring  at  the  moment,  the  oppo- 
site electricities.  Sucli  is  Mr.  Howard's  view  of  the  subject ;  but  until  electricity  itself,  and, 
in  particular,  the  electricity  of  the  atmosplicre,  be  better  understood,  it  is  doubtful  if  the 
phenomena  of  rain  be  brought  any  nearer  home  by  being  ascribed  to  electricity.  In  the 
present  state  of  science,  Dr.  Hutton's  theory  has  rather  the  advantage  of  depending  on 
principles  which  are  better  known,  though  there  is  some  uncertainty  regarding  their  fitness 
for  the  purpose. 

Rain  is  very  unequally  distributed  to  the  different  regions  of  the  globe ;  but  nature  has 
so  arranged  it,  that  it  is  most  copious  in  tliose  latitudes  where  evaporation  is  most  rapid. 
There  are,  however,  exceptions  to  this  rule ;  for,  on  several  tracts  on  the  earth's  surface,  it 
hardly  ever  rains.  These  are  usually  far  inland,  and  are  generally  extensive  plains  utterly 
sterile  and  uninhabitable.  The  want  of  rain  is  in  some  places  partially  supplied  by  the 
copious  deposition  of  dew.  On  the  contrary,  there  are  some  spots  where  it  always  rains,  and 
which  are  mostly  on  the  sea.  As  the  whole  atmosphere,  when  fully  charged  with  humidity, 
is  calculated  to  hold  no  more  water  than  would  form  a  sheet  5  inches  in  depth,  while  the 
mean  annual  deposit  is  about  35  or  40  inches,  it  is  plain  that  the  supply  must  be  frequently 
renewed.  Rain  is  more  abundant  toward  the  equator  than  the  poles,  at  the  sea-coast  than 
towards  the  interior,  and  on  elevated  situations  than  on  plains. 

From  the  most  authentic  sources,  Mr.  Dalton  has  constructed  the  following  table,  showing 
Vol.  I.  16 


182 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  TI. 


the  mean  monthly  and  annual  quantities  of  raui  which  have  fallen  at  several  places,  being 
the  average  for  many  years : — 


January 

February 

it 
1^ 

Chatsworth. 
1(5  Years. 

it 

5^ 

if 

Dumfries. 
16  Years. 

IS 

est- 

.-  u 
>>> 

Inch. 
2.310 

2.5t;6 
2.098 
2.010 
2  81)5 
2.502 
3.tl!i7 
3.(5(55 
3.281 
3.il22 
3.3(i0 
3.832 

Inch. 
2.177 
1.847 
1.523 
2.104 
2.573 
2.H16 
3.C63 
3.311 
3.G54 
3.724 
3.411 
3.288 

Inch. 
2.196 
1.G52 
1.322 
2.078 
2.118 
2.286 
3.006 
2.435 
2.289 
3.079 
2.634 
2569 

Inch. 
3.461 
2.995 
1.753 
2.180 
2.460 
2.512 
4.140 
4.581 
3.751 
4.151 
3.775 
3.9.55 

Inch. 
5.299 
5.126 
3.151 
2.986 
3.480 
2.7-^ 
4.959 
5.039 
4.874 
5.439 
4.785 
6.084 

Inch. 
3.695 
2.837 
2.164 
2.017 
2.568 
2.974 
3.256 
3.199 
4.350 
4.143 
3.174 
3.142 

Inch. 
1.595 
1.741 
1.1  H4 
0.979 
1.(541 
1.343 
2.303 
2.746 
1.617 
2.297 
1.904 
1.981 

Inch. 
1.464 
1.250 
1.172 
1279 
1636 
1.738 
2.448 
1.807 
1.842 
2.092 
2.222 
1.736 

Fr.  Inch. 
1.228 
1.232 
1.1!  0 
1.185 
1.767 
1.697 
l.?00 
1.900  . 
1.550 
1.780 
1.720 
1.600 

Fr.  Inch. 
2.477 
1.700 
1.927 
2.686 
2.931 
2.5ii2 
1.882 
2.347 
4.140 
4.741 
4.187 
2.397 

April 

IVIav 

Au!,'U,st 

Septeuiber 

October 

November 

December 

3(5.140 

34.118 

27.664 

39.714 

53.944 

36.919 

21.331 

20.686 

18.649 

33.977 

The  depth  of  rain,  according  to  Humboldt,  at  the  latitudes  of  0°,  19°,  4-5°,  and  60°,  is, 
respectively,  96,  80,  29,  and  17  inches.  In  the  torrid  zone,  a  small  thick  rain  falls  almost 
every  day  on  that  side  of  the  equator  where  the  sun  is ;  but  it  generally  intennits  during  the 
night.  In  many  places,  there  are  two  wet  and  two  dry  seasons  in  the  year ;  and  in  some 
reo-ions,  from  the  effect  of  the  mountains  and  peculiar  winds,  places  under  the  same  parallel 
have  their  wet  and  drj^  seasons  at  opposite  periods.  Though  the  annual  depth  of  rain  be 
greatest  toward  the  equator,  the  number  of  rainy  days  increases  with  the  latitude. 

Aqueous  meteors,  so  essential  to  vegetation,  have  their  salutary  effects  modified  by  the 
chemical  qualities  of  the  moisture  in  the  atmosphere.  The  salt  rain  and  dew  of  the  vicinity 
of  the  Caspian  Sea,  owing  to  the  vapours  which  are  exhaled  from  the  soil,  probably  contribute 
to  those  saline  efflorescences  which  are  said  to  be  gradually  overspreading  the  once  fertile 
soil  of  Persia.  The  salt  fogs  in  the  west  of  Jutland  are  very  injurious  to  the  foliage  of 
trees,  without  being  hurtful  to  the  grass.  Rain  has  also  been  known  to  be  impregnated  with 
sulphur,  and  with  various  substances  approaching  to  that  of  animal  and  vegetable  matters. 
Some  of  these  communicate  to  the  rain  a  peculiar  colour,  as  that  of  blood,  &c.  On  the 
other  hand,  fogs  occur  in  which  little  or  no  moisture  is  present:  such  are  called  dry  fogs ; 
and  are  supposed  to  be  the  vapours  and  ashes  ejected  by  volcanoes,  and  diffused  in  the 
atmosphere  by  the  winds.  Their  occurring  about  the  tune  of  great  eruptions  strengthens 
this  conjecture. 

Glaciers.  Ice  and  snow  absorb  a  large  portion  of  heat  during  liquefaction,  which  they 
wive  out  again  on  freezing;  for,  in  the  ordinary  procers  of  nature,  water  does  not  cool  below 
32°  F.  till  the  whole  be  frozen ;  nor  does  its  temperature  rise  above  that  point,  while  in 
contact  with  ice  or  snow, — that  is,  till  the  whole  be  melted.  This  property  has  an  important 
effect  on  the  temperature  of  snowy  districts.  It  retards  and  often  prevents  the  occurrence 
of  extreme  cold,  and  it  opposes  a  sudden  rise  of  temperature  above  the  freezing  point.  The 
cold  in  the  at'.iosphere,  as  was  formerly  stated,  continually  increases  with  the  elevation; 
and,  at  a  certain  height,  depending  on  tlie  climate  or  latitude,  perpetual  frost  prevails. 
Where  the  earth's  surface  attains  this  height,  it  is,  with  the  exception  of  some  steep  or  ver- 
tical cliffs,  continually  covered  with  snow.  The  snow  acquires  new  additions  from  time  to 
time ;  for,  though  it  may  melt  slowly  from  the  heat  of  the  ground  on  which  it  rests,  yet  it 
suffers  little  decay  externally,  except  what  the  air  carries  off  by  evaporation.  The  warmth 
of  the  solar  rays  may  soflen  it  a  little,  but  this  only  tends  to  its  farther  consolidation.  Masses 
of  this  sort  are  called  glaciers.  By  accumulating  in  the  manner  just  mentioned,  they  oflen 
become  top-heavy,  or  acquire  such  an  enormous  weight  as  to  break  their  hold,  or  crush  their 
lower  parts,  which  are  besides  liable  to  be  undermined  by  the  warmth  of  the  mountain  on 
which  they  rest.  Hence  it  not  unfrequently  happens,  that  huge  masses  of  ice  or  conglo- 
merated snow  slide  or  roll  down  the  sides  of  mountains,  transporting,  perhaps,  large  stones  or 
fragments  of  rocks  to  which  they  had  adhered,  or  which  had  been  separated  from  their  beds 
by  the  agency  of  the  weather.  Detached  glaciers  oflen  descend  into  districts  having  a 
mean  temperature  considerably  above  the  molting  point  of  snow.  But  so  great  is  the  heat 
consumed  in  liquefying  such  huge  masses,  tliat  years  may  elapse  before  they  entirely  dis- 
appear;  and  during  that  interval  others  descend  ;  and  so  on  continually.  So  that  the  limit 
of  perpetual  snow  may  be  found  in  a  climate  where  little  snow  falls  from  the  clouds.  When 
glaciers  descend  into  the  sea,  and  particularly  when  detached  and  floating,  they  are  termed 
icebergs. 

The  snow-line,  or  lower  limit  in  mountains  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  descends  in 
winter  and  rises  again  in  summer.     Under  the  equator,  this  change  is  scarcely  perceptible ; 


Book  II.  METEOROLOGY.  183 

but  it  increases  with  the  latitude,  and  in  liigh  latitudes  the  snow-line  has  a  great  range.  The 
direction  of  the  prevailing  winds,  with  many  circumstances  too  numerous  to  be  detailed,  has 
each  its  effect.  The  snow-line  is  lower  on  the  sides  of  mountains  turned  from  the  sun,  than 
on  acclivities  which  receive  his  rays  more  perpendicular  to  their  surfaces.  Hence  it  happens, 
that  one  side  of  a  mountain  may  be  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  whilst  at  the  same  height 
on  tlie  opposite  side  it  is  in  a  state  of  cultivation.  The  snow-line,  therefore,  depends  so 
much  on  localities,  that  no  general  rule  can  be  given  for  computing  its  altitude.  Though 
often  employed  for  estimating  tiie  heights  of  mountains,  it  is  a  most  fallacious  criterion. 

Humboldt  gives  the  following  heigiits  of  perpetual  snow  in  different  parts  of  the  world  : — 
Andes  of  Quito  (lat.  1°  to  1°  30'),  2460  toises.  Volcano  of  Purace  (lat.  2°  18'),  2420  toiscs. 
Tolima  (lat.  4°  46'),  2380  toises.  Nevados  of  Mexico  (lat.  19°),  2350  toises.  Himalaya 
(lat.  31°),  northern  side,  1950  toises;  southern  side,  2605  toises.  Summit  of  Sierra  Nevada, 
Grenada  (lat.  37°  10'),  1780  toises.  Caucasus  (lat.  42°  to  43°),  1650  toises.  Pyrenees  (lat. 
42°  5'  to  43°),  1400  toises.  Swiss  Alps  (lat.  46°),  1370  toises.  Carpathian  mountains 
(49°  10'),  1330  toises.  Norway  (lat.  61°  to  67°),  850  to  600  toises ;  and  (lat.  70°  to  71°  30') 
550  to  366  toises. 

Colour  of  the  Atmosphere.  That  the  air  has  a  blue  colour,  has  been  conjectured  because 
a  distant  landscape  appears  of  that  cast,  which,  however,  is  greatly  diminished  by  a  good 
telescope.  Newton  ascribed  this  phenomenon  to  the  greater  refrangibility  of  the  blue  rays ; 
and  some  consider  it  the  effect  of  vapour.  The  appearance  of  the  sky,  when  viewed  from 
a  high  mountain,  is  of  a  deep  blue,  approaching  to  black.  But  this  must  be  in  some  way 
illusory ;  because  the  upper  atmosphere  is  highly  transparent,  as  the  heavenly  bodies  shine 
with  increased  splendour. 

Sect.  IV. — Luminous  Meteors. 
The  refraction  and  reflection  of  light  by  air  produce  a  remarkable  phenomenon.  While 
the  rays  of  light  move  in  a  medium  of  uniform  density  and  composition,  they  are  straight ; 
but  when  they  pass  obliquely  into  a  medium  of  a  difi^erent  density,  they  are  bent  or  refracted 
toward  the  denser  medium.  The  rays  of  light,  therefoie,  whilst  coming  through  the  atmo- 
sphere from  the  heavenly  bodies,  are  always  entering  into  a  denser  and  denser  stratum  of 
air,  and  are  consequently  bent  down  towards  the  earth.  The  different  rays  suflfer  different 
degrees  of  refraction,  according  to  their  colour.  That  of  red  is  the  least,  then  orange, 
yellow,  green,  light  blue,  indigo,  and  violet.  All  solid  bodies  have  the  property  of  reflecting 
light ;  and  it  is  probable  that  all  bodies  whatever  reflect  light  in  a  greater  or  less  degree. 
The  clouds  and  air  possess  this  property.  The  rays  which  are  the  most  refrangible,  are 
also  the  most  easily  reflected.  When  the  sky  shines  with  a  fine  azure  hue,  it  is  by  means 
of  the  more  reflexible  rays,  which  are  first  reflected  from  the  earth,  and  afterwards  returned 
by  the  atmosphere.  The  refraction  and  reflection  of  light  enable  it  to  difflise  itself  over 
the  atmosphere,  illuminating  our  hemisphere  for  a  considerable  time  after  the  sun  has  gone 
down  and  before  he  has  arisen,  producing  the  morning  and  evening  twilight. 

The  rainbow  is  a  circular  image  of  the  sun,  variously  coloured,  and  produced  thus : — 
The  solar  rays,  by  entering  tlie  drops  of  falling  rain,  are  refracted  to  their  farther  surfaces, 
and  thence,  by  one  or  more  reflections,  transmitted  to  the  eye.  But  on  escaping  from  the 
drop,  they  undergo  a  second  refraction,  by  which  the  rays  are  separated  into  their  different 
colours ;  and  in  this  state  are  exhibited  to  an  eye  properly  placed  to  receive  them.  The 
rainbow  is  never  seen  but  when  rain  is  falling,  and  the  sun  and  bow  are  always  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  observer. 

The  halo  is  a  broad  circle  of  a  variable  diameter,  sometimes  white,  but  more  commonly 
exhibiting  a  faint  representation  ot  the  colours  of  the  rambow.  It  appears  in  a  thin  cloud, 
or  in  a  haze,  around  the  sun  and  moon's  disc. 

The  corona  is  a  circular  space,  full  of  mild  whitish  light,  around  the  moon's  disc.  It 
sometimes  passes  into  a  yellowish  or  brownish  colour  towards  the  edges.  This  and  tbe  halo 
are  popularly  known  by  the  name  of  hurts ;  and  the  latter  is  accounted  a  prognostic  of  rain, 
especially  when  its  diameter  is  large. 

Parhelia  or  mock-su7is  are  images  which  appear  sometimes  above  and  sometimes  below 
the  disc  of  the  true  sun.  They  are  supposed  to  be  seated  in  the  points  of  intersection  of 
different  lialos,  and  to  derive  their  brightness  from  the  union  of  several  reflections.  Parhelia 
are  sometimes  surrounded  by  a  whitish  border,  sometimes  by  the  colours  of  the  rainbow. 
They  are  rarely  quite  circular,  and  some  have  luminous  trains,  as  has  likewise  the  sun  liim- 
self,  when  near  the  horizon,  in  the  vicinity  of  Hudson's  Bay.  It  is  there,  and  in  similar 
cold  foggy  situations,  that  parhelia  are  usually  seen. 

Mock-moons  or  parasclenae  are  of  less  frequent  occurrence  than  parhelia,  but  they  are 
generally  ascribed  to  a  similar  cause. 

Luminous  shadows  or  glories  are  remarkable  phenomena,  in  which  a  spectator  sees  his 
shadow  projected  on  a  cloud  with  a  luminous  ring,  sometimes  coloured  like  the  rainbow, 
encircling  his  head.  The  spectator,  in  such  cases,  must  either  be  on  an  elevation,  or  tlie 
cloud  must  be  very  low.     The  shadow  is  usually  of  an  enormous  size. 


184  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II 

Looming  is  the  term  used  by  sailors  to  express  a  curious  optical  deception,  by  which 
objects  come  into  view,  thougli  materially  altered  as  to  their  real  situation  or  position.  The 
French  call  it  mirage,  and  the  Italians  fata  morgana.  It  often  happens  at  sea,  that  a  dis- 
tant ship  appears  as  if  painted  in  the  sky,  perhaps  in  an  inverted  position,  and  not  supported 
by  the  water.  Sunken  rocks  and  sands  appear  as  if  raised  above  the  surface.  The  Swedes 
long  searched  in  vain  for  an  illusory  island  of  this  sort,  which  they  saw  from  a  distance,  as 
if  placed  between  the  isles  of  Aland  and  the  coast  of  Upland.  Tlie  shipping  and  buildings 
on  the  shore  of  Naples  have,  from  Messina,  sometimes  appeared  floating  inverted  in  tlie  air. 
In  1793,  the  French  coast  appeared  distinctly  raised  above  the  sea,  for  an  hour,  as  viewed 
from  the  opposite  shore  of  Sussex.  To  the  French,  wJiilst  marching  h)  the  Egyptian  deserts, 
the  sandy  plain  covered  in  the  distance  by  a  dense  vapour  presented  the  illusive  image  of  a 
vast  lake,  towards  which  they  hastened,  but  could  never  reach  it. 

Tjie  aurora  borealis,  or  northern  light,  is  a  remarkable  luminous  phenomenon  which 
occurs  during  night,  and  most  commonly  in  clear  or  frosty  weather.  It  is  unknown  in  low 
latitudes,  and  becomes  more  frequent  as  we  recede  from  the  equator.  But  it  is  doubtfiil  if 
its  maximum  either  as  to  frequency  or  brilliancy  be  at  the  pole ;  for  in  the  late  north  polar 
expeditions  it  was  seen  to  the  south  of  the  observer,  whereas  at  greater  distances  from  the 
pole  it  appears  to  the  north  or  a  little  to  the  west  of  north  of  the  spectator.  It  is  usually  of 
a  reddish  colour,  inclining  to  yellow,  and  sends  out  frequent  coruscations  of  pale  light, 
which  seem  to  arise  from  the  liorizon  in  pyramidal  undulating  forms,  and  shoots  with  great 
velocity  towards  the  zenith.  Some  maintain  that  a  whizzing  noise  accompanies  this  pheno- 
menon, but  this  is  not  very  well  ascertained.  The  light  appears  sometimes  remarkably  red, 
as  was  tlie  case  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  Doc.  5,  1737.  The  aurora  borealis  frequently 
appears  in  the  form  of  a  luminous  arch,  chiefly  in  the  spring,  and  in  the  autumn  of  a  dry 
season.  The  arch  is  partly  bright  and  partly  dark,  but  generally  transparent.  This  kind  of 
meteor  is  almost  constant  during  the  long  winter  nights,  in  high  latitudes.  The  "  merry 
dancers,"  as  it  is  called  in  Shetland,  afford  the  inhabitants  great  relief  amid  the  gloom  of 
their  long  dreary  nights.  They  commonly  appear  at  twilight  near  the  horizon,  of  a  dun 
yellow,  and  sometimes  continue  so  for  several  hours,  without  motion ;  afterwards  tliey  break 
into  streams  of  a  stronger  light,  passing  into  columns  and  innumerable  different  shapes. 
During  this,  the  colour  varies  from  all  the  tints  of  yellow  to  the  most  obscure  russet,  exhi- 
biting the  most  beautiful  appearance.  In  the  northern  parts  of  Sweden  and  Lapland,  the 
aurora  borealis  is  singularly  beautiful,  and  affords  to  travellers  a  very  fine  light  during  the 
whole  night.  In  Hudson's  Bay  it  difiiises  a  variegated  splendour  sometimes  equal  to  tliat 
of  the  full  moon.  Similar  lights  were  observed  by  Dr.  Forster  towards  the  south  pole,  but 
they  were  much  feebler  than  in  the  northern  hemisphere.  The  cause  of  such  phenomena  is 
unknown.     Some  ascribe  them  to  electricity  and  magnetism. 

The  electricity  of  the  atmosphere  is  very  imperfectly  understood.  In  stonns,  the  clouds 
usually  exhibit  the  vitreous  or  positive  electricity.  In  summer,  when  the  earth  is  dry,  and 
the  day  warm  and  serene,  the  electricity  of  the  air  increases  from  sunrise  to  noon ;  in  which 
state  it  continues  for  an  hour  or  two,  and  again  diminishes,  till  the  dew  appear.  It  revives 
towards  midnight,  and  again  decreases  till  it  become  insensible. 

The  phenomena  of  thunder  are  so  well  known,  as  to  require  no  description ;  but  no  satis- 
factory explanation  has  yet  been  discovered,  except  thnt  it  is  intimately  connected  with  elec- 
tricity, wliicli  being  itself  in  a  great  measure  among  the  incognita,  leaves  us  still  in  the 
dark.  Thunder  is  more  frequent  as  we  approach  the  equator,  and  decreases  as  the  latitude 
increases,  being  totally  unknown  in  the  arctic  regions.  It  is  a  very  rare  phenomenon  in 
intensely  cold  weather,  and  seldom  occurs  during  night  in  the  temperate  zones.  It  is 
usually  attended  by  heavy  sliowers  of  liail  or  sleet,  and  less  frequently  by  rain.  The  distance 
of  thunder  may  be  estimated,  by  allowmg  1100  feet  for  each  second  which  elapses  between 
seeing  the  flash  of  lightning  and  hearing  the  report.  It  is  seldom  heard  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance than  two  miles,  and  only  does  mischief  when  verj-  near. 

St.  Elmo's  fire  is  a  faint  light  which  seems  to  adlicre  to  the  points  of  bodies  carried  swiftly 
through  the  air.  It  appears  on  the  tops  of  ship  masts,  and  at  the  points  of  spears  and  other 
warlike  instruments  when  in  motion.  It  is  generally  believed  to  be  an  accumulation  of 
electric  matter.  A  single  flame  of  this  sort  was  called  by  the  ancients  Helena.  When 
seen  in  pairs,  they  were  called  Castor  and  Pollux. 

Fire-balls  are  those  luminous  bodies  which  appear  usually  at  a  great  height  above  the 
earth,  and  were  on  that  account  long  known  by  the  term  meteor,  which  is  now  applied  to 
many  other  aerial  phenomena.  They  present  a  very  imposing  appearance,  and  are  seen  of 
an  immense  size,  sometimes  red,  but  oftener  of  a  vivid  dazzling  white.  They  traverse  the 
atmospliere  with  amazing  velocity.  This,  and  their  great  height,  have  been  inferred  from 
their  being  seen  from  various  distant  places  almost  at  tlie  same  instant.  Sometimes  they 
burst  in  pieces,  or  discharge  torrents  of  flames,  with  a  detonation  making  botli  the  air  and 
earth  to  tremble.  Some  of  these  balls  descend  like  lightning,  break  through  the  roofs  of 
buildings,  destroy  animal-s,  and  shatter  vessels  at  sea ;  in  sliort,  they  are  otlen  attended  with 
all  the  disastrous  effects  of  thunder  and  lightning,  with  which  they  are  occasionally  accom- 


Book  II.  METEOROLOGY.  185 

panied.  Some  consider  these  balls  to  be  great  masses  of  electric  matter,  passing  from  one 
place  to  another.     Others  suppose  them  to  be  the  same  with  the  aerolites. 

Aerolites,  or  meteoric  stones,  have  frequently  descended  from  the  atmosphere  from  the 
remotest  antiquity.  Both  the  above  opinions  may  be  in  so  far  correct ;  because  the  fire-balls 
exhibit  very  different  appearances.  Philosophers  are  very  much  divided  regarding  the  ori- 
ghi  of  meteoric  stones.  Some  imagine  them  to  be  ejected  from  volcanoes  on  the  earth's  sur- 
face ;  others  from  volcanoes  on  the  moon.  A  third  class  maintain,  that  they  are  generated 
by  the  combination  and  condensation  of  their  component  parts,  previously  diffused  in  the 
atmosphere  in  the  gaseous  form.  Others  allege,  that  they  are  detached  stones  moving 
through  the  boundless  regions  of  space,  and  which  casually  come  into  contact  with  our 
planet.  All  these  are  little  else  than  conjecture,  although  their  formation  in  the  atmosphere 
is  the  most  plausible.  A  numerous  list  of  the  most  authentic  falls  of  such  bodies  is  given 
in  Phil.  Mag.  vol.  Ixvii. 

Falling  stars  are  very  ordinary  phenomena  everywhere,  but  still  they  belong  to  a  class 
which  is  not  well  understood.  Near  the  place  of  their  apparent  descent,  a  foetid  gelatinous 
substance  has  frequently  been  found,  of  a  whitish  yellow  colour.* 

The  zodiacal  light  is  a  luminous  appearance,  seen  after  sunset,  or  before  sunrise,  some- 
what similar  to  the  milky  way,  but  of  a  fainter  light,  in  the  figure  of  an  inverted  cone  or 
pyramid,  with  its  base  towards  the  sun.  Its  axis  is  variously  inclined  to  the  horizon,  and 
makes  an  angle  of  nearly  7°  with  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.  The  earliest  distinct  account 
of  it  was  given  by  Cassini  in  1683 ;  but  this  affords  no  ground  for  supposing  that  it  had  not 
existed  or  been  seen  prior  to  that  date :  it  is  always  observable,  when  the  sky  is  clear,  in  the 
torrid  zone ;  but  is  more  rarely  to  be  found  as  we  recede  from  the  equator.  The  season 
most  flivourable  for  observing  it  is  about  the  beginning  of  March :  it  is  much  brighter  in 
some  years  than  others,  and  was  particularly  brilliant  at  Paris,  16th  February,  1769.  The 
zodiacal  light  lies  in  the  plane  of  the  sun's  equator,  and  is  therefore  supposed  by  some  to  be 
connected  with  his  rotation. 

Sect.  V. — Winds. 

Winds  are  currents  of  air  occasioned  by  the  disturbance  of  the  equilibrium  of  the  atmo- 
spliere  by  the  unequal  distribution  of  heat.  The  general  tendency,  in  such  circumstances, 
is  for  the  heavier  columns  to  displace  the  lighter ;  and  for  the  air  at  the  earth's  surface  to  move 
from  the  poles  toward  the  equator :  in  consequence  of  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis, 
another  motion  is  combined  with  the  currents  just  described.  The  air,  which  is  constantly 
moving  from  points  where  the  earth's  motion  on  its  axis  is  slower  to  those  where  it  is 
quicker,  cannot  have  precisely  the  same  motion  eastward  with  the  part  of  the  surface  over 
which  it  is  passing,  and  therefore  must,  relatively  to  that  surface,  acquire  a  motion  some- 
what westerly.  The  two  currents,  therefore,  from  the  opposite  hemispheres,  will,  on  meet- 
ing, about  the  equator,  destroy  that  part  of  each  other's  motion  which  is  in  the  direction  of 
the  meridian,  leaving  nothing  but  their  united  motion  towards  the  west.  Such  is  the  cause 
of  the  trade-wind,  as  proposed  and  rejected  by  Dr.  Halley :  it  was  shortly  after  revived  by 
Hadley,  and  is  pretty  generally  received.  The  trade-wind  (with  certain  exceptions)  blows 
constantly  from  the  east,  between  the  latitudes  of  30°  N.  and  30°  S. ;  it  declines  somewhat 
from  due  east,  towards  the  parallel  to  which  the  sun  is  vertical  at  different  seasons  of  the 
year.  The  only  supply  for  the  air  constantly  abstracted  from  the  higher  latitudes  must  be 
made  by  a  counter  current,  in  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  carrying  back  the  air 
from  the  equator  to  tlie  poles.  In  a  zone  of  variable  breadth,  within  the  region  of  trade- 
winds,  calms  and  rains  prevail,  caused  probably  by  the  mingling  and  ascending  of  the  oppo- 
site currents.  High  lands  change  or  interrupt  the  course  of  the  trade-winds :  thus,  under 
the  lee  of  the  African  shore,  calms  and  variable  winds  prevail  near  the  Cape  Verd  islands, 
while  an  eddy,  or  counter  current  of  air  from  the  south-west,  is  generated  under  the  coast 
of  Guinea.  The  lofty  barrier  of  the  Andes  shelters  the  sea  on  tiie  Peruvian  shores  from 
the  trade-winds,  which  are  not  felt  till  a  ship  has  sailed  eighty  leagues  westward ;  but  the 
intervening  space  is  occupied  by  a  wind  from  the  south.  In  the  Indian  ocean,  the  trade- 
wind  is  curiously  modified  by  the  surrounding  land  :  the  southern  trade-wind  blows  regularly 
from  the  east  and  soutli-east,  from  10°  to  23°  south  latitude ;  but  between  10°  south  and  the 
equator  north-west  winds  prevail  from  October  to  April,  and  south-east  the  rest  of  the  year; 
while  north  of  the  equator,  tlie  wind  is  south-west  in  summer,  and  north-east  in  winter : 
these  are  called  monaoon.s,  but  are  not  fiilly  understood. 

As  to  the  parts  of  the  globe  that  lie  beyond  the  region  of  trade-winds,  calms  prevail  pretty 
generally  over  a  narrow  space;  beyond  which,  the  region  of  variable  winds  extends  probably 
to  the  poles.  Mr.  Forster  observes,  that  beyond  the  tropics  the  west  winds  are  most  common. 
He  also  supposes  that  east  winds  have  an  ascendency  witliin  the  antartic  circle.  According 
to  Robins,  a  westerly  wind  almost  constantly  prevails  about  latitude  60°  S.  in  the  Pacific 

♦Professor  Brandes,  of  Breslau,  hag  published  a  curious  Treatise  on  Falling  Stars,  to  which  we  may  direct  the 
attention  of  our  readers. 

Vol.  I.  16*  Y 


186  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  P.vrt  H. 

Ocean.  In  Hudson's  Bay,  westerly  winds  prevail  during  three  fourtlis  of  tlie  year,  as  also 
in  Kamtschatka.  At  Melville  island,  the  north  and  north-west  winds  prevail :  on  account  of 
these  winds,  the  Atlantic  may  be  crossed  eastward  in  about  half  the  time  of  returning 
westward. 

Sea  and  land  breezes  arise  from  the  same  general  principle  which  chiefly  occasions  the 
trade-winds:  during  the  day,  when  the  sun  renders  the  surface  of  the  land  warmer  than  tliat 
of  the  sea,  the  warmer  rarefied  air  of  the  land  ascends,  being  buoyed  up  and  displaced  by 
the  heavier  air  rushing  from  the  sea,  and  thus  forming  the  sea  breeze  ;  but  the  reverse  often 
happens  during  the  night,  when  the  surface  of  the  land  becomes  colder  than  the  sea,  and 
occasions  a  wind  from  the  land,  or  a  land  breeze.  Winds  of  this  sort  are  more  frequent 
about  islands  and  small  peninsulas  than  in  other  situations ;  but  they  are  not  confined  to  any 
particular  latitude. 

A  variety  of  local  winds  have  also  been  observed.  The  etesian,  which  is  a  northerly  or 
north-easterly  wind,  prevails  very  much  in  summer  all  over  Europe.  Pliny  describes  it  as 
blowing  regularly  in  Italy  for  forty  days  after  the  summer  solstice.  It  is  supposed  to  be  a 
pan  of  the  great  lower  current  moving  towards  the  equator.  Another  northern  wind,  which 
oflen  continues  about  a  month  in  February  and  March,  is  called  the  ornithian  wind,bccause 
some  birds  of  passage  then  make  their  appearance  in  the  sontli  of  Europe.  A  squall,  or 
sudden  gust  of  wind,  is  common  in  many  places ;  and  when  its  impetuosity  is  sufficient  to 
bear  along  trees,  buildings,  &c.,  it  is  called  a  hurricane ;  such  winds  have  frequently  a 
whirling  motion,  and  are  accompanied  with  torrents  of  rain  or  hail,  and  even  thunder ;  these 
are  sometimes  called  tornadoes :  they  are  principally  confined  to  the  torrid  zone.  The  sirocco 
is  a  hot  southern  wind,  known  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean ;  when  it  reaches  Naples 
and  Sicily,  it  is  very  moist  and  relaxing  to  the  human  frame.  Some  warm  climates  are 
occasionally  visited  by  excessive  hot  pestilential  winds,  generally  from  the  south,  and  knoA\'n 
under  a  great  variety  of  names  in  different  quarters.  Such  are  the  knmsin  of  Egypt,  the 
simoom  or  samiel  of  Arabia  and  tlie  Desert.  The  deleterious  effects,  which  frequently  cut 
off  whole  hordes  or  caravans,  are  sometimes  ascribed  to  the  predominance  of  one  of  the 
component  gases  of  the  air,  or  to  a  mixture  of  nitrous  gas,  &c. ;  but  this  is  not  well  ascer- 
tained. The  very  arid  state  of  the  air,  bearing  along  vast  quantities  of  burning  sand  and 
dust,  must  of  itself  be  very  prejudicial  to  animal  life.  The  harmattan  is  a  warm,  dry,  east 
wind,  which  occurs  in  Guinea,  and  is  also  of  an  unwholesome  description. 

The  velocity  of  the  wind  varies  from  nothing  up  to  100  miles  in  an  hour ;  but  the  maximum 
is  variously  stated  by  different  authors.  According  to  Smeaton,  a  gentle  breeze  moves 
between  4  and  5  miles  per  hour,  and  has  a  force  of  about  2  ounces  on  a  fool ;  a  brisk  pleasant 
gale  moves  from  10  to  15  miles,  with  a  force  of  12  ounces ;  a  high  wind,  30  to  35  miles, 
with  a  force  of  5  or  6  pounds ;  a  hurricane,  bearing  along  trees,  houses,  &c.  has  a  velocity 
of  100  miles,  and  a  force  of  49  pounds  on  the  square  foot. 

The  force  of  the  wind  is  nearly  as  the  square  of  the  velocity  multiplied  by  the  density  of 
the  air.  Some  interesting  experiments  are  described  by  Colonel  Beaufoy,  Annals  Phil. 
vol.  viii.  p.  94. 

The  atmosphere  is  the  vehicle  of  sound,  and  we  shall  close  this  brief  sketch  by  noticing 
this  property.  Till  lately,  the  velocity  of  sound  used  to  be  greatly  over-rated.  From  the 
experiments  of  Dr.  Moll,  in  the  plains  of  Utrecht,  in  1823,  it  appears,  that  the  mean  velocity 
of  sound  is  nearly  1100  feet  per  second ;  but  it  varies  a  little  with  the  temperature  and 
humidity  of  the  air.     See  Phil  Trans,  for  1824. 


CHAPTER  n. 

HYDROLOGY. 


This  branch  of  natural  history  makes  us  acquainted  with  the  various  properties  and  rela- 
tions of  the  waters  of  the  globe.  Any  definition  of  water  is  unnecessary ;  but  mankind  must 
have  remarked,  at  a  very  early  period,  that  the  waters  distributed  over  the  globe  differ  con- 
siderably in  their  fitness  for  drinking,  for  preparing  food,  and  for  other  domestic  purposes. 
These  differences  are  occasioned  by  the  foreign  bodies  which  this  liquid  holds  in  a  state  of 
solution  or  suspension;  for  water  is  capable  of  dissolving  a  greater  number  of  substances 
than  any  other  fluid.  Hence  it  is  scarcely  ever  found  native  in  a  stMe  of  absolute  purity: 
m  some  cases,  the  quantity  of  foreign  matter  is  so  minute,  as  to  have  little  influence  on  the 
taste  or  other  properties;  but  in  other  instances  they  are  so  abundant,  as  to  render  it  unfit 
for  common  use,  or  even  noxious ;  while  at  other  times  it  is  medicinal,  &c.,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  substances  with  which  it  is  impregnated.  Native  water,  free  from  colour,  is 
almost  never  poisonous,  especially  if  it  be  at  the  same  time  tasteless;  but  if  blue  from  cop- 
per, green  from  iron,  or  brown  from  vegetable  impregnation,  it  is  unfit  for  tlie  use  of  man. 
Water  performs  the  most  important  fiinctions  in  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms,  and 
enters  largely  into  their  composition  ?,  as  a  constituent  part. 


Book  II.  HYDROLOGY.  187 

The  substance  of  water  presents  itself  under  three  different  forms  of  aggregation.  If 
under  sufficient  pressure,  it  is  liquid  at  all  temperatures  above  32^,  so  far  as  is  known.  It  is 
densest  at  the  temperature  of  40°.  When  cooled  down  to  32°,  it  ordinarily  assumes  the 
solid  form  of  ice ;  but  if  great  care  be  taken  to  avoid  agitation,  it  may  be  cooled  almost  to 
zero,  without  freezing.  Congelation  commences  in  the  form  of  prismatic  crystals,  crossing 
each  other  at  angles  of  60°  or  120°,  and  the  temperature,  however  low  before,  instantly 
rises  to  32°.  During  this  process,  the  mass  expands  with  a  prodigious  force,  the  volume 
suddenly  increasing  about  a  ninth  part.  Glass  bottles  filled  with  water,  and  properly  stopped, 
are  burst  during  its  congelation,  and  the  same  has  happened  to  a  strong  bomb-shell.  Water 
passes  into  vapour  at  all  temperatures,  and  under  any  pressure ;  when  the  elasticity  of  the 
vapour  equals  or  exceeds  the  incumbent  pressure,  the  process  proceeds  with  violence,  and  is 
called  boiling.  Under  the  ordinary  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  this  takes  place  at  about 
212°  of  Fahrenheit's  scale ;  but  the  boiling  temperature  varies  with  the  pressure :  hence, 
water  boils  at  a  lower  temperature  on  a  mountain  top,  and  at  a  higher  in  a  deep  pit. 

The  relations  of  water  to  heat  are  very  remarkable.  With  the  exception  of  hydrogen 
gas,  it  absorbs  more  heat  in  warming,  and  parts  with  more  in  cooling,  than  other  bodies  do. 
Hence,  large  bodies  of  water  have  a  powerful  influence  in  checking  or  retarding  sudden 
alterations  of  temperature  in  the  surrounding  air.  Ice,  in  melting,  absorbs  as  much  heat  as 
would  raise  its  temperature  140°,  and  gives  out  the  like  quantity  again  in  freezing, — a  pro- 
perty that  enables  it  to  resist  or  retard  sudden  alterations  of  temperature  in  cold  climates,  in 
a  more  remarkable  degree  than  the  other ;  which,  however,  exerts  its  influence  in  the  torrid 
and  temperate  as  well  as  in  the  frigid  zone.  Lastly,  water,  in  assuming  the  elastic  form, 
absorbs  heat  suflicient  to  raise  its  temperature  1000°,  and  parts  with  as  much  during  re-con- 
densing into  water ;  so  that  water  possesses  an  almost  boundless  influence  in  tempering 
climate. 

Water,  as  to  its  composition,  was  long  ranked  among  the  simple  elements;  but  the 
researches  of  modem  chemistry  have  ascertained  that  it  is  a  compound  of  88.9  of  oxygen, 
and  11.1  of  hydrogen;  or  its  composition  by  volume  and  weight  may  be  thus  stated :  one 
voluhie  of  oxygen  combined  with  two  of  hydrogen,  or  eight  parts  by  v/eight  of  oxygen,  with 
one  of  hydrogen.  It  is  composed  and  decomposed,  during  many  of  the  operations  of  nature, 
and  its  chemical  agency  is  almost  universal.  It  is  an  ingredient  in  most  bodies  which 
appear  under  the  crystalline  form. 

Sect.  I. —  The  Ocean, 

The  ocean  is  the  origin  and  fountain  of  all  the  other  waters  which  occur,  in  whatever 
form,  on  the  face  of  the  globe.  According  to  some  naturalists,  it  forms  the  remains  of  the 
menstruum  or  chaotic  fluid,  in  which  all  solid  bodies  were  originally  held  in  a  state  of  solu- 
tion, and  from  which  they  have  been  precipitated  or  crystallized,  in  short,  brought  to  their 
present  state,  during  the  countless  ages  which  these  processes  are  supposed  to  have  occupied, 
anterior  to  the  creation  of  man :  be  this  as  it  may,  we  are  certain,  that  it  is  from  the  vapours 
exhaled  by  the  ocean  that  the  atmosphere  is  furnished  with  sufficient  moisture  to  support  and 
refresh  the  organized  beings  which  inhabit  the  earth.  All  nature  languishes  when  the 
atmosphere  withholds  its  rain  and  dews;  plants  fade  and  droop;  animals  feel  their  strength 
failing ;  even  man  himself,  breathing  nothing  but  dust,  can  with  difficulty  procure  shelter 
from  the  sultry  heat  by  which  his  frame  is  parched  and  overpowered.  The  ocean  is  the 
grand  thoroughfare  of  commerce,  forming  a  medium  of  communication  between  the  most 
distant  and  otherwise  inaccessible  portions  of  tlie  earth.  It  consists  of  one  continuous  fluid, 
spread  round  the  land,  and  probably  extending  from  pole  to  pole.  All  the  gulfs,  all  the 
inland  seas,  form  only  portions  detached,  but  not  entirely  separated,  from  that  universal  sea, 
denominated  the  ocean.  Geographers  roundly  estimate  the  ocean  and  its  branches  to  occupy 
three  fourths  of  the  entire  surface  of  the  globe.-  But  to  ascertain  the  exact  proportion 
between  the  land  and  water  will  afford  them  ample  employment  for  ages  to  come,  though 
every  day  adds  to  the  stock  of  information  already  acquired. 

The  ocean  is  variously  subdivided  by  different  authors :  it  may  be  conveniently  divided 
into  five  great  basins. 

The  Pacific,  so  named  from  its  comparative  tranquillity,  and  often  called  also  the  Great 
South  Sea,  separates  Asia  from  America.  It  is  the  largest  of  the  basins,  and  somewhat 
exceeds  the  entire  surface  of  dry  land.  Its  greatest  extent,  from  east  to  west,  is  about  3700 
leagues,  and  breadth  2700.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  western  and  north-west  shores 
of  America,  and  on  the  west  by  the  eastern  coasts  of  Asia :  on  the  western  side,  and  between 
the  tropics,  its  surface  is  studded  with  innumerable  groups  of  islands,  all  remarkably  small ; 
and  consisting  generally  of  coral  reefs,  rising  up  like  a  wall  from  unknown  depths,  and 
emerging  but  a  very  little  above  tlie  sea.  These  islands  are  the  works  of  innumerable 
minute  insects,  whose  inces-sant  labours  are  thus  gradually  forming  new  lands  in  the  bosom 
of  the  ocean.  On  the  western  side,  it  communicates  with  the  inland  seas  of  Japan  and 
Okotsk,  the  Yellow  and  Chinese  seas  ;  and  on  the  eastern  side,  it  has  the  inlets  of  California 
and  Queen  Charlotte's  Sound.     Tlie  small  isles  of  the  Pacific,  scattered  over  the  torrid  zone, 


188  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

have  their  temperature  so  moderated  by  the  ocean  as  to  enjoy  the  most  delightful  climate  in 
the  world. 

The  second  basin,  or  Atlantic  Ocean,  is  usually  divided  into  the  North  Atlantic,  and  tlie 
South  Atlantic,  or  Ethiopic  Ocean.  The  Atlantic  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Europe  and 
Africa ;  and  on  the  west,  by  America :  that  part  of  it  between  Europe  and  North  America 
is  frequently  called  the  Western  Ocean.  The  Atlantic  basin  extends  from  70°  N.  to  35° 
and  .^0°  S.  latitude ;  but  it  is  only  about  half  the  size  of  the  I'acitic  Ocean.  The  length  is 
about  2800  leagues,  but  the  breadth,  which  is  very  unequal,  varies  from  000  to  1800.  The 
South  Atlantic  contains  few  islands  of  any  size,  and  no  inlets  of  consequence ;  but  the  North 
Atlantic  abounds  in  large  islands,  and  in  deep  and  numerous  inland  seas,  which  penetrate 
far  on  each  side  into  both  the  old  and  new  worlds,  and  have  fitted  it  for  the  most  extensive 
commerce  on  the  globe.  On  its  eastern  shores  it  receives  few  large  rivers  except  the 
Niger ;  but  on  the  west  it  receives  the  Plata,  Orinoco,  Amazons,  and  Mississippi, — the 
largest  rivers  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 

The  third  basin  is  the  Indian  Ocean,  which  washes  the  shores  of  the  south-east  coasts  of 
Africa  and  the  south  of  Asia.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Indian  islands.  New  Holland, 
and  New  Zealand :  its  length  and  brcadtli  are  each  about  1500  leagues :  it  contains  many 
islands,  the  two  large  bays  of  Bengal  and  Oman,  with  the  deep  inlets  of  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  Red  Sea.     The  half-yearly  winds  called  monsoons  prevail  in  its  northern  parts. 

The  fourth  basin  is  tlie  Arctic  Ocean,  an  immense  circular  basin,  surrounding  tlie  North 
Pole,  and  communicating  with  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  by  two  channels ;  the  one  separating 
America  from  Europe,  the  other  America  from  Asia.  I^ew  points  of  the  coasts  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  which  occupy  a  full  half  of  the  circumscribing  circle,  extend  much  beyond  the 
70th  parallel ;  and  it  is  doubtful  if  the  other  boundaries,  consisting  of  the  northern  coasts 
of  America  and  Old  Greenland,  reach  nearer  the  Pole ;  so  that  the  mean  diameter  of  this 
basin  may  be  taken  at  800  leagues.  Its  interior  or  central  parts  are  little  known:  several 
islands  are  scattered  over  its  southern  extremities,  the  largest  of  which  is  Old  Greenland, 
whose  northern  limit  is  unknown ;  the  others  are  Spitzbergen,  Nova  Zembla,  the  Isles  of 
New  Siberia,  tliose  lately  discovered  by  Captain  Parry,  and  several  towards  Baffin's  Bay. 
Tlie  White  Sea,  on  the  north  coast  of  Europe,  is  the  only  deep  gulf  connected  with  this 
basin,  which  is  of  any  importance  to  navigation. 

The  fifth  basin  is  tlie  Antarctic,  wliich  is  still  less  known  than  the  preceding:  it  joins 
the  Pacific  in  the  latitude  of  50°  S.,  and  the  Indian  Ocean  in  that  of  40°.  Floating  ice 
occurs  in  every  part  of  it ;  but  it  is  very  abundant  within  tlie  parallel  of  60°.  It  was  long 
supposed,  that  a  large  continent  of  land  and  fixed  ice  occupied  the  greater  part  within  the 
antarctic  circle.  In  1819,  Captain  Smith  discovered  land  lying  between  the  longitudes  of 
55°  and  65°  W.,  and  beginning  at  the  latitude  of  62°.  Mr.  Weddell  has  since  examined 
this  quarter  nearer  the  Pole,  which  he  believes  to  be  free  from  fixed  ice. 

Of  the  inland  seas,  the  Mediterranean  is  the  largest  and  most  important :  it  is  deserving 
of  notice  on  various  accounts,  and  in  particular  as  having  been  the  scene  of  by  far  the 
greater  number  of  tlie  nautical  adventures  of  antiquity.  It  is  the  "  Great  Sea"  of  the  Sacred 
Writings,  though  we  find  it  there  spoken  of  under  other  names.  Its  greatest  length,  from 
east  to  west,  is  about  2350  miles ;  and  the  breadth,  which  is  sometimes  small,  is  at  the 
greatest  650.  It  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  Africa,  on  the  east  by  Asia,  and  on  the  north  by 
Europe.  It  communicates  on  the  west  with  the  Atlantic  by  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and 
with  tlie  Black  Sea  by  the  Dardanelles  Strait  on  the  east.  It  has  many  islands,  gulfs,  and 
hays,  with  a  very  deep  inlet  on  the  nortli  called  the  Adriatic  Sea,  or  Gulf  of  Venice.  The 
Black  Sea  is  connected  with  the  Sea  of  Azof;  but  these  containing  only  brackish  water, 
and  being  so  far  inland,  have  more  of  the  cliaracter  of  lakes  than  branches  of  the  ocean. 
Proceeding  still  forther  eastward,  we  come  to  the  Caspian  Sea,  which  is  abundantly  salt,  and 
of  great  dimensions ;  but  being  wholly  nncomiectcd  with  the  ocean,  will  be  afterwards 
spoken  of  under  the  character  of  a  lake. 

The  Baltic  is  pretty  much  allied  to  the  Black  Sea,  in  having  only  brackish  waters,  which 
are  sometimes  wholly  frozen  over  for  several  months  in  winter,  and  the  ice  so  strong,  that 
armies  have  been  marched  across.  The  Baltic  communicates  with  the  German  Sea  by  the 
strait  called  the  Cattegat:  its  greatest  length  is  1200  miles.  The  North  Sea,  or  German 
Ocean,  is  bounded  by  Britain  and  the  Orkneys  on  the  west,  and  the  continent  of  Europe  on 
the  east ;  and  reaches  from  the  Straits  of  Dover  to  the  Shetland  Islands,  where  it  joins  the 
Northern  Ocean.  On  the  west  of  the  Atlantic  are  the  Gulfs  of  Mexico  and  St.  Lawrence, 
and  Hudson's  and  Baffin's  Bays ;  but  we  must  now  proceed  to  treat  of  the  different  properties 
and  relations  of  the  ocean,  so  far  as  our  limits  will  permit. 

The  usual  colour  which  sea  water  exhibits  is  a  bluish  green,  of  various  shades.  Some 
maintain,  that  this  is  its  true  and  proper  colour;  others,  that  it  is  .an  optical  illusion,  occa- 
sioned by  the  greater  refi-angibility  of  the  blue  rays  of  light, — opinions  which  may  both  be 
true  to  a  certain  extent.  The  ocean  seems  often  to  assume  various  other  colours;  some  of 
them  no  doubt  real,  but  as  often  illusory.  Among  the  more  general  sources  of  deception, 
may  be  reckoned  the  aspect  of  the  sky  :  thus,  an  apparently  dark-coloured  sea  is  a  commop 


Book  II.  HYDROLOGY.  189 

prognostic  of  an  approaching  storm ;  not  that  the  water  then  is  really  blacker  than  usual, 
but  because  the  dark  colour  of  the  clouds  indistinctly  seen  in,  or  reflected  from  the  waves,  is 
mistaken  for  the  colour  of  the  sea  itself  Whatever  other  colour  the  sky  happens  to  wear 
has  a  greater  or  less  influence  on  the  appearance  of  the  ocean:  thus  red  clouds  seem  to  tinge 
it  red,  &c.  On  some  occasions,  the  edges  of  the  v/aves,  by  refracting  the  solar  beams  like  a 
prism,  exhibit  all  the  difl^erent  colours  of  the  rainbow,  wliich  is  still  more  nearly  imitated  by 
the  refraction  of  the  rays  in  the  spray.  Not  unfrequently,  an  indistinct  image  of  the  neigh- 
bouring coast  reflected  from  the  ruffled  surface  is  mistaken  for  the  colour  of  the  water. 

The  variety  of  colours  in  the  sea  may  probably  arise  from  animal  and  vegetable  matters 
difliised  through  the  waters  in  a  putrescent  state,  and  communicating  various  tints.  The 
yellow  and  bright  green  shades  seem  to  be  owing  to  living  marine  vegetables,  which  grow 
at  the  bottom,  stretch  their  fibres  tlirough  the  water,  or  spread  over  the  surface ;  and  it  is 
supposed  that  the  colour  of  innumerable  minute  animals  is  often  confounded  with  that  of  the 
sea.  Near  the  shore,  and  especially  towards  the  mouths  of  rivers,  the  diffusion  of  mud  and 
other  earthy  matters  cannot  fail  to  afl"ect  the  colour  of  the  sea :  where  it  is  shallow  or  very 
transparent,  tlie  colour  of  the  bottom  is  frequently  mistaken  for  tliat  of  the  water. 

The  colour  of  the  Greenland  Sea,  according  to  Mr.  Scoresby,  varies  from  ultramarine  blue 
to  olive-green,  and  from  the  most  pure  transparency  to  great  opacity.  These  appearances, 
ho  thinks,  are  not  transitory,  but  permanent ;  not  depending  on  the  state  of  the  weather, 
but  on  the  quality  of  the  water.  Hudson,  in  1607,  noticed  these  changes,  and  observed  that 
the  sea  was  blue  where  there  was  ice,  and  green  where  it  was  open.  This,  however,  was 
only  accidental.  Phipps  does  not  mention  the  green  water ;  it  forms,  perhaps,  one-fourth  of 
the  Greenland  Sea,  between  the  latitudes  of  74°  and  80° ;  often  it  constitutes  long  bands  or 
currents,  lying  north  and  soutli,  or  N.  E.  and  S.  W.  Mr.  Scoresby  sometimes  passed  through 
stripes  of  pale  green,  olive-green,  and  transparent  blue,  in  the  course  of  ten  minutes.  The 
food  of  the  whale  occurs  chiefly  in  the  green  water,  and  tliere  the  fishers  look  for  them. 
Whales  are  more  easily  taken  in  the  opaque  green  water  than  in  the  transparent  blue,  be- 
cause tliey  do  not  readily  see  their  enemies  through  the  former.  On  examining  the  differently- 
coloured  sea  waters,  Mr.  Scoresby  found  various  substances  and  animalcules,  especially  in  the 
olive-green  water.  The  number  of  medusae  was  immense :  they  were  about  one-fourth  of 
an- inch  asunder.  Hence  a  cubic  foot  would  contain  110,.592.  From  these,  and  many  similar 
observations,  Mr.  Scoresby  concludes,  that  the  Arctic  Sea  owes  its  colour  to  animalcules,  and 
that  they  occasion  the  opacity  of  the  olive-green  water.  The  blue  water  contains  few  ani- 
malcules, and  is  uncommonly  transparent.  The  surface  of  the  Mediterranean  sometimes 
appears  of  a  purple  tint.  In  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  the  sea  is  sometimes  wliite ;  and  around 
the  Maldive  islands,  black. 

The  transparency  of  the  sea  may  in  many  places  be  very  great,  without  sucli  property 
being  readily  noticed.  Thus,  where  the  water  is  sufficiently  deep  to  be  dark  at  the  bottom, 
it  may  seem  quite  opaque,  unless  some  fish  or  otlier  object  happen  to  come  within  view. 
Agitation  of  the  surface  will  likewise  tend  to  conceal  the  transparency.  In  general,  the 
sea  is  more  transparent  as  we  recede  from  the  shore,  and  in  cold  climates  than  in  hot;  owing 
perhaps,  to  the  smaller  quantity  of  organic  matter  diffused  in  the  waters  of  high  latitudes. 
From  this,  however,  there  are  exceptions ;  as  in  the  opacity  of  the  Arctic  Sea  just  noticed, 
and  in  the  case  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  which  is  often  remarkably  transparent.  Admiral 
Milne  observed  the  bottom  at  a  depth  of  150  feet  in  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Authors  are  not 
agreed  to  what  depth  the  solar  rays  penetrate ;  and  indeed  we  have  every  reason  to  suppose 
that  this  must  depend  upon  and  be  as  various  as  the  transparency.  Some  limit  the  penetra- 
tion to  a  depth  of  100  yards ;  while  others  more  than  double  that  quantity.  The  light 
should  surely  penetrate  to  at  least  double  the  depth  to  which  an  observer  can  see  from  the 
surface. 

The  temperature  of  the  sea  ha,s  probably  a  tendency  to  follow  tlie  mean  temperature  of 
the  climate ;  but  many  powerful  causes  must  interfere  and  modify  it.  Thus,  between  the 
tropics,  the  mean  temperature  of  the  surface  of  the  ocean  is  about  80°,  and  generally  ranges 
between  77°  and  84°.  Beyond  the  tropics,  it  begins  to  decrease,  but  without  observing  any 
strict  connexion  with  the  latitude ;  because,  on  account  of  the  great  specific  heat  of  water, 
powerful  currents  cannot  fail  partially  to  preserve,  for  some  time,  the  temperature  of  the 
place  from  which  they  come.  Hence,  currents  from  the  torrid  zone,  on  passing  into  higher 
latitudes,  raise  the  temperature  of  the  sea  above  what  usually  belongs  to  such  parallels ;  the 
reverse  holds  of  cold  icy  currents  from  the  arctic  regions.  The  temperature  of  the  ocean  is 
much  more  steady  than  that  of  the  superincumbent  air,  and  has  likewise  a  smaller  annual 
range :  unless  where  vei-y  shallow,  it  has  scarcely  any  diurnal  ramre. 

The  temperature  of  the  sea  on  descendingf  below  the  surfh.ce  generally  decreases,  but  not 
according  to  any  uniform  or  known  law.  Thus,  at  a  depth  of  five  fathoms,  it  is  sometimes 
1°  colder,  while  in  other  instances  it  requires  100  fathoms  for  1°.  Sometimes  the  cold 
attains  its  maximiun  at  a  depth  of  100  fathoms,  and  sometimes  it  requires  400  or  .500  fathoms. 
According  to  au  experiment  related  by  Capt.  Sabine,  the  temperature  of  the  Caribbean  Sea 
was  45.5°  at  a  depth  of  1000  fathoms,  while  its  surface  was  83°.     But  the  enormous  pres- 


.90  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

sure  at  tTie  bottom  probably  compressed  the  ball  of  the  thermometer,  and  kept  the  apparent 
temperature  45.5°  above  the  truth.  In  the  Arctic  Sea,  however,  the  temperature  increases 
with  the  depth.  Mr.  Scoresby,  who  first  ascertained  this,  found  an  increase  of  6.6°  and  8° 
at  the  respective  depths  of  120  and  7o0  fathoms :  Capt.  Parry,  6°  at  240  fathoms ;  Capt. 
Sabine,  7.5°  at  680  fathoms;  Lieut.  Beecliy,  10°  at  700  fathoms;  and  Mr.  Fislier,  9.5°  at  a 
depth  of  188  fathoms.  Thus,  the  rate  of  increase  of  temperature  in  the  Arctic  Sea  has  as 
inconstant  a  connexion  with  the  depth  as  the  decrease  in  the  temperate  and  torrid  zones. 
Sea  water  freezes  about  23°;  after  w-hicli,  the  ice  has  been  observed  to  cool  down  to 
—  55° ;  but  we  cannot  thence  infer,  that  a  lower  temperature  does  not  occur  in  the  polar 
regions. 

The  phosphorescence  of  the  sea  is  a  common  ))ut  very  remarkable  phenomenon,  concern- 
ing the  cause  of  which  authors  are  not  agreed.  But  most  probably,  as  Newton  conjectured, 
it  proceeds  from  a  variety  of  causes.  Since  his  time,  it  has  engiiged  the  attention  of  many 
eminent  philosophers.  The  appearance  of  these  lights  is  by  no  means  uniform.  Sometimes 
a  vessel,  in  traversing  the  ocean,  seems  to  mark  out  a  track  of  fire;  while  each  stroke  of  an 
oar  emits  a  light,  sometimes  brilliant  and  dazzling,  at  other  times  tranquil  and  pearly.  These 
lights  are  grouped  in  endless  variety.  Perhaps,  at  one  time,  inmunerable  shining  points 
float  on  the  surface,  and  then  unite  into  one  extensive  sheet  of  light.  At  another  tnne,  the 
spectator  fancies  he  sees  large  sparkling  figures,  like  animals  in  pursuit  of  each  other,  inces- 
santly vani-shing  and  re-appearing.  Such  lights  have  been  ascribed  to  luminous  anhnals, 
and  to  the  phosphorescence  of  semiputrescent  matter  difliised  in  the  ocean.  It  is  well  known, 
that  various  fishes  and  other  marine  animals  emit  light,  which  does  not  in  every  instance 
appear  to  be  voluntary,  or  to  depend  on  the  vital  principle,  as,  in  some  of  them,  it  continues, 
and  perhaps  increases,  after  death :  but  motion  seems  to  be  either  a  principal  cause,  or  at 
least  an  exciting  one ;  for  this  light  more  rarely  occurs,  and  is  much  fainter,  in  still  water, 
whilst  it  becomes  more  and  more  brilliant  as  the  motion  increases.  It  is  also  more  abundant 
immediately  before  and  during  storms.  In  vol.  v.  p.  30Ji.  of  the  Ediii.  Phil.  Jour.,  Dr. 
Francis  Buchanan  has  given  a  very  interesting  account  of  an  extraordinary  shining  of  the 
sea,  which  he  observed,  31st  July,  1785,  in  longitude  61°  25'  E.,  latitude  6°  32'  N.  "  About 
a  quarter  past  seven  p.  m.,"  says  he,  "  the  sea  was  observed  to  be  remarkably  white.  The 
sky  was  everywhere  clear,  except  around  the  horizon,  where,  for  about  15°,  it  was  covered 
with  a  dark  haze,  as  is  usual  in  such  latitudes.  The  whiteness  gradually  increased  till  past 
eight.  The  sea  was  then  as  high-coloured  as  milk,  not  unlike  the  milky  way,  the  luminous 
appearance  very  much  resembling  the  brighter  stars  in  that  constellation.  It  continued  in 
this  state  till  past  midnight,  and  only  disappeared  as  daylight  advanced.  The  whiteness 
prevented  us  fi'om  being  able  to  see  either  the  break  or  the  swell  of  the  sea,  although  both 
were  considerable,  as  we  knew  from  the  motion  of  the  ship  and  the  noise.  There  was  much 
light  upon  deck,  as  we  could  discern  all  the  ropes  much  more  distinctly  than  usual.  We 
drew  several  buckets  of  water,  in  which,  even  when  at  rest,  there  appeared  a  great  number 
of  luminous  bodies.  The  bulk  of  them  did  not  appear  to  be  more  than  one  quarter  of  an 
inch  in  length,  and  nearly  as  much  in  breadth.  Some,  however,  were  one  inch  and  a  half 
long,  and  of  the  same  breadth  as  the  others.  These  were  seen  to  move  in  the  same  manner 
as  a  worm  does  in  water.  When  taken  up  on  the  finger,  they  retained  their  shining  faculty 
even  when  dry.  When  brought  near  a  candle,  their  light  disappeared ;  but,  by  minute 
attention,  an  extremely  fine  white  filament  could  be  observed  and  lifted  upon  the  point  of  a 
pin.  It  was  of  a  uniform  shining  colour  and  form,  and  about  the  thickness  of  a  spider's 
thread.  In  a  gallon  of  water  there  might  be  about  400  of  these  animals  emitting  light. 
The  water  itself^  when  in  the  bucket,  had  a  natural  appearance.  The  atmosphere  was 
seemingly  fi-ee  fi-om  fog.  The  stars  were  bright,  and  there  was  no  moonlight.  The  night 
before,  the  same  appearance  was  observed  at  ten  p.  m.  ;  it  lasted  only  20  minutes ;  but  as  I 
was  below,  I  did  not  hear  of  it  till  it  was  over." — "  The  animalcules  which  occasion  the 
unusual" luminousness  of  the  sea  emit  light  only  when  strongly  agitated,  and  hence  appear 
close  by  the  sides  of  the  ship,  or  when  any  larger  fish  passes  swiftly,  or  when  a  bucket  of 
water  is  drawn  and  suddenly  poured  out." — "  In  the  year  1805,  on  returning  from  St.  Helena 
to  England,  a  little  north  from  the  equinoctial  line,  and  near  the  coast  of  Africa,  I  had  an 
opportunity  of  seeing  a  still  more  splendid  appearance  of  the  luminous  anunalcules.  Soon 
after  dark  in  the  evening,  it  being  nearly  calm,  we  saw  numerous  lights  at  a  distance,  like 
the  lamps  of  a  great  city.  The  lights  gradually  approached  the  frigate,  and  on  reaching  us 
appeared  to  arise  from  a  great  many  large  fishes  (albicores)  sporting  in  the  water,  and  agi- 
tating the  animalcules,  so  as  to  excite  their  luminous  powers." 

The  depth  of  the  sea  is  a  question  on  which  our  information  is  very  imperfect,  and  there 
is  little  likelihood  that  much  accurate  information  will  ever  be  obtained  on  the  subject,  so 
far  as  regards  the  wide  ocean.  According  to  the  speculations  of  the  late  celebrated  Mar- 
quis Laplace,  the  depth  of  the  ocean  is  comparatively  small,  and  nearly  uniform.  If,  how- 
ever, it  be  recollected  that  the  bottom  of  the  sea  is  still  a  part  of  the  earth's  surface,  and  by 
much  the  greater  part  too,  one  would  be  apt  to  ask,  why  that  larger  part  of  the  surface 
ehould  be  more  level  than  what  appears  as  dry  land  1  The  soundings  which  have  been  mad© 


Book  H.  HYDROLOGY.  191 

in  the  ocean  are  quite  inadequate  to  decide  the  question.  They,  however,  often  indicate  great 
inequalities  in  the  depth ;  but  how  far  hollows  may  have  been  filled  with  debris,  or  asperi- 
ties worn  down,  it  is  not  easy  to  say ;  though  it  is  more  likely  that  the  summits  of  moun- 
tains exposed  to  the  alternate  or  combined  actions  of  air  and  moisture  sufler  a  more  rapid 
abrasion  than  those  which  are  wholly  under  water.  In  general,  the  slope  of  the  adjacent 
shore  is  co.ntinued  downward  for  a  good  way  under  water ;  that  is,  the  sea  is  usually  shallow 
where  the  shore  is  flat,  while  its  depth  increases  rapidly  by  the  side  of  a  cliff  or  steep  moun- 
tain. It  is  therefore  probable,  that  some  islands,  though  very  small,  may  be  the  tops  of 
sub-marine  mountains  as  large,  perhaps,  as  the  highest  which  occur  on  the  earth's  surface. 
In  many  instances,  no  bottom  has  been  found ;  but  this  might  proceed  either  from  the 
shortness  of  the  line,  or  from  its  being  borne  aside  by  rapid  currents.  We  have  already 
mentioned  a  sounding  of  6000  feet  in  the  Caribbean  sea;  but  Lord  Mulgrave's  line  of  4680 
feet  did  not  reach  the  bottom  of  the  Northern  Ocean.  In  the  entrance  of  the  German  or 
North  Sea,  at  the  Straits  of  Dover,  the  central  depth  is  29  fathoms.  This  extensive  basin 
contains  various  shallows  and  sand-banks ;  yet,  generally  speaking,  the  depth  increases  in 
going  northward,  and  near  to  Bergen  in  Norway  it  amounts  to  190  fathoms.  A  very  inter- 
esting account  of  the  bed  of  the  German  Sea  is  given  by  Mr.  Stevenson,  Edin.  Phil.  Jour. 
iii.  42. ;  and  in  the  third  volume  of  the  Memoirs  of  the  Wernerian  Society. 

The  level  of  the  open  sea  is  believed,  generally  speaking,  to  be  everywhere  the  same  ; 
or  to  form  a  portion  of  the  surface  of  an  oblate  splieroid,  to  which  the  surface  of  the 
land  approaches  with  less  accuracy.  Some  gulfs  and  inland  seas  appear  to  deviate  in 
some  measure  from  the  general  rule.  This  is  more  particularly  the  case  where  the  com- 
munication of  such  seas  with  the  ocean  is  narrow ;  and  there  are  a  few  other  exceptions.* 
When  the  general  motion  of  the  ocean  or  of  the  trade-winds  is  directed  into  the  mouth  of 
an  inland  sea,  it  has  a  tendency  to  raise  its  level  above  that  of  the  ocean.  On  this  account 
it  is  tliat  the  Arabian  Gulf  or  Red  Sea  is  higher  than  the  ocean,  and  still  higher  than 
the  Mediterranean,  which,  from  the  opposite  action  of  the  wind  and  the  great  evapora- 
tion, is  supposed  to  be  a  little  below  the  general  level.f  Some  gulfs  and  inland  seas,  as 
the  Baltic  and  Black  Sea,  rise  in  spring,  from  the  copious  influx  of  river  water,  and  are 
lowered  in  summer  by  evaporation  and  the  efflux  at  their  mouths.  Of  late  years,  there  has 
been  considerable  discussion  regarding  the  subsidence  of  the  Baltic  below  the  level  it  had 
formerly  maintained.  Whilst  some  support  this  opinion,  and  venture  to  explain  the  cause 
of  the  subsidence,  others  deny  the  fact  altogether.  The  trade-winds  and  general  westward 
motion  of  the  ocean  force  the  water  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  so  as  to  maintain  a  higher 
level  there  than  on  the  western  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien.f  The  consequence  of  this 
accumulation  of  water  is,  that  it  generates  a  current  moving  northwards ;  and  which,  after 
various  windings  through  the  Atlantic,  at  length  reaches  the  western  shores  of  Europe,  as 
will  be  more  particularly  noticed  hereafter.  Some  naturalists  allege,  that  the  debris,  or 
alluvial  matters  daily  abraded  by  the  action  of  the  weather  on  the  surface  of  the  land,  and 
swept  into  the  ocean  by  the  rain  and  rivers,  must,  at  length,  raise  the  level  of  the  ocean  till 
it  cover  the  whole  globe,  and  restore  tlie  reign  of  ancient  chaos.  Unless  there  be  some 
compensating  process,  which  either  makes  up  for  the  exhausted  materials,  or  gradually  ele- 
vates the  entire  continents  above  tlie  water,  it  is  not  very  easy  to  guess  at  an  alternative. 
A  compensating  power  is  situated  deep  in  the  crust  of  the  earth. 

The  taste  of  sea  water  is  disagreeable  and  bitter,  at  least  when  taken  from  the  surface  or 
near  the  shore ;  but  when  drawn  from  great  depths,  its  taste  is  only  saline.  It  would  there- 
fore seem  that  the  bitterness  is  owing  to  the  greater  abundance  of  animal  and  vegetable 
matter  near  the  surface.  Man,  in  a  civilized  state,' cannot  make  use  of  sea  water  as  drink; 
yet  it  is  said  that  the  inhabitants  of  Easter  Island,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  make  it  their 
usual  beverage.  Some  of  the  lower  animals  occasionally  travel  far  to  drink  sea  water. 
Sheep  are  very  fond  of  licking  the  dry  salt ;  and  so  are  horses  and  cattle.  With  them  it  is 
a  cure  for  various  complaints.  Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  render  sea  water  pota- 
ble, or  to  free  it  from  salt.  Distillation  is  the  most  effectual ;  but  the  expense  of  fuel  is  a 
serious  objection  to  this  method  at  sea,  and,  after  all,  it  does  not  divest  it  of  all  its  bitterness. 
Thus,  in  the  midst  of  water,  mariners  are  frequently  in  danger  of  dying  of  thirst,  when 
they  run  short  of  fresh  water.  Sea  ice,  when  melted,  affords  nearly  fresii  water ;  but  being 
devoid  of  air,  its  taste  is  not  very  agreeable,  though  it  would  be  highly  prized  in  time  of 
need.  A  temporary,  and  in  some  degree  an  miaginary,  relief  may  be  obtained,  by  holding 
salt  water  in  the  mouth. 

The  saline  contents  of  the  waters  of  the  wide  ocean  do  not,  so  far  as  experience  has  gone, 
vary  much  in  different  latitudes  and  under  different  meridians,  although  we  ought  to  find 
the  sea  fresher  in  tiie  spaces  occupied  by  the  internal  limits  of  the  trade-wind,  and  also  in 
those  tracts  of  the  ocean  where  calms  and  a  high  temperature  prevail,  as  on  the  west  coast 

*  Stralio  say?  the  level  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth  is  hi^'her  than  that  of  the  Gulf  of  CenchresB. 
t  Vide  Maclaron  on  the  level  of  the  Red  Sea,  in  the  Edinbiirjrli  Pliilosophieal  Journal. 
J  The  mean  height  of  tlie  Pacific  above  the  Atlantic  is  said  to  be  3.53  feet. 


192  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  U. 

of  Africa.  The  mean  is  about  3.5  per  cent,  in  the  weight  of  the  water ;  but  tlie  saltness  is 
more  or  less  affected  by  currents  and  storms.  It  is  diminished  at  tlie  surface  during  heavy 
rains,  and  by  the  discharge  of  rivers ;  but  increased  by  evaporation,  which  carries  off  the 
water  fresh,  and  leaves  the  salt  behifid  :  hence  there  is  often  little  consistency  in  detached 
obsei vations.  From  a  great  variety  of  experiments.  Dr.  Marcet  concludes:  1.  Tliat  the 
Southern  Ocean  contains  more  salt  than  the  Nortlicrn,  in  the  ratio  of  1.0291  to  1.02757. 
2.  That  the  mean  specific  gravity  of  sea  water  near  the  equator  is  1.02777,  intermediate 
between  those  of  the  northern  and  soutliern  licmispheres.  3.  That  there  is  no  notable  dif- 
ference in  sea  water  under  different  meridians.  4.  That  there  is  no  satisfactory  evidence 
that  tlie  sea  at  great  depths  is  more  salt  than  at  the  surflice.  5.  That  the  sea,  in  general, 
contains  more  salt  where  it  is  deepest  and  most  remote  from  land ;  and  that  its  saltne^ss  is 
always  diminished  in  the  vicinity  of  large  masses  of  ice.  6.  That  small  inland  seas,  though 
communicating  with  the  ocean,  are  much  less  salt  than  the  open  ocean.  7.  That  the  Medi- 
terranean contains  rather  larger  proportions  of  salt  than  the  ocean.  This  last  is  explained 
from  the  fact,  that  a  pretty  strong  current  from  the  Atlantic  always  flows  inward  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Mediterranean,  to  supply,  as  was  supposed,  the  water  which  escaped  by 
evaporation,  and  left  its  salt  behind.  '  So  great,  however,  is  the  influx,  that  this  inland  sea 
ought  to  have  become  perfect  brine,  or  perhaps  to  have  deposited  beds  of  salt,  if  there  were 
no  efflux ;  and  accordingly  it  is  maintained  that  there  is  an  outward  current  at  the  bottom, 
very  deep,  which  carries  off  this  excess  of  salt,  and  prevents  its  deposition  in  the  vast  hol- 
lows in  the  bottom.  The  water  drawn  up  from  this  lower  current  is  salter,  in  a  small  de- 
gree, than  at  the  surface. 

The  following  are  the  mean  specific  gravities  of  the  waters  of  different  seas,  according 
to  Dr.  INIarcet's  experiments : — 


A rctic  Ocean 1.02fiG4 

Northern  Hemisphere 1.02f^'29 

Sniithi;rn  Hemisphere 1.02882 

Yellow  Sea 1  02201 

Mediterranean 1.020.30 

Sea  of  Marmora ]  .01915 


Black  Sea 1.01418 

White  Sea l.OliiOl 

Baltic 1.01523 

Lake  Ourmia,  in  Persia 1.1(5507 

Dead  Sea 1.11100 


The  saltness  of  inland  seas  is  subject  to  many  varieties.  In  the  entrance  to  the  Black 
Sea,  the  water  is  much  salter  at  the  bottom  than  the  surface.  To  account  for  this,  it  is  said 
that  an  under  current  enters  from  the  IMediterranean.  It  is  well  known  that  there  is  an 
outward  current  at  the  surface,  which  brings  with  it  the  less  salt  water  of  the  Black  Sea. 
The  saltness  of  inland  seas  is  often  affected  by  the  direction  and  strength  of  the  wind,  citJier 
forcing  in,  or  retarding  the  entrance  of,  water  from  the  ocean.  Accordingly,  from  the  expe- 
riments of  VVilcke,  it  appears  that  the  saltness  of  the  Baltic  is  increased  by  a  west  wind,  and 
still  more  so  by  a  north-west  wind ;  but  it  undergoes  a  diminution  when  the  wind  is  from 
the  east.     Thus,  the  specific  gravities  are,  for  a 

Wind  at  W 1.0067    I    Storm  at  W 1.0118 

Ditto  at  N.  W 1.0098    |    Wind  at  E 1.0039 

Hence,  the  proportion  of  salt  in  the  Baltic  depends  in  no  small  degree  on  the  different  winds; 
a  proof  that  the  salt  is  not  only  derived  from  the  neighbouring  ocean,  but  that  storms  have  a 
much  greater  effect  on  it  than  has  been  commonly  supposed. 

The  constituent  parts  of  sea  water  have  been  an  object  of  examination  to  many  chemists, 
and  various  sets  of  experiments  made  to  determine  them.  The  late  Dr.  IMurray  of  Edin- 
burgh was  of  opinion  that  there  were  various  sources  of  fallacy  in  analysing  sea  water ;  and 
that  different  modes  of  operating  on  the  same  water  gave  very  different  results.  Two 
reasons  are  assigned  for  this ;  viz.  that  some  of  the  different  salts  mutually  decompose  each 
other  in  tlie  process,  and  that  a  part  is  lost  altogether  by  evaporation,  especially  if  the  tem- 
perature be  high.  According  to  tliis  eminent  chemist,  10,000  parts  of  water  from  the  Frith 
of  Forth,  wliich  is  not  sensibly  different  from  that  of  the  ocean,  contain  220  parts  of  common 
salt,  33  of  sulphate  of  soda,  42  of  muriate  of  magnesia,  and  8  of  muriate  of  lime.  On 
analysing  sea  water  from  N.  latitude  25°  .30',  W.  longitude  32°  30',  Dr.  Marcet  made  the 
numbers  respectively  266,  47,  52,  and  12.  According  to  Bladli,  tlie  saltness  is  greater  about 
the  tropics  than  at  the  equator.  Dr.  Trail  maintains  tlie  contrary ;  and  also  that  the  salt- 
ness increases  with  the  depth. 

Ice  is  formed  on  the  sea,  though  its  saltness  enables  it  to  resist  the  process  of  congelation 
at  the  ordinary  freezing  point  of  fresh  water.  This  quality  does  not  withstand  the  rieour 
of  the  Arctic  regions,  where  the  temperature  of  tlie  air  has  been  observed  so  low  as  55°  F. 
Sea  water  freezes  about  28°,  but  the  temperature  varies  a  little  with  the  saltness. — It  is  a 
curious  circumstance,  that  sea  water  parts  with  its  salt  in  freezing.  Hence  compact  trans- 
parent sea  ice  affiirds  fresh  water  on  being  melted.  When,  however,  the  ice  is  of  a  loose 
or  cellular  texture,  its  pores  sometimes  contain  liquid  brine;  and  therefore,  on  being  melted, 
it  affords  brackish  water.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  affinity  between  the  water  and  salt  which 
retards  the  congelation  of  sea  water;  because  the  greater  the  saltness,  the  lower  is  tlie 
freezing  temperature.  Detached  masses  of  ice  are  occasionally  met  with,  floating  in  the 
ocean  at  so  low  a  parallel  of  latitude  as  40°  in  both  hemispheres ;  having  been  conveyed 


Book  H  HYDROLOGY.  193 

tliither  by  currents  from  the  polar  regions.*   At  the  parallel  of  50°  they  are  more  abundant; 
and  there  it  is  common,  in  winter,  to  see  the  shallow  edges  of  the  sea  covered  with  ice.    At 
60°  N.  latitude,  the  gulfs  and  inland  seas  are  frequently  frozen  over  tlieir  whole  surface. 
As  we  proceed  toward  the  poles,  the  ice  becomes  more  and  more  abundant,  and  of  larger 
dimensions,  till  at  length  we  come  to  fields  of  ice,  and  icebergs  or  mountains  of  ice.     The 
process  of  congelation  commences  at  the  surface  of  the  sea,  with  the  formation  of  slender 
prismatic  crystals  resembling  wet  snow :  this  tlie  seamen  call  sludge.     The  surface  is  at 
first  rough ;  but,  by  the  union  of  the  crystals  and  the  accumulation  of  the  sludge,  the  surface 
becomes  smooth  and  forms  a  continued  sheet,  which  is  next  broken,  by  the  agitation  of  the 
water,  into  fragments  of  about  three  inches  diameter ;  these  again  coalesce  into  a  continued 
sheet  of  a  stronger  texture,  which  is  in  its  turn  broken  as  before,  but  into  larger  fragments 
called  pancake  ice.     Where  the  water  is  free  from  all  agitation,  the  congelation  goes  on 
more  regularly,  and  some  allege  more  rapidly.     During  24  hours  of  keen  frost,  the  ice  fre- 
quently attains  a  thickness  of  from  two  to  three  inches,  and  is  soon  fit  for  walking  on :  it  is 
then  called  bay  ice.     When  the  thickness  is  about  a  foot,  it  is  called  light  ice ;  and  when 
three  feet  thick,  heavy  ice.     The  term  field  is  given  to  a  sheet  of  ice  so  extensive  that  its 
farther  end  cannot  be  seen  from  a  mast-head.  Very  large  loosened  pieces,  whose  boundaries 
may  be  seen  readily,  are  called  floes.     Fragments  of  thick  ice  floating  together  are  called 
brash  ice.     Floating  ice  of  any  sort,  sufficiently  loose  to  allow  a  vessel  to  pass  through,  is 
called  open  or  drift  ice.    Indeed,  there  is  no  end  to  the  terms  which  seamen  apply  to  different 
sorts  of  ice.    The  sudden  disruption  of  extensive  fields  is  sometimes  produced  by  that  power- 
ful tendency  to  undulation  of  the  surface,  communicated  by  the  motions  of  the  adjoining 
liquid  surface  of  the  ocean  during  a  continued  storm,  which  is  denominated  a  ground  swell. 
The  ice,  when  thin,  merely  yields ;  but,  if  thick  and  little  flexible,  it  is  broken  with  tre- 
mendous noise.     A  very  interesting  account  of  such  a  phenomenon  is  given  by  a  party  of 
missionaries  who  passed  along  the  coast  of  Labrador  in  sledges  drawn  by  dogs.     They  nar- 
rowly escaped  destruction;  but  were  near  enough  to  witness  all  its  grandeur.     "The  mis- 
sionaries met  a  sledge  with  Esquimaux  turning  in  from  the  sea,  who  threw  out  some  hints 
that  it  might  be  as  well  for  them  to  return.     After  some  time,  their  own  Esquimaux  hinted 
that  there  was  a  ground  swell  under  the  ice.     It  was  then  scarcely  perceptible,  except  on 
lying  down  and  applying  the  ear  close  to  the  ice,  when  a  hollow  disagreeable  grating  noise 
was  heard  ascending  from  the  abyss.     As  the  motion  of  the  sea  under  the  ice  had  grown 
more  perceptible,  they  became  alarmed,  and  began  to  tliink  it  prudent  to  keep  close  to  the 
skore.     The  ice  also  had  fissures  in  many  places,  some  of  w^hich  formed  chasms  of  one  or 
two  feet ;  but  as  these  are  not  uncommon  even  in  its  best  state,  and  the  dogs  easily  leap 
over  them,  they  are  frightful  only  to  strangers.     As  the  wind  rose  to  a  storm,  the  swell  had 
now  increased  so  much  that  its  effects  on  the  ice  were  extraordinary,  and  really  alarming. 
The  sledges,  instead  of  gliding  smoothly  along  as  on  an  even  surface,  sometimes  ran  with 
violence  after  the  dogs,  and  sometimes  seemed  with  difficulty  to  ascend  a  rising  hill.   Noises, 
too,  were  now  distinctly  heard  in  many  directions,  like  the  report  of  cannon,  from  the  burst- 
ing of  the  ice  at  a  distance.     Alarmed  by  these  frightful  phenomena,  our  travellers  drove 
with  all  haste  towards  the  shore ;  and  as  they  approached  it,  the  prospect  before  them  was 
tremendous.     Tlie  ice,  having  burst  loose  from  the  rocks,  was  tossed  to  and  fro,  and  broken 
in  a  thousand  pieces  against  the  precipices  with  a  dreadful  noise ;  which,  added  to  the  raging 
of  the  sea,  the  roaring  of  the  wind,  and  the  driving  of  the  snow,  so  completely  overpowered 
them  as  almost  to  deprive  them  of  the  use  both  of  their  eyes  and  ears.     To  make  the  land 
was  now  the  only  resource  that  remained ;  but  it  was  with  the  utmost  difficulty  that  the 
frightened  dogs  could  be  driven  forv/ard ;  and  as  the  whole  body  of  the  ice  frequently  sunk 
below  the  summits  of  the  rocks,  and  then  rose  above  them,  the  only  time  for  landing  was  the 
moment  it  gained  the  level  of  the  coast,  —  a  circumstance  which  rendered  the  attempt 
extremely  nice  and  hazardous.    Both  sledges,  however,  succeeded  in  gaining  the  shore,  and 
were  drawn  up  on  the  beach,  though  not  without  great  difficulty.  Scarcely  had  they  reached 
it,  when  that  part  of  the  ice  from  which  they  had  just  escaped  burst  asunder,  and  the  water, 
rushing  up  from  beneath,  instantly  precipitated  it  into  the  ocean.     In  a  moment,  as  if  by 
signal,  the  whole  mass  of  ice  for  several  miles  along  the  coast,  and  extending  as  far  as  the 
eye  could  reach,  began  to  break  and  to  be  overwhelmed  witli  the  waves.    The  spectacle  was 
awfully  grand.     The  immense  fields  of  ice  rising  out  of  the  ocean,  clashing  against  one 
another,  and  then  plunging  into  the  deep  with  a  violence  which  no  language  can  describe, 
and  a  noise  like  the  discharge  of  a  thousand  cannon,  was  a  sight  which  must  have  struck  the 
most  unreflecting  mind  with  solemn  awe.     The  brethren  were  overwhelmed  with  amaze- 
ment at  their  miraculous  escape;  and  even  the  pagan  Esquunaux  expressed  gratitude  to 
God  for  their  deliverance."! 

The  term  iceberg  is  applied  to  Imge  masses  of  ice  resembling  mountains,  whether  resting 
on  the  land  or  floating  on  the  sea.     Tlie  latter  part  appear  to  be  sometimes  formed  in  the 

*  Horshiirjli  mnntioiis  iccbfirjs  having  been  met  with  in  South  lat.  35°  54J',  and  West  long.  17°  59'. — Phil.Mag. 
f  Brown's  Historv  of  the  Propagation  of  Christianitv,  vol.  ii.  p.  57 

Vol,  I.         '  17        .  Z 


194  SCIENCE   OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Pakt  IL 

sea  itself,  by  the  accumulation  of  ice  and  snow ;  at  other  times  to  be  fragments  of  land  ice- 
bergs or  glaciers,  which  have  been  piling  up  on  the  shore  till  quite  overgrown,  and  ultimately 
broken  and  launched  into  the  ocean  by  their  own  weight.  Masses  of  this  sort  abound  in 
Baffin's  Bay,  where  they  are  sometimes  two  miles  long,  and  half  or  one  third  as  broad.  They 
are  bristled  with  various  spires,  rising,  perhaps,  100  feet  above  the  surface,  and  descending 
half  as  much  below  it.  When  compact  ice  floats  in  water,  the  part  under  the  surface  is 
about  nine  times  as  great  as  that  above  it ;  and  hence  the  icebergs  may  sometimes  descend 
to  a  great  depth,  though  they  should  be  tar  from  consisting  of  very  compact  ice.  Icebergs 
of  an  even  surface,  rising  90  feet  above  the  sea,  and  having  an  area  of  five  or  six  square 
miles,  are  very  common.  Those  of  East  Greenland  are  of  inferior  size,  and  they  are  still 
smaller  around  Spitzbergen,  where  some  of  enormous  dimensions  occur  on  shore.  The 
reason  which  Mr.  Scoresby  assigns  for  this  is,  tliat,  owing  to  the  shallowness  of  the  water 
into  which  the  huge  masses  are  precipitated,  they  are  all  shattered  against  the  bottom  into 
a  thousand  pieces  before  they  are  fairly  launched  into  deep  water.  "  On  an  excursion  to  one 
of  the  Seven  Icebergs,  in  July  1818,"  says  Mr.  Scoresby,  "  I  was  particularly  fortunate  in 
witnessing  one  of  the  grandest  effects  which  these  polar  glaciers  ever  present.  A  strong 
north-westerly  swell,  having  for  some  hours  been  beating  on  the  shore,  had  loosened  a  num- 
ber of  fragments  attached  to  the  iceberg,  and  various  heaps  of  broken  ice  denoted  recent 
shoots  of  the  seaward  edge.  As  we  rowed  towards  it,  with  a  view  of  proceeding  close  to 
its  base,  I  observed  a  few  little  pieces  fall  from  the  top ;  and  while  my  eye  was  fixed  upon 
the  place,  an  immense  column,  probably  50  feet  square  and  150  feet  high,  began  to  leave 
the  parent  ice  at  the  top ;  and  leaning  majestically  forward,  with  an  accelerated  velocity 
fell  with  an  awfiil  crash  into  the  sea.  The  water  into  which  it  plunged  was  converted  into 
an  appearance  of  vapour  or  smoke,  like  that  from  a  ftirious  cannonading.  The  noise  was 
equal  to  that  of  thunder,  which  it  nearly  resembled.  The  column  which  fell  was  nearly 
square,  and  in  magnitude  resembled  a  churcli.  It  broke  into  a  thousand  pieces.  This  cir- 
cumstance was  a  happy  caution ;  for  we  might  have  inadvertently  gone  to  the  very  base  of 
the  icy  cliff,  from  which  masses  of  considerable  magnitude  were  continually  falling."  A 
huge  mass  of  this  sort  which  fell  on  a  Russian  ship,  broke  the  fore  and  main  masts,  sprung 
the  bowsprit,  and  flung  the  ship  over  with  such  violence  that  a  piece  of  ordnance  was  thrown 
overboard  from  under  the  half-deck,  and  the  captain  and  some  of  the  crew  were  projected  in 
the  same  manner.  The  captain,  however,  escaped  unhurt ;  but  the  mate  £ind  two  others 
were  killed,  and  many  were  wounded. 

Icebergs  variously  affect  navigation.  They  are  oflen  highly  useful  by  protecting  naviga- 
tors from  gales,  as  well  as  from  the  concussions  of  drift  ice,  which  moves  more  quickly  wben 
acted  on  by  the  wind  than  the  massy  iceberg.  To  the  latter,  ships  are  sometimes  moored, 
but  not  without  danger ;  for  these  floating  masses  are  sometimes  so  nicely  balanced  as  to  be 
easily  overturned,  should  they  happen  to  catch  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  The  concussion  pro- 
duced in  this  way  sometimes  detaches  large  fragments ;  and  sometimes  the  iceberg  rolls 
forward,  to  the  imminent  danger  of  tlie  vessel,  though  perhaps  100  yards  distant, — so  great 
are  the  waves  and  whirls  caused  by  such  an  occurrence.  Many  dangers  and  discourage- 
ments attend  the  navigation  of  the  polar  seas :  but  the  recent  attempts  to  discover  a  north- 
west passage  through  the  Arctic  Sea  have  rendered  the  ice  a  subject  of  considerable  interest. 
These  attempts  have  not  yet  been  crowned  with  success :  but  different  navigators  have 
brought  such  different  accounts  of  the  state  of  the  ice,  that  it  is  probably  voiry  changeable 
and  very  difficult  to  examine.  It  is  not  quite  agreed  that  any  navigator  has  been  within  6° 
of  the  North  Pole;  although  some  accounts  pretend  to  a  still  nearer  approach.  Captain 
Parry,  in  his  last  voyage,  reached  to  82°  45'  N.  lat.  The  failure  of  Captain  Cook's  attempt 
to  penetrate  to  the  South  Pole  gave  rise  to  an  idea,  which  has  been  pretty  generally  enter- 
tained since  his  time,  that  the  South  Pole  is  surrounded  with  fixed  ice  to  the  distance  of  18° 
or  19° ;  and  a  more  recent  Russian  expedition  gave  still  worse  hopes,  as  they  could  not  get 
beyond  the  latitude  of  70°  S.  Mr.  Weddell,  however,  has  since  reached  255  miles  nearer 
the  pole,  and  met  with  no  such  obstruction :  this  enterprising  navigator  contends  strenuously 
that  the  South  Pole  must  be  free  from  ice,  and  miglit  be  reached  by  sea.  Some  of  his  argu- 
ments are  rather  plausible  ;  but  the  question  is  involved  m  so  many  uncertainties,  that  nothing 
less  than  actual  trial  can  decide  it. 

The  expansion  and  contraction  of  ice  lias  important  effects.  Though  water  undergoes  a 
great  expansion  in  the  act  of  freezing,  j^et  ice  obeys  the  ordinary  law  of  solids, — that  of 
expanding  by  heat  and  contracting  by  cold.  The  effect,  therefore,  of  intense  cold  is  to  con- 
tract ice,  which,  if  of  large  dimensions,  or  fixed  all  around,  has  no  alternative  but  to  rend 
where  it  is  contracting  most.  This  is  often  attended  with  a  tremendous  report.  On  the 
contrary,  a  rise  of  temperature  may  not  only  bring  the  parts  to  meet  again,  but  often  makes 
them  lap  over,  or  burst  up  with  great  violence.* 

The  motion  of  the  waters  of  the  ocean  is  almost  perpetual ;  and  it  is  believed,  that  without 

*  TTie  most  satisfactory  account  of  the  polar  ice  is  that  of  Scoresby,  first  published  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Wei 
nerian  Natural  History  Society 


Book  II.  METEOROLOGY.  195 

tliis  provision  in  the  economy  of  nature  the  sea,  in  place  of  tempering  and  purifying  the  air, 
would  both  become  putrid  and  exhale  noxious  vapours. 

Waves.  The  motions  which  first  present  themselves  to  our  notice  are  the  partial  and 
alternate  rising  and  falling  of  the  surface,  known  by  the  name  of  undulations  or  waves.  This 
sort  of  motion  is  caused  by  the  wind,  which,  by  dislodging  or  depressing  a  certain  portion  of 
the  waters,  has  destroyed  the  equilibrium  or  level,  which  they  naturally  endeavour  to  recover. 
Waves  may  be  compared  to  the  reciprocation  of  water  in  a  syphon  or  bent  tube.  It  was  in 
this  way  that  Newton  deduced  the  velocity  of  waves,  and  the  time  required  to  an  undulation. 
If  water  ascend  and  descend  alternately  in  the  legs  of  a  bent  tube,  and  a  pendulum  be  con- 
structed whose  length  between  the  point  of  suspension  and  centre  of  oscillation  is  equal  to 
half  the  length  of  the  water  in  the  tube,  then  this  fluid  will  ascend  and  descend  during  each 
oscillation  of  the  pendulum.  Hence  the  velocity  of  the  waves  is  as  the  square  roots  of  their 
breadths ;  the  breadth  being  the  distance  between  the  tops  of  the  ridges.  In  the  same  way, 
it  may  be  shown  that  the  apparent  progressive  motions  of  waves  through  spaces  equal  to  their 
breadths  are  performed  in  the  times  in  which  pendulums  oscillate  whose  lengths  are  equal  to 
these  breadths.  Hence  waves,  whose  breadth  is  39|  inches,  will  seem  to  pass  over  that  space 
in  one  second.  Waves  are  scarcely  ever  without  progressive  motion ;  but  the  real  progress 
of  the  surface  of  the  water  is  generally  small,  compared  to  the  apparent  motion  of  the 
waves ;  as  is  easily  proved  from  any  floating  body  which  does  not  rise  above  the  surfece  so 
as  to  be  hurried  forward  by  the  wind.  Waves  are  distinguished  into  natural  and  accidental. 
The  natural  are  proportional  to  the  strength  of  the  wind  producing  them : — the  accidental 
are  occasioned  by  repercussion  of  the  wind  from  hills  and  bold  coasts,  and  by  the  dashing 
of  the  waves  on  rocks  and  shoals.  Divers,  it  is  said,  find  the  waters  perfectly  still  at  the 
depth  of  thirty  yards,  during  the  greatest  tempest.  But  this  can  only  be  known  of  some 
sheltered  spots ;  for  when  do  divers  descend  in  an  open  sea  during  a  tempest  ]  Waves  are 
always  seen  rolling  towards  the  shore  ;  but  an  obstacle  opposed  to  them  becomes  the  centre 
of  a  new  series  which  spreads  in  circles.  One  set  of  waves,  however,  may  not  interfere 
with  the  motion  of  another,  and  they  may  mutually  cross  without  interruption.  Sometimes 
the  ordinary  oscillations  are  combined  with  a  distant  sv/ell,  called  the  bore,  which  rises 
impetuous  after  certain  intervals.  Breakers,  or  waves  which  break  against  some  obstacle, 
when  formed  over  a  great  extent  of  shore,  are  distinguished  by  the  name  of  surf .  The  surf 
is  greatest  in  those  parts  of  the  ocean  where  the  wind  blows  always  nearly  in  the  same 
direction. 

Currents.  There  are  two  permanent  and  general  sorts  of  currents  in  the  ocean,  which 
are  supposed  to  originate  in  two  great  movements, — that  of  the  tropical  waters  westward 
round  the  globe,  and  that  of  the  polar  waters  towards  the  equator.  But  it  is  plain  that  the 
latter,  or  polar  currents,  imply  the  existence  of  a  third  set,  moving  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion ;  otherwise  the  waters  at  the  poles  would  soon  be  exhausted,  together  with  the  ice  from 
which  they  are  partly  derived.  It  is  well  known  that  the  rain,  fog,  or  snow,  which  falls  in 
the  polar  regions,  could  never  supply  any  perceptible  current  towards  the  equator.  The 
movement  of  the  tropical  waters  westward  is  ascribed  to  the  agency  of  the  trade  winds, 
which,  blowing  constantly  from  the  east,  must  impress  their  motion  on  the  sea  to  a  certain 
extent.  But  the  resulting  current  is  necessarily  modified  by  the  position  of  the  great  conti- 
nents. This  grand  westerly  motion  prevails  generally  between  30°  S.  and  30°  N.  latitude. 
According  to  Humboldt,  its  mean  velocity  is  from  nine  to  ten  miles  a-day.  In  the  Atlantic 
it  separates  into  two  branches,  one  of  which  forms  the  well-known  Gulf  Stream.  This 
brancli  flows  northward,  through  the  middle  of  the  Atlantic,  till  it  reaches  the  Cape  Verd 
Islands :  it  then  turns  west,  passes  through  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  the  strait  between  Cuba 
and  Yucatan,  winds  round  the  Mexican  Gulf,  and  rushes  out  by  the  Bahama  Channel ;  then 
spreading  out  to  a  greater  breadth,  it  sweeps  along  the  shores  of  the  United  States  to  New- 
foundland. At  this  point  it  is  deflected  south-eastward  by  a  southerly  current  from  Baffin's 
Bay,  and  passing  the  Azores  and  Canary  Isles,  returns  in  a  great  measure  into  itself,  and 
repeats  its  circumgyration.  The  waters  of  the  North  Atlantic,  between  the  latitudes  of  11° 
and  43°,  thus  form  a  continued  whirlpool,  completing  a  circuit  of  3800  leagues  in  about  34 
months.  Its  velocity  is  greater  as  the  deptli  and  breadth  are  less.  Its  breadth  is  51 
leagues  in  the  Bahama  Channel,  and  velocity  from  three  to  five  rniles  an  liour.  In  its 
retrograde  course  from  longitude  50°  to  the  Azores  the  breadth  is  160  leagues,  and  velocity 
from  seven  to  eight  miles  a-day.  An  insulated  expanse  of  almost  motionless  water,  140 
leagues  in  breadth,  occupies  the  interior  of  the  circuit.  This  grand  current  sends  off  one 
branch  near  Newfoundland,  which  proceeds  north-eastward,  and  sometimes  deposits  tropical 
fruits  on  the  shores  of  the  British  isles  and  Norway.  In  1776,  Dr.  Franklin  traced  this 
current,  by  means  of  its  high  temperature,  quite  across  the  Atlantic ;  and,  since  his  time, 
it  has  been  more  closely  traced,  especially  by  Captain  Sabine.  A  second  branch,  escaping 
at  the  Azores,  enters  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  forms  the  upper  and  middle  current  which 
prevails  in  that  strait.  Another  branch  of  the  great  tropical  current  sets  along  the  coast  of 
Brazil,  and  at  length  passes  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  In  the  Pacific  Ocean  the 
waters  have  a  general  westward  motion  from  tlie  coast  of  Peru,  which  must  be  partly  sup- 


196  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

plied  by  the  last-mentioned  current  after  doubling  Cape  Horn.  The  current  from  the 
coast  of  Peru  is  less  perceptible,  till  it  enters  the  Indian  Ocean ;  when,  strengthened  by  the 
northerly  currents  there,  it  flows  along  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  and  doubles  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  in  a  rapid  stream,  130  miles  broad,  and  from  7°  to  8°  warmer  than  the  conti- 
guous sea.  A  current  from  the  South  Pole  sets  along  the  west  side  of  New  Holland  into 
the  Bay  of  Bengal :  it  is  supposed  that  other  portions  of  the  general  polar  current  deflect 
the  great  westerly  current  northward,  after  it  has  passed  tiie  soutlicrn  promontories  of  Africa 
and  America.  In  the  Northern  Ocean,  in  the  space  comprised  between  Greenland  and  the 
coasts  of  Britain  and  Norway,  and  between  Labrador  and  Spitzbcrgcn,  a  great  body  of 
waters,  acted  on  by  three  or  four  lateral  currents,  is  supposed  to  perform  a  perpetual  circuit, 
T liese  waters  receive  their  impulse  eastward  from  a  branch  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  which 
passes  from  Newfoundland  along  the  north-west  coasts  of  Scotland  and  Norway.  At  the 
North  Cape  in  Lapland,  a  great  westerly  current  from  Nova  Zembla  turns  the  waters  nortii- 
westward  along  both  sides  of  Spitzbergen.  Beyond  this  island,  being  met  by  a  current  from 
the  pole,  they  turn  south-westward,  and  pass  along  the  coast  of  Greenland  to  Davis's  Straits, 
wliere  they  are  deflected  southward  by  a  fourth  current  from  Baffin's  Bay ;  and  having  re- 
turned to  Newfoundland,  recommence  their  revolution.  Thus  two  great  whirlpools,  con- 
nected with  one  another,  touch  at  the  Bank  of  Newfoundland,  which  seems  to  be  a  bar  cast 
up  by  their  conflicting  waters ;  and  revolving  in  opposite  directions,  occupy  four-fifths  of  the 
North  Atlantic.  The  small  current  which  sets  from  the  Bay  of  Biscay  across  the  mouth 
of  the  English  Channel,  and  through  St.  George's  Channel,  is  most  probably  a  branch  of  the 
Gulf  Stream  which  had  come  off"  at  the  Azores.  Were  other  parts  of  the  ocean  as  minutely 
examined  as  the  North  Atlantic,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  other  great  vortices  would  be 
discovered. 

Local  or  temporary  currents  are  produced  by  winds,  the  discharge  of  rivers,  the  melting 
of  ice,  &c.  In  general,  currents  which  do  not  descend  to  a  great  depth  are  liable  to  change 
witli  the  winds,  particularly  when  they  blow  for  a  long  time  with  equal  force,  as  the  mon- 
soons do.  These  winds  give  by  turns  entirely  opposite  directions  to  the  currents  which  pre- 
vail from  the  Maldivia  Islands  to  Arabia  and  Zanguebar.  When  the  supply  of  fresh  water 
in  an  inland  sea  falls  short  of  what  is  carried  off  by  evaporation,  its  level  will  have  a  tend- 
ency to  fall  below  that  of  the  ocean ;  and  hence  the  water  will  flow  into  it  from  the  ocean. 
But,  as  formerly  noticed,  a  continual  influx  of  salt  water,  to  be  concentrated  by  evaporation, 
must  have  a  tendency  to  render  such  inland  sea  salter  than  the  ocean  ;  and  the  salter  water 
being  the  heavier,  naturally  endeavours  to  keep  under  the  lighter,  which  enters  from  the 
ocean.  In  this  way,  it  forms  an  outward  current  in  the  bottom  of  the  entrance.  Such  is 
said  to  be  the  case  with  the  Mediterranean,  as  was  first  hinted  by  Dr.  Hudson  in  1724.  The 
reverse  of  all  this  takes  place  where  the  supply  of  fresh  water  in  an  inland  sea  exceeds  the 
evaporation,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Baltic,  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  Sea  of  Azof.  In  these 
the  outward  fresher  current  is  uppermost,  while  the  heavier  salter  current  enters  below. 
Since  the  mean  quantity  of  salt  brought  in  must  equal  what  is  carried  out,  if  no  permanent 
change  take  place  in  the  saltncss  of  the  inland  sea,  it  follows  that  the  salter  current  is  the 
smaller  of  the  two.  However,  the  weather  sometimes  produces  temporary  exceptions  to  this 
general  rule.  The  current  which  flows  into  the  Mediterranean  by  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar 
sets  along  the  shores  of  Africa  and  Egypt  to  Syria,  wliere  it  turns  north-westward ;  and, 
joined  by  the  current  from  the  Dardanelles,  it  makes  the  circuit  of  the  Adriatic,  then  of  the 
coasts  of  Tuscany,  France  and  Spain,  and  ultimately  returns  to  the  Straits.  In  the  Cattegat, 
a  northern  current  proceeds  from  the  Baltic  along  the  coasts  of  Sweden ;  and  another,  a 
southern  current,  enters  into  the  Baltic  along  the  coasts  of  Jutland.  In  the  German  Sea, 
a  north  current  sets  from  the  Straits  of  Dover  along  the  continental  shore,  while  a  south 
current  comes  from  the  Orkneys  along  the  British  coast. 

Whirlpools  or  eddies  are  produced  by  the  meeting  of  currents  which  come  in  difl^erent 
directions.  These,  by  encountering  in  a  narrow  passage,  turn,  as  it  were,  about  a  centre, 
which  is  sometimes  spiral,  till  they  unite  or  one  of  them  escapes.  The  most  celebrated 
whirlpools  are  the  Euripus  near  the  coast  of  Negropont,  the  Charybdis  in  the  Straits  of 
Sicily,  and  the  Malstroem  on  the  northern  coast  of  Norway.  Such  eddies  sometimes  aug- 
ment their  force  by  means  of  two  contrary  high  tides,  or  by  tlie  action  of  the  winds.  In 
certain  states  of  the  tide,  some  of  them  cease  altogether;  but  they  do  not  fail  to  make  up  for 
this  afterwards.  Their  danger  to  navigation  is  well  known ;  but  is,  perhaps,  inferior  to  the 
dread  which  they  inspire.  They  draw  vessels  along,  and  dash  them  against  the  rocks,  or 
engulf  them  in  the  eddies.  The  wrecks,  perhaps,  do  not  appear  till  some  time  afterwards ; 
or,  indeed,  they  may  never  be  seen  at  all.  This  has  given  rise  to  the  notion  that  these  vortices 
have  no  bottom.  Tlie  phenomena  and  dread  of  whirlpools  have  alTorded  excellent  matter 
for  marvellous  fables,  both  to  the  ancient  poets  and  more  modern  writers. 

Tlie  tides  form  a  remarkable  phenomenon,  consisting  in  tlie  alternate  rise  and  fall  of 
the  surface  of  tlie  sea  twice  in  the  course  of  a  lunar  day,  or  at  a  mean  rate  every  12''  25"" 
14'.  The  instant  of  low  water  is  nearl}'-,  but  not  exactly,  in  tlie  middle  of  the  interval 
between  two  high  waters.     The  tide  generally  takes  nine  or  ten  minutes  longer  in  ebbing 


Book  II.  HYDROLOGY.  197 

than  flowing.  At  the  new  and  full  moon  the  tides  attain  the  greatest  height,  and  the  in- 
terval between  two  high  waters  is  least,  viz.  la*"  19™  28'.  At  the  quarters  of  the  moon  the 
tides  are  the  least,  and  the  mtervals  the  greatest,  viz.  12''30™  7'.  The  time  of  high  water 
is  mostly  regulated  by  the  moon ;  and  in  general,  in  the  open  sea,  is  from  two  to  three  hours 
after  that  planet  passes  the  meridian,  either  above  or  under  the  horizon.  On  the  shores  of 
large  continents,  and  where  there  are  shallows  and  obstructions,  great  irregularities  take 
place  in  this  respect ;  and  when  these  exceed  six  hours,  it  may  seem  as  if  the  high  water 
preceded  the  moon's  passage  over  the  meridian.  Though  the  tides  seem  to  be  regulated 
chiefly  by  the  moon,  they  appear  also  in  a  certain  degree  to  be  under  the  influence  of  the 
sun.  Thus,  at  the  syzigies,  when  the  sun  and  moon  come  to  the  meridian  together,  the 
tides,  every  thing  else  considered,  are  the  highest.  At  the  quarters,  when  the  sun  and 
moon  are  90°  distant,  the  tides  are  least.  The  former  are  called  the  spring,  the  latter  the 
neap  tides.  The  highest  of  the  spring  tides  is  not  that  imm.ediately  atler  the  new  or  full 
moon ;  but  is  in  general  the  third,  and  in  some  cases  the  fourth.  The  lowest  of  the  neap 
tides  occurs  much  about  the  same  time  after  the  quarters.  Tlie  total  magnitude  of  the  tide 
is  estimated  by  the  difference  between  the  heights  of  high  and  low  water.  The  higher  the 
flood  tide  rises,  the  lower  the  ebb  tide  generally  sinks  on  the  same  day.  At  Brest,  the 
medium  spring  tide  is  about  19  feet,  and  the  mean  neap  tide  about  9.  On  other  parts  of 
the  coast  of  France  opposite  to  England,  the  waters,  being  confined,  rise  to  a  great  height, 
and  do  so  on  both  sides  of  the  Channel.  At  St.  Malo  it  is  from  45  to  50  feet.  Nearly  as  high 
tides  occur  at  Annapolis  Royal,  in  Nova  Scotia.  It  is  the  obstruction  which  the  land  pre- 
sents to  the  motions  of  the  waters  which  occasions  tides  of  any  consequence  at  all :  were 
the  globe  entirely  covered  with  water,  the  tides  would  be  very  insignificant.  Thus,  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  the  spring  tide  amounts  only  to  5  feet,  and  the  neap  to  from  2  to  2.5  feet. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  free  communication  witli  the  ocean  is  indispensable,  to  produce  a  high 
tide.  Thus,  in  inland  seas,  the  tides  are  very  trifling,  because  tlie  luminaries  act  nearly 
equally  over  the  whole  surface  at  the  same  time. 

The  height  of  the  tide  increases  as  the  sun  or  moon  is  nearer  the  earth,  but  in  a  higher 
ratio.  The  rise  of  the  tides  is  likewise  greater  when  the  sun  or  rnoon  is  in  the  equator,  and 
'  less  as  they  decline  from  it.  When  the  observer  and  the  moon  are  on  the  same  side  of  the 
equator,  the  tide  which  happens  when  tlie  moon  is  above  the  horizon  is  greater  than  when 
she  is  below  it.  The  reverse  occurs  when  the  observer  and  the  moon  are  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  equator.  If  the  tides  be  considered  relatively  to  the  whole  globe  and  to  the  open  sea, 
it  appears  that  there  is  a  meridian  about  30°  eastward  of  the  moon,  where  it  is  always  high 
water,  both  in  the  hemisphere  where  the  moon  is  and  in  the  opposite.  On  the  Avest  side  of 
this  circle  the  tide  is  flowing ;  on  the  east  it  is  ebbing ;  and  on  the  meridian,  which  is  at 
right  angles  to  the  same,  it  is  everywhere  low  water.  These  meridian  circles  move  west- 
ward, keeping  nearly  at  the  same  distance  from  the  moon  :  only  approaching  nearer  to  her 
when  new  or  fiill,  and  withdrawing  at  the  quarters.  In  high  latitudes  the  tides  are  very 
inconsiderable.  It  is  probable  that  at  the  poles  there  are  no  diurnal  tides ;  but  there  is  some 
ground  for  thinking  that  the  water  will  rise  higher  at  the  pole  to  which  the  luminaries  are 
at  any  time  nearest,  than  at  the  opposite. 

The  great  wave  which  follows  the  moon  as  above  described,  and  constitutes  the  tide,  is 
to  be  considered  as  an  undulation  or  reciprocation  of  the  waters  of  the  ocean ;  in  which 
there  is,  except  when  it  passes  over  sliallows  or  approaches  the  shore,  very  little  progressive 
motion.  In  all  this  we  are  as  yet  overlooking  the  operation  of  local  causes,  winds,  currents, 
&c.,  by  which  these  general  laws  are  modified,  overruled,  or  even  reversed.  Most  people 
find  little  difficulty  in  conceiving  how  the  waters  should  rise  on  the  side  of  the  globe  which 
is  next  the  moon ;  but  there  can  scarcely  be  a  harder  task  than  bringing  many  to  see  ivJit/ 
the  waters  should  at  the  same  time  rise  on  the  side  which  is  turned  from  the  moon.  We 
must,  however,  confine  ourselves  to  a  very  brief  and  palpable  explanation.  The  force  by 
which  the  moon  draws  any  particle  of  our  globe  towards  her  is  greater  when  it  is  nearer  to 
her,  and  less  when  more  remote.  The  force,  therefore,  with  which  the  moon  attracts  the 
particles  on  the  side  nearest  her  is  greater  than  the  average  force  which  slie  exerts  on  the 
wiiole  globe.  These  particles,  therefore,  rise  or  endeavour  to  come  near  the  moon.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  force  by  whicli  the  moon  draws  tlie  particles  which  are  farthest  from  her 
being  less  than  the  average  force,  these  particles  endeavour  to  recede  from  the  moon,  and  in 
so  doing  they  also  recede  from  the  earth's  centre ;  that  is,  they  rise  higher  than  the  general 
level.  The  action  of  the  sun  is  similar  to  that  of  the  moon ;  but  his  being  almost  four 
hundred  times  as  distant,  greatly  diminishes  his  effect.  At  the  new  and  full  moon  the 
luminaries  act  together,  and  produce  spring  tides.  The  highest  of  all  are  a  little  after  the 
autumnal,  and  before  the  vernal,  equinox  ;  and  the  least  spring  tides  occur  a  little  after  the 
solstices.  At  the  quarters  of  the  moon  her  action  is  opposed  by  that  of  the  sun,  and  there- 
fore neap  tides  are  the  result. 

Tlie  time  of  higli  water  deserves  consideration.  The  preceding  is  sufficient  to  show  tliat 
the  phenomena  of  the  tides  are  effects  that  might  be  expected  from  the  principle  of  attraction 
or  gravitation;  but  since  the  waters  necessarily  occupy  some  time  in  moving  from  one 

17* 


198  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  U. 

place  to  another,  this  is  the  reason  why  the  high  water  occurs,  not  when  the  moon  is  on  the 
meridian,  but  from  two  to  three  hours  afterwards.  For  tlie  same  reason,  when  the  sun  is 
before  or  west  of  the  moon,  he  hastens  the  rise  of  the  tide ;  and  when  behind  her,  he  retards 
it  Considerable  extent  of  surface  is  necessary,  in  order  that  the  sea  should  be  sensibly 
affected  by  the  action  of  the  sun  and  moon ;  for  it  is  only  by  the  inequality  of  such  action 
on  different  parts  of  the  mass  of  waters  that  their  level  is  disturbed.  In  narrow  seas,  and 
on  shores  far  from  the  main  body  of  the  water,  the  tides  are  not  caused  by  the  direct  action 
of  the  sun  and  moon,  but  are  waves  propagated  from  the  great  diurnal  undulation.  Of  this 
the  tides  on  the  coast  of  Britain,  and  in  the  German  sea,  are  remarkable  examples.  The 
high  water  transmitted  from  the  tide  in  the  Atlantic  reaches  Ushant  between  three  and  four 
hours  after  the  moon  has  passed  the  meridian,  and  its  ridge  stretches  north-west,  so  as  to  fall 
a  little  south  of  the  coast  of  Ireland.  Tliis  wave  soon  after  divides  itself  into  three  branches ; 
one  passing  up  the  British  Channel,  another  ranging  along  the  west  side  of  Ireland  and 
Scotland,  and  the  third  entering  the  Irish  Channel.  The  first  of  these  flows  at  the  rate  of 
about  50  miles  an  hour,  so  as  to  pass  through  the  Straits  of  Dover,  and  to  reach  the  Nore 
about  midnight  at  the  time  of  spring  tide.  The  second  being  in  a  more  open  sea,  moves 
more  rapidly,  reaching  the  north  of  Ireland  by  six  p.  m.  ;  about  nine  it  has  got  to  the  Ork- 
neys, and  forms  a  wave  or  ridge  stretching  due  north ;  at  twelve  the  summit  of  the  same 
wave  extends  from  the  coast  of  Buchan  eastward  to  the  Naze  of  Norway  ;  and  in  twelve 
hours  more  it  passes  southward  through  the  German  Sea  and  reaches  the  Nore,  where  it 
meets  the  morning  tide  that  left  tlie  mouth  of  the  Channel  only  eight  hours  before.  Thus, 
these  two  tides  travel  round  Britain  in  28  hours ;  in  which  time  the  primitive  tide  has  gone 
quite  round  the  globe,  and  nearly  45  degrees  more.  Various  curious  anomalies  are  observed 
in  the  tides  of  particular  places :  such  as  their  ceasing  altogether  for  a  day  or  two,  at  a 
certain  age  of  the  moon ;  while  at  other  times  they  become  considerable,  though  perhaps 
occurring  only  once  a  day  It  is  said  that  on  some  coasts  there  is  never  more  than  one 
tide  in  the  course  of  a  lunar  day,  which  is  probably  owing  to  some  oversight :  but  it  may  be 
sliown  from  theory,  that  if  the  observer's  distance  from  the  pole  be  equal  to  the  moon's 
declination,  he  will  see  but  one  tide  in  the  day.  Small  tides  occur  six  tunes  a  day  on  the 
shore  of  the  Isle  of  Negropont.* 

The  agency  of  the  tides  is  probably  very  extensive  in  many  of  the  operations  of  nature, 
and  in  particular  in  those  which  regard  geology.  The  late  Professor  Robison  suggested  how 
experiments  might  be  made  to  determine  the  mean  density  of  the  globe,  from  the  temporary 
change  which  is  undoubtedly  caused  on  the  direction  of  gravity  by  the  great  body  of  water 
brought  to  Annapolis  Royal,  and  then  withdrawn  by  the  stream  tides. 

Sect.  II. — Springs. 

Springs  are  composed  of  the  waters  issuing  from  crevices  in  the  earth.  Of  such  there 
are  great  varieties.  Some  of  the  principal  distinctions,  independently  of  the  qualities  of 
their  waters,  are, — temporary  springs,  which  only  flow  during  a  certain  season  of  the  year ; 
perennial,  which  always  run ;  interinittinir,  which  alternately  run  and  cease,  either  wholly 
or  in  part,  at  short  intervals ;  periodical,  which  flow  and  ebb  regularly  at  particular  periods ; 
spouting,  which  issue  with  considerable  force,  forming,  perhaps,  a  jet  of  water.  The  mag- 
nitude of  springs  passes  through  every  ^adation,  from  being  scarcely  perceptible,  to  con- 
widerable  rivulets.  They  have,  likewise,  a  wide  range  of  temperature ;  but  necessarily 
limited  between  the  freezing  and  boiling  points.  It  is  most  usual  for  springs  which  are 
large,  and  which  appear  to  issue  from  a  considerable  depth,  to  have  nearly  the  mean  tempe- 
rature of  the  place ;  and  in  some  instances  the  temperature  is  remarkably  steady, — not  the 
slightest  variation  being  perceptible  in  the  course  of  the  year.  Hence  apparently,  or  rela- 
tively to  the  air,  they  are  colder  in  summer  and  hotter  in  winter.  It  is,  no  doubt,  this  con- 
trast which  has  given  rise  to  the  popular  notion,  that  good  springs  are  really  colder  in  sum- 
mer and  hotter  in  winter.  Nothing  is  more  common  than  to  see  a  well  smoking  during 
intense  frost,  which  shows  notliinsf  of  the  kind  during  warm  weather;  but  it  does  not  require 
a  really  high  temperature  to  exhibit  such  an  appearance,  but  only  a  temperature  not  so  low 
as  that  of  the  air.  Tlie  most  that  any  spring  keeps  within  the  range  of  both  seasons,  is  to 
remain  always  at  one  temperature.  The  greater  number  of  the  smaller  springs,  however, 
become  a  little  warmer  in  summer  and  colder  in  winter ;  particularly  those  which  come 
along  for  a  considerable  way  at  a  small  depth  under  ground.  By  so  doing,  they  participate 
in  the  temperature  of  the  surface,  which  varies  with  the  season :  but  all  springs  preserve  a 
greater  warmth  than  the  mean  temperature  of  winter ;  and,  excepting  the  thermal  or  hot 
springs,  they  do  not  reach  the  mean  heat  of  summer. 

Hot  springs  are  those  which  preserve  a  heat  above  the  mean  temperature  of  the  place. 
Such  as  are  merely  tepid  are  common  in  most  countries,  especially  in  mines.  Those  having 
a  considerably  higher  temperature  are  less  frequently  met  with,  and  mostly  in  volcanic  dis- 
tricts ;  but  some  of  them  reach  the  boiling  point,  or  are  actually  boiling  and  spouting  forth 

•  Vide  Stevenson's  great  work  on  the  Bell-Rock  Light-house,  for  observations  on  Tides  in  the  British  seas 


Book  II.  HYDROLOGY.  199 

with  great  violence,  which  indicates  their  having  had  a  still  higher  temperature  before  get- 
ting vent.  The  most  remarkable  are  the  hot  springs  of  Iceland,  some  of  which  are  con- 
sidered among  the  greatest  wonders  of  the  world.  They  are  beli-eved  to  be  more  abundant 
in  Iceland  than  ui  any  other  country.  But  the  interest  which  the  number  and  variety  of 
these  hot  springs  excites  in  a  person  wlio  never  saw  any  thing  similar,  is  quickly  lost  in  the 
feelings  which  are  roused  on  beholding  the  magnificent  and  tremendous  explosions  of  the 
Geysers,  as  they  are  called.  Besides  the  principal  fountains,  there  is  a  great  number  of 
boiling  springs,  cavities  full  of  liot  water,  and  several  from  which  steam  issues.  There  are 
also  some  places  full  of  boiling  mud  of  gray  and  red  colours.  The  silicious  depositions  of 
tlie  waters  of  the  Great  Geyser  have  formed  for  it  a  basin  56  feet  in  diameter  in  one  direction, 
and  46  in  the  other ;  a  projection  from  one  side  causing  it  to  deviate  from  the  perfect  circle. 
In  the  centre  of  this  basin  is  a  cylindrical  pit  or  shaft  10  feet  in  diameter.  Through  this 
the  hot  water  rises  gradually,  filling  it  and  the  basin,  after  wliich  it  runs  over  in  small  quan- 
tities. At  intervals  of  some  hours,  when  the  basin  is  full,  explosions  are  heard  from  below, 
like  the  report  of  distant  cannon,  and  at  the  same  time  a  tremulous  motion  of  the  ground  is 
felt  all  around  the  basin :  immediately  the  water  rises  in  a  mass  from  the  pit,  and  sinking 
again,  causes  the  water  in  the  basin  to  be  agitated  and  to  overflow :  another  and  a  stronger 
propulsion  follows,  and  clouds  of  vapour  ascend.  At  length,  strong  explosions  take  place, 
and,  large  quantities  of  steam  escaping,  the  water  is  thrown  to  a  height  of  fi-om  30  to  90 
feet,  and  even  to  200  or  300  feet.  The  steam,  coming  into  contact  with  the  cold  air  of  that 
climate,  is  condensed  into  thick  clouds,  which  are  tossed  and  rolled  with  great  rapidity ;  the 
whole  forming  a  very  singular  and  magnificent  exhibition.  After  continuing  for  some  time, 
the  explosions  cease,  when  the  basin  and  pit  are  found  empty.  Bursts  of  steam  sometimes 
take  place,  when  the  water  is  rising,  without  any  warning  by  subterraneous  noise.  These 
phenomena  seem  to  be  occasioned  by  steam  finding  its  way  fi-om  below  into  cavities,  where 
part  of  it  is  condensed  into  water,  which  water  is  at  length  forced  out  by  the  action  of  the 
steam  under  high  pressure.  The  New  Geyser  is  somewhat  smaller  than  the  other.  There 
are  many  hot  springs  of  le.ss  note  in  Iceland ;  but  perhaps  the  most  curious  of  the  whole  is 
the  Tunguhver.  Among  a  great  number  of  boiling  springs  are  two  cavities,  within  a  yard 
of  each  other,  fi-om  which  the  water  spouts  alternately :  while  fi-om  one  the  water  is  throvvn 
about  ten  feet  high  in  a  narrow  jet,  the  other  cavity  is  full  of  water  boiling  violently.  This 
jet  continues  about  four  minutes,  and  then  subsides ;  when  the  water  from  the  other  imme- 
diately rises,  in  a  thicker  column,  to  the  height  of  three  or  four  feet.  This  continues  about 
three  minutes ;  when  it  sinks  and  the  other  rises,  and  so  on  alternately. 

The  natural  jets  of  water,  called  spouting  springs,  only  differ  from  the  rest  in  coming 
down  some  close  canal  from  a  fountain  on  a  higher  level.  Being  thus  closely  confined,  they 
burst  forth  in  consequence  of  the  pressure,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  artificial  spouting  foun- 
tains do.* 

Intermitting  fountains  have  sometimes  been  viewed  by  the  multitude  as  of  a  miraculous 
nature.  One  at  Como,  in  Italy,  rises  and  falls  every  hour:  another  at  Colmars,  in 
Provence,  rises  eight  times  as  often.  At  Fronzanches,  in  Languedoc,  one  has  a  period  of 
24  hours  15  minutes.  England  affords  many  examples  of  such  springs ;  particularly  those 
on  the  sea  coast,  whose  waters  rise  and  fall  with  the  pressure  of  the  tides.  The  town  of 
Tideswell,  in  Derbyshire,  is  named  from  a  noted  fountain  of  this  sort  which  once  flowed 
there,  but  has  now  ceased  to  observe  its  tides.  The  principles  on  which  intermitting  springs 
depend  are  attempted  to  be  explained  in  every  popular  treatise  on  hydrostatics  and 
hydraulics.f 

Various  have  been  the  opinions  of  philosophers  concerning  the  origin  of  springs.  Some 
suppose  that  sea  water  is  conveyed  through  subterraneous  ducts  or  canals  to  tlie  places 
where  the  springs  flow  out  of  the  earth :  but  in  this  way  fresh-water  springs  could  not  be 
produced ;  because  sea  water  cannot  be  freed  from  its  salt  by  filtration.  It  is,  besides,  dif- 
ficult to  conceive  how  the  water  should  filter  upwards.  In  order  to  overcome  these  objec- 
tions, recourse  has  been  had  to  subterranean  heat,  by  which  the  water  is  conceived  to  rise 
upwards  in  vapour  through  certain  fissures  and  cavities  of  the  mountains  where  it  is  col- 
lected, and  issues  forth,  as  we  see,  m  springs.  Others  vaiy  the  hypothesis  a  little,  by  saying 
that  the  sea  water  is  raised  through  the  mountains  by  capillary  action  ;  but  here  we  ought 
stili  to  have  salt  springs;  and  it  has  been  further  objected  that  a  current  cannot  be  produced 
by  capillary  action. 

The  most  probable  theory  is  that  proposed  by  Dr.  Halley,  who  maintained  that  springs 
are  nothing  more  than  a  part  of  the  water  which  falls  on  higher  ground  filtrating  through, 
and  afterwards  issuing  forth  at  a  lower  level.  This,  it  is  true,  does  not  at  first  sight  apperr 
to  account  for  tiie  permanent  flow  of  springs  durins'  dry  weatlier.  To  complete  the  thcor)^ 
it  is  supposed  that  the  water  at  first  collects  in  large  subterranean  cavities,  fi-om  which  it 
atlerwards  filtrates  slowly,  and  passes  towards  the  springs.     The  disposition  of  the  rocks  in 

*  Vide  EJ.  New  Phil.  Journal,  vol.  i,\.  for  observations  on  spouting  springs  and  Artesian  wells, 
t  Vide  Ed.  New  Pliil.  Journal,  vol.  viii.  for  an  account  of  intermilling  springs. 


200  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

strata  contributes  much  to  the  collecting  of  the  waters  under  the  surface,  and  conveying 
them  without  waste,  as  if  in  close  pipes,  till  they  are  united  in  fountains,  lakes,  rivers, 
&c.  Dr.  Halley  showed  that  the  evaporation  from  the  sea  alone  is  a  sufficient  supply  for 
all  the  waters  tliat  the  rivers  carry  into  it.  His  calculation  was  founded  on  a  very  complex 
view  of  tlic  subject,  and  liable  to  several  objections.  Buftbn  took  a  more  simple  view  of 
the  matter,  by  selecting  one  of  those  lakes  that  send  out  no  stream  to  the  ocean,  and  show- 
ing that  the  probable  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  lake  is  equal  to  all  the  water  car- 
ried into  it. 

The  theory  of  hot  springs  is  deserving  of  consideration.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  the 
greater  number  of  warm  and  hot  springs  occur  in  volcanic  countries — where  volcanoes  for- 
merly burnt  or  are  still  in  a  state  of  activity  ;  ami  of  those  that  do  not  occur  in  volcanic  dis- 
tricts, some  are  associated  with  trap  and  granite  rocks,  to  which  most  geologists  assign  an 
igneous  origin.  Hence  it  is  inferred  that  they  owe  their  temperature  to  the  same  cause  or 
causes  as  gave  rise  to  volcanic  and  ignigenous  rocks.  That  tJie  heat  of  such  springs  is 
otlen  connected  with  volcanic  action  cannot  admit  of  doubt;  for,  from  the  Geyser  of  Iceland, 
the  transition  is  almost  uninterrupted  to  the  hot  springs  in  the  dormant  volcano  of  tlie 
island  of  Ischia,  and  from  thence  to  tliose  connected  with  the  process  which  formerly  took 
place  in  tlie  now  extinct  volcanoes  of  Hungary  and  Auvergne.  The  hot  and  warm  springs 
of  Bath  and  Bristol,  however,  occur  in  a  limestone  country  where  no  igneous  rocks  are  visi- 
ble ;  but  tliese  may  be  under  the  limestone.  This  opinion  is  further  countenanced  by  the 
fact  that  many  of  the  hot  springs  met  with  in  primitive,  and  also  in  secondary,  formations, 
occur  in  spots  where  the  strata  appear  to  have  been  disturbed  by  igneous  agency.  Of  this 
there  is  a  striking  example  at  the  hot  springs  of  Carlsbad  in  Bohemia  ;  tlie  hot  springs  of 
Clifton  issue  from  a  limestone  which  appears,  at  an  early  period,  to  have  been  disturbed  by 
igneous  action :  the  hot  springs  of  Pfetfers,  in  tlie  Grisons,  gush  from  a  ravine  from  400  to 
654  feet  in  depth,  and  so  perpendicular  that  the  provisions  required  for  the  inmates  of  the 
bath  are  lowered  from  ropes  attached  to  the  summit  of  the  cliff,  and  so  narrow  that  the  rocks 
in  some  places  touch  overhead,  and  nowhere,  perhaps,  are  more  than  30  feet  apart.  The 
most  obvious  explanation  of  such  a  phenomenon  is  to  be  found  in  some  convulsion  of  nature, 
such  as  that  caused  by  an  earthquake,  or  the  sudden  elevation  of  a  large  tract  of  country. 
The  other  hot  springs  in  Switzerland  appear  in  circumstances  for  the  most  part  similar. 
Those  of  Weissenburg,  in  the  canton  of  Berne,  rise  out  of  a  gorge  of  the  same  kind  as  that 
of  Pfeffers  :  those  of  Louechi  appear  at  the  foot  of  the  mural  precipice  of  tiie  Gemmi :  whilst 
the  spring  of  Baden,  in  the  canton  of  Argovia,  from  which  the  only  remaining  one,  tliat  of 
Schinzath,  is  not  far  removed,  lies  near  the  point  where,  in  consequence  of  the  two  moun- 
tains of  Staffelegg  and  Lngern  having  been  severed  asunder  by  some  great  convulsion,  the 
waters  of  the  Rhine  and  of  the  other  rivers, — wliicli  appear  to  have  once  constituted  a  single 
lake  extending  from  Coire  in  the  Grisons  to  this  mountain  ridge,  including  the  lakes  of. 
Zurich  and  of  Wallenstadt,  with  the  intermediate  country, — in  one  continuous  sheet  of 
water,  flowed  off  by  the  cliannel  now  taken  by  one  of  the  rivers,  tlie  Limniat  alone.  Thus 
the  Rhine,  says  Dr.  Daubeny,  may  be  supposed  to  owe  its  original  direction  to  the  event 
which  produced  one  hot  spring,  and  its  present  course  to  that  which  occasioned  another. 

Some  springs  apparently  emit  inflammable  matter;  for  when  a  light  is  applied,  it  seems 
to  take  fire  like  ardent  spirits.  But  it  is  not  so  much  the  water  that  is  inflammable,  as  some 
gas  which  it  exhales,  or  bituminous  matter  floating  on  its  surface. 

Springs  in  the  sea.  Powerful  springs  are  occasionally  met  with  boiling  up  in  the  bottom 
of  the  sea,  so  as,  in  some  instances,  to  rise  above  the  surface.  From  some  of  them  naviga- 
tors can  draw  up  fresh  water  fit  for  taking  on  board  as  store.  The  natives,  in  certain  places, 
know  where  to  dive  under  the  surface  of  the  sea  for  fresh  water ;  which,  perhaps,  may  be 
the  only  source  whence  they  could  obtain  it. 

Mineral  waters,  and  the  quantity  of  matter  they  deposit.  Spring's  in  their  course  through 
strata  convey  along  with  them  portions  of  the  strata,  not  only  from  higher  to  lower  situa- 
tions, but  also  from  below  upwards.  They  contain  salts,  earths,  acids,  metals,  and  inflam- 
mable matters,  of  very  varied  nature:  the  variety  depending  sometimes  on  the  nature  of  the 
strata  through  which  they  pass ;  at  other  times,  as  in  those  that  rise  upwards  in  volcanic 
districts,  on  igneous  agency.  Hoffman  remarks,  that  when  warm  and  hot  springs^  and 
those  richly  impregnated  with  mineral  matters,  occur  in  countries  at  a  distance  from  active 
and  extinct  volcanoes,  we  observe  the  strata  from  which  they  issue  to  be  much  deranged, 
thus  intimating  that  formerly  earthquakes  and  other  igneous  agencies  were  at  work  in  the 
districts  where  these  springs  now  flow.  The  quantity  of  mineral  water  brought  from  the 
interior  of  the  earth  by  springs  is  very  great;  whether  that  matter  is  abstiactcd  from  the 
strata  traversed  by  the  springs,  or  is  brought  by  them  from  a  great  depth,  as  in  volcanic 
countries.  Even  some  calcareous  springs  iu  Britain  deposit  annually  vast  quantities  of  cal- 
careous tuffa  and  calcareous  sinter.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Edinburgli  tliere  are  great 
calcareous  deposits  from  calcareous  springs  that  flow  through  limestone  rocks ;  and  appear- 
ances of  the  same  description  abound  around  all  tlie  calcareous  springs  in  England.  Near 
to  Clennont,  in  France,  some  calcareous  springs,  rising  through  rocks  o^ granite  and  gneiss, 


Book  II.  HYDROLOGY.  201 

have  formed  a  mound  or  hill  240  feet  high.  Many  of  the  great  edifices  in  Rome  are  built 
of  calcareous  deposits  from  calcareous  springs.  The  hot  springs  of  Carlsbad  annually  deposit 
much  calcareous  tutla  and  sinter.  Other  springs,  as  the  hot  sprmgs  in  Iceland  and  in  the 
Azores,  deposit  annually  great  quantities  of  silica.  Salt  springs  also  bring  from  the  ulterior 
of  the  earth,  and  spread  over  their  vicinity,  much  salt,  which  salt  may  be  derived  from  the 
saline  clays  and  salt  beds  through  which  they  pass;  in  other  instances  the  salt  may  come 
from  a  great  depth  as  an  igneous  production. 

Chemical  nature  of  spring  waters.  The  water  of  springs,  when  very  pure,  is  named 
soft ;  if  impregnated  with  calcareous  salts,  hard ;  and  if  impregnated  with  various  mineral 
tnatters,  mineral.  It  was  long  believed  that  hard  water  was  unfit  for  brewing  and  distilla- 
tion ;  and  hence  soft  water  was  often  procured  for  these  operations,  at  great  expense ;  but  it 
is  now  Ibund  that  water  which  owes  its  liardness  to  lime  is  the  most  proper  of  all  for  the 
fermentation  of  worts.  A  time  will,  however,  be  necessary  to  remove  the  popular  prejudice 
in  favour  of  soft  water.  We  have,  in  the  Table  on  the  following  page,  given  a  view  of  the 
composition  of  the  most  celebrated  mineral  springs. 

According  to  some  chemists,  the  salts  found  by  chemical  analysis  in  springs  are  considered 
as  existing  in  the  waters ;  the  late  Dr.  Murray  considers  the  compound  existing  before  con- 
centration of  the  water  as,  in  all  cases,  the  most  soluble  salts  that  can  be  formed  out  of  the 
ingredients  present.  But,  in  reality,  so  far  from  our  having  determined  in  any  given  case 
the  nature  of  the  existing  combinations  between  the  ingredients,  we  are  ignorant  even  of 
any  method  by  which  such  knowledge  is  attamable.  If,  says  Berzelius,  the  physician 
inquires  of  the  chemist,  what  the  proportion  these  salts  bear  to  each  other  in  any  given  case 
may  be,  the  latter  must  reply,  that  this  is  a  question  as  to  which  we  are  at  present  entirely 
in  the  dark ;  as  the  proportion  depends  not  only  on  the  quantity  of  acids  and  bases  present, 
which  admits  being  ascertained,  but  also  on  the  relative  force  of  affinity  subsisting  between 
the  one  and  the  other,  for  determining  which  we  have  as  yet  no  data  whatever. 

Sect.  III. — Lakes. 
A  lake  is  a  body  of  water  which  does  not  communicate  with  the  ocean.  Independently 
of  the  qualities  of  their  waters,  lakes  are  distinguished  into  several  sorts : — 1.  Those  which 
receive  streams  of  water,  and  have  an  outlet,  are  the  class  of  lakes  best  known.  It  is  rare 
for  a  lake  to  give  rise  to  more  than  one  river,  which  often  bears  the  name  of  the  principal 
stream  which  flows  into  the  lake,  though  the  two  rivers  may  differ  materially  in  every 
respect.  2.  Those  which  receive  streams  of  water,  and  often  great  rivers,  without  having 
any  visible  outlet.  This  class  is  less  numerous  than  the  former,  and  is  confined  to  warm 
climates ;  but  the  largest  of  all  lakes,  the  Caspian  Sea,  belongs  to  it.  3.  Those  which 
receive  no  running  water,  but  have  an  outlet, — circumstances  which  imply  that  such  lakes 
are  fed  with  springs  from  beneath,  or  with  small  imperceptible  streams  from  the  adjacent 
land.  4.  Those  which  receive  no  running  water,  and  have  no  visible  outlet.  Lakes  of  this 
class,  exclusive  of  marshes,  are  for  the  most  part  small,  and  merit  little  attention.  Without 
regarding  the  foregoing  distinctions,  some  writers  subdivide  lakes  into  two  kinds,  according 
to  tlie  general  character  of  the  surface  in  which  their  basins  are  situated :  viz.  those  which 
are  formed  in  deep  hollows  between  the  ridges  or  at  the  foot  of  mountains,  and  fed  by 
springs  or  torrents ;  and  those  which  are  formed  in  low  and  level  countries  for  want  of  a 
general  declivity,  or  dammed  up  by  a  mere  accumulation  of  alluvial  matter. 

Subterranean  lakes  form  a  class  of  lakes  differing  remarkably  from  all  the  preceding,  and 
are  bodies  of  water  contained  in  cavities  quite  covered  over  by  earthy  strata.  It  is  only 
when  such  cavities  are  laid  open  by  earthquakes,  by  the  falling  asunder  of  mountains,  by  the 
action  of  the  weather  or  of  rivers,  by  the  operations  of  mining,  or  when  the  roof  falls  in, 
that  their  situation  becomes  known.  But  they  are  probably  very  numerous,  though  perhaps 
often  of  small  size.  It  is  not  easy  to  account  for  the  permanent  and  uniform  flow  of  many 
springs  on  any  other  supposition.  Some  of  them  appear  to  give  rise  to  rivers,  while  others 
are  known  to  receive  very  considerable  streams  which  lose  themselves  in  the  interior.  Such 
are  tlie  numerous  cavities  of  the  Julian  Alps.  It  is  to  similar  reservoirs  that  we  must  attri- 
bute the  periodical  disappearance  of  certain  lakes  situated  above  ground.  There  are,?ome 
caverns  in  Norway  which  afford  a  passage  to  rapid  currents  of  water,  as  appears  from  the 
sound  heard  through  tlieir  roofs.  It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  many  streams,  finding  no 
readier  outlet,  flow  into  subterranean  cavities,  are  absorbed  by  the  earth,  or  discharge  them- 
selves under  ground  into  the  sea.  In  this  way  may  be  explained  the  origin  of  those  springs 
of  fresh  water  that  are  to  be  seen  spouting  up  even  in  the  midst  of  the  waves  of  the  ocean. 
The  waters  thrown  up  by  volcanoes,  the  sudden  and  terrible  inundation  of  mines,  the  number 
of  rivers  which  disappear,  the  mountains  which  are  suddenly  engulfed  in  the  bosom  of  new 
lakes, — all  these  facts  leave  no  doubt  of  the  existence  of  extensive  subterranean  cavities 
containing  large  bodies  of  water.  Tlie  digging  of  wells  has  supplied  a  fact  still  more  inter- 
esting to  physical  geography.  It  appears  that  there 'are  lakes,  or  rather  sheets  of  water, 
which  extend  under  ground  to  considerable  distances.  In  digging  wells  near  Aire,  in  the 
province  of  Artois,  they  always  come  to  a  cluvev  bed  ;  which  being  pierced,  the  water  gushes 
Vol.  I.  '    '  2  A 


202 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  IT. 


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Book  U.  HYDROLOGY.  203 

forth  in  large  bubbles,  and  forms  permanent  springs.  In  the  country  of  Modena,  we  find 
everywhere,  at  the  depth  of  twenty  yards,  a  bed  of  clay  five  feet  thick ;  which  being  pierced, 
the  water  spouts  up  with  considerable  force — indicating  that  it  is  connected  with  a  reservoir 
which  stands  at  a  higher  level.  There  is  a  district  in  the  interior  of  Algiers,  where  the 
inhabitants,  after  digging  to  a  depth  of  about  200  fathoms,  invariably  come  to  water,  which 
flows  up  in  such  abundance  that  they  call  it  the  subterranean  sea. 

Lakes  which  receive  much  water,  but  have  no  outlet,  were  believed  necessarily  to  com- 
municate with  the  ocean  by  sortie  subterraneous  channel.  The  great  distance  of  some  of 
them  trom  the  ocean  seemed  to  stand  in  the  way  of  such  an  explanation ;  and  doubts  might 
still  hate  remained,  were  it  not  for  the  discovery  of  the  remarkable  fact,  that  some  of  the 
principal  lakes  of  this  description  have  their  surfaces  far  depressed  below  the  level  of  the 
ocean.  Thus  the  surface  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  which  is  the  largest  known  lake,  and  without 
an  outlet,  was  found  by  Engelhardt  and  Parrot  to  be  334  feet  beneath  the  level  of  the  Black 
Sea.  A  similar  depression  has  been  ascertained  of  the  level  of  the  famous  Dead  Sea,  in 
Judea,  which  is  also  a  lake  without  an  outlet.  Its  surface  is  below  that  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean in  its  neighbourhood,  and  consequently  still  farther  below  the  higher  level  of  the  Red 
Sea.  The  true  explanation  as  to  the  consumption  of  the  waters  of  such  lakes  seems  to  be, 
that  it  is  carried  off  by  evaporation.  The  climates  in  which  the  two  last-mentioned  are 
situated  accord  well  with  this  supposition.  The  level  of  these  lakes,  however,  varies  with 
the  weather,  and  with  the  abundance  or  scarcity  of  the  waters  discharged  into  them  by  rivers 
at  particular  seasons  of  the  year.  The  variation  in  the  height  of  the  Caspian  Sea  is  fi'om 
four  to  eight  feet ;  but  the  level,  at  a  particular  point  of  its  shore,  must  be  affected  by  the 
dnection  of  the  wind,  and  probably  by  a  very  trifling  tide.  When  the  banks  of  lakes  are 
very  porous,  they  cannot  fail,  during  very  dry  weather,  to  absorb  a  large  portion  of  the  water, 
and  to  throw  it  off  by  evaporation. 

The  depth  of  great  lakes  has  been  seldom  ascertained  with  much  exactness.  The  gene- 
ral depth  of  the  Caspian  Sea  is  from  60  to  70  fathoms ;  but  this  increases  towards  the  south 
end  to  such  a  degree,  that  no  bottom  can  be  found  with  a  line  of  380  fathoms.  In  lakes,  as 
in  the  ocean,  the  slope  of  the  bank  is  continued  downward  for  a  considerable  way  below  the 
water;  that  is,  deep  lakes  are  to  be  found  in  mountainous  districts,  and  shallow  marshy  ones 
in  flatter  countries.  The  depth  of  Loch  Ness,  m  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  is  in  some 
places  130  fiithoms,  which  is  four  times  the  mean  depth  of  the  German  Sea ;  and  its  bottom 
is  actually  30  fathoms  below  the  deepest  part  of  that  sea,  between  the  latitudes  of  Dover 
and  Inverness.*  The  Lake  of  Geneva  attains  the  still  greater  depth  of  161  fathoms.  Many 
other  lakes  are  known  to  be  exceedingly  deep,  without  the  amount  being  ascertained.  Seve- 
ral have  passed  for  ages  as  bottomless ;  but  this  opinion  now  obtains  little  credit.  It  is  more 
probable,  that  most  lakes  are  daily  getting  more  shallow,  firom  being  filled  up  with  mud  or 
debris. 

The  temperature  of  the  surface  of  lakes  depends  on  the  climate  and  season  ;  but  at  the 
bottom  of  deep  lakes  it  tmdergoes  little  or  no  change  throughout  the  year,  and  approaches 
to  that  which  corresponds  to  the  maximum  density  of  water,  which  different  writers  estimate 
variously,  from  39"  F.  to  42.5°  ;  but  40°  is  most  commonly  received.  In  Loch  Catrine  and 
Loch  Lomond,  the  temperature,  at  all  depths  below  40  fathoms,  is  41° ;  but  the  mean  for 
the  clunate  is  47°.  The  deep  lakes  of  Thun  and  Zug,  in  Switzerland,  have  a  temperature 
of  42°  at  the  depth  of  15  brasses.  Thun  was  41.5°  at  the  depth  of  105  brasses,  while  the 
surface  was  60° ;  and  Zug,  41°  at  38  brasses,  with  surface  58°.  The  bottom  of  the  Lake  of 
Geneva  has  a  temperature  of  42° :  that  of  the  Lago  Sabatino  at  Rome  is  44.5°,  at  a  depth 
of  80  fathoms.  Tepid  springs  may,  in  some  cases,  keep  up  the  temperature,  when  they 
occur  at  the  bottom  of  lakes.  From  what  we  mentioned  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  it  does  not 
appear  that  the  climate  has  much  influence  ;  and  yet  most  powerful  springs  of  fresh  water 
are  known  to  boil  up  in  its  shallower  parts.  Such  springs  probably  approach  to  the  mean 
temperature  of  the  climate ;  or,  perhaps,  those  who  contend  for  an  increase  of  heat  with  the 
depth  of  the  solid  strata  would  claim  for  them  a  higher  temperature.  Deep  lakes  almost 
never  freeze,  except  in  a  very  cold  climate ;  because  the  whole  body  of  water  must  cool 
below  40°  before  congelation  could  commence.  Accordingly,  neither  Loch  Ness  nor  its 
efiluent  river  of  the  same  name  are  ever  frozen  over. 

The  qualities  of  the  waters  of  lak*s  are  various,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  substances 
with  which  they  may  be  mixed  or  contaminated.  The  principal  distinctions,  in  this  respect, 
are  fresh,  saline,  and  alkaline.  Lakes  which  receive  much  fresh  water,  and  have  a  copious 
efflux,  are  almost  always  fresh ;  but  those  which  lose  much  of  their  water  by  evaporation 
may  be  slightly  saline,  especially  if  the  neighbouring  soil  abound  in  salt.  When  lakes  have 
no  outlet,  they  are  invariably  saline.  To  account  for  this,  two  reasons  have  been  given, 
which  are  quite  compatible  with  each  other.  The  one  is,  that  salt  lakes  having  no  outlet 
are  concentrated  portions  of  the  waters  of  the  deluge,  retained  by  the  hollows  of  the  earth's 
surface ;  and  that  all  other  lakes  were  originally  such,  and  saline ;  but  those  have  had  their 

*  Vide  Stevenson,  Wernerlan  Memoirs,  and  Edinburgh  Phil.  Journal. 


204  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II 

salt  washed  out  and  carried  to  the  ocean,  wliich  are  traversed  by  rivers  or  other  fresh  water. 
The  other  opinion  is,  that  the  salt  in  lakes  has  come  from  springs,  or  been  waslied  from  the 
soil  of  the  adjacent  country  by  means  of  the  rain  and  rivers :  for  such  lakes  are  most  abun- 
dant where  the  soil  contauis  saline  matter ;  and  where  la];es  only  lose  water  by  evaporation, 
the  vapour  goes  off  fresh  and  leaves  the  salt  behind.  The  Dead  Sea  is  the  saltest  of  all 
known  lakes,  and  appears  to  have  been  so  for  upwards  of  4000  years ;  for  in  the  book  of 
Genesis  it  is  called,  by  way  of  distinction,  the  "  Salt  Sea,"  even  at  a  time  when  the  adjacent 
plain  was  as  noted  for  fertility  as  it  is  now  for  barrenness.  The  waters  of  this  lake  are  in  a 
stnte  of  saturation,  containing  about  eiglit  times  as  mucli  salt  as  those  of  the  ocean.  The 
salt  must  be  accumulating  in  beds  at  its  bottom ;  for  the  river  Jordan,  which  is  brackish, 
necessarily  carries  in  more.  Masses  of  bitumen  frequently  float  on  the  surface,  and  seem 
to  rise  from  the  bottom  of  the  lake.  The  same  thing  occurs  in  other  Asiatic  lakes,  some  of 
which  are  impregnated  with  borax.  In  the  island  of  Trinidad,  there  is  a  lake  which  pro- 
duces an  enormous  quantity  of  bitumen  fit  for  naval  purposes. 

Some  lakes  are  both  saline  and  alkaline,  as  is  the  case  with  a  series  of  lakes  in  Lower 
Egypt.  These  are  called  tlie  Natron  Lakes,  from  their  abounding  in  soda,  which  is  there 
called  trona  and  natron,  the  nitre  of  the  Sacred  Writings. 

Lakes  appear  to  have  been  much  more  numerous  at  a  former  period  than  at  present,  and 
to  have  occupied  a  large  proportion  of  the  surface  of  the  land.  Traces  of  their  existence 
occur  everywhere.  Many  of  them  have  been  filled  up  with  debris,  and  become  level  plains 
traversed  by  a  river;  some  have  been  drained  by  the  gradual  deepening  of  their  outlets;  or 
both  causes  have  often  operated  together.  Others  have  got  vent  through  cracks  caused  by 
earthquakes,  or  by  the  subsiding  of  a  part  of  the  basin.  The  kingdom  of  Hungary  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  originally  the  basin  of  a  lake ;  and  some  go  so  far  as  to  allege  the  same 
of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Geological  phenomena  also  show  that  new  lakes  arise,  and  old 
ones  disappear,  during  those  great  risings  and  sinkings  of  the  land  whicli  have  taken  place 
during  former  periods,  and  even  now  are  not  without  example. 

There  are  several  modes  in  which  new  lakes  may  be  formed.  In  hot  tropical  climates, 
many  large  lakes  are  formed  during  the  rainy  season,  and  entirely  disappear  on  a  change  of 
weather ;  but  such  hardly  deserve  the  name,  being  rather  land-floods,  tliough  they  would  be 
permanent  lakes  in  a  colder  country.  We  have  already  mentioned  the  formation  of  a  visible 
or  open  lake  from  the  falling  in  of  the  roof  of  a  subterranean  one.  When  a  mountain  fells 
asunder,  it  ofl;en  happens  that  it  stops  up  a  neighbouring  river  and  valley,  and  forms  a  lake. 
But  the  water  of  a  river  obstructed  in  this  manner  will  always  overflow,  and  can  scarcely 
foil  to  regain  its  former  level,  either  by  wearing  away  a  cut  for  itself  above,  or  by  under- 
mining the  ruins  beneath.  Shallow  marshy  lakes  are  frequently  formed  by  the  surplus 
waters  of  rivers  detained  on  flat  ground  by  an  accumulation  of  mud.  Ice  and  snow  some- 
times accumulate  in  narrow  passes  between  mountains,  so  as  to  obstruct  and  make  the  water 
stagnant,  and  form  a  temporary  lake,  increasing  perhaps  for  years,  till  at  length  the  pressure 
of  the  water  is  augmented  to  such  a  degree  as  to  burst  the  icy  barrier.  The  consequences 
are  sometimes  dreadful.  So  great  a  discharge  of  water  and  ice,  precipitated  from  the 
mountains,  tears  up  not  only  alluvial  substances,  but  frequently  portions  of  rocks,  which  are 
scattered  over  the  plain  below.  Thus  villages  and  fertile  fields  are  almost  instantly  con- 
verted into  deep  hollows  and  heaps  of  rubbish.  These  cavities  perhaps  continue  filled  with 
water,  forming  small  lakes. 

There  are  certain  lakes  which  disappear  and  re-appear  periodically,  without  regard  to 
the  rainy  season.  Such  are  supposed  to  be  filled  and  emptied  in  a  manner  similar  to  the 
cavities  of  intermitting  springs,  or  to  communicate  with  some  subterranean  lake  which 
undergoes  such  periodical  changes.  That  any  lakes,  remote  from  the  sea,  should  cominuni- 
cate  with  it  under  ground,  so  as  to  rise  and  fall  with  the  tide,  is  very  improbable.  In 
Portugal  there  is  a  small  lake  near  Beja,  which  emits  a  loud  noise  on  the  approach  of  a 
storm.  Other  lakes  appear  agitated  by  the  disengagement  of  gas.  Near  Boleslaw,  in 
Bohemia,  a  lake  of  unfathomable  depth  sometimes  emits  blasts  of  wind  which  raise  up 
pieces  of  ice.  Some  of  the  Scottish  lakes,  and  the  Wetter  in  Sweden,  experience  violent 
agitations  even  during  serene  weather.  A  coincidence  of  dates  has  given  ground  for  believ- 
ing that  these  agitations  are  connected  with  earthquakes  in  distant  countries. 

Sect.  IV. — Rivers. 

The  origin  and  progress  of  rivers  have  been  compared  by  Pliny  to  the  life  of  man.  "Its 
beginnings  are  insignificant,  and  its  infancy  is  frivolous ;  it  plays  among  the  flowers  of  a 
meadow,  it  waters  a  garden,  or  turns  a  little  mill.  Gathering  strength,  in  its  youth  it 
becomes  wild  and  impetuous.  Impatient  of  the  restraints  which  it  still  meets  with  in  the 
h.ollows  among  the  mountains,  it  is  restless  and  fretful ;  quick  in  its  turning,  and  unsteady 
in  its  course.  Now  it  is  a  roaring  cataract,  tearing  up  and  overturning  whatever  opposes 
its  progress,  and  it  shoots  headlong  down  from  a  rock  ;  then  it  becomes  a  sullen  and  gloomy 
pool,  buried  in  the  bottom  of  a  glen.  Recovering  breath  by  repose,  it  again  dashes  along, 
till,  tired  of  uproar  and  mischief,  it  quits  all  that  it  has  swept  along,  and  leaves  the  openmg 


Book  II.  HYDROLOGY.  205 

of  the  valley  strewed  with  the  rejected  waste.  Now  quitting  its  retirement,  it  comes  abroad 
into  the  world,  journeying  with  more  prudence  and  discretion,  through  cultivated  fields, 
yielding  to  circumstances,  and  winding  round  what  would  trouble  it  to  overwhelm  or  remove. 
It  passes  through  the  populous  cities,  and  all  the  busy  haunts  of  man,  tendering  its  services 
on  every  side,  and  becomes  the  support  and  ornament  of  the  country.  Increased  by 
numerous  alliances,  and  advanced  in  its  course,  it  becomes  grave  and  stately  in  its  motions, 
loves  peace  and  quiet,  and  in  majestic  silence  rolls  on  its  mighty  waters  till  it  is  laid  to  rest 
in  the  vast  abyss."  Tlie  sun  and  the  host  of  heaven  have,  in  all  ages  and  nations,  been 
objects  of  sincere  worship,  Next  to  them,  the  rivers  seem  to  have  attracted  the  grateful 
acknowledgements  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighbouring  countries.  They  liave  every- 
where been  considered  a  sort  of  tutelar  deities,  and  each  little  district,  every  retired 
valley,  had  its  river  god,  who  was  preferred  to  the  others.  The  expostulation  of  Naaman 
the  Syrian,  who  was  offended  with  the  prophet  for  enjoming  him  to  wash  in  the  river 
Jordan,  was  the  natural  effusion  of  this  attachment.  "  What  (said  he),  are  not  Abana  and 
Pharpar,  rivers  of  Damascus,  more  excellent  than  all  the  waters  of  Judea?  Might  I  not 
wash  in  them  and  be  clean  ]  so  he  went  away  wroth."  In  those  countries  particularly 
where  the  labours  of  the  husbandman  and  shepherd  depended  on  what  took  place  in  a  far 
distant  country  by  the  falling  of  periodical  rains,  or  the  melting  of  the  collected  snows,  the 
Nile,  the  Ganges,  the  Indus,  were  the  sensible  agents  of  nature  in  procuring  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  their  fertile  banks  all  their  abundance,  and  they  became  objects  of  grateful  adoration. 
Their  sources  were  sought  for  even  by  conquering  princes,  and  when  found  were  worshipped 
with  the  most  aliectionate  devotion.  These  rivers  preserve  to  this  day  the  fond  adoration  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  countries  through  which  they  pass,  and  tlieir  waters  are  still  held  sacred. 

Tlie  term  i-iver  is  applied  to  any  large  current  of  water  which  is  not  in  the  ocean  or  its 
branches,  and  which  may  discharge  itself  into  the  ocean,  into  lakes,  marshes,  or  into  other 
rivers ;  for  the  waters  of  some  rivers  never  reach  the  ocean  ;  as  is  the  case  with  the  Wolga, 
the  Jordan,  and  others,  which  discharge  themselves  into  salt  lakes,  having  usually  the  name 
of  seas.  When  the  atmospliere  supplies  a  country  with  more  water  than  it  has  an  opportu- 
nity of  carrying  off  again  by  evaporation,  the  surplus  either  penetrates  through  the  surface 
or  collects  into  small  streams,  which,  afterwards  uniting  and  receiving  the  water  of  springs, 
gradually  form  larger  and  larger  currents,  which,  if  allowed  to  proceed  increasing,  at  length 
become  rivers.  Some  rivers  proceed  from  lakes  or  marshes,  but  none  come  immediately  fi-om 
the  sea.  They  invariably  occupy  the  lowest  parts  of  the  districts  from  which  their  waters 
are  derived,  and  these  districts  are  called  their  basins.  The  basins  are  usually  bounded  by 
high  lands,  and  sometimes  by  mountams.  They  form  natural  divisions  in  physical  geograpliy. 
Those  of  the  Rhone,  Garonne,  Loire,  Seine,  and  part  of  the  basin  of  the  Rhine,  comprehend 
the  greatest  part  of  France.  In  some  cases,  the  boundaries  of  basins  are  not  well  defined ; 
as  where  the  surface  becomes  flat  or  marshy.  This  is  the  case  between  the  basins  of  the 
Amazon  and  Orinoco,  which  are  connected  by  a  natural  and  navigable  communication.  In 
Europe,  the  sources  of  the  Dwina,  of  the  Niemen,  and  of  the  Borysthenes,  are  nearly  united 
in  a  marshy  plain.  It  is  evident  that  the  deep  ravines  through  which  rivers  flow  could  not 
in  many  instances  be  the  work  of  the  rivers  themselves ;  because  the  margins  of  such  ravines 
are  often  higher  than  other  places  of  the  district,  through  which  the  rivers  ought  to  have 
flowed  before  such  valleys  were  cut,  as  some  flincy,  out  of  solid  rock.  A  more  rational 
explanation  is,  that  a  crack  or  rent, — the  effect  of  some  earthquake  or  subsidence, — had 
taken  place  ;  and  that  the  water,  getting  through  such  rent,  had  gradually  widened  it  by  the 
attrition  of  its  sand  and  gravel :  the  still  more  corroding  action  of  the  weather  would  mate- 
rially assist  in  widening  the  upper  part  of  the  ravine.  Many  rivers  appear  to  have  been  at 
first  a  series  of  lakes  and  cataracts  alternately,  through  which  the  water  was  conveyed  from 
higher  to  lower  ground.  The  bottoms  of  these  lakes  are  gradually  filled  up  with  debris, 
the  outlets  are  by  degrees  deepened,  or  the  basins  rent  through  as  above  described.  The 
lakes  at  length  become  dry  plains,  traversed  by  the  river;  the  cataracts,  clefts  or  deep 
ravines ;  and  the  river  acquires,  upon  the  whole,  a  pretty  uniform  descent.  There  are  traces 
of  tliese  changes  everywhere :  the  parallel  roads  of  Lochaber,  as  they  are  called,  seem  to  be 
nothing  else  than  the  horizontal  shelves  with  which  lakes  are  usually  surrounded.  From 
these  it  appears  that  the  valleys  of  Glen  Gluoy,  Glen  Roy,  and  Glen  Spean,  have  formerly 
been  the  basms  of  lakes,  which  are  now  cut  through  and  emptied.  Three  distinct  basins 
are  observed  in  the  course  of  the  Rhine :  first,  that  of  the  Lake  of  Constance ;  the  second 
readies  from  Basle  to  Bingen ;  and  the  third  from  this  to  the  sea.  They  are  separated  from 
each  other  by  rocky  straits.  In  many  cases,  the  subsidence  of  the  water,  at  successive  stages, 
can  bs  traced  from  one  level  to  another,  by  means  of  the  difierent  horizontal  shelves  still 
visible  on  the  sides  of  the  valleys.  Sir  Thomas  Lauder  remnrked  this,  in  the  above  named 
glens  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland.  In  the  valley  of  the  Rhine,  Professor  Playfair  distin- 
guished four  or  five  such  terraces,  at  the  successive  heights  of  twenty,  thirty,  or  forty  feet 
above  one  another.  The  same  thing  occurs  on  the  banks  in  the  great  chain  of  North  American 
lakes  wliich  are  not  yet  empty. 

The  larger  rivers  are,  their  fall  or  declivity  is  generally  s6"much  the  smaller.     The  reason 

Vol.  I.  18 


206  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  If. 

of  this  is,  that  large  rivers  necessarily  occupy  the  lowest  parts  of  the  country ;  and  also,  that 
there  are  no  materials  of  which  beds  of  rivers  are  ordinarily  formed,  that  could  have  resisted 
the  action  of  a  great  river,  having  a  rapid  fall,  during  the  lapse  of  ages.  In  the  last  200 
leao-ues  of  the  Amazons,  the  fall  is  only  10.5  feet ;  and  in  the  3000  miles  above  tiiat,  the 
mean  fall  is  only  five  inches  per  mile.  The  Seine,  between  Valvins  and  Sevres,  has  a  fall 
of  about  9.5  inches  per  mile.  The  Loire,  between  Briaire  and  Orleans,  has  only  one  foot  in 
13, .596.  Between  the  Himalaya  chain  and  the  sea,  the  Ganges  has  only  four  inches  per  mile. 
The  entire  fall  of  the  Wolga  is  957  French  feet,  or  five  inches  per  mile.  Notwithstanding 
the  rapidity  of  the  Rhine,  it  has  only  a  fall  of  four  feet  per  mile  between  Schaffhausen  and 
Strasburg ;  and  of  two  feet  between  that  and  Scbenckenschantz.  Sometimes  a  river  falling 
into  another  with  great  rapidity,  and  at  an  acute  angle,  will  at  the  time  of  flood  force  the 
latter  to  flow  back  for  a  short  way.  Such  is  sometimes  the  effect  of  the  Arve  on  the  Rhone, 
which  is  forced  back  into  the  Lake  of  Geneva. 

The  bore  is  a  phenomenon  which  occurs  on  some  great  rivers,  which  enter  the  sea  with 
considerably  velocity,  and  experience  a  sudden  check  or  obstruction  from  the  flow  of  the  tide : 
the  consequence  is,  that  an  enormous  wave,  known  by  the  term  bore,  and  various  other  names, 
is  generated  and  sent  backward  or  up  the  river  with  great  velocity,  to  the  no  small  danger 
of  the  navigation.  The  principle  on  which  this  phenomenon  depends  is  nearly  allied  to  that 
of  the  hydraulic  ram  :  at  tiie  spring  tides,  it  appears  of  a  correspondingly  greater  magnitude. 
In  the  Amazons,  the  height  of  this  wave  is  estimated  at  180  feet. 

Rivers  arc  subject  to  inundation.  In  the  Sacred  Writings,  some  allusions  are  made  to  the 
Dvcrflowings  of  the  Nile;  but  those  of  the  Jordan  are  distinctly  mentioned,  as  covering  all 
the  banks  during  harvest,  and  expelling  the  lions  which  lurked  in  the  thickets,  so  as  to 
drive  them  infuriated  through  the  country.  Modern  travellers,  however,  assert  that  this 
river  does  not  now  overflow ;  and  they  allege  as  a  reason,  that  its  channel  is  become  deep 
enough  to  hold  the  floods.  It  is  as  likely  that  the  banks  have  been  raised  by  the  deposition 
of  mud  and  the  growth  of  vegetables :  perhaps  the  fall  of  snow  and  rain  upon  Mount  Leba- 
non, from  which  the  floods  came,  is  not  so  abundant  since  its  forests  of  cedars  were  cut 
down ;  for  some  travellers  are  of  opinion  that  this  river  must,  fi-om  the  accounts  of  the  an- 
cients, have  been  formerly  of  much  greater  magnitude,  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  than  it 
now  appears  to  be. 

The  excessive  rains  which  fall  in  tropical  regions,  during  a  certain  season  of  the  year, 
occasion  tlie  inundation  or  overflowing  of  the  rivers  which  originate  in  the  torrid  zone. 
The  following  is  nearly  the  general  rula  for  the  rainy  season  ;  viz.,  that  periodical  rains 
3vorywhcre  prevail  from  the  equator  to  the  parallel  of  latitude  over  which  the  sun  is 
vertical.  Humboldt  mentions  as  another  pretty  correct  and  still  more  general  rule,  apply- 
ing likewise  to  the  fi-igid  zone,  that  the  season  of  floods  falls  within  four  months  of  midsum- 
mer. The  floods  of  rivers  originating  in  high  latitudes  proceed  principally  from  the  melt- 
ing of  the  ice  and  snow  on  the  mountains,  by  means  of  the  summer's  heat.  Such  floods  are 
violent,  but  of  short  duration,  and  occur  hi  the  four  months  preceding  the  summer  solstice. 
Some  of  these  rivers  have  two,  or  perhaps  three,  successive  floods,  corresponding  to  the 
seasons  of  thaw  in  the  low  ground,  on  the  sides  of  mountains,  and  on  their  summits. 

The  ancients  were  quite  aware  that  some  rivers  derived  their  floods  from  the  sources  wc 
have  just  mentioned ;  but  the  overflowings  of  the  Nile,  in  a  country  remote  from  both  rain, 
and  snow,  excited  their  surprise.  The  mystery  was,  however,  dispelled,  when  once  it  was 
known  that  tlie  Nile  principally  draws  its  waters  from  the  tropical  regions,  where  the  exces- 
sive periodical  rains  cause  other  rivers  to  overflow.  The  Nile  begins  to  swell  in  June,  and 
continues  to  do  so  till  the  middle  of  August,  when  it  has  reached  its  maximum  height  of 
from  24  to  28  feet.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  elevated  spots,  and  some  of  the  higher 
accumulations  of  alluvial  matter,  on  tl:c  margin  of  the  river,  the  whole  of  the  Delta  and  the 
long  valley  of  Egypt  is  tlien  covered  with  water.  The  rising  of  the  Ganges,  which  is  partly^ 
owing  to  the  melting  of  snow  and  partly  to  the  rainy  season,  commences  in  April,  and,  like 
the  Nile,  attains  its  maximum  of  about  31  or  32  feet  in  the  middle  of  August.  Tropical 
rivers  which  move  parallel  to  the  equator  spread  their  waters  pretty  uniformly  over  the  low 
ground  :  such  is  the  case  with  the  Orinoco  and  the  Senegal.  In  rivers  which  descend  from 
great  elevations,  or  move  at  right  angles  to  the  equator,  the  action  of  the  tropical  rains  is 
extremely  unequal ;  for  the  surplus  water  only  overflows  the  low  and  flat  districts.  This  is 
exactly  what  happens  with  the  Nile  :  but  it  is  sufficient  here  to  mention  the  general  princi- 
ples ;  as  the  mundations  of  particular  rivers  will  be  described  along  with  their  respective 
countries. 

Waterfalls,  or  cascades  and  cataracts,  are  ofl:en  formed  by  rivers  in  descending  from  pri 
mitive  mountains  into  secondary  countries.  Compact  durable  rocks  are  requisite  for  pro 
ducing  a  permanent  effect  of  tliis  kind  :  such  are  the  cataracts  of  the  Nile,  of  the  Ganges, 
and  various  other  rivers.  Some  cataracts,  like  those  of  Tunguska,  in  Siberia,  have  gradu- 
ally lost  their  elevation  by  the  wearing  away  of  the  rocks,  and  have  now  only  a  rapid  de- 
scent. According  to  Humboldt,  the  height  of  the  great  cataract  of  the  Rio  de  Bogota,  in 
South  America,  long  estimated  at  1500  feet,  is  about  800  feet ;  that  of  Staubbach  is  about 


Book  II.  HYDROLOGY.  207 

900  feet.  The  small  river  Ache,  in  Bavaria,  which  rises  in  the  cavern  of  tlie  g-lacier  of 
Mount  Tauren,  runs  through  the  valley  of  Achenthal,  and,  after  reacliing'  the  Gulf  of  Tau- 
ten, throws  itself  over  an  elevation  of  2000  feet.  It  has  five  great  falls ;  the  last  of  which 
forms  a  most  magnificent  arch  of  waters,  which  is  resolved  into  spray  before  it  reaches  the 
ground.  The  noise  of  the  waters  is  so  terrible,  that  it  is  heard  at  the  distance  of  more  than 
a  league ;  and  the  current  of  air  produced  by  the  descent  of  tlie  water  is  so  violent,  that  it 
drives  back  those  who  attempt  to  advance  towards  the  gulf:  it  is  necessary,  therefore,  to 
approach  it  by  walking  backwards.  The  fall  of  Garispa  hi  India  is  1000  feet.  One  of  the 
most  considerable  known  falls  takes  place  on  the  river  Niagara,  which  connects  Lakes  Erie 
and  Ontario.  The  river  here,  just  before  the  fall,  is  divided  by  Goat  Island  into  two  parts : 
the  one,  600  feet  broad,  falls  to  the  depth  of  150  feet ;  while  the  other,  35  yards  broad,  falls 
164  feet  in  perpendicular  height.  In  Scotland  the  most  considerable  falls  are  those  on  the 
river  Clyde,  near  Lanark,  where  the  river  is  precipitated  down  three  successive  precipices 
of  red  sandstone.  In  the  upper  fall,  that  of  Bonniton,  the  whole  river  throws  itself  over  a 
precipice  30  feet  high :  lower  down,  at  Corra  Linn,  it  is  precipitated  from  a  height  of  84 
feet.  The  lowest  fall,  that  of  Stonebyres,  consists  of  three  stages,  being  broken  by  two  pro- 
jecting rocks  ;  its  fall  is  80  feet.  In  the  course  of  the  river  Foyers,  on  the  side  of  Loch 
Ness,  there  are  two  falls ;  the  upper  fall  is  40  feet  high,  the  lower  90  feet.  In  the  miner- 
alogical  report  of  Lapland,  presented  to  the  Swedish  government,  the  discovery  of  a  great 
waterfall  in  the  river  Lulea  is  particularly  mentioned.  It  is  said  to  be  one  eighth  of  a  mile 
broad,  and  to  fall  400  feet ;  if  the  mile  be  German,  as  is  most  likely  (equal  to  four  and  a  half 
English  miles),  the  breadth  exceeds  half  an  English  mile. 


CHAPTER  in. 

GEOGNOSY. 

This  branch  of  natural  history  makes  us  acquainted  with  the  structure,  materials,  relative 
position,  and  mode  of  formation,  of  the  great  mineral  masses  of  which  the  crust  of  the 
earth  is  composed. 

In  conveying  to  our  readers  a  short  view  of  this  important  subject,  we  shall  adopt  the 
following  arrangement : — 

I.  Describe  the  physiognomy  of  the  earth's  surface. 

II.  Give  an  account  of  the  action  of  water  and  air  on  that  surface. 

III.  Give  an  account  of  the  action  of  volcanoes  and  earthquakes  on  the  earth's  surface. 

IV.  Describe  the  different  structures  observable  in  the  solid  mass  of  the  globe. 

V.  Define  and  describe  the  different  classes  and  species  of  rocks  of  which  the  crust  of  the 
earth  is  composed. 

Sect.  I. — Physiognomy  of  the  Earth'' s  surface. 

Dry  land.  The  dry  land,  or  tlie  land  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  arranged  into  masses 
of  various  magnitudes  and  forms.  It  is  not  equally  distributed ;  for  a  much  larger  portion 
of  it  occurs  to  the  north  than  to  the  south  of  the  equator ;  and  the  difference  in  this  respect 
is  so  great,  that  the  southern  half  of  the  globe  is  principally  water,  while  the  northern  is 
chiefly  land.  About  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  it  was  asserted  that  a  great  contment 
must  exist  towards  the  south  pole,  in  order  to  counterbalance  the  mass  of  land  in  the  north- 
ern hemisphere  ;  but  by  the  voyages  of  Cook  and  Bellinghausen,  and  particularly  the  late  enter- 
prise of  Weddel,  it  has  been  shown  that  in  high  southern  latitudes,  in  place  of  a  continent, 
there  are  but  a  few  groups  of  islands.  The  absence  of  a  contment  near  the  south  pole  does 
not  itself  prove  that  there  is  less  land  there  than  in  the  north,  since  it  is  possible  that  the 
land  in  general  may  be  only  rather  more  depressed  in  the  south,  and  consequently  the  ocean 
is  spread  more  extensively  over  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  that  quarter.  The  dry  land 
is  arranged  into  two  grand  divisions  named  worlds,  viz.  the  Old  World  and  the  Neio 
World.  The  Old  World,  in  the  eastern  hemisphere,  extends  from  S.  \V.  to  N.  E.,  and 
comprehends  the  three  continents  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.  The  Neiv  World,  in  the 
western  hemisphere,  extends  from  N.  to  S.,  and  is  composed  of  two  continents,  viz.  North 
and  South  America. 

The  general  direction  of  the  land  in  the  two  worlds  is  different.  In  America,  it  is  from 
N.  to  S. :  in  the  Old  World,  it  is  S.  W.  to  N.  E :  and,  if  we  omit  Africa,  it  is  almost  parallel 
with  the  equator.  The  longest  straight  line  that  can  be  drawn  on  the  Old  World  com- 
mences on  the  western  coast  of  Afi-ica,  from  about  Cape  Verd,  and  extends  to  Behring's 
Strait,  on  the  north-east  coast  of  Asia:  it  is  about  11,000  miles  in  length.  A  similar  line 
traced  along  the  New  World  from  the  Strait  of  Terra  del  Fuego  to  the  northern  shore  of 
North  America  measures  nearly  9000  miles. 

The  Old  and  New  Worlds  have  the  following  features  in  common :  northern  and  southern 
halves,  connecting  isthmuses,  a  peninsula  on  the  one  side,  and  a  group  of  islands  on  the 
other.     This  arrangement  will  appear  evident  from  the  following  detaQs. 


208  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

The  old  world  may  be  considered  as  composed  of  two  great  halves :  the  one,  tlic  western, 
includes  Europe  and  Africa;  the  otlier,  the  eastern,  Asia  and  New  Holland.  In  the  western 
half,  the  two  continents,  viz.  Europe  and  Africa,  are  connected  together  by  the  isthmus  of 
Suez,  and  have  on  the  one  hand  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  on  the  other  the  pen- 
insula of  Arabia.  In  the  eastern  half,  the  two  continents  of  Asia  and  New  Holland  are,  to 
a  certain  extent,  connected  together  by  the  islands  of  Java,  Sumatra,  &c. ;  and  in  front  of 
this  broken  isthmus  is  Papua  and  other  islands,  and  on  the  other  side  the  peninsula  of  India. 
The  New  World  is  composed  of  two  halves,  a  northern  and  a  southern :  these  are  connected 
together  by  the  istiimus  of  Darien ;  and  on  the  front  are  situated  the  West  India  islands,  and 
behind  the  peninsula  of  California. 

Another  general  feature  in  tlie  general  distribution  of  the  dry  land,  is  the  tapering  of  all 
the  great  peninsulas  to  the  south.  This,  for  example,  is  the  case  with  the  continent  of  Africa, 
vvitli  Arabia,  India,  Soutli  America,  Scandinavia,  Spain,  Italy,  Greece,  Corea,  Alashka,  Kam- 
tchatka,  California,  Florida,  and  Greenland. 

Besides  the  Old  and  New  Worlds,  as  above  described,  there  occur,  dispersed  through  the 
ocean,  numerous  smaller  masses  of  land,  forming  islands  of  various  magnitudes  and  tbrnis. 
Those  islands  situated  near  to  the  continents  are  considered  as  belonging  to  them.  Thus 
the  British  isles  belong  to  Europe,  those  of  Japan  to  Asia,  the  West  India  islands  to 
America,  and  Madagascar  to  Africa.  But  besides  these  tliere  are  other  islands  and  groups 
of  islands,  situated  at  a  distance  from  continents,  and  which  cannot  be  referred  to  any  of  tlie 
preceding  divisions,  but  to  the  oceans  in  which  they  occur ;  as,  for  example,  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  in  the  North  Pacific  Ocean. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Inequalities  of  the  Surface  of  the  Dry  Land. 

The  surface  of  the  land  exhibits  great  variety  in  aspect,  forming  mountains,  hills,  valleys, 
and  plains.  The  most  general  of  these  features  are  what  geographers  term  high  land  and 
low  land.  High  lands  are  lofty,  uneven,  and  widely  extended  masses  of  land :  thus,  the 
mountainous  tract  of  country  extending  from  the  Naze  of  Norway  to  the  North  Cape  is  a 
liigh  land.  Low  lands  are  widely  extended  low  and  flat  countries :  thus,  the  northern  part 
of  France,  the  Netherlands,  Holland,  part  of  Germany,  and  Silesia ;  Poland,  and  European 
Russia  form  what  may  be  called  the  great  European  low  land.  We  shall  first  explain  the 
structure  of  higli  land,  and  next  that  of  low  land. 

(1.)  Structure  of  high  land.  In  a  higli  land,  the  central  parts  are  generally  the  most 
rugged  and  lofty,  while  the  exterior  districts,  those  which  border  on  the  low  land,  are  lower, 
and  less  rugged.  The  central  part  is  named  alpine,  the  lower  and  the  exterior  part  hilly. 
The  alpine  part  of  a  high  land  is  composed  of  a  central  and  lofty  chain  of  mountains,  named 
the  central,  or  high  mountain  chain,  towards  which  there  tend  a  greater  or  lesser  number 
of  lateral  or  principal ;  and  from  these  again  subordinate  chains.  The  high  mountain  chain 
forms  the  water-shed  {divorlia  aquarian)  of  the  district;  and  the  hollows  that  traverse  the 
upper  part  of  this  chain  are  named  passes  (cols.)  On  passing  from  one  side  to  another  of 
the  alpine  land,  we  do  not  always  travel  through  a  pass  or  col,  but  sometimes  across  a  com- 
paratively flat  tract,  many  leagues  in  extent;  such  are  named  table-lands.  In  crossing 
from  Norway  to  Sweden,  we  pass  in  some  parts  across  a  table-land  ;  also  in  travelling  from 
Vera  Cruz  by  Mexico  to  Acapulco.  The  inclined  planes  on  wliicli  the  lateral,  or  principal 
and  subordinate,  chains  are  distributed  are  named  the  acclivities  of  the  high  land.  The 
hollows  that  separate  these  chains  from  each  other  are  named  valleys :  those  valleys  bounded 
by  principal  chains  are  named  principal  valleys,  and  sometimes  transverse  valleys ;  while 
the  valleys  between  subordinate  chains  are  named  subordinate  valleys.  The  liilly  or  lower 
part  of  the  '^igh  land  is  composed  of  comparatively  low  and  less  rugged  chains,  called  chains 
of  hills,  whioh  are  irregularly  grouped,  being  entirely  without  a  central  or  high  mountain 
chain.  The  valleys  in  this  hilly  land  are  shorter,  less  steep,  and  not  so  rugged  as  in  the 
more  central  or  alpine  part  of  the  high  land. 

(2.)  Structure  of  low  land.  Low  land  is  formed  principally  of  extensive  plains,  little 
elevated  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  which  we  occasionally  observe  gentle  risings  and 
undulations  of  the  surface,  that  often  extend  to  a  considerable  distance,  and  sometimes  form 
the  limits  between  neighbouring  rivers.  Now  and  then  conical  and  table-shaped  hills  rise 
up  singly  and  suddenly  in  a  low  country,  as  is  the  case  with  volcanic  and  igneous  hills.  The 
plains  of  the  low  land  are  characterised  by  the  presence  of  particular  hollows  or  concavities, 
which  are  named  river-courses  or  river-valleys ;  because  in  these  rivers  flow.  In  such  hol- 
lows we  distinguish  the  bed  of  the  river,  and  tlie  holm  or  haugh  land ;  further  we  observe 
the  high  and  low  banks  of  the  river,  and  the  ravines  or  small  valleys,  that  traverse  the  high 
bank  and  terminate  in  the  low  bank.  There  is  still  another  kind  of  hollow  met  with  in  the 
low  land ;  it  is  that  in  which  lakes,  generally  shallow,  are  contained. 

Coasts.  The  margin  of  the  dry  land,  where  it  meets  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  has  received 
the  general  name  of  coast.  It  varies  in  its  aspect.  Sometimes  it  is  low  and  slielving,  and 
then  the  neighbouring  soa  is  shallow  to  a  considerable  distance ;  at  other  times  it  is  steep, 
lofty,  and  ragged,  and  then  the  sea  is  deep.     In  many  parts  of  Great  Britain,  and  on  the 


Book  II.  GEOGNOSY.  209 

continent,  as  in  Holland,  the  coast  is  low  and  sandy,  and  the  sand  is  occasionally  blown  into 
hills. 

Caves.  These  are  cavities  of  greater  or  less  extent,  which  are  either  open  to  day,  as  in 
the  cise  of  the  magnificent  caves  in  the  Isle  of  Isla,  those  in  Arran,  those  near  Wemyss  on 
the  coast  of  Fifeshire,  &c.,  when  they  are  named  external  or  open  caves ;  or  they  are  more 
or  less  concealed  in  the  interior  of  the  rocks  in  which  they  are  contained,  as  Maclean's  Cave 
in  the  Isle  of  Egg,  and  many  caves  in  the  limestone  of  Derbyshire  :  such  are  named  internal 
caves. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Inequalities  of  the  Surface  of  the  Submarine  Land. 

The  bottom  of  the  sea,  like  the  surface  of  the  dry  land,  varies  in  fonn.  In  some  seas 
there  occur  flats  and  plains  ranging  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  near  to  the  surface  of  the 
water,  forming  what  are  called  shoals ;  in  other  cases,  plains,  of  great  extent,  occur  deeply 
seated,  or  much  below  the  surface  of  the  sea,  which  are  denominated  deep  submarine  plains. 
These  submarine  plains,  like  the  plains  on  the  dry  land,  sometimes  contain  hollows  of  con- 
siderable extent,  and  of  great  deptli ;  the  deep  hollows  under  the  sea  off  the  coast  of  Scot- 
land, known  under  the  name  of  Montrose  pits,  are  of  this  description.  The  sea  bottom  is 
sometunes  hilly ;  these  hills  vary  in  form  and  magnitude,  and  are  either  deeply  seated,  or 
rise  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  forming  rocks  or  islands.  In  tropical  seas,  the  bottom, 
when  not  very  deep,  becomes  encrusted  with  coral ;  which  coral  sometimes  rises  to  the  sur- 
face, and  then  forms  coral  shoals,  coral  reefs,  or  coral  isles.  If  the  bottom  is  very  deep, 
but  sends  up  from  below  hills  whose  summits  are  not  far  below  the  level  of  the  ocean,  these 
ill  tropical  seas  also  become  covered  with  coral. 

Sect.  II. — Effects  of  Water  and  the  Atmosphere  on  the  Surface  of  the  Land. 

Water  is  a  very  active  agent  in  altering  and  variously  modifying  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
and  its  energy  is  increased  when  it  carries  along  with  it  mechanical  matter,  as  sand,  gravel, 
&c.,  and  particularly  when  aided  by  the  gnawing  influence  of  the  atmosphere.  Through 
tliese  agents  the  whole  surface  of  the  dry  land  is  kept  more  or  less  in  a  state  of  motion,  by 
their  breaking  up  the  strata,  and  removing  with  greater  or  less  rapidity,  the  broken  rocky 
matters  from  point  to  point,  and  often  into  lakes  and  the  sea. 

Water  acts  mechanically  and  chemically :  it  acts  mechanically  when  it  removes  part  of 
the  soil  or  broken  rocky  matter  over  which  it  passes,  or  corrodes  the  channel  in  which  it 
flows,  or  the  reservoirs  in  vvhitfh  it  is  contained ;  it  also  acts  mechanically,  when,  on  being 
imbibed  by  rocks,  it  increases  their  weight,  and  tlius  favours  their  rending,  slipping,  and 
overturning ;  and,  lastly,  it  acts  mechanically,  when,  by  its  freezing  m  fissures,  it  breaks  up 
mountain  masses  and  rocks.  It  acts  chemically,  when  it  dissolves  particular  mineral  sub- 
stances, as  rock-salt,  out  of  the  rocks  through  which  it  percolates. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Mechanical  destroying  Effects  of  Water. 

(1.)  Rivulets  and  Rivers.  Running  waters,  in  their  course  from  the  higher  to  the 
lower  parts  of  a  country,  carry  along  with  them  the  debris  already  prepared  by  the  action 
of  the  weather  on  exposed  rocks,  and  also  more  or  less  considerable  portions  of  the  strata 
of  the  basm  in  which  they  flow.  The  quantity  of  abraded  matter  depends  in  a  great  degree 
on  the  quantity  of  sand  or  gravel  the  river  carries  along  with  it ;  it  being  a  fact,  that  running 
water,  when  pure,  acts  but  feebly  on  compact  strata,  and  displays  its  scooping  or  excavating 
power  only  when  carrying  along  with  it  sand,  gravel,  and  such  other  matters,  which  com- 
municate to  it  a  mechanical  destroying  action.  As  the  velocity  of  the  river  diminishes, 
its  carrying  power  diminishes ;  and  frequently,  long  before  it  has  reached  the  marsh,  lake, 
or  the  sea  into  which  it  disembogues  itself,  it  carries  only  slime  and  sleech,  leaving  the 
gravels  and  larger  solid  masses  in  higher  parts  of  its  course.  The  transporting  power  of 
water  is  much  greater  than  many  are  aware  of:  it  is  strikingly  shown  by  the  enormous 
quantities  of  rubbish,  and  great  blocks  of  stone,  which  are  swept  along  by  rivulets  when  in 
the  state  of  flood  or  swollen.  This  transporting  power  is  materially  assisted  by  the  diminished 
specific  gravity  of  the  rocks  when  immersed  in  the  water,  by  which  their  weight  is  often 
diminished  one-third,  and  even  one-half  The  transporting  of  heavy  stones  by  water  in 
situations  where  ice  occurs  is  assisted  by  the  ice  which  adheres  to  them,  and  which  dimin- 
ishes the  specific  gravity  of  the  mass. 

(2.)  Lakes.  Around  the  margins  of  many  lakes  we  observe  a  beach,  formed  of  the  frag- 
ments of  the  neighbouring  strata,  broken  oft"  in  part  by  the  waters  of  the  lake.  The  burstmg 
of  lakes  also  occasions  great  changes  in  the  neighbouring  country,  which  changes  are  of  a 
mechanical  destroying  nature. 

(3.)  Ocean.  The  waters  of  the  ocean  exercise  a  powerful  destroying  effect  on  coasts. 
If  the  coasts  are  bold  and  rugged,  they  are  violently  assaulted  by  the  waves  of  the  ocean ; 
the  crags  and  cliffs  split  and  tumble  down,  in  frightfiil  and  irregular  succession.  The  perfo- 
rated rock,  the  Doreholm,  on  the  west  coast  of  Shetland  ;  the  perforated  rocks  described  by 
Captain  Cook  near  New  Zealand ;  the  stalks,  holms,  and  skerries  on  the  coasts  of  Shetland, 

YoL.  I.  18  *  2  B 


210  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

Scotland,  and  Norway,  are  effects  of  the  destroying  power  of  the  waves  of  the  ocean,  con- 
joined with  the  gnawing  action  of  the  weather.  On  those  rocky  coasts  where  the  strata  are 
of  unequal  hardness,  the  softer  portions,  and  also  part  of  the  surrounding  harder  mass,  are 
removed  by  the  action  of  the  waves ;  and  thus  sea-caves  are  formed. 

The  waters  of  the  ocean  often  also  cause  dreadftil  ravages  in  low  countries  e.xposed  to 
their  fury.  Holland  fiirnishes  many  striking  examples  of  its  devastating  power.  In  the 
year  1225  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  agitated  by  a  violent  tempest,  mundated  the  country ; 
the  Rhine,  swollen  at  the  time  by  e.xtraordinary  floods,  and  retained  at  a  great  height,  partly 
by  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  and  partly  by  the  wind  blowing  in  a  contrary  direction  to  its 
course,  spread  over  the  neiglibouring  country :  but,  the  tempest  having  suddenly  subsided, 
the  highly  elevated  waters  retired,  with  such  velocity  and  force  as  to  carry  with  them  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  soil,  and  left  in  its  place  the  sea  now  named  the  Zuyder  Sea. 
In  the  year  1421,  a  great  inundation  submerged  the  southern  part  of  the  province  of  Holland, 
drowned  60,000  persons,  and  on  retiring  formed  the  Bies-Boos. 

The  act'on  of  the  sea  on  the  submarine  land  is  also  worthy  of  notice.  Stevenson  speaks 
of  agitations  of  the  sea  reaching  to  a  depth  of  upwards  of  200  feet ;  stating  that,  at  a  con- 
siderable depth  the  power  of  the  ocean  is  so  considerable  as  to  break  rocks  in  pieces,  and 
throw  them  upon  the  coasts  in  masses,  of  various  sizes  and  forms.  Thus  he  says,  "  numerous 
proofs  of  the  sea  being  disturbed  to  a  considerable  depth  have  also  occurred  since  the  erec- 
tion of  the  Bell-Rock  Light-house,  situated  upon  a  sunken  rock  in  the  sea,  twelve  miles  oft' 
Arbroath,  in  Forfarshire.  Some  drift-stones  of  large  dimensions,  measuring  upwards  of 
thirty  cubic  feet,  or  more  than  two  tons  weight,  have,  during  storms,  been  often  thrown  upon 
the  rock  from  the  deep  water.  These  large  boulder-stones  are  so  familiar  to  the  light- 
house keepers  at  this  station,  as  to  be  by  them  termed  travellers.*  On  the  coast  of  the  main 
land  of  Shetland,  particularly  on  the  west  coast,  we  have  observed  many  striking  displays 
of  the  power  of  the  waves  in  moving  enormous  masses  of  rocks. 

The  currents  that  traverse  the  ocean,  like  rivers  on  the  dry  land,  probably  scoop  out  beds 
for  themselves,  and  carry  away,  and  often  to  distant  places,  great  quantities  of  abraded 
matter.  The  gulf  stream,  and  other  branches  of  the  great  equinoctial  current,  may  act 
powerfiiUy  in  this  way ;  and  the  same  may  be  the  case  with  the  currents  in  other  seas, 
and  those  that  enter  mediterranean  seas  and  wind  roimd  them,  as  the  Baltic  and  Medi- 
terranean. 

(4.)  Aotion  of  water  by  its  own  weight.  Water  by  its  own  weight  contributes  very  much 
to  the  degradation  of  the  surface  of  the  globe.  Sometimes  great  masses  of  rock,  particu- 
larly those  of  a  soft  and  porous  nature,  imbibe  much  water,  by  which  their  weiglit  is  in- 
creased, and  thus  occasions  breaking  and  rending,  and  slipping  of  masses  often  of  enormous 
magnitude.  Clay  beds  sometimes  become  soft  from  the  percolation  of  rain  or  snow  water 
from  the  superincumbent  strata.  When  this  takes  place  the  superincumbent  beds  lose  their 
support,  and  if  the  clay  and  superimposed  rocks  are  inclined  at  a  considerable  angle,  the 
rocks  in  vast  masses  separate,  and  slide  down  into  the  lower  part  of  the  country.  The  fall 
of  the  Rossberg,  in  Switzerland,  in  September  1802,  may  be  mentioned  as  an  example  of 
this  phenomenon.  This  mountain  (Rossberg)  is  5193  feet  high,  and  lies  opposite  to  the 
Rigiberg,  which  rises  6182  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  Rossberg  is  composed  of 
molasse,  with  beds  of  clay,  and  all  inclined  at  an  angle  of  45°  to  50°.  It  is  said  that  the 
clay  in  some  of  the  beds  was  much  softened  by  the  percolating  water,  and  the  thick  super- 
incumbent beds  of  molasse,  in  this  way  losing  their  support,  were  separated  from  the  inclined 
and  soft  surface  underneath,  and  slid  into  the  valley  below.  This  avalanche  of  debris  and 
mud  overwhelmed  several  villages,  and  destroyed  from  600  to  900  persons.  In  the  year 
1714,  the  west  side  of  the  Diablerets,  in  the  Valais,  separated,  and  in  its  course  downwards 
covered  the  neighbouring  country  with  its  ruins  for  two  miles  in  length  and  breadth ;  the 
immense  blocks  of  stones  and  heaps  of  rubbish  interrupted  the  course  of  the  rivers,  and 
lakes  were  thus  formed.  In  the  year  1618,  the  once  considerable  town  of  Pleurs,  in  the 
Grisons,  with  the  neiglibouring  village  of  Schelano,  were  overwhelmed  by  a  vast  mass 
of  rock,  which  had  imbibed  much  water,  and  separated  from  the  south  side  of  the  mountain 
of  Corto. 

(5.)  Effects  of  the  freezing  of  water.  In  those  regions  of  the  earth  where  the  freezing 
and  thawing  of  water  takes  place,  the  expansive  and  destroying  action  of  ice  is  often  dis- 
played on  a  grand  scale.  In  the  history  of  northern  countries  we  meet  with  many  accounts 
of  the  noises  and  rendings  of  rocks,  occasioned  hy  the  expansion  of  water  during  its  freezing 
in  the  fissures  of  rocks.  Terrible  disasters  take  place  in  alpine  countries  by  the  bursting 
and  fall  of  great  masses  of  rock,  split  by  the  freezing  of  the  water  in  rents. 

(6.)  Destroying  effects  of  ice  and  snoio.  Water  in  the  form  of  ice  causes  considerable 
changes  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Thus,  when  floated  along  in  great  masses  by  rivers,  it 
breaks  up  their  banks,  and  thus  affords  them  an  opportunity  of  devastating  the  lower  country ; 
and  the  masses  are  often  so  great,  that  enormous  heaps  of  the  strata  are  thereby  torn  oft' and 
carried  to  a  distance.  When  sea  ice  is  drifted  against  the  cliffs  and  precipices  on  the  coast, 
the  breaking  and  destruction  it  occasions  sometimes  almost  pass  belief.  For  the  breaking 
*  Vii'e  Wernerian  Soc.  Memoirs  vol.  iii. 


Book  II.  GEOGNOSY.  211 

up  and  moving  of  large  masses  of  rock,  one  of  the  most  pcwerfiil  engines  employed  by 
nature  are  the  glaciers.  These  masses  of  congealed  water  and  snow,  in  their  course  down- 
ward, push  before  them  enormous  quantities  of  broken  rocky  matter,  which  form  great 
mounds,  named  moraine. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Chemical  destroying  Effects  of  Water. 
Atmospheric  water  enters  into  the  fissures  of  rocks  in  a  pure  state,  but  issues  forth  again 
more  or  less  impregnated  with  mineral  matters  of  various  kinds  abraded  from  the  strata 
tlirough  whicli  they  pass.  The  most  abundant  substance  brought  out  in  this  way  from  the 
interior  of  the  crust  of  the  earth  is  lime,  which  is  deposited  from  these  calcareous  waters  in 
the  form  of  tuffa.  Many  of  the  excavations  in  limestone  are  partly  owing  to  this  destroying 
effect  of  water.  Spring  waters,  in  passing  through  beds  of  gypsum  and  rock  salt,  dissolve 
a  portion  of  them,  and  in  this  way  sometimes  occasion  considerable  changes  in  the  interior 
and  even  the  surface  of  the  earth,  by  the  superincumbent  strata  yielding  over  the  hollows 
formed  by  the  removal  of  the  salt  and  gypsum. 

SiiBSECT.  3. — Mechanical  forming  Effects  of  Water. 

(1.)  Forming  effects  of  springs.  Springs  bring  from  the  interior  of  the  earth  muddy 
matter  of  various  descriptions ;  and  in  the  course  of  time,  if  the  springs  are  spouting-springs, 
hillocks  and  hills  of  considerable  magnitude  are  thus  formed. 

(2.)  Lakes.  When  lakes  are  filled  up,  or  are  emptied,  we  find  the  space  formerly  occu- 
pied bj'^  them  covered,  to  a  greater  or  less  depth,  with  the  alluvial  matter  brought  into  them 
by  the  rivers  that  flow  into  them.  When  lakes  burst  their  barriers,  at  different  times,  they 
leave  on  their  sides  a  series  of  natural  terraces  or  platforms,  of  which  we  have  a  splendid 
example  in  Glen  Roy.  In  Glen  Roy  these  terraces  are  known  under  the  name  of  Parallel 
Roads  of  Glen  Roy ;  because  some  have  fancied  they  were  not  natural  arrangements,  but 
works  of  art, — roads  formed  by  the  ancient  inliabitants. 

(3.)  Rivers.  When  rivers  are  in  a  state  of  flood  they  often  overflow  their  banks,  and 
cover  the  neighbouring  country  with  their  waters.  Thus  the  Ganges,  near  its  mouth,  in  the 
rainy  season  overflows  the  country  to  the  breadth  of  one  hundred  miles,  and  to  the  depth  of 
nearly  twelve  feet ;  and  the  Indus,  during  its  period  of  inundation,  extends  thirty  or  forty 
miles  from  its  banks.  This  flood  water  carries  with  it  muddy  and  other  matters,  and  deposits 
them  upon  the  land.  Gerard  says  that  the  annual  floods  of  the  Nile  had  raised  the  surface 
of  Upper  Egypt  about  six  feet  four  inches,  English  measure,  since  the  commencement  of 
the  Christian  era,  or  four  inches  in  a  century.  In  other  countries  extensive  deposits, 
extending  along  the  sides  of  rivers,  are  formed  by  the  overflowing  of  their  waters.  Where 
rivers  enter  lakes  and  the  sea,  they  form  triangular  pieces  of  land  named  deltas,  from  their 
resemblance  in  form  to  the  triangular-shaped  Greek  letter  A.  These  deltas  are  more  strongly 
marked  in  lakes  than  in  nearly  inclosed  seas,  as  the  Mediterranean ;  and  in  these  seas  than 
in  the  ocean,  where  the  depositions  are  much  interrupted  by  currents.  The  most  famous 
in  history  of  these  deltas  is  that  of  the  Nile.  This  delta  has  been  considerably  enlarged 
since  tlie  time  of  Herodotus,  but  not  to  the  extent  stated  by  many  writers.  At  no  great 
distance  from  the  shore  of  the  delta  the  depth  of  the  Mediterranean  is  about  seventy-two 
feet,  and  farther  out  the  sea  suddenly  deepens  to  2000  feet, — a'  depth  very  probably  beyond 
reach  of  the  delta,  and  which  may  be  conjectured  to  be  the  original  depth  of  this  part  of 
the  Mediterranean  sea.  The  deltas  of  the  other  rivers  that  flow  into  the  Mediterranean, 
as  the  Rhone  and  the  Po,  exhibit  phenomena  similar  to  those  observed  in  the  delta  of  Egypt ; 
and  by  their  considerable  extent,  and  annual  growth,  furnish  ample  proofs  of  the  forming 
power  of  rivers,  and  of  the  resemblance  of  alluvial  matters  to  strata  of  an  older  date.  The 
great  sea-deltas,  or  those  formed  where  rivers  flov/  into  the  ocean,  are  sometunes  on  a  great 
scale,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Ganges,  of  which  a  most  interesting  account  has  been  given 
by  Rennel  and  some  other  writers.  A  fiiU  description  of  this  magnificent  delta,  as  also  of 
the  vast  deposites  at  the  mouths  of  the  Mississippi,  Orinoco,  and  other  great  rivers,  will  be 
given  in  the  body  of  this  work.  At  present,  however,  we  may  remark,  that  the  quantity  of 
matter  carried  into  the  sea  by  all  the  rivers  on  the  globe  is  very  great,  and  fully  as  consider- 
able as  that  stated  by  some  authors,  who  have  been  held  as  exaggerating  the  amount  of  this 
earthy  matter  carried  from  the  dry  land  to  the  shores  of  the  ocean.  The  alluvial  matter 
brought  down  by  rivers  not  only  forms  great  tracts  of  land  at  their  mouths,  but  also,  through 
the  agency  of  currents,  assisted  by  the  waves  of  the  ocean,  gives  rise  to  extensive  tracts  of 
low  and  flat  land,  which  extend  along  the  coasts. 

Downs.  When  the  sea-coast  is  low,  and  the  bottom  consists  of  sand,  the  waves  push 
this  sand  towards  the  shore,  where,  at  every  reflux  of  the  tide,  it  becomes  partially  dried, 
and  the  winds,  which  often  blow  from  the  sea,  drift  up  some  portions  of  it  upon  the  beach. 
By  this  forming  action  of  the  ocean,  sandy  flats  and  downs,  or  ranges  of  sand-hills,  are 
formed  along  the  coast.  When  this  sand  is  moved  about  by  the  wind,  it  forms  what  is  called 
the  sand-food.  Westward  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  Findhorn,  in  Morayshire,  a  district 
cunsisting  of  upwards  of  ten  square  miles  of  land,  which,  owing  to  its  fertility,  was  once 


212  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  IJ. 

named  the  Granary  of  Moray,  has  been  depopulated,  and  rendered  utterly  unproductive  by 
the  sand-flood.  Tliis  barren  waste  may  be  characterised  as  hilly  ;  the  accumulutions  of  sand 
composing  these  hills  fretiuently  varying  in  their  height,  and  likewise  in  tlioir  situations. 
The  sand  hills  of  Barry,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tay,  composed  of  blown  sand,  are  from  2U0 
to  300  lect  higli.  Belhelvie  links,  in  Aberdeenshire,  and  the  extensive  sandy  tracts  in  the 
Shetland  and  Western  Islands,  are  of  the  same  description.  These  blovvinjf  sands  some- 
times block  up  the  mouths  of  rivers  and  rivulets :  thus,  many  years  ago,  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Findhorn  in  Moray  having  become  blocked  up  witli  blowmg  sand,  it  cut  out  for  itself 
its  present  channel,  which  conducts  it  by  a  more  direct  course  to  the  sea.  In  consequence 
of  tliis,  the  old  town  of  Findhorn  had  changed  its  situation  fi-om  the  east  to  the  west  side  of 
the  river,  and  its  site  has  since  been  covered  by  tlie  sea.  The  lake  at  Strathbeg,  which 
covers  a  square  mile  of  country,  on  tlie  coast  of  Aberdeenshire,  about  ten  miles  north  from 
Peterhead,  was  formed  about  170  years  ago,  by  the  choking  up  by  blowing  sand  of  a  small 
stream  that  fell  into  the  sea.  These  barriers  sometimes  give  way,  wlien  tlie  tract  is  again, 
for  a  time,  covered  by  the  sea ;  a  new  barrier  again  rises,  and  the  sea  is  excluded  a  second 
time.  These  operations,  on  a  great  scale,  would  afford  alternation  of  productions  of  the  land 
and  of  the  sea.  The  sands  of  the  African  deserts  may  be  sea  sands,  or  land  sands,  or  both 
together.  Dr.  Oudney,  Major  Denham,  and  Captain  Clapperton  have  added  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  blowing  sands  of  the  African  deserts.  The  coloured  engraving  of  the  sand-hiUs  of 
the  African  desert  in  Denham,  Oudney,  and  Clapperton's  Narrative,  is  a  striking  and  in- 
teresting representation  of  the  form  of  the  moving  sand-hills  of  Africa. 

Saiid  banks.  The  bed  of  the  German  Ocean  supports  many  accumulations  of  sand, 
called  sand-banks.  One  of  these  extends  from  the  Frith  of  Forth,  in  a  nortli-easterly 
direction,  to  a  distance  of  110  miles,  while  another,  the  Dogger  Bank,  extends,  north  and 
south,  for  upwards  of  350  miles.  The  average  height  of  these  submarine  sand-banks  is 
estimated  at  about  seventy-eight  feet :  the  whole  surface  of  the  various  shoals  in  this  sea 
laid  down  in  charts,  according  to  Stevenson,  is  equal  to  about  one-fifth  of  the  whole  area  of 
the  German  Ocean,  or  about  one-third  of  the  whole  extent  of  England  and  Scotland.  Tliese 
banks  are  composed  of  quartz  sand,  var3nng  in  the  size  of  the  grain,  from  coarse  to  line, 
which  is  abundantly  mixed  with  broken  sliells  and  fi-agments  of  corals.  Tiiese  banks  arc 
conjectured  to  owe  their  origin  to  the  action  of  currents  and  the  tides. 

SuBSECT.  4. — Chemical  forming  Effects  of  Water. 

(1.)  Springs.  Many  spring  waters,  after  dissolving,  by  means  of  the  superabundant 
carbonic  acid  with  which  they  are  impregnated,  calcareous  matter  abraded  from  limestone 
rocks,  or  rocks  containing  lime,  allow  the  carbonate  of  lime  to  crystallize,  in  consequence  of 
the  escape  of  the  acid,  and  in  this  way  form  depositions  of  calc-sinter,  or  calcareous  alabaster, 
on  the  roofs,  sides,  and  floors  of  caves ;  or  fill  up  fissures  in  rocks,  and  form  veins ;  or  when 
flowing  over  the  surface  of  rocks,  form,  if  the  surface  is  horizontal,  horizontal  beds — it 
inclined,  inclined  beds — of  calcareous  sinter  and  calcareous  tufta.  These  beds  sometimes 
extend  very  far,  and  with  a  thickness  of  200  or  300  feet.  The  water  of  such  springs,  when 
collected  into  hollows  so  as  to  form  lakes,  often  deposits  vast  quantities  of  calcareous  sinters 
and  tuffas ;  and  hence  such  lakes,  when  emptied,  present  e.xtensive  calcareous  deposits. 
The  travertine  employed  at  Rome  for  building  is  a  lake  or  spring  calcareous  deposit  of 
sinter  and  tuffa ;  and  the  town  of  Guancavelica  in  South  America  is  built  of  a  compact  cal- 
careous tufta  from  the  calcareous  springs  in  the  neighbourliood.  In  the  mountain  limestone 
districts  in  England,  also  in  tlie  lias  districts  botli  in  England  and  Scotland,  the  roofs,  walls, 
and  floors  of  caves  are  often  elegantly  ornamented  by  numerous  varieties  of  calcareous 
sinter.  In  Persia,  as  mentioned  by  Sir  John  Malcolm,  there  are  great  deposits  of  a  very  fine 
calc  sinter,  whicli  is  extensively  employed  for  ornamental  purposes ;  and  in  the  marshes  of 
the  great  plain  of  the  vast  circular  valley  of  Hungary,  according  to  Beudant,  there  is  a 
constant  deposition  of  horizontal  strata  of  calcareous  tuffa  and  sinter,  which  are  so  hard  as 
to  be  used  for  building,  all  the  houses  of  Czlea  being  constructed  of  these  minerals.  The 
pea-stone,  a  beautiful  calcareous  carbonate,  is  formed  in  very  considerable  abundance  from 
the  waters  of  calcareous  hot  springs,  as  those  at  Carlsbad  in  Bohemia.  As  these  calcareous 
springs  often  flow  into  rivers,  and  these  rivers  terminate  in  the  sea,  it  is  evident  that  in  this 
way  a  vast  quantity  of  carbonate  of  lime  must  reach  the  ocean  where  it  will  be  deposited  in 
the  various  forms  of  sinter,  tuffa,  and  limestone.  The  Geysers,  or  hot  springs  of  Iceland, 
and  those  of  St.  Michael's  in  the  Azores,  deposit  on  the  dry  land  vast  quantities  of  siliceous 
sinter.  This  siliceous  mineral,  wliich  is  sometimes  like  opal,  although  generally  pure,  is 
not  always  so,  being  occasionally  intermixed  with  other  earths,  and  thus  giving  rise  to  par- 
ticular mineral  substances.  Such  springs  also  pour  their  waters  into  the  ocean,  and  even 
rise  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea  sometimes  a  considerable  way  upwards,  or  even  jet  above  the 
surface  level  of  the  sea,  all  the  time  throwing  out  much  water  impregnated  with  silica, 
which  is  deposited  on  the  submarine  land  in  various  forms  and  states,  depending  on  a  variety 
of  circumstances,  which  our  limits  prevent  our  noticing. 

(2.)  Lakes.     Having  already  noticed   the  calcareous  depositions   from   tlie   waters   of 


Book  II.  GEOGNOSY.  213 

some  lakes,  we  may  now  mention  some  other  deposits  that  appear  to  owe  their  origin  to 
lakes.  The  bog  iron-ore,  or  hydro-phosphate  of  iron,  is  oflen  Ibund  in  such  situations  as  to 
show  that  it  has  been  deposited  from  the  waters  of  lakes ;  and  in  some  countries  it  is  col- 
lected from  the  sides  and  bottoms  of  lakes  once  in  a  certain  number  of  years;  thus  showing 
that  it  is  still  forming  in  such  situations.  In  salt  lakes  considerable  depositions  of  salt  take 
place ;  and  when  such  collections  of  water  dry  up,  or  are  drained  off,  the  sides  and  bottoms 
of  the  hollows  are  found  incrusted  with  salt,  which  is  sometimes  disposed  in  beds  alternately 
with  beds  of  clay. 

(3.)  Marine  incrustations.  Collections  of  perfect  and  broken  sea-shells  and  of  corals  are 
sometimes  found  agglutinated  by  calcareous,  clayey,  or  ferruginous  matters,  forming  banks 
or  beds  of  considerable  extent.  Beds  of  this  kind,  particularly  those  formed  of  shells,  are 
met  with  in  many  parts  of  the  coasts  of  this  island.  In  other  countries,  as  in  the  West 
Indies,  a  solid  conglomerate  of  shells  and  corals  lines  a  considerable  extent  of  coast  on 
several  of  the  islands.  The  human  skeleton  from  the  island  of  Guadaloupe,  in  the  British 
Museum,  is  imbedded  in  a  rock  of  this  description. 

SuBSECT.  5. — Effects  of  the  Atmosphere,  t^c. 

Effects  of  the  atmosphere.  The  air  and  moisture  of  the  atmosphere  effect  great  changes 
on  the  rocks  at  the  surface  of  the  earth.  They  either  simply  disintegrate  tlie  rock,  or  not 
only  break  it  down,  but  also  occasion  a  change  in  its  chemical  constitution.  Sandstone,  and 
other  rocks  of  the  same  general  description,  oflen  yield  very  readily  to  the  weather ;  their 
basis  or  ground  is  washed  away,  and  the  quartz,  mica,  and  other  particles  remain  in  the  form 
of  sand  and  gravel.  When  trap  vems  intersect  strata,  it  frequently  happens  that  the  softer 
parts  of  the  rock  are  destroyed,  while  the  harder  trap  appears  rising  several  feet  or  yards 
above  the  neighbouring  surface,  and  crossing  the  country  like  walls ;  hence,  in  Scotland, 
they  are  named  dykes.  The  variously  shaped  summits  of  mountains  and  hills  owe  m-uch 
of  their  ibrm  to  the  destroying  influence  of  the  weather.  Some  caves,  as  certain  open  caves 
in  sandstones  and  limestones,  are  also  formed  by  the  destroying  powers  of  the  atmosphere. 
The  various  changes  in  the  form  of  rocks,  by  which  they  assume  columnar,  globular,  tabular, 
and  indeterminate  angular  forms,  and  fall  into  scales,  crusts,  layers,  gravels,  and  sands,  are, 
to  a  certain  extent,  effects  of  the  destroying  powers  of  the  atmosphere.  Valleys  owe  much 
of  their  form  and  extent  to  the  destroying  influence  of  the  atmosphere.  Their  sides  and 
summits,  everywhere  exposed  to  its  action,  become  covered  with  debris ;  and  in  this  way 
valleys  experience  greater  changes  than  are  produced  on  their  bottom  Ijy  the  passage  of 
the  river,  and  on  its  sides  by  the  rushing  of  the  torrent.  The  chemical  destroying  effects 
are  to  be  traced  to  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  atmosphere,  and  to  the  vast  quantities  of  the 
same  matter  which  rise  from  the  interior  of  the  earth :  this  acid  dissolves  lime,  abstracts 
alkaline  matters  from  granite  and  other  similar  rocks,  and  by  combining  with  iron,  converts 
that  universally  distributed  substance  into  a  soluble  carbonate.  The  oxygen  of  the  atmo- 
sphere also,  by  its  action  on  the  iron  and  other  constituents  of  rocks,  assists  in  breaking 
them.  down. 

Effects  of  electricity  on  roclis.  Electricity,  as  a  chemical  agent,  may  be  considered  not 
only  as  directly  producing  an  infinity  of  changes,  but  also  as  influencingalmost  all  that  take 
place.  There  are  not  two  substances  on  the  surface  of  the  globe  that  are  not  in  different 
electrical  relations  to  each  other ;  and  chemical  attraction  itself  seems  to  be  a  peculiar  form 
of  the  exhibition  of  electric  attraction:  and  whenever  the  atmosphere,  or  water,  or  any  part 
of  the  surface  of  the  earth,  gains  accumulated  electricity  of  a  different  kind  fVom  the  con- 
tiguous surfaces,  the  tendency  of  this  electricity  is  to  produce  new  arrangements  of  the 
parts  of  those  surfaces.  Thus,  a  positively  electrified  cloud,  acting  even  at  a  great  distance 
on  a  moistened  stone,  tends  to  attract  its  oxygenous,  or  acidiform,  or  acid  ingredients ;  and 
a  negatively  electrified  cloud  has  the  same  effect  upon  its  earthy,  alkaline,  or  metallic  mat- 
ter; and  the  silent  and  slow  operation  of  electricity  is  much  more  important  in  the  economy 
of  nature  tlian  its  grand  and  impressive  operation  in  lightning  and  thunder. 

Sect.  III. — On  Volcanoes,  and  the  Changes  they  produce  on  the  Land  and  the  Bottom  of 

the  Sea. 
The  agents  which  the  globe  conceals  in  its  interior,  and  whose  existence  is  manifested  at 
its  surface,  are  made  known  to  us  by  the  phenomena  of  volcanoes  and  earthquakes.     We 
shall  first  describe  these  phenomena,  and  aflerwards  add  some  observations  on  their  causes. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Distribution  of  Volcanoes. 

Volcanoes,  as  is  well  known,  are  openings  in  the  crust  of  the  earth,  wLence  there  issue 
from  thue  to  time  jets  of  burning  substances  and  currents  of  melted  matters  which  bear  the 
name  of  lavas.  These  openings  are  generally  on  the  summit  of  isolated  mountains ;  they 
have  the  form  of  a  funnel,  and  take  the  name  of  craters. 

Position  of  volcanoes.  Volcanoes  occur  in  all  quarters  of  the  globe,  and  are  oflen  dis- 
tributed in  a  linear  direction. 


214  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Paht  II. 

Distribution. — Europe  contains  but  few  burning'  volcanoes.  On  the  coast  of  Sicily,  we 
see  JElnSi  rising  like  a  colossus  to  a  height  of  10,870  English  feet  On  the  opposite  coast 
of  Italy  we  have  Vesuvius,  which  does  not  attain  more  than  the  tliird  of  this  elevation,  viz. 
393"2  feet  Between  them,  in  the  Lipari  islands,  we  find  the  small  volcano  of  Stromboli, 
and  the  volcanoes  of  Vulcano  and  Vulcannllo,  wliich  still  smoke.  The  islands  of  the  Archi- 
pelago, at  Milo  and  Santorino,  contain  mountains  which,  during  an  early  historic  period,  pro- 
duced terrible  igneous  phenomena.  Iceland  in  the  nortli,  in  the  midst  of  snow  and  ice,  pre- 
sents to  our  view  many  volcanoes,  of  which  the  most  prominent,  Hecla,  rises  to  a  height  of 
5500  feet.  Farther  to  the  nortli,  in  the  desolate  and  dreary  Jan  JMayen's  Island,  extending 
between  north  latitude  70°  49'  and  71°  8',  is  the  volcano  of  Esk  JNIount,  which  rises  to  a 
height  of  1500  feet  above  the  sea-beach  in  Jameson's  Bay.  The  continent  of  Asia,  as  far 
as  is  known  at  present,  exliibits  but  few  volcanoes.  We  can  scarcely  reckon  three  or  four 
on  its  western  shores,  or  on  tlie  edges  of  the  Caspian :  there  are  none  in  its  northern  part : 
some  but  vaguely  known  exist  in  Central  Asia :  in  the  east,  the  peninsula  of  Kamtschatka 
contains  five  or  six ;  but  in  the  islands  which  surround  tliis  continent  tlieir  number  is  great 
The  islands  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  such  as  Bourbon,  Madagascar,  the  Cape  de  Verd  Islands,  the 
Canaries,  and  the  Azores,  also  contain  several  volcanoes.  In  A7nerica,  if  we  except  those  of 
the  West  India  islands,  we  observe  the  greater  part  of  them  on  the  ridge  of  that  great  Cordil- 
lera, which,  like  an  immense  wall  or  lotly  terrace,  borders  the  western  part  of  that  conti- 
nent. They  are  remarkable  not  only  on  account  of  their  position,  but  also  for  their  colossal 
form,  the  nature  of  the  masses  of  which  they  are  composed,  and  the  materials  they  throw 
out.  Torrents  of  fire  rarely  issue  from  them,  but  streams  of  water  and  mud  are  of  frequent 
occurrence  :  the  total  number  of  American  volcanoes  is  about  eighty-six ;  they  are  placed  as 
it  were  in  groups.  The  kingdom  of  Guatemala  presents  about  twenty ;  in  Mexico  there  are 
six,  in  the  number  of  which  is  the  Jorullo,  so  well  known  from  the  account  of  Humboldt. 
But  it  is  in  Peru  tliat  the  greatest  occur :  there  are  seven  in  that  country,  of  which  we  shall 
mention  Pichincha,  nearly  15,931  feet  high ;  Cotopaxi,  wich  rises  to  the  height  of  18,867 
feet;  and  Antisana,  which  attains  a  height  of  19,136  feet.  On  a  rough  estimate,  we  state 
the  number  of  burning  volcanoes  including  solfataras  at  303 ;  of  these  194  are  in  islands, 
and  the  other  109  are  on  the  continents :  the  most  distant  from  the  sea  are  those  of  America 
and  Asia ;  in  Peru  there  are  volcanoes  thirty  leagues  from  the  sea ;  and  that  of  Popocatepetl 
near  Mexico,  which,  however,  is  now  only  a  smoking  volcano,  is  fift;y-six  leagues;  and  they 
occur  in  the  very  centre  of  Asia.  The  circumstance  of  the  most  active  volcanoes  being  situ- 
ated in  the  vicinity  of  the  sea,  is  a  fact  worthy  of  being  recollected;  it. becomes  still  more 
so  when  we  observe,  tliat  there  are  submarine  volcanoes  burning  in  the  midst  of  the  waters. 
The  islands,  and  the  phenomena  which  they  have  been  observed  to  produce,  at  Santorino, 
on  the  coast  of  Iceland,  in  the  Azores,  &c.,  leave  no  doubt  respecting  their  existence. 

Independently  of  volcanoes  in  a  state  of  activity,  the  interior  of  our  continents  contains  a 
great  number  of  extinct  volcanoes,  but  which  still  present  their  original  form,  or  incontes- 
table remains  of  that  form  :  perhaps  no  country  contains  more  numerous  and  splendid  displays 
of  them  than  France ;  there  are  more  than  a  hundred  in  Auvergne,  Vivarais,  and  Cevennes. 
They  are  conical  mountains,  composed  of  lavas,  scoris,  and  volcanic  ashes  heaped  upon  each 
other ;  many  of  them  present  a  crater,  which  has  retained  its  form  in  a  greater  or  less  degree ; 
and  sometimes  there  are  seen  as  it  were  i.?suing  from  tlieir  bases  lavas  which  extend  to  a 
distance  of  several  thousand  yards,  and  which  have  perfectly  preserved  the  form  of  cur- 
rents :  the  matter  of  which  they  are  composed  resembles  that  of  lava  trap.  We  may  fiir- 
ther  remark,  that  volcanoes  are  never  or  scarcely  ever  isolated ;  they  are  collected  into 
groups.  This  is  the  case  with  the  American  volcanoes ;  those  of  Asia,  and  the  diflerent 
Archipelagoes  are  similarly  situated :  in  Europe,  the  Greek  islands  and  southern  Italy  pre- 
sent distinct  group.s.  Sometimes  volcanoes  are  arranged  one  after  the  other  in  the  same 
line,  as  is  the  case  in  South  America,  and  in  the  extinct  volcanoes  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  Puy  de  Dome. 

SxjBSECT.  2. — Phenomena  and  Theory  of  Volcanoes. 

Volcanoes  do  not  incessantly  emit  flames,  nor  do  lavas  constantly  flow  from  them ;  they' 
remain  for  ages  in  a  state  of  inactivity.  Vesuvius  was  extinct  from  time  immemorial, 'when, 
awakening  from  its  slumber,  it  suddenly  rekindled,  in  the  reign  of  Titus,  and  buried  the 
cities  of  Pompeii,  Herculaneum,  and  Stabiaj  under  its  ashes.  It  became  quiet  again  at  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century ;  and  in  1630,  when  it  resumed  its  action,  its  summit  was  inha- 
bited, and  covered  with  wood.  The  inhabitants  of  Catania  regarded  as  fables  the  accounts 
of  history  respecting  eruptions  of  ^Etna,  till  the  period  when  their  city  was  ravaged,  and  in 
part  destroyed,  by  the  fires  of  that  volcano. 

Subterranean  noises,  and  the  appearance  or  increase  of  smoke,  which  issues  from  the 
crater,  are  generally  the  first  sj^mptoms  of  volcanic  action.  Presently  the  noise  becomes 
louder,  the  earth  trembles,  it  experiences  shocks,  and  every  thing  proclaims  that  it  is  in 
labour.  The  smoke  increases,  thickens,  and  becomes  charged  with  ashes.  When  the  air  is 
tranquil,  the  smoke  is  seen  rising,  under  the  form  of  an  immense  column,  to  a  very  great 


Book  II.  GEOGNOSY.  215 

heiglit.  There,  finding  itself  in  a  rarer  atmosphere,  it  ceases  to  rise ;  its  upper  part  dilating-, 
forms  as  it  were  an  expanded  summit,  placed  upon  a  lengthened  shaft.  The  cloud,  with  the 
supporting  column,  in  favourable  circumstances,  has  the  figure  of  an  immense  umbrella,  or 
of  the  Italian  pine,  to  which  Pliny  the  Elder  compared  that  of  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  in 
A.  D.  79,  and  which  was  accurately  represented  in  October,  1822.  At  other  times  the  smoke 
disperses  in  the  air :  it  there  forms  thick  and  vast  clouds  which  obscure  the  day,  and  cover 
the  surrounding  country  with  darkness.  These  columns  and  clouds  are  often  traversed  by 
enormous  jets  of  red-hot  sand,  resembling  flames,  and  rising  to  extraordinary  lieights.  Some- 
times they  are  traversed  by  flashes  of  lightning,  and  on  all  sides  loud  explosions  are 
heard.  Then  there  are  projected  red-hot  stones  and  masses  in  fusion.  They  issue  from  the 
volcano  with  a  noise  which  is  frequently  very  loud.  Tliey  rise  into  the  air,  spreading  out  in 
their  progress,  and  fall  around  the  mouth  of  the  volcano  under  the  form  of  showers  of  ashes, 
scoriffi,  or  stones.  The  shocks  and  quakings  of  the  ground  continue  and  increase  in  violence. 
In  tlie  midst  of  these  convulsions,  and  on  these  accessions,  the  melted  matter  wiiicli  filled 
the  subterranean  furnaces,  already  carried  into  the  mountain,  is  raised  up  by  elastic  fluids; 
it  ascends  to  the  crater,  fills  it  up,  and  passing  over  the  least  elevated  part  of  tliis  enormous 
cavity,  spreads  out  upon  the  flanks  of  the  volcano.  It  then  descends,  sometimes  very  quickly  ; 
sometimes,  and  more  frequently,  as  a  majestic  river,  quietly  rolled  along  its  peaceful  waters. 
Very  frequently,  when  the  lava  rises,  the  walls  which  contain  it  being  unable  to  resist  its 
immense  pressure  or  its  heat,  give  way  and  burst  asunder.  It  rushes  forth  like  an  impetuous 
torrent  through  this  new  aperture :  rivers  and  torrents  of  fire  make  their  way  to  the  foot  of 
the  mountain ;  they  spread  out  upon  the  neighbouring  ground,  carrying  along  or  burying  all 
that  they  find  in  their  way,  breaking  down  or  overthrowing  every  obstacle  that  opposes  their 
passage.  In  the  midst  of  torrents  of  fire,  enormous  currents  of  water  and  mud  sometimes 
issue  from  volcanoes,  and  deluges  falling  from  the  atmosphere  increase  the  ravages,  lay 
waste  fields  which  lavas  had  spared,  and  carry  desolation  into  places  which  had  already 
thought  themselves  happy  in  having  escaped  the  scourges  of  the  eruption.  Mephitic  gases 
and  noxious  exhalations  sometimes  arise,  particularly  in  low  situations ;  they  destroy  animals 
and  blast  vegetation,  and  thus  complete  the  scene  of  misery  and  desolation. 

After  the  emission  of  the  lavas  the  earth  seems  freed  of  the  evil  which  agitated  it,  the 
earthquakes  cease,  the  explosions  and  ejections  diminish  for  some  time,  and  the  volcano 
enjoys  a  moment  of  rest :  but  presently  a  new  accession  takes  place,  reproducing  in  a  still 
more  terrible  manner  the  same  phenomena ;  and  this  state  of  things  continues  during  a 
variable  period  of  time.  At  length  the  crisis  ceases,  and  the  volcano  finally  resumes  its 
original  tranquillity. 

Having  premised  this  general  account  of  volcanic  action,  we  shall  next  treat  of  the  sub- 
stances ejected  or  projected  into  the  atmosphere  by  volcanoes,  and  the  lavas  which  they 
pour  out. 

a.  Ejected  Matters. 

These  are,  1.  Smoke.  2.  Ashes.  3.  Sands.  4.  Scoriae.  5.  Volcanic  bombs.  6.  Vnal' 
tared  Masses? 

(1.)  Smoke.  The  enormous  columns  of  smoke  which  are  seen  issuing  from  the  crater, 
sometimes  with  extraordinary  rapidity,  are  chiefly  composed  of  aqueous  vapour.  This  vapour 
is  generally  charged  with  gaseous  substances,  and  particularly  with  hydrogen  gas,  sometimes 
also  with  carbonic  acid.  Sulphurous  acid  and  muriatic  acid  are  also  given  out.  The  smoke 
is  gray  or  white ;  sometimes  also  brownish  black,  or  fuliginous,  and  tlien  the  smell  is  not 
unlike  that  of  asplmltum,  or  mineral  pitch.  It  often  contains  a  great  quantity  of  volcanic 
aslies. 

(2.)  Ashes.  These  ashes,  which  appear  to  be  nothing  else  than  the  substances  of  the  lava 
reduced  to  a  state  of  minute  mechanical  division,  are  formed  of  flocculent  and  extremely 
minute  particles  of  a  gray  colour,  and  forming  a  paste  with  water.  Tliey  are  always  mixed 
with  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of  sand,  which  gives  them  the  blackish  colour  which  they 
sometimes  exhibit.  The  torrents  of  gas  and  vapour  which  issue  from  the  craters  carry 
these  ashes  along  with  them,  bearing  them  into  tlie  atmosphere,  where  they  form  vast 
clouds,  sometimes  so  dense  as  to  cover  the  surrounding  country  with  darkness.  During  the 
eruption  of  Hecla  in  1766,  clouds  of  this  kind  produced  such  a  degree  of  darkness  that  at 
Glaumba,  which  is  more  than  fifty  leagues  distant  from  the  mountain,  people  could  only  find 
their  way  by  groping.  During  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  in  1794,  at  Caserta,  four  leagues 
distant,  people  could  only  walk  by  the  light  of  torches.  On  the  1st  of  May,  1612,  a  cloud 
of  volcanic  ashes  and  sand,  coming  from  a  volcano  in  the  island  of  St.  Vincent,  covered  th 
whole  of  Barbadoes,  spreading  over  it  so  intense  a  darkness,  that  at  mid-day,  in  the  open  air 
one  could  not  perceive  the  trees  or  otlier  objects  near  him,  or  even  a  white  handkerchief 
placed  at  the  distance  of  six  inches  from  the  eye.  The  distance  to  which  these  volcanic 
aslies  are  carried  by  the  winds  is  truly  astonishing.  Barbadoes  is  more  than  twenty  leagues 
from  St.  Vincent's,  and  Hecla  is  fifty  leagues  from  Glaumba.  Procopius  relates,  that  in  472 
the  ashes  of  Vesuvius  were  carried  as  far  as  Constantinople ;  that  is  to  say,  to  a  distance  of 


21G  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

250  leagues.  Tlicse  showers  of  ashes  protluce,  in  the  countries  where  they  fall,  earthy 
heds,  often  of  great  thickness,  which,  on  being  heaped  up  and  penetrated  by  water,  form 
some  kind  of  volcanic  tuffa. 

(S.)  Volcanic  sands.  These  are  small  particles  of  lavas  which  have  been  ejected  into  the 
air  in  tlie  form  of  drops,  and  there  harden.  They  are  nothing  but  very  small  sized  scoria;, 
or  fragments  of  ordinary  scoriae.  Th(^  are,  moreover,  mingled  with  numerous  small  crys- 
tals of  augite  and  telspar,  or  with  fragments  yf  tliese  crystals.  The  quantity  of  these  sands 
which  volcanoes  eject  is  immense.  Tliey  form  the  greater  part  of  the  ejections,  and  of  the 
mass  of  many  volcanic  mountains,  of  yEtna  fur  example,  according  to  M.  Dolomieu.  The 
finest  mingle  with  the  ashes,  and  form  part  of  the  clouds  already  mentioned.  Others,  accu- 
nuilating  in  too  great  quantity  to  be  sustained  upon  the  acclivities  of  the  mountain,  slide 
down  and  spread  out  at  its  base.  In  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  of  1822,  a  current  of  sand  of 
this  description,  still  red-hot,  was  taken  at  a  distance  for  a  torrent  of  lava. 

(4.)  ScoricE.  The  gases  which  come  from  tlie  depths  of  the  volcano,  passing  through 
tlio  mass  of  melted  lava  witli  great  force  and  velocity,  carry  off  some  parts  of  that  viscid 
matter,  and  bear  them  along  with  them  into  the  atmosphere.  They  are  there  further  divided, 
in  consequence  of  tlie  resistance  which  the  air  opposes  to  tliem ;  and,  in  cooling,  tliey  assume 
the  intumesced  and  slaggy  appearance  which  tlie  scoriae  of  forges  so  frequently  have. 

(5.)  Volcanic  bombs.  When  the  matter  of  lavas  is  projected  in  a  soft  state,  as  is  most 
commonly  the  case,  it  sometimes  on  cooling  in  the  air  assumes  the  form  of  drops,  tears,  or 
elongated  spheroids,  to  which  the  name  of  volcanic  bombs  is  given.  They  abound  in  the 
extinct  volcanoes  of  Auvergne. 

(6.)  Unaltered  ejected  masses.  Volcanoes  sometimes  eject  stones,  many  of  which  bear 
no  marks  of  common  fusion.  These,  by  some,  are  considered  as  fragments  of  rocks,  which 
form  the  walls  of  internal  cavities,  and  which  may  have  been  torn  off  and  projected  by  some 
current  of  elastic  fluids ;  others,  again,  maintain  that  they  are  fragments  of  rocks,  which 
have  been  formed  by  igneous  solution  and  crystallization.  Fragments  of  these  dubious 
masses  are  found  in  great  ntmibers  on  the  Monte  Sonmia.  There  they  are  of  granular 
limestone,  containing  mica,  and  many  other  minerals  besides. 

Projectile  power  of  volcanoes.  Did  our  space  allow  of  it,  it  would  be  interesting  to 
inquire  what  is  the  intensity  of  that  force  which  throws  such  quantities  of  matter  to  so  great 
a  height.  We  can  only  remark,  that  the  greatest  velocity  in  the  case  of  .^tna  and  Vesuvius 
was  found  to  be  equal  to  tliat  of  a  cannon-ball  at  the  moment  when  it  issues  from  a  cannon, 
the  velocity  being  from  four  to  five  hundred  yards  per  second.  The  gigantic  Cotopaxi  pro- 
jected a  piece  of  rock  about  an  hundred  cubic  yards  in  magnitude  to  the  distance  of  three 
leagues. 

b.  Lavas. 

Eruptions  of  lavas.  When  we  have  an  opportunity  of  seeing  the  liquid  lava  in  the 
crater,  it  resembles  the  melted  matter  in  our  furnaces,  and  appears  as  it  were  boiling  with 
greater  or  less  violence.  Jets  of  the  melted  matter  are  thrown  up  from  tlie  liquid  sur- 
face, through  the  agency  of  elastic  fluids.  It  is  by  these  elastic  fluids  that  the  lava  is  raised 
upwards  in  the  crater.  When  the  mountain  is  high,  as  Teneriffe  or  ^tna,  these  fluids  are 
not  sufficiently  powerful  to  raise  the  lava  to  the  summit,  or  rather  the  sides  of  the  mountain 
are  not  sufficiently  strong  to  resist  the  weight  and  force  of  the  long  and  heavy  column  of 
lava ;  it  therefore  presses  or  melts  tlie  walls  which  surround  it,  and  thus  forms  an  opening, 
through  which  it  issues  with  great  rapidity.  When,  on  the  contrary,  the  mountains  are 
comparatively  low,  as  Vesuvius  for  example,  the  lava  reaches  the  mouth  of  the  crater  and 
flows  over  its  lips,  and  fi'om  thence  downwards  along  the  acclivities  of  the  mountain.  On 
reacliing  tlie  bottom  they  divide  into  several  branches,  according  to  the  nature  and  slope  ot 
the  ground  over  whicli  they  flow.  The  currents  or  streams  of  lava  vary  much  in  regard  to 
the  velocity  with  which  thpy  move.  This  velocity  depends  upon  the  slope  of  the  ground 
upon  which  it  flows,  as  well  as  upon  the  quantity  and  viscidity  of  the  lava.  At  Vesuvius, 
M.  de  la  Torre  saw  currents  passing  over  a  space  of  about  800  yards  in  an  liour.  Sir 
William  Hamilton  observed  one  which  traversed  1800  yards  in  the  same  time.  The  eruption 
of  1776  presented  another,  which  moved  more  than  2000  yards  in  14  minutes.  Buchk 
observed,  during  tlie  eruption  of  l-^Oo,  a  torrent  flow  from  the  summit  to  tlie  .sea-shore,  a 
distance,  in  a  straight  line,  of  abont  7000  yards.  Those  we  have  mentioned,  however,  arc 
extraordinary  velocities ;  for  in  general  lavas  move  slowly.  Those  of  ^tna,  flowing  upon 
an  inclined  plane,  are  considered  quick  when  they  traverse  a  space  of  400  yards  in  an  hour. 
In  flat  grounds  they  sometimes  occupy  whole  days  in  advancing-  a  few  yards. 

The  slowness  v,ith  which  lavas  cool  is  not  less  remarkable  than  that  with  which  tliey 
move.  If  their  surface  is  quickly  cooled  and  consolidated,  the  case  is  different  with  the 
interior;  the  heat  concentrates  there,  and  is  retauied  for  whole  years.  Currents  are 
mentioned  whicli  were  flowing  ten  years  after  emerging  from  the  crater,  and  lavas  were  seen 
smoking  in  ^Etna  twenty  years  after  an  eruption. 

The  heat  of  liquid   lava   is  nearly  that  of  liquid  trap,  as  greenstone  or  basalt.     The 


Book  II.  GEOGNOSY  217 

particular  temperatures  are  given  by  Dr.  Kennedy,  Sir  James  Hall,  and  Professor 
Jameson.    - 

The  magnitude  of  lava  currents  varies  much.  The  largest  current  which  has  ever 
issued  from  Vesuvius  was  about  14,000  yards  long;  that  of  the  eruption  of  180.")  was 
8000;  that  of  1794  was  in  length  4200  yards,  in  breadth  from  100  to  400.  yards,  and  in 
depth  from  eight  to  ten  yards;  that  wliich  issued "Trom  ^tna  in  1787  was  four  times 
larger ;  and  Dolomieu  relates  that  that  volcanafurnished  one  more  than  ten  leagues  in  length. 
But  the  largest  current  known  is  that  which  in  Iceland,  in  1783,  covered  an  extent  of 
twenty  leagues  in  length  by  four  in  breadth. 

These  currents,  by  being  supermduced  on  each  other,  and  having  interposed  between  them 
other  products  of  eruptions,  as  sand,  ashes,  and  scoriae,  form  a  series  of  inclined  beds  that 
give  rise  to  the  cone  of  the  mountain.  In  short,  the  cone  is  composed  of  a  series  of  con- 
centric layers  or  coats  of  lava,  scoria3,  &c. ;  the  outgoings  of  which  are  sometimes  well  seen 
in  natural  sections  in  the  mountain. 

c.  Different  Kinds  of  Eruptions. 

Watery  and  muddy  eruptions.  In  the  accounts  of  volcanic  eruptions,  mention  is  often 
made  of  torrents  of  water  and  mud  vomited  forth  by  volcaaoes.  Many  of  these  watery  and 
muddy  eruptions  are  external  actions,  as  is  the  case  with  those  mentioned  as  having  taken 
place  in  Vesuvius,  /Etna,  and  Hecla ;  others  are  internal,  as  those  of  Quito. 

(1.)  External  aqueous  and  muddy  eruptions.  These  are  owing  to  great  rains,  which 
frequently  take  place  by  the  condensation  of  the  great  volumes  of  aqueous  vapour  that  rise 
from  the  craters  during  volcanic  action.  This  rain,  on  mixing  with  the  ashes  and  sands, 
forms  currents,  more  or  less  charged  with  earthy  matters,  which  descend  on  the  sides  of  the 
mountain,  spread  tliemselves  at  its  base,  and  sometimes  to  a  distance  in  the  low  country. 
The  melting  of  bodies  of  snow  by  the  lavas  also  occasions  great  floods  of  water  and  mud. 
Of  this  a  striking  instance  is  related  as  having  taken  place  on  Mount  ^tna  in  175.5,  where, 
by  the  sudden  melting  of  a  great  body  of  snow  by  a  stream  of  liquid  lava,  a  terrible  inunda- 
tion was  produced,  which  devastated  the  sides  of  the  mountain  for  eiglit  miles  in  length,  and 
afterwards  covered  the  lower  parts  of  ^tna,  together  with  the  plains  near  the  sea,  with  great 
deposits  of  sand,  ashes,  scoriae,  and  fragments  of  lava.  Similar  floods  of  ashes  and  sand  are 
mentioned  by  authors  as  taking  place  in  Iceland  and  in  America,  where  the  summits  reach 
above  the  snow  line. 

(2.)  Internal  aqueous  and  muddy  eruptions.  These  waters  also  frequently  make  their 
way  into  the  mountain  by  infiltration.  They  there  collect  in  particular  reservoirs ;  and  at 
the  period  of  explosion,  or  when  the  mountain  happens  to  split  in  consequenceof  some  shock, 
tliey  issue  forth,  and  cover  the  neighbouring  countries.  During  the  earthquake  which  over- 
turned Lima  in  1746,  four  volcanoes  opened  at  Lucanos  and  in  the  mountains  of  Concepcion, 
and  occasioned  a  frightfiil  inundation.  The  mountains  of  Quito  sometimes  present  the  same 
phenomena :  but  it  is  there  accompanied  with  extraordinary  circumstances.  The  enormous 
cones  of  Cotopaxi,  Pichincha,  Tunguragua,  &c.,  are  but  in  some  measure  the  summits  of  the 
volcanoes  to  which  they  belong,  and  whose  acclivities  are  probably  encased  in  the  great  mass 
of  the  Andes.  No  true  lavas,  within  the  memory  of  man,  have  heen  vomited  fortli  by  these 
volcanoes;  yet  Humboldt  saw  consolidated  lava  currents  on  Sanguay,  and  even  on  Antisana. 
It  might  be  said,  says  Humboldt,  that  the  volcanic  agents,  which  seldom  have  force  sufficient 
to  raise  the  column  of  lava  to  the  summit  of  ^Etna  and  of  the  Peak  of  Teneriffe,  would  still 
less  be  able  to  raise  it  in  volcanoes  of  nearly  double  the  heiglit.  In  Ji^tna  and  Tenerifte,  the 
lava  may  force  an  opening  at  the  lower  part  of  the  mountains,  and  thus  burst  out ;  but  this 
could  not  iiappen  in  volcanoes  whose  sides  are  strengthened,  to  a  height  of  nearly  3000 
yards,  by  the  whole  breadth  of  the  Cordilleras.  These  volcanoes  confine  themselves  to  the 
emission  of  ashes,  scoriae,  and  pumice.  They  also  vomit  immense  quantities  of  water  and 
mud,  but  much  more  fi-equently  by  openings  which  take  place  on  the  sides  of  the  cone  than 
by  the  craters.  These  muddy  waters  form,  as  it  were,  great  lakes  in  the  different  cavities 
which  these  enormous  mountains  contain.  They  issue  from  these  cavities,  as  we  have  said, 
when  a  communication  is  opened  with  the  exterior.  Thus,  in  1698,  the  volcano  of  Cargu- 
arazo,  \\'hich  is  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cliimborazo,  and  perhaps  forms  a  part  of  it,  broke 
down,  and  covered  with  mud  eighteen  square  leagues  of  country.  Similar  muddy  waters 
are  still  contained  in  parts  of  the  same  country,  which  are  of  volcanic  origin,  but  which  no 
longer  present  any  indication  of  fire ;  and  they  are  equally  vomited  forth  during  great 
commotions  of  the  ground.  In  Peru  and  Quito  it  is  not  by  fire  and  currents  of  burning  mat- 
ters that  the  volcanoes  commit  their  ravages,  but  by  the  water  and  enormous  streams  of 
mud.  This  substance  is  mud  which  is  at  first  of  a  soft  consistence,  soon  hardens,  and  bears 
tlie  name  of  moya.  It  presents  two  curious  phenomena.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  moya  which 
inundated  the  country  of  Pilielo,  and  which  destroyed  the  village  of  that  name  during  the 
earthquake  of  1797,  it  contains  a  combustible  matter,  which  renders  it  blackish  and  soiling, 
and  whicli  exists  in  so  large  a  quantity  in  it  that  the  inhabitants  make  use  of  this  moya  as  a 
kind  of  111  el.     Freauently  the  same  muddy  waters,  issuing  from  subterranean  caverns,  carry 

Vol.  I.  '  '19  2  C 


218  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

with  them  a  gjreat  quantity  of  small  fishes.  These  fishes  are  a  species  of  pimelodes  (P. 
cyclopuin).  Most  of  them  are  not  more  than  four  inches  long.  Tlieir  number  is  sometimes 
so  great  that  diseases  are  occasioned  in  the  country  by  their  putrefaction.  They  are  the 
same  as  those  which  live  in  the  brooks  of  the  country.  What,  then,  has  introduced  them 
into  these  subterranean  lakes  ?  It  would  appear  that  there  are  some  communications  between 
the  upper  and  lower  level  of  these  lakes  and  the  surface  of  the  ground  ;  but  what  could  liave 
raised  them  from  the  level  of  this  surface  to  the  summit  of  the  volcanoes,  for  they  sometimes 
issue  from  the  crater!  It  is  very  difficult  to  give  any  explanation  of  this.  From  all  that 
has  been  said  above,  it  does  not  appear  that  the  mud  which  issues  fi-om  these  volcanoes  comes 
fi*om  the  subterranean  caverns  where  the  volcanic  fires  have  their  focus,  and  prepare  the 
matter  of  lava. 

Air  and  mud  volcanoes.  In  some  countries  we  observe  issuing  from  the  ground  jets  im- 
pelled by  gases  and  charged  with  earth,  which,  on  being  deposited  in  the  form  of  mud,  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  and  chiefly  around  the  apertures  which  have  vomited  them,  form  cones, 
which  represent  on  a  very  small  scale  volcanic  cones,  and  which  are  therefore  named  air 
volcanoes.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  is  that  of  Macalouba  in  Sicily.  It  consists 
of  a  hill  of  dried  mud  cabout  160  feet  high.  Its  upper  part,  which  is  2600  feet  in  circum- 
ference, presents  a  multitude  of  small  cones  of  which  the  largest  are  not  above  a  yard  in 
diameter.  They  have  a  small  crater  fiill  of  soft  clay,  which  is  every  instant  traversed  by 
large  bubbles  of  gas,  which  burst  with  an  exploding  noise,  and  scatter  the  clay  around. 
Some  of  these  explosions  have  been  seen  throwing  jets  of  mud  to  the  height  of  160  feet. 
In  the  neighbourhood  of  Modena  there  are  many  of  these  small  mud  volcanoes,  where  they 
are  called  salses  on  account  of  the  saltness  of  the  water  they  scatter  about.  The  gas  which 
occasions  the  phenomena  is  hydrogen  gas  charged  with  petroleum  and  carbonic  acid.  Similar 
mud  volcanoes  occur  in  the  Crimea,  Java,  Trinidad,  and  America. 

d.  Periods  of  Activity  of  Volcanoes,  and  the  Theory  of  their  Fgrmation. 

Periods  of  activity  of  volcanoes.  The  periods  of  activity  of  volcanoes  are  but  transitory 
and  of  short  duration.  They  are  followed  by  years,  and  even  ages,  of  rest.  Humboldt  is 
of  opinion  that  the  frequency  of  eruptions  seems  to  be  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  size  of  the 
volcano.  The  smallest  of  them,  Stromboli,  is  continually  throwing  up  volcanic  matter ;  the 
eruptions  of  Vesuvius  are  less  frequent,  there  having  been  but  eighteen  recorded  since  1701 ; 
those  of  JE,tn?L  are  much  rarer ;  those  of  the  Peak  of  Teneriffe  still  more  so ;  and  the  colossal 
summits  of  Cotopaxi  and  Tunguragua  scarcely  exhibit  one  in  the  course  of  a  hundred  years. 
To  periods  of  activity  there  sometimes  succeed  periods  of  repose.  The  crater  is  filled  up 
and  becomes  covered  with  forests.  These  burning  fiirnaces,  whence  torrents  of  fire  have 
issued,  become  the  reservoirs  of  subterranean  lakes,  whose  waters  are  peopled  with  fishes, 
and  in  elevated  situations  the  sides  and  summits  of  the  mountains  become  covered  with  snow 
and  ice.  But  most  commonly  the  state  of  rest  is  not  complete ;  the  crater  remains  open, 
and  there  is  exhaled  from  it  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of  vapours,  which  attack  the  masses 
that  lie  in  their  way.  Sometimes  they  produce  different  saline  and  metallic  incrustations. 
Volcanic  districts  in  which,  however,  no  eruption  has  taken  place  since  the  commencement 
of  our  history,  and  in  which  the  volcanic  cones  are  nearly  effaced,  still  betray  by  their  vapours 
and  exhalations  the  fire  which  formerly  ravaged  them,  and  which  is  not  yet  extinct.  Such 
are  the  Phlegrean  Fields,  on  the  coast  of  Puzzoli,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

Cause  of  volcanoes.  This  is  an  obscure  subject.  A  conjecture,  hazarded  many  years  ago, 
may  be  stated.  There  being  no  decided  proof  of  a  central  heat,  in  tlie  commonly  received 
sense,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  matter  of  lavas  is  seated  deep  in  the  crust  of  the  earth,  in 
spaces  of  greater  or  less  extent,  from  whence  it  is  sent  up  from  time  to  time  among  the 
previously  existing  strata,  by  the  agency  of  elastic  fluids. 

Sect.  IV. — Earthquakes, 

On  earthquakes,  and  the  changes  they  produce  on  the  eartlCs  surface.  Werner  distin- 
guishes two  kinds  of  earthquakes.  Some,  he  says,  appear  to  be  connected  with  a  particular 
volcano,  and  to  have  their  focus  in  the  same  region  as  it.  They  are  only  felt  to  the  distance 
of  a  few  leagues  around,  and  their  paroxysms  are  almost  always  connected  with  tliose  of 
the  volcano.  Others,  which  appear  to  have  their  focus  at  a  much  greater  depth,  and  whose 
effects  are  much  greater,  arc  propagated  to  immense  distances  with  incredible  celerity,  and 
are  felt  almost  at  the  same  time  at  points  thousands  of  miles  distant  from  each  other.  Some 
of  the  latter  however  approach  the  former,  and  are  still  connected  with  volcanic  phenomena. 
Thus,  during  the  earthquake  which  overturned  Lima  in  1740,  and  which  was  one  of  the  most 
terrible  that  has  been  recorded,  four  volcanoes  opened  in  one  night,  and  the  agitation  of  the 
earth  ceased. 

Universality  of  earthquakes.  If  in  the  more  violent  we  include  the  slighter  agitations 
of  the  earth's  surface  in  particular  places,  earthquakes  may  be  said  to  be  universal  or  general, 
and  we  may  affirm  that  no  considerable  country  is  entirely  exempted  from  them.  Sandy 
deserts  and  fertile  regions,  primitive,  secondary,  and  tertiary  hills,  extensive  plains,  and  even 


Book  II.  GEOGNOSY.  219 

marshy  districts  but  little  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  afford  no  protection  against 
these  destructive  phenomena,  which  are  equally  prevalent  in  cold,  in  temperate,  and  in  tropical 
climates.  They  are,  however,  generally  considered  more  frequent  near  to  coasts;  thus, 
Syria,  the  coasts  and  islands  of  Asia,  America,  the  European  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  Iceland,  are  most  subject  to  them ;  while  the  plains  of  Africa,  Asia,  and  the  North  of 
Europe  are  least  exposed.  Viewing  the  whole  earth,  and  including  every  slighter  agitation, 
earthquakes  appear  to  be  exceedingly  numerous,  and  it  may  be  maintained  that  not  a  week 
passes  in  which  the  earth's  surface  in  some  place  or  other  is  not  more  or  less  agitated.  The 
great  number  of  concussions  observed  in  civilized  countries,  and  the  fact  that  some  districts 
are  constantly  agitated  by  them,  entitle  us  to  draw  the  conclusion.  Their  return  in  the 
places  most  subject  to  them,  and  in  the  places  where  they  are  less  frequent,  is  not  regulated 
by  any  precise  period  of  time.  Their  appearance  is  not  connected  with  any  particular  season 
of  the  year  or  state  of  the  atmospliere,  and  they  take  place  by  day  as  well  as  by  night. 

Phenomena  of  Earthquakes.  The  phenomena  peculiar  to  earthquakes  are  in  themselves 
sufficiently  simple.  They  consist  in  tremblings  and  oscillations  of  the  earth's  surface,  called 
sliocks ;  extending  over  greater  or  smaller  tracts  of  country,  and  frequently  following  a  par- 
ticular direction.  The  shocks  appear  at  first  chiefly  as  perpendicular  heavings;  then  as 
horizontal  undulations  or  oscillations ;  lastly,  in  some  instances,  there  is  a  violent  agitation : 
tiie  motion  is  more  or  less  rotatory.  If  to  these  we  add  the  rending,  slipping,  rising  and 
shiking  of  the  ground,  the  violent  agitations  of  the  sea,  lakes,  rivers,  and  springs;  consist- 
ing, in  springs,  in  their  drying  up  or  bursting  forth  with  great  violence  ;  in  lakes,  rivers,  and 
the  ocean,  in  their  falling  and  rising,  and  rushing  backwards  and  forwards,  owmg  to  the 
sinking  and  rising  of  the  land,  we  obtain  an  enumeration  of  the  principal  phenomena.  As 
the  subject  is  very  interesting,  we  shall  view  it  somewhat  in  detail,  and  under  the  following 
heads  :  —  1.  Shocks.  2.  Extent  of  earthquakes.  3.  Duration  of  shocks.  4.  Magnitude  of 
rents  formed,  and  the  phenomena  connected  with  them,  5.  Elevation  and  subsidence  of  the 
land.     6.  Agitations  in  the  sea.     7.  Notice  of  particular  earthquakes. 

(1.)  Shocks.  The  slighter  shocks  of  an  earthquake,  consistmg  of  perpendicular  heavings 
and  horizontal  undulations,  commonly  produce  rents  in  houses,  moving  light  objects  in  them, 
as  articles  of  fiirniture.  Persons  unacquainted  with  the  phenomenon,  or  who  do  not  per- 
ceive it  from  the  subterraneous  noise  resembling  thunder  which  accompanies  it,  feel  un- 
steady while  in  their  beds,  but  particularly  when  sitting,  and  believe  themselves  seized  with 
a  sudden  giddiness.  The  shocks  proceed  gradually  to  be  more  violent,  and  then  they  are 
very  easily  perceived  even  by  the  inexperienced.  Then  the  most  substantial  buildings  are 
sliattcred  to  pieces,  and  the  inhabitants  buried  bejieath  their  ruins :  while  buildings  of  a  lighter 
construction  are  only  rent,  and  very  slender  reed  huts  are  least  of  all  exposed  to  destruction. 
In  some  cases  the  fracturing,  or  as  it  were  trituration,  surpasses  description.  Hence,  for 
the  plainest  reasons,  it  is  most  dangerous  to  remain  in  houses  or  inhabited  places;  but  even 
the  fields  and  mountains  themselves  afford  no  perfect  security,  inasmuch  as  the  fields  fre- 
quently in  some  places  open  into  fissures,  and  are  rent  asunder ;  while  mountains  are  not 
only  rent,  but  slide  down  into  the  valleys,  dam  up  rivers,  form  lakes,  and  cause  inundations. 
Although  the  desolation  produced  by  these  convulsions  exceeds  all  description,  this  is  much 
more  tlie  case  with  the  rotatory  motions;  a  species  of  motion,  however,  the  existence  of 
which  has  been  denied  by  some  geologists.  Li  proof  of  it,  however,  it  may  be  mentioned, 
that  during  the  earthquake  of  Catania,  whose  general  direction  was  from  S.  E.  to  N.  W., 
many  statues  were  turned  round,  and  a  large  mass  of  rock  was  turned  25°  from  South  to 
East.  But  the  rotatory  motion  was  more  strikingly  exemplified  in  the  earthquake  at  Val- 
paraiso, on  the  19th  November,  1822,  by  which  many  houses  were  turned  round,  and  three 
palm-trees  were  found  twisted  round  one  another  like  willows.  These  rotatory  motions  of 
masses  of  rock  are  particularly  interesting  when  viewed  in  connexion  with  the  pheno- 
mena of  faults  or  shitls  among  strata  in  non-volcanic  districts.  It  is  only  the  sligliter  earth- 
quakes that  pass  by  with  a  single  shock;  in  most  of  them  more  shocks  follow  at  short  inter- 
vals, and  for  the  most  part  the  number  is  proportioned  to  the  violence  of  the  concussion. 
The  first  sliock  is  sometimes  the  most  powerful,  but  the  second  is  as  often,  if  not  oftener, 
equally  violent.  Further,  the  concussions  are  also  repeated  afl;er  longer  intervals,  as  the 
earthquakes  in  Syria,  that  sometimes  continue  for  a  number  of  months,  with  longer  or  shorter 
intermissions ;  but  the  first  catastrophe  is  generally  the  most  violent  and  destructive. 

(2.)  Extent  of  earthquakes.  It  is  the  agitation  of  the  sea  that  points  out  the  great  extent 
of  the  tracts  of  land  convulsed  by  earthquakes.  In  this  respect,  the  earthquake  at  Lisbon, 
in  1755,  was  the  most  remarkable  and  most  violent  that  ever  visited  Europe.  In  conse- 
quence of  it,  by  the  concussion  on  the  bottom,  or  momentary  rising  or  upheaving  of  the  sub- 
marine land,  the  sea  overflowed  the  coasts  of  Sweden,  England,  and  Spain,  and  of  the 
islands  of  Antigua,  Barbadoes,  and  Martinique  in  America.  In  Barbadoes  the  tide,  which 
rises  only  28  inches,  rose  20  feet  in  the  bay  of  Carlisle,  and  the  water  appeared  as  black  as 
ink,  owing  probably  to  bituminous  matter  thrown  up  from  the  bed  of  the  ocean.  On  the  1st 
of  November,  when  the  concussion  was  most  violent,  the  water  at  Guadaloupe  retreated 
twice,  and  on  its  return  rose  in  the  channel  of  the  island  to  a  height  of  from  10  to  12  feet. 


230  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

Similar  appearances  were  witnessed  at  Martinique.  A  wave  of  the  sea,  60  feet  high,  over- 
flowed a  part  of  the  city  of  Cadiz ;  and  the  lakes  of  Switzerland,  such  as  Geneva,  were  ob- 
served to  be  in  commotion  six  hours  after  the  first  shock.  It  is  also  remarkable  tiiat  agita- 
tions were  noticed  in  lake  Ontario,  in  October,  1755.  During-  the  earthquake  at  Lima,  1580, 
a  wave  of  the  sea  rose  84  feet  higli  in  the  harbour  of  Callao.  During  the  earthquakes  in 
Calabria  in  1783,  the  sea  not  only  overflowed  the  coast  and  drowned  many  people,  but  was 
in  general  so  much  agitated  that  the  guns  on  shipboard  sprung  from  the  deck  to  a  height  of 
several  inches. 

(3.)  Slipping  of  Mountains.  Besides  the  common  operations  of  earthquakes  already 
mentioned,  otliers  occur  that  do  not  immediately  succeed  the  concussions,  and  therefore 
happen  less  frequently.  To  these  belong  the  sliding  down  of  parts  of  mountains,  as  at 
Dobratch  in  1345,  and  the  falling  together  of  two  mountains  in  Jamaica  in  1692,  by  which 
the  bed  of  a  river  was  dammed  up.  In  the  latter  place,  a  part  of  a  mountain  slid  down  and 
covered  many  plantations;  the  city  of  Port  Royal  sunk  to  the  depth  of  eight  fathoms;  and 
a  plain  of  1000  acres  fell  in,  with  all  the  buildings  upon  it. 

(4.)  Duration  of  shocks.  Single  shocks  frequently  succeed  one  another  very  rapidly,  and 
often  after  greater  or  smaller  intervals  of  time ;  they  are  occasionally  single,  frequently  very 
numerous ;  and  in  volcanic  districts,  shocks  sometimes  happen  after  a  lapse  of  months  or 
years,  are  then  followed  by  longer  or  sliorter  intervals,  and  even  periods  of  10  or  100 
years.  In  regard  to  this,  it  is  remarkable  that  since  the  earthquake  which  in  1204  sliook 
Antioch,  Damascus,  and  Tripoli,  Syria  was  spared  till  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  although  no  region  of  tlie  earth  suffers  more  from  these  destructive  phenomena 
tlian  that  country.  It  is,  in  short,  difficult  to  define  the  duration  of  a  single  shock.  It  is 
undoubtedly  brief  in  general ;  and  in  slighter  shocks,  witnessed  by  tranquil  spectators  and 
consequently  observed  with  greater  attention,  it  is  not  longer  than  a  few  seconds.  In  the 
greater  convulsions,  for  instance  at  Lima,  Caraccas,  Calabria,  Catania,  Zante,  Antioch,  &c. 
the  time  is  reckoned  from  fifty  seconds  to  one  minute  and  five  seconds,  or  indefinitely  from 
a  few  minutes  to  a  iew  seconds.  When  we  consider  how  exceedingly  distracted  the  atten- 
tion is  when  the  shock  is  first  perceived,  that  the  duration  cannot  be  measured  by  means  of 
a  watch,  but  by  supposition,  and  tliat  by  such  a  mode  of  computation  we  are  in  the  habit  of 
reckoning  time  much  longer  than  it  really  is,  we  may  with  great  probability  conclude  that 
the  duration  of  a  smglc  shock  does  not  go  beyond  a  few  seconds,  and  we  may  affirm  that, 
at  the  most,  it  rarely  exceeds  half  a  minute. 

(5.)  Magnitude  of  nmts  formed  by  earthquakes.  These  vary  ft-om  a  few  feet  to  many 
fiithoms  in  extent.  They  have  either  a  direction  which  is  nearly  straiglit  or  more  or  less 
winding,  or  they  run  in  all  directions  from  a  centre.  During  the  terrible  Calabrian  earth- 
quakes of  1783,  rents  were  formed  of  great  dimensions ;  in  the  territory  of  San  Fill  there 
was  formed  a  rent  half  a  mile  long,  two  feet  and  a  half  broad,  and  twenty-five  feet  deep ;  in 
the  district  of  Plaisano,  a  rent,  of  nearly  a  mile  in  length,  one  hundred  and  five  feet  broad, 
and  thirty  feet  deep  opened  ;  and  in  the  same  district  two  gulfs  arose,  one  at  Cerzulli,  three 
quarters  of  a  mile  long,  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  broad,  and  about  one  hundred  feet  deep ; 
and  another,  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long,  about  thirty  feet  broad,  and  two  hundred  and 
twenty-five  feet  deep.  Ulloa  relates  that  in  the  earthquake  of  1746,  in  Peru,  a  rent  took 
place,  which  was  two  miles  and  a  half  long,  and  four  or  five  feet  wide.  These  rents  some- 
times close  ag:iin ;  thus,  in  the  year  1692,  in  the  island  of  Jamaica,  during  an  eartliquake, 
the  ground  heaved  like  a  boiling  sea,  and  was  traversed  by  numerous  rents,  two  or  three 
hundred  of  which  were  often  seen  at  a  time  opening  and  closing  rapidly  again. 

(6.)  Elevation  and  subsidence  of  land  during  earthquakes.  It  is  evident  that,  if  the 
land  is  fractured  and  then  traversed  with  vast  rents  by  earthquakes,  that  portion  of  the 
land  will  in  some  places  sink  and  in  others  rise,  and  this  not  once  but  several  times  in  the 
same  place.  In  the  year  1772,  during  an  eruption  of  one  of  the  loftiest  mountains  in  Java, 
the  ground  began  to  sink,  and  a  great  part  of  tlie  volcano,  and  part  of  the  neighbouring 
country,  estimated  to  be  fitleen  miles  long  and  six  miles  broad,  was  swallowed  up.  During 
the  earthquake  at  Lisbon  in  1755,  a  new  quay  entirely  disappeared ;  thousands  of  the  in- 
habitants had  taken  shelter  on  it,  to  be  out  of  the  reach  of  the  tottering  and  falling  build- 
ings, when  suddenly  the  quay  sunk  down  with  its  thousands  of  human  beings,  and  not  one 
of  their  dead  bodies  ever  floated  to  the  surface.  In  the  year  1692,  during  an  earthquake  in 
Jamaica,  a  tract  of  land  about  a  thousand  acres  in  extent  sank  down  in  less  than  a  minute, 
and  the  sea  immediately  took  its  place.  On  the  north  side  of  the  island  several  large  tracts 
with  their  whole  population  were  swallowed  up,  and  a  lake  appeared  in  their  place  covering 
above  a  thousand  acres.  Numerous  examples  of  the  upraising  of  the  land  by  earthquakes 
might  be  given ;  we  shall  enumerate  a  few  of  them.  On  the  19th  of  November,  1822,  a 
most  dreadful  earthquake  visited  the  coast  of  Chili ;  the  shock  was  felt  at  the  same  time 
throughout  a  space  of  one  thousand  two  hundred  miles  from  north  to  south.  When  the 
country  around  Valparaiso  was  examined  on  the  morning  after  the  shock,  it  was  found  tliat 
the  entire  line  of  coast,  for  the  distance  of  more  than  a  hundred  miles,  was  raised  above  its 
former  level.     The  area  over  which  this  upraising  took  place  was  estimated  at  one  hundred 


Book  H.  GEOGNOSY.  221 

thousand  square  miles :  the  rise  upon  the  coast  was  from  two  to  four  feet ;  at  the  distance  of 
a  mile  inland,  it  was  estimated  from  five  to  seven  feet.  On  the  18th  of  March  in  the  year 
1790,  at  St.  Maria  di  Niscomi,  some  miles  from  Terranuovo,  near  the  south  coast  of  Sicily, 
a  loud  subterranean  noise  was  heard  under  the  town  just  vnentioned,  and  the  day  after  earth- 
quakes were  felt;  then  the  ground  gradually  sunk  down  for  a  circumference  of  three  Italian 
miles,  during  seven  shocks,  and  in  one  place  to  a  depth  of  thirty  feet ;  as  the  subsidence  was 
unequal,  rents  were  formed,  some  of  which  were  so  wide  that  they  could  not  be  leaped  over : 
this  gradual  sinking  continued  to  the  end  of  the  month.  About  the  middle  of  this  period 
an  opening  took  place  in  the  subsiding  land,  about  three  feet  in  diameter;  through  these 
continued  to  flow,  for  three  hours,  a  stream  of  mud,  which  covered  a  space  sixty  feet  long 
and  thirty  feet  broad ;  the  mud  was  saltish  and  composed  of  chalky  marl  and  a  viscid  clay, 
with  fragments  of  crystalline  limestone ;  it  smelt  of  sulphur  and  petroleum.  On  the  16th 
June,  1819,  at  Cutch  in  Bombay,  a  violent  earthquake  took  place,  during  which,  independent 
of  other  changes,  the  eastern  and  almost  abandoned  channel  of  the  Indus  was  much  altered  : 
this  estuary  was,  before  the  earthquake,  fordable  at  Luckput,  being  only  a  foot  deep  when 
the  tide  was  at  ebb,  at  flood  tide  never  more  than  six  feet ;  but  it  was  deepened  at  the  fort  of 
Litckput,  ailer  the  earthquake,  to  more  than  eighteen  feet  at  low  water,  showing  that  a  con- 
siderable depression  had  taken  place.  The  channel  of  the  river  Runn  was  so  much  sunk 
that,  instead  of  being  dry  as  before,  during  that  period  of  the  year,  it  was  no  longer  fordable 
except  at  one  place ;  and  it  is  remarked  by  Captain  Macmurdoch, — and  the  observation  is  of 
high  geological  import,  as  connected  with  the  formation  of  valleys,  of  river  districts,  &c. — 
"  should  the  water  continue  throughout  the  year,  we  may  perhaps  see  an  inland  navigation 
along  the  northern  shore  of  Cutch ;  which,  from  stone  anchors,  &c.  still  to  be  seen,  and  the 
tradition  of  the  country,  I  believe  to  have  existed  at  some  former  period."  Sindree,  a  small 
mud  fort  and  village  belonging  to  the  Cutch  government,  situated  where  the  Runn  joins 
the  Indus,  was  overflowed  at  the  time  of  the  shock.  The  people  escaped  with  difficulty, 
and  the  tops  of  the  houses  and  walls  are  now  alone  seen  above  water.  In  the  year  1790, 
in  the  Ca-accas,  during  an  earthquake,  a  portion  of  granite  soil  sunk,  and  left;  a  lake  800 
yards  in  diameter,  and  from  eighty  to  an  hundred  feet  deep ;  it  was  a  part  of  the  forest  of 
Aripao  which  sunk,  and  the  trees  remained  green  for  several  months  under  water. 

(7.)  Agitations  of  the  sea.  We  have  already  noticed,  in  a  general  way,  the  agitations 
observed  in  the  sea  during  earthquakes ;  we  shall  now  add  some  particulars  illustrative  of 
tiiese  motions.  During  the  Lisbon  earthquake  of  1755,  the  sea  rose  along  the  coast  of 
Spain;  and  at  Cadiz  it  advanced  in  the  form  of  vast  waves  sixty  feet  high.  At  Lisbon 
about  sixty  thousand  persons  perished.  The  sea  first  retired,  and  laid  the  bar  dry ;  it  then 
rushed  in,  rising  upwards  of  fifty  feet  above  its  ordinary  level.  At  Kinsale,  in  Ireland,  the 
sea  rushed  into  the  harbour,  and  invaded  tlie  land.  At  Tangier,  in  Africa,  it  rose  and  fell 
eighteen  times  on  the  coast.  At  Funchal,  in  Madeira,  it  rose  fifteen  feet  above  high-water 
mark ;  although  the  tide,  which  ebbs  and  fk)ws  there  seven  feet,  was  then  half  ebb.  Even 
ships  at  sea,  a  considerable  distance  from  land,  felt,  in  the  midst  of  these  convulsive  motions, 
as  if  hurried  across  a  ridge  of  rocks.  This  took  place,  to  a  distance  of  100  or  270  nautical 
miles  from  the  coast,  during  the  earthquake  at  Lisbon  in  1816.  During  the  Lisbon  earth- 
quake of  1755,  the  shock  was  felt  at  sea,  on  the  deck  of  a  ship  to  the  west  of  Lisbon,  and 
produced  nearly  the  same  feeling  as  on  land.  At  San  Lucar,  the  captain  of  the  Nancy 
frigate  felt  his  ship  so  violently  agitated  that  he  thought  he  had  struck  on  tlie  ground ;  but, 
on  heaving  the  lead,  found  he  was  in  deep  water.  Captain  Clark,  from  Derina,  in  N.  lat. 
36°  24',  between  nine  and  ten  in  the  morning,  had  his  ship  shaken  as  if  she  had  struck 
upon  a  rock,  so  that  the  seams  of  the  deck  opened.  Dr.  Shaw  relates,  that  in  1724,  being 
on  board  the  Gazelle,  an  Algerine  ship  of  50  guns,  they  felt  such  violent  shocks,  one  after 
another,  as  if  the  weight  of  twenty  or  thirty  tons  had  been  let  fall  from  a  good  height  on 
the  ballast.  Schouten,  speaking  of  an  earthquake  which  happened  in  the  Moluccas,  says, 
that  the  mountains  were  shaken,  and  ships  that  were  at  anchor  in  thirty  or  forty  fathoms' 
water  were  jerked  as  if  they  had  run  ashore,  or  come  foul  of  rocks.  Le  Genii  says,  "  that 
ships  at  sea  and  at  anchor  suffer,  during  earthquakes,  such  violent  agitations  that  they  seem 
to  be  falling  asunder;  their  guns  break  loose,  and  their  masts  spring." 

(8.)  Notices  of  particular  Earthquakes.  A  fiill  account  of  all  the  principal  earthquakes 
that  are  knowTi  would  much  exceed  our  limits ;  we  shall,  therefore,  select  only  a  few  of  the 
more  interesting. 

No  part  of  Europe  is  more  visited  by  earthquakes  than  Italy  and  the  neighbouring 
islands.  The  first  earthquake  particularly  worthy  of  notice  was  that  which,  in  the  year 
63,  destroyed  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii.  Since  that  period  they  have  frequently  visited 
Italy  and  Sicily,  but  much  seldomer  from  A.  D.  63  to  the  twelfth  century,  than  from  that 
period  till  modern  times,  that  is,  till  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries.  Of  these 
we  shall  describe  one  of  the  most  recent  in  Calabria,  and  another  of  still  later  date  in 
Sicily. 

Earthquake  of  1783.  The  earthquake  that  so  much  affected  Calabria,  and  destroyed  the 
city  of  Messina,  raged  at  unequal  periods  from  the  5th  of  February  till  the  28th  of  March, 

19* 


222  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  IT. 

1783.  According  to  Sorcia,  its  principal  seat  was  the  small  town  of  Oppido  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Atramonte,  a  snow-covered  peak  of  the  Apennines.  From  this  point,  says  Sir 
William  Hamilton,  around  to  a  distance  of  twenty-five  miles,  comprehends  tlie  surtixce  of 
country  which  suffered  most,  and  where  all  the  towns  and  villages  were  destroyed.  If  we 
describe  the  circle  with  a  radius  of  seventy-two  miles,  it  will  include  the  whole  country 
which  was  in  any  way  affected  by  the  earthquake.  The  first  shock,  on  the  5th  February, 
in  two  minutes  threw  down  the  greatest  part  of  the  houses  in  all  the  cities,  towns,  and 
villages  from  the  western  acclivities  of  the  Apennines,  in  Calabria  Ultra,  to  Messina  in 
Sicily,  and  convulsed  the  whole  surface  of  the  country.  Anotiier  shock,  which  took  place 
on  the  25th  of  March,  was  nearly  equally  violent.  The  granite  chain  wliich  extends 
through  Calabria  from  north  to  south  w  as  but  slightly  agitated,  the  principal  shocks  being 
propagated  witli  a  wave-like  motion  througli  the  tertiary  sands,  sand-stones,  and  clays,  from 
west  to  east.  It  was  remarked  tliat  the  violence  of  tlie  shock  was  greatest  at  the  line  of 
junction  of  the  granite  and  tertiary  rocks,  occasioned  probably  by  tiie  interruption  of  the 
undulatory  movement  of  the  softer  strata  by  the  harder  granite.  The  granite  range  also 
prevented  the  passage  of  the  shocks  to  the  countries  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  mountain- 
range.  About  200  towns  and  villages  were  destroyed,  more  than  one  hundred  hills  slid 
down,  fell  together,  dammed  up  rivers,  and  formed  lakes :  numerous  rents,  often  of  vast 
magnitude,  were  formed ;  many  subsidences  and  also  upraisings  of  the  ground  took  place ; 
and  the  general  features  of  the  country  were  so  much  changed  that  they  could  scarcely  be 
recognised.  Thus,  in  a  very  short  space  of  time,  the  whole  country  was  as  much  changed 
as  if  it  had  been  exposed  to  common  influences  for  many  thousand  years.  The  total  num- 
ber of  human  beings  that  perished  was  estimated  at  100,000,  and  it  was  difficult  to  find  even 
distant  relations  to  succeed  to  the  property  of  some  families. 

Earthquake  of  Lisbon  in  1755.  In  no  part  of  southern  Europe  has  so  tremendous  an 
earthquake  occurred  as  that  which  began  on  tlie  1st  of  November,  1755.  On  the  morning 
of  that  day,  at  thirty-five  minutes  after  nine,  without  the  least  warning,  except  a  noise  like 
thunder  heard  under  ground,  a  most  dreadfbl  earthquake  shook,  by  short  but  quick  vibra- 
tions, the  foundations  of  Lisbon,  so  that  many  of  the  principal  edifices  fell  to  tlie  ground  in 
an  instant:  then,  with  a  scarcely  perceptible  pause,  the  nature  of  the  motion  changed,  now 
resembling  that  of  a  wagon  driven  violently  over  rough  stones,  which  laid  in  ruins  almost 
every  house,  church,  convent,  and  public  building,  with  an  incredible  destruction  of  the 
people.  It  continued  in  all  about  six  minutes.  At  the  moment  of  its  beginning,  some  per- 
sons on  the  Tagus,  near  a  mile  fi"om  the  city,  heard  their  boat  make  a  noise  as  if  it  liad  run 
aground,  though  then  in  deep  water,  and  saw  at  the  same  time  houses  falling  on  both  sides 
of  the  river.  Four  or  five  minutes  after,  the  boat  made  the  like  noise,  caused  by  another 
shock,  which  brought  down  more  houses.  The  bed  of  the  Tagus  was  in  many  places  raised 
to  its  surface.  Ships  were  driven  from  their  anchors,  and  jostled  together  with  great  vio- 
lence ;  and  the  masters  did  not  know  if  they  were  afloat  or  aground.  The  large  quay  called 
Caes  de  Prada,  was  overturned,  crowded  with  people,  and  sunk  to  an  unfathomable  depth 
in  the  Avater,  not  so  much  as  one  body  afterwards  appearing.  The  bar  was  seen  dry  from, 
shore  to  shore;  then  suddenly  the  sea,  like  a  mountain,  came  rolling  in,  and  about  Belem 
castle  the  water  rose  fifty  feet  almost  in  an  instant ;  and  had  it  not  been  for  the  great  bay 
opposite  the  city,  which  received  and  spread  the  great  flux,  the  lower  part  must  have  been 
under  water.  As  it  was,  it  came  up  to  the  houses,  and  drove  the  inhabitants  to  the  hills. 
About  noon,  there  was  another  shock,  when  the  walls  of  several  houses  which  were  yet 
standing  were  seen  to  open  from  top  to  bottom  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  yard,  but  closed 
again  so  exactly  as  to  leave  scarce  any  mark  of  injury.  It  is  remarked,  that  on  the  1st  of 
November,  1756,  being  the  anniversary  of  the  fatal  tragedy  of  this  unhappy  city,  another 
shock  gave  the  iniiabitants  so  terrible  an  alarm  that  they  were  preparing  for  their  flight  into 
tlie  country,  but  were  prevented  by  several  regiments  of  horse  placed  all  around  by  the 
king's  orders.  Many  of  the  largest  mountains  in  Portugal  during  the  great  earthquake  were 
shaken  as  it  were  to  their  foundation,  and  many  of  them  opened  at  their  summits,  split,  and 
rent,  and  huge  masses  of  them  were  cast  down  into  the  subjacent  valleys.  The  same  dread- 
ful visitation  was  experienced  at  Oporto.  We  are  told  tliat  at  about  forty  minutes  past  nine 
in  the  morning,  the  sky  being  serene,  was  heard  a  dreadful  hollow  noise  like  thunder  or  the 
rattling  of  coaches  over  rugged  stones  at  a  distance ;  and  almost  at  the  same  instant  was 
felt  a  severe  shock  of  an  earthquake,  which  lasted  six  or  seven  minutes,  during  which  every 
thing  shook  and  rattled.  It  rent  several  churches.  In  the  streets  the  earth  was  seen  to 
heave  under  the  people's  feet,  as  if  in  labour,  The  river  was  also  amazingly  affected ;  for 
in  the  space  of  a  minute  or  two,  it  rose  and  fell  five  or  six  feet,  and  continued  to  do  so  for 
four  hours.  Tlie  river  Douro  was  observed  to  burst  open  in  some  parts,  and  discharge  vast 
quantities  of  air ;  and  the  agitation  was  so  great  in  the  sea,  beyond  the  bar,  that  it  was  ima- 
gined the  air  got  vent  therealso. 

On  the  fatal  day  of  the  great  earthquake  of  Lisbon,  at  Ayamonte,  near  where  the  Gua- 
diana  falls  into  the  bay  of  Cadiz,  a  little  before  ten  o'clock,  immediately  on  a  rushmg  noise 
being  heard,  a  terrible  earthquake  was  felt,  which  during  fourteen  or  fifteen  minutes  damaged 


Book  II.  GEOGNOSY.  223 

almost  all  the  buildings.  In  little  more  than  half  an  hour  after,  the  sea  and  river,  with  all 
their  canals,  overflowed  their  bounds  with  great  violence,  laying  under  water  all  the  coasts 
of  the  islands  adjacent  to  the  city  and  its  neighbourhood,  flowing  into  the  streets.  The 
water  rose  three  times,  after  it  had  as  many  times  subsided.  One  of  the  swells  was  at  the 
time  of  ebb.  The  water  came  on  in  vast  black  mountains,  white  with  foam  at  tlie  top,  and 
demolished  more  than  half  of  the  town  at  the  bar  called  De  Canala.  The  earth  was 
observed  to  open  m  several  places,  and  from  tlie  apertures  flowed  vast  quantities  of  water. 

At  Cadiz,  in  the  same  morning,  some  minutes  after  nine,  the  whole  town  was  shaken 
with  a  violent  earthquake,  whicii  lasted  about  five  minutes.  The  water  in  the  cisterns 
under  ground  rolled  backwards  and  forwards.  At  ten  minutes  after  eleven,  a  wave  was 
seen  coming  from  sea,  eight  miles  off,  at  least  sixty  feet  higher  than  usual.  It  dashed 
against  the  west  part  of  the  city ;  at  last  it  came  upon  tlie  walls,  beat  in  the  breast-work, 
and  carried  pieces  of  eight  or  ten  tons  weight  forty  or  fifty  yards  from  the  wall.  When  the 
wave  was  gone,  some  parts  that  are  deep  at  low  water  were  left  quite  dry,  for  the  water 
returned  there  with  the  same  violence  as  it  came.  On  the  same  eventful  morning  Gibraltar 
was  agitated  by  an  earthquake.  It  lasted  about  two  minutes.  The  guns  on  the  battery 
losre  seen  to  rise,  others  to  sink,  the  earth  having  an  undulating  motion.  Most  people 
were  seized  with  giddiness  and  sickness,  and  some  fell  down,  others  were  stupefied,  though 
many  that  were  walking  or  riding  felt  no  motion,  but  were  sick.  The  sea  rose  six  feet 
every  fifteen  minutes,  and  fell  so  low  that  boats  and  all  the  small  craft  near  the  shore  were 
left  aground,  as  were  numbers  of  fish.  Ships  in  the  bay  seemed  as  if  they  had  struck  on 
rocks.  The  flux  and  reflux  lasted  till  six  next  morning,  having  decreased  gradually  from 
two  in  the  afternoon. 

This  earthquake  excited  much  attention,  from  the  incredibly  great  extent  at  which  slighter 
contemporary  shocks  were  experienced.  They  extended  from  Greenland  and  Iceland  to 
Norway,  Sweden,  Germany,  Britain,  Switzerland,  France,  Spain,  Morocco,  Salee,  Fez, 
Teutan,  and  even  to  the  West  Indies  and  the  lake  Ontario  in  North  America. 

However  dreadfijl  many  of  the  earthquakes  of  Europe  were,  they  bear  no  comparison 
with  those  which  have  desolated  many  parts  of  Asia.  Passing  over  those  which  were 
observed  in  the  islands,  on  the  eastern  continent,  and  in  the  environs  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
our  attention  is  particularly  drawn  towards  Syria,  on  account  of  the  ravages  it  has  frequently 
experienced. 

Gibbon,  in  the  forty-third  chapter  of  his  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  gives  the 
following  account  of  the  earthquake  that  took  place  at  Antioch  in  A.  D.  526,  May  30. 
"  The  near  approach  of  a  comet  may  injure  or  destroy  the  globe  which  we  inhabit;  but  the 
changes  on  its  surface  have  been  hitherto  produced  by  the  action  of  volcanoes  and  earth- 
quakes. The  nature  of  the  soil  may  indicate  the  countries  most  exposed  to  these  formidable 
concussions,  since  they  are  caused  by  subterraneous  fires,  and  such  fires  are  kindled  by  the 
union  and  fermentation  of  iron  and  sulphur.  But  their  times  and  effects  appear  to  lie  beyond 
the  reach  of  human  curiosity,  and  the  philosopher  will  discreetly  abstain  from  the  prediction 
of  earthquakes,  till  he  has  counted  the  drops  of  water  that  silently  filtrate  on  the  inflam- 
mable mineral,  and  measured  the  caverns  which  increase  by  resistance  the  explosion  of  the 
imprisoned  air.  Without  assigning  the  cause,  history  will  distinguish  the  periods  in  which 
these  calamitous  events  have  been  rare  or  frequent,  and  will  observe,  that  this  fever  of  the 
earth  raged  with  uncommon  violence  during  the  reign  of  Justinian.  Each  year  is  marked 
by  the  repetition  of  earthquakes,  of  sucli  duration,  that  Constantinople  has  been  shaken 
above  forty  days ;  of  such  extent,  that  the  shock  has  been  communicated  to  the  whole  sur- 
face of  the  globe,  or  at  least  of  the  Roman  empfre.  An  impulsive  or  vibratory  motion  was 
felt :  enormous  chasms  were  opened,  huge  and  heavy  bodies  were  discharged  into  the  air, 
the  sea  alternately  advanced  and  retreated  beyond  its  ordinary  bounds,  and  a  mountain  was 
torn  from  Libanus,  and  cast  into  the  waves,  where  it  protected,  as  a  mole,  the  new  harbour 
of  Botrys,  in  Phoenicia.  The  stroke  that  agitates  an  ant-hill,  may  crush  the  insect  myriads 
in  the  dust;  yet  truth  must  extort  a  confession,  that  man  lias  industriously  laboured  tor  his 
own  destruction.  The  institution  of  great  cities,  which  include  a  nation  within  the  limits 
of  a  wall,  almost  realizes  the  wish  of  Caligula,  that  the  Roman  people  had  but  one  neck. 
Two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  persons  are  said  to  have  perished  m  the  earthquake  of 
Antioch,  whose  domestic  multitudes  were  swelled  by  the  conflux  of  strangers  to  the  festival 
of  the  Ascension.  The  loss  of  Berytus  was  of  smaller  account,  but  of  much  greater  value. 
That  city,  on  the  coast  of  Phoenicia,  was  illustrated  by  the  study  of  the  civil  law,  which 
opened  the  surest  road  to  wealth  and  dignity :  the  schools  of  Berytus  were  filled  with  the 
rising  spirits  of  the  age,  and  many  a  youth  was  lost  in  the  earthquake  v/ho  might  iiave  lived 
to  be  the  scourge  or  the  guardian  of  his  country.  In  these  disasters,  the  architect  becomes 
the  enemy  of  mankind.  The  hut  of  a  savage,  or  the  tout  of  an  Arab,  may  be  thrown  down 
without  injury  to  the  inliabitants ;  and  tlie  Peruvians  had  reason  to  deride  the  folly  of  their 
Spanish  conquerors,  who  with  so  much  cost  and  labour  erected  their  own  sepulchres.  The 
rich  marbles  of  a  patrician  are  dashed  on  Jiis  own  head ;  a  whole  people  is  buried  under  the 
ruins  of  public  and  private  edifices,  and  tlie  conflagration  is  kindled  and  propagated  by  the 


224  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  U. 

innumerable  fires  which  arc  necessary  for  the  subsistence  and  manufactures  of  a  o^reat  city. 
Instead  of  the  mutual  sympathy  wliich  might  comfort  and  assist  the  distressed,  they  dread- 
fully exjjerience  the  vices  and  passions  which  are  released  from  the  fear  of  punislmient :  the 
tottering  houses  are  pillaged  by  intrepid  avarice ;  revenge  embraces  the  moment,  and  selects 
the  victim ;  and  the  earth  often  swallows  the  assassin  or  the  ravisher  in  the  consummation 
af  their  crimes.  Superstition  involves  the  present  danger  with  invisible  terrors ;  and  if  the 
image  of  death  may  sometimes  be  subservient  to  the  virtue  or  repentance  of  individuals,  an 
affrighted  people  is  more  forcibly  moved  to  expect  the  end  of  the  world,  or  to  de])recate  with 
servile  homage  the  wrath  of  an  avenging  Deity."  In  1169  single  shocks  contiuiiod  for  four 
montlis ;  and  in  1202  another  earthquake  destroyed  many  cities,  filled  up  tiie  valleys  of 
Lebanon,  and  shattered  the  basaltic  districts  of  Hauran,  so  that,  according'  to  the  expression 
then  current,  it  was  no  longer  possible  to  say,  Here  stood  this  or  that  city.  A  dreadful 
earthquake  took  place  in  1759 ;  the  shocks  continued  for  six  months.  At  the  first  shock  the 
cities  of  Antioch,  Balbec,  Acre,  Tripoli,  &c.  were  laid  in  ruins,  and  30,000  persons  killed. 
The  more  recent  earthquake,  of  1822,  lasted  still  longer,  and  conmiitted  dreadful  ravages. 
On  the  13th  of  August,  in  one  horrible  night,  Aleppo,  Antioch,  Biha,  Cesser,  indeed  every 
single  village  and  cottage  within  the  pashalic  of  Aleppo,  was,  within  ten  or  twelve  seconds, 
completely  destroyed,  and  converted  into  a  heap  of  rubbish :  no  less  than  20,000  people  lost 
their  lives,  and  many  more  were  mutilated ;  a  very  great  number,  considering  the  low 
population  of  these  places. 

Africa  is  very  little  known,  and  we  are  therefore  ignorant  of  any  earthquakes  in  its 
interior,  where  they  may  occur  as  frequently  as  in  other  places.  The  southern  extremity  of 
this  continent  is  rarely  visited  by  slight  shocks,  but  they  are  more  numerous  in  the  north, 
where,  in  March,  1825,  they  did  considerable  damage  to  Algiers  and  Blida.  On  the  contrary, 
America,  particularly  in  the  southern  parts,  is  inferior  to  no  part  of  the  world  for  the  magnitude, 
number,  and  duration  of  its  earthquakes.  We  shall  now  mention  a  few  of  the  greatest 
recorded  bj'^  naturalists.  To  these  belong  the  earthquake  of  1746,  which,  within  five  minutes, 
destroyed  the  greater  part  of  Lima ;  Callao  was  inundated ;  and  of  4000  persons,  200  only 
escaped.  The  destruction  of  New  Andalusia,  on  the  21st  of  October,  1766,  was  equally 
terrible.  The  shocks  extended  over  Cumana,  Caraccas^  IMaracaibo,  the  shores  of  the  Casanar, 
the  Meta,  the  Orinoco,  and  Ventures;  and  the  granite  districts  in  the  mission  of  Encaranada 
were  also  shaken  by  their  violence.  An  earthquake,  in  1797,  destroyed  a  great  part  of  Peru. 
It  proceeded  from  the  volcano  Tunguragua,  continued  witli  slight  sliocks  during  the  whole 
of  February  and  IMarch,  and  returned  on  the  15th  of  A])ril,  with  increased  violence.  Many 
places  were  filled  up  by  the  summits  of  mountains  tumbling  down ;  muddy  water  flowed  from 
the  volcano ;  and,  spreading  over  the  country,  became  afterwards  an  indurated  crust  of  clay. 
The  entire  number  of  persons  who  perished  on  this  occasion  was  16,000.  No  earthquake 
could  well  be  more  destructive  to  any  place  than  that  which  destroyed  the  Caraccas  in  1812, 
and  of  which  Humboldt  has  given  an  excellent  description.  The  Caraccas  was  thought 
secure  on  account  of  its  primitive  mountains,  although  in  1641,  1703,  and  1778,  violent 
earthquakes  were  experienced,  and  a  slighter  shock  in  1802.  Humboldt,  fi"om  actual  inspec- 
tion, had  no  doubt  but  this  country,  from  being  in  a  volcanic  region,  must  be  liable  to  such 
disasters.  In  December,  1811,  various  shocks  were  felt ;  on  the  12th  of  March,  1812,  the 
city  of  Caraccas  was  destroyed.  The  sky  was  clear,  and  in  Venezuela,  there  had  not  been 
a  drop  of  rain  for  five  months :  there  was  no  forewarning  prognostic,  for  the  first  shock  at 
seven  minutes  past  four  in  the  aflernoon  came  on  unexpectedly,  and  set  the  bells  a  ringing. 
This  was  immediately  succeeded  by  a  second  shock,  which  caused  a  waving  and  rolling 
motion  in  the  earth,  then  a  subterraneous  rumbling  noise  was  heard,  and  there  was  a  third 
shock,  in  which  the  motion  was  perpendicular,  and  sometimes  rolling  horizontally,  with  a 
violence  which  nothing  could  withstand.  The  people,  in  place  of  flying  directly  to  the 
open  fields,  flocked  in  crowds  to  the  churches,  where  arrangements  had  been  made  for  a 
procession ;  and  the  multitudes  assembled  there  were  buried  beneath  the  ruins.  Two  churches 
150  feet  high,  and  supported  by  columns  of  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  in  diameter,  fell  in  a 
mass  of  rubbish,  and  were  for  the  most  part  ground  into  dust.  The  Caserne  el  Quartel 
vanished  almost  entirely,  and  a  regiment  of  soldiers  stationed  there,  and  about  to  join  the 
procession,  disappeared  at  the  same  time  along  with  it ;  a  few  individuals  only  escaped  ;  nine- 
tenths  of  the  city  were  completely  destroyed,  and  most  of  the  houses  that  remained  were 
rendered  uninhabitable ;  the  number  of  people  killed  was  reckoned  at  nearly  10,000,  without 
including  those  who  perished  afterwards  from  bruises  and  want  of  sustenance.  The  clouds 
of  dust  having  fallen,  were  succeeded  by  a  serene  night,  which  formed  a  frightful  contrast 
with  the  destruction  on  the  earth,  and  with  the  dead  bodies  lying  scattered  among  the  ruins. 
The  duration  of  each  p.irticular  shock  was  reckoned  by  some  50  seconds,  by  others  1  minute 
12  seconds.  These  shocks  extended  over  the  provmces  of  Venezuela,  Varinas,  Maracaibo, 
and  into  the  mountains  in  the  interior.  La  Guayra,  Mayquatia,  La  Vega,  St.  Felipe  and 
Merida,  were  almost  entirely  destroyed.  In  La  Guayra  and  St.  Felipe  the  number  of  persons 
killed  was  about  5000.     On  the  5th  of  April  another  violent  earthquake  took  place,  during 


Book  H.  GEOGNOSY.  225 

which  enormous  fragments  were  detached  from  the  mountams.     It  was  said  that  the  moun- 
tain Silla  lost  trom  350  to  360  feet  of  its  height  by  sinking. 

Cause  of  Earthquakes. — The  original  hypothesis,  which  attributed  volcanic  eruptions  and 
earthquakes  to  tiie  operation  of  central  fire,  was  at  first  attacked  chiefly  by  Stukely,  who, 
from  the  phenomena  of  two  earthquakes  observed  at  London  on  the  6th  February,  and  8th 
of  Marcli,  1749,  endeavoured  to  prove  that  they  were  caused  by  a  highly  overcharged 
state  of  the  electric  fluid.  Andrew  Bena  affirms,  that  they  are  sudden  explosions,  caused 
by  gas  in  the  interior  of  the  earth,  which  he  believes  would  be  found  there  inclosed  in 
reservoirs  of  sulpiiur  and  bitumen.  Beccaria,  as  is  known,  endeavoured  to  attribute  to  elec- 
tricity every  thmg  that  had  any  probable  affinity  for  it ;  hence  he  believed  that  an  accumu- 
lation of  It  in  the  crust  of  the  earth  produced  concussions  v.'itlithe  clouds,  and  then  exhibited 
the  appearance  of  earthquakes.  Humboldt  found  it  to  be  a  prevailing  opinion  in  America 
that  earthquakes  are  electrical  phenomena ;  but  observes,  that  this  must  be  excused  by 
reason  of  the  partiality  entertained  for  Franklin.  The  invention  of  the  Voltaic  pile,  and 
the  observation  of  its  smgular  operations,  induced  many  philosophers,  at  least  those  naturalists 
who  were  perfectly  mtimate  with  the  nature  of  this  remarkable  apparatus,  to  consider  the 
whole  earth  as  a  column  or  pile  of  this  description,  or  that  it  contains  an  apparatus  of  this 
description  in  its  interior.  Tiiese  fancies,  however,  lead  to  nothing  satisfactory.  Where 
then  can  we  seek  for  the  cause  or  causes  of  earthquakes  !  The  subject  is  entirely  hypothe- 
tical, as  we  have  no  means  of  reaching  the  seat  of  these  remarkable  phenomena.  The 
theory  of  the  earthquake  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  volcano.  The  agitations  may  be  produced 
by  tlie  motions  of  the  liquid  and  gaseous  matter  at  a  great  depth  in  the  crust  of  the  earth 
endeavouring  to  escape. 

Sect.  V. — Account  of  the  different  Structures  observable  in  the  Crust  of  the  Earth. 

Before  the  time  of  Werner,  little  had  been  accomplished  in  regard  to  the  determination 
of  the  structures  that  occur  in  the  crust  of  the  earth.  Some  maintained  that  everywhere 
irregularity  prevailed,  and  that  it  was  in  vain  to  look  for  order  or  regularity  in  the  coarse 
rocky  masses  of  which  mountains,  hills,  and  plains  are  composed.  Werner,  however,  on 
general  grounds,  as:7umed  that  if  determinate  structures  and  arrangements  occurred  in  the 
vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms,  the  same  must  be  the  case  in  the  mineral  kingdom,  not 
only  in  simple  minerals,  but  also  in  the  great  and  more  generally  distributed  masses  of 
wiiich  the  crust  of  the  earth  is  principally  composed.  His  investigations  fully  confirmed 
the  truth  of  this  opinion,  for  minerals  he  found  as  well  characterised  as  plants  and  animals: 
and  the  following  details  will  show  that  there  exists  among  mountain  rocks,  or  those  great 
masses  of  which  the  crust  of  the  earth  is  composed,  a  beautiful  series  of  structure,  from  that 
of  hand-specimens  to  the  general  arrangements  of  the  great  rock  formations.  We  shall 
consider  these  structures  in  the  following  order,  beginning  with  the  smallest  and  terminating 
with  the  greatest. 

SuBSECT.    — Different  Structures. 

1.  Structure  of  mountain  rocks  in  hand-specimens. 

2.  Structure  of  strata  and  beds. 

3.  Structure  of  formations. 

4.  Arrangements  of  formations  in  regard  to  each  other. 

5.  Structure  of  veins. 

(1.)  Structure  nf  mountain  rocks.  The  kinds  of  structure  occurring  in  mountain  rocks 
are  the  following : — 1.  Compact.  2.  Slaty.  3.  Granular.  4.  Porphyritic.  5.  Amygda- 
loidal.  6.  Conglomerated.  In  the  compact  structure,  the  mass  is  uniform,  without  slaty 
or  any  other  arrangement,  and  when  broken  exhibits  various  fractures  as  earthy,  splintery, 
conchoidal,  even,  &c.  Common  compact  quartz  is  an  example  of  this  kind  of  structure. 
In  the  slaty  structure  the  rocks  split  readily  into  thin  layers  or  slates,  as  in  common  roofing 
elate.  Rocks  having  the  granular  structure  are  composed  of  granular  concretions  or 
imperfect  crystals,  as  in  primitive  limestone  or  statuary  marble.  In  the  porphyritic  structure 
there  is  a  basis  or  ground  with  imbedded  crystals,  generally  of  felspar  or  quartz,  or  both, 
as  in  porphyry :  in  the  amygdaloidal  structure  there  is  also  a  basis  or  ground  ;  but  here  the 
base  does  not  contain  imbedded  crystals,  but  amygdaloidal  cavities,  which  are  either  nearly 
empty,  half  filled,  or  completely  filled  with  minerals.  The  rock  named  amygdaloid 
exhibits  this  kind  of  structure.  Lastly,  tlie  conglomerated  structure  is  that  which  we 
observe  in  the  rock  named  conglomerate,  \\  hich  is  composed  of  fragments  imbedded  in  a 
basis  or  ground. 

(2.)  Structure  of  strata  and  beds.  When  a  mountain  or  hill  is  composed  of  tabular 
masses  of  the  same  kind  of  rock,  as  of  sandstone,  tliat  extend  throughout  the  hill,  it  is  said  to 
be  stratified,  and  the  individual  tabular  masses  are  named  strata,  as  in  fg.  58.  If  among 
these  strata  there  occur  tabular  masses  of  a  different  rock,  the  masses  are  named  beds :  a.  fg. 

Vol.  L  2D 


226 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


58.  represents  a  bed  of  limestone  in  the  cliff  of  stratified  sandstone.     These  strata  and  beds 

58 


^^ 


vary  in  position ;  sometimes  they  are  flat  or  horizontal,  or  they  are  more  or  less  inclined  until 
they  become  vertical,  or  are  set  on  their  edges.  They  also  vary  in  the  point  of  the  compass 
towards  which  they  are  inclined,  or  dip ;  but  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  dip  is  always 
at  riglit  angles  to  the  range  or  direction  of  the  strata;  and  that  if  the  dip  is  given,  we  know 
the  direction :  but  a  knowledge  of  the  direction  will  not  give  us  the  dip.  Their  direction 
also  varies.  The  position  of  strata  is  determined  by  a  well-known  instrument,  the  clinometer, 
which  is  a  compass  with  an  attached  quadrant.  Wlien  we  examine  the  structure  of  indi- 
vidual strata  and  beds,  several  varieties  may  be  discovered :  thus,  in  some  beds,  the  rock  is 
arranged  in  cohanns,  as  in  basalt ;  in  others,  the  arrangement  is  in  tables,  as  in  porphyry ; 
or  in  balls,  as  in  granite  and  greenstone. 

(3.)  Structure  of  formations.  The  idea  of  formations  was  first  clearly  brought  out  by 
Werner.  To  his  views  on  this  most  important  subject  we  can  trace  the  new  character  of 
geology,  and  the  great  progress  made  in  geognosy  within  these  last  thirty  years.  But  this 
is  not  the  place  for  discussing  the  subject.  All  those  rocks  which  appear  to  have  been  formed 
at  the  same  time,  and  in  the  same  or  similar  circumstances,  and  which  agree  in  position, 
structure,  mass,  petrifactions,  imbedded  minerals,  &c.  are  said  to  belong  to  the  same  formation. 
These  formations  are  divided  into  simple  and  compound.  Simple  formations  are  those  prin- 
cipally composed  of  one  rock ;  compound  formations,  of  more  than  one  species  of  rock : 
granite  is  an  example  of  a  simple  formation;  the  first  secondary  sandstone,  or  the  great 
coal  formation,  of  a  compound  formation,  because  it  contains  several  rocks;  viz.  sandstone, 
slate,  limestone,  coal,  and  ironstone. 

(4.)  Arrangement  of  formations  in  regard  to  each  other.  When  two  formations  occur 
too- ether,  and  the  one  rests  upon  the  other,  the  subjacent  formation  is  named  the  fundamen- 
tal rock,  and  that  which  covers  or  lies  upon  the  other,  the  superincumbent.  The  line  where 
the  two  rocks  or  formations  meet  is  called  the  line  of  separation  or  line  of  junction.  In 
fg.  59.  a  is  the  fundamental  rock,  and  b  the  superimposed  rook,  and  c  c  the  line  of  junction. 


When  the  strata  of  the  superimposed  formation  is  parallel  with  the  strata  of  the  fimdamental 
or  subjacent  rock,  the  stratification  is  said  to  be  conformable,  asjig.  60  where  a  formation  a, 

60 


we  shall  say   of  limestone,  rests  on  b,  of  sandstone.     If  the  strata  of  the  superimposed 
formation  are  disposed  as  at  c,  fig.  61.,  they  are  said  to  be  unconformable.     Lastly,  if  the 


strata  lie  over  the  ends  of  the  strata  of  the  fundamenUl  rock,  as  at  b,  injig.  59.,  they  are  said 


Book  II.  GEOGNOSY.  227 

to  be  unconformable  and  overlying.  If  the  strata  rest  on  the  fundamental  rock,  as  repreBcnted 


iTi  jig.  62.,  they  are  said  to  be  saddle-shaped;  if  as  represented  in  jig.  63.,  they  are  said  to 
63 


be  mantle-shaped ;  if  disposed  in  a  bason-shaped  hollow,  as  in  jig.  64.,  they  are  said  to  be 


bason-shaped;  if  in  a  lengthened  or  trough-like  hollow,  as  in  jig.  65.,  thev  are  said  to  be 


troKgh-shaped.  In  a  mountain  or  natural  section  of  Neptunian  or  aquatic  rocks,  as  limestone, 
sandstone,  slate,  &c.,  the  undermost  or  lowest-lying  strata  are  considered  to  be  the  oldest : 
therefore,  on  ascending  a  mountain,  as  that  in  jig.  66.,  from  a  to  b,  we  pass  from  the  newer 

66 


to  the  older  rocks ;  but  if  from  c  to  b,  from  the  older  to  the  newer.  Formations  were 
formerly  more  continuous  than  at  present,  portions  only  remaining  of  extensive  deposits. 
The  rsmaining  portions  occupying  different  situations  have  received  particular  names,  ac- 
cording to  the  situations  in  which  they  occur.  When  in  patches  on  the  summits  of  hills,  as 
represented  at  a  a  a  in  jig.  67.,  they  are  called  mountain-caps.  When  in  hollows,  as  at  b  b, 
they  are  named  upjillings. 


(.5.)  Structure  of  Veins.  These  are  tabular  masses  that  intersect  the  strata  and  beds  of 
the  mountain  or  tract  in  which  they  occur.  The  tabular  masses  of  trap  or  whinstone  veins 
tliat  cut  across  the  strata  of  Great  Britain  are  there  popularly  known  under  the  name  of 
whin  dykes.  Veins,  like  strata,  vary  in  position,  being  sometimes  vertical,  at  other  times 
not  much  inclined  to  the  horizon ;  their  direction,  inclination,  and  dip  are  determined  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  strata.  These  intersecting  masses  vary  in  breadth  from  an  inch  or  less 
to  many  fathoms ;  in  length,  from  a  few  inches  to  several  miles ;  and  in  depth,  from  a  few 
inches  to  an  unknown  and  vast  depth.  Veins  appear  to  have  been  originally  open  rents  or 
fissures  traversing  the  strata,  which  have  been  filled  by  an  after-process  with  the  mineral 
matters  they  now  contain.     This  being  the  case,  we  naturally  expect  to  find  the  strata  on 


228  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

the  walls  of  veins  exhibiting  the  same  phenomena  as  occur  in  the  walls  of  rents.     When 
rents  cut  across  strata,  they  .sometimes,  as  in  fijr,  QS.,  at  a,  b,  produce  no  derangement; 


wliilo,  in  other  crises,  the  strata  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  rent  do  not  correspond,  owing 
1o  tlie  strata  on  one  side  sinking  down,  as  represented  in  Jig.  69. :  this  derangement  is  call- 
ed a  shift,  slip,  or  fault. 

69 


Such,  then,  are  the  different  structures  observable  in  the  great  masses  of  whicli  the  crust 
of  the  earth  is  composed.     We  next  proceed  to  give — 

Sect.  ^^. — An  Account  of  the  different  Classes  and  Species  of  Rocks  of  which  the  Cntst 

of  the  Earth  is  composed. 

It  was  at  one  time  a  general  opinion  that  the  formations  of  which  the  crust  of  the  eartli 
is  composed  were  destitute  of  all  regularity  in  distribution  and  in  individual  characters. 
Lehman,  a  German  miner,  was  early  convinced  of  a  certain  degree  of  order  in  their  arrange- 
ment; and  in  his  well-known  v.'ork,  first  stated  their  division  into  Primitive  and  Secondary ; 
under  the  first  including  those  destitute  of  fossil  organic  remains,  while  under  the  other  he 
arranged  all  those  containing  petrifactions  or  fossil  organic  remains.  The  first,  he  said, 
were  generally  in  hig-hly  inclined  strata,  the  other  in  horizontal  strata.  Werner  first  dis- 
tinctly characterised  these  two  classes  of  rocks,  and  added  to  them  other  two  classes,  viz. 
the  Transition  and  Local,  or  what  are  now  called  the  Tertiary.  The  whole  rocks,  from 
the  oldest  to  the  newest,  were  arranged  by  Werner  under  the  following  names  and  in  the 
following  order : — 1.  Primitive.  2.  Transition.  3.  Secondary.  4.  Local,  the  Tertiary  of 
the  present  geology.  5.  Alluvial.  6.  Volcanic.  This  arrangement,  more  or  less  modifie  1, 
still  remains,  being  adopted  by  the  principal  geologists  in  Europe  and  America. 

Prirnitive  rocks.  The  rocks  of  this  class  lie  under  those  of  the  succeeding  classes.  Coun- 
tries in  which  they  predominate  are  in  general  more  rugged  and  lofty  than  those  composed 
of  rocks  of  the  other  classes ;  fiirtlier,  their  cliffs  are  more  e.xtensive,  their  valleys  narrower 
and  deeper,  and  more  uneven,  than  those  in  secondary  countries.  The  strata  of  primitive 
mountains  are  very  frequently  highly  inclined  ;  a  circumstance  which  contributes  in  an 
especial  manner  to  the  increase  of  the  ruggedness  and  inequalities  of  the  surface  of  primi- 
tive regions.  Tlie  primitive  strata  in  many  countries  maintain  a  wonderful  uniformity  of 
difection.  Thus,  in  Scotland  the  general  direction  of  the  strata  of  primitive  mountains  is 
from  N.  E.  to  S.  W. ;  and  the  same  is  nearly  the  case  in  the  vast  alpine  regions  of  Norway, 
and  in  many  of  the  lofty  and  widely  extended  primitive  lands  of  other  ])arts  of  Europe.  The 
rocks  of  which  primitive  mountains  and  plains  are  composed  are  throughout  of  a  crystalline 
nature,  and  present  such  characters  as  intimate  their  formation  from  a  state  of  solution. 
These  characters  are  the  intermixture  of  the  concretions  of  which  they  are  composed  at 
their  line  of  junction,  their  mutual  penetration  of  ench  other,  their  considerable  lustre,  pure 
colours,  and  translucency.  Thus,  in  granite  the  concretions  of  felspar,  quartz,  and  mica  are 
joined  together  without  any  basis  or  ground  ;  and  at  their  line  of  juncture  are  either  closely 
attached  too'ether,  or  are  intermixed ;  and  frequently  branches  of  the  one  concretion  shoot 
into  the  other,  thus  occasioning  a  mutual  interlacement,  as  is  observed  in  bodies  that  have 
been  formed  simultaneously  and  from  a  state  of  solution.  These  characters  show  that  the 
concretions  of  granite  (and  the  same  applies  to  the  concretions  of  limestone,  gneiss,  mica 
slate,  and  other  rocks  of  the  primitive  class,)  are  of  a  crystalline  nature,  and  have  been 
formed  at  the  same  time.  The  strata  are  so  arranged  as  to  show  that  they  are  crystalline 
formations.  Primitive  rocks  contain  no  organic  remains,  hence  are  inferred  to  have  been 
formed  before  animals  and  vegetables  were  called  mto  existence.     Primitive  rocks  abound 


Book  II.  GEOGNOSY.  229 

very  much  in  metalliferous  minerals,  and  hitherto  no  metal  has  been  met  with  which  does 
not  occur,  either  exclusively  or  occasionally,  in  this  class  of  rocks.  Tin,  wolfram,  lead,  cop- 
per, iron,  cobalt,  zinc,  niaufrancse,  arsenic,  and  mercury,  occur  either  disseminated,  in  beds 
and  veins,  or  imbedded  in  various  rocks  of  this  class,  and  many  primitive  districts  are  char- 
acterised by  the  metalliferous  deposits  they  contain. 

The  most  beautitlil  of  all  productions  of  the  mineral  kingdom,  the  gems,  occur  in  great 
variety  in  primitive  rocks.  Nothing  can  be  more  beautiful  than  the  drussy  cavities  met  with 
in  primitive  mountains,  whose  walls  are  lined  with  pure  and  variously  tinted  and  crystallized 
topaz,  beryl,  rock  crystal,  fluor  spar,  and  calcareous  spar;  the  gneiss,  granite,  and  mica 
plate,  with  their  imbedded  crystals  and  grains  of  sapphire,  chrysolite,  and  garnet;  and  the 
veins  in  granite,  clay  slate,  and  other  primitive  rocks,  with  their  emeralds,  axinites,  and 
spinel  rubies,  afford  to  the  mineralogist  highly  interesting  combinations. 

Species  cf  primitive  rocks. — The  following  are  the  species  of  rocks  that  form  the  primi- 
tive parts  of  the  crust  of  the  earth : — 1.  Granite.  2.  Syenite.  3.  Protogine.  4.  Trap. 
5.  Serpentine.  6.  Porphyry.  7.  Gneiss.  8.  Mica  slate.  9.  Clay  slate.  10.  Quartz  rock. 
11.  Limestone. 

Of  these  rocks  one  set,  consisting  of  certain  granites,  with  trap,  gneiss,  mica  slate,  clay 
slate,  quartz  rock,  and  limestone,  are  said  to  be  of  Neptunian  origin,  that  is,  have  been  de- 
posited from  a  liquid,  probably  water ;  the  other  set,  including  certain  granites,  with  syenite, 
porpliyry,  protogine,  serpentine  and  diallage  rock,  are  named  Platonic  or  igneous,  it  being 
probable  that  they  have  been  formed  from  a  state  of  igneous  solution.  We  shall  describe 
first  the  Neptunian,  and  next  the  Plutonian  primitive  rocks. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Neptunian  Primitive  Rocks. 

(1.)  Granite  is  a  granular  compound  of  felspar,  quartz,  and  mica.  It  occurs  in  beds  and 
in  imbedded  masses,  and  also  in  included  veins  in  gneiss,  mica  slate,  and  clay  slate.  From 
its  intimate  connexion  with  these  rocks,  it  is  inferred  to  be  a  Neptunian  deposit. 

(2.)  Trap.  Under  this  name  we  include  all  those  granular  primitive  rocks  in  which 
hornblende  is  the  sole  or  predominant  constituent  part.  These  rocks  sometimes  appear 
arranged  like  the  steps  of  a  stair ;  hence  tlie  name  trap,  from  the  Swedish  word  trappa,  a 
stair. 

(3.)  Gneiss  is  a  granular  slaty  compound  of  felspar,  mica,  and  quartz. 

(4.)  Mica  slate  is  a  slaty  compound  of  mica  and  quartz.  Talc  slate  and  micaceous  talc 
rocks  may  be  arranged  under  this  head. 

(5.)  Clay  .slate  is  a  slaty  rock,  frequently  entirely  composed  of  minute  scales  of  mica. 

(6.)  Quartz  rock.  This  rock  is  almost  entirely  composed  of  quartz,  either  in  granular 
concretions  or  in  the  compact  form ;  and  grains  of  felspar  and  scales  of  mica  not  unfrequently 
occur  in  it.  When  the  felspar  increases  in  quantity,  the  compound  at  length  passes  into 
granite.    When  the  scales  of  mica  increase  and  the  felspar  disappears,  mica  slate  is  formed. 

(7.)  Limestone.  This  rock  has  generally  a  white  or  gray  colour,  is  composed  of  shining 
granular  concretions,  and  is  more  or  less  translucent.  It  frequently  contains  scales  of  mica 
and  grains  of  quartz,  seldom  or  never  grains  and  crystals  of  felspar. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Plutonian  or  Ignigenous  Primitive  Rocks. 

(1.)  Granite.  The  structure  and  composition  of  this  granite  is  in  general  the  same  as 
that  of  the  Neptunian  kind  already  noticed.  It  differs  from  it  in  occurring  in  vast  and  often 
widely  extended  masses,  which  form  the  central  parts  of  mountain  groups,  and  appear  to 
have  come  from  below  after  t!ie  deposition  of  the  Neptunian  rocks  that  rest  upon  them. 
The  highly  inclined  position  of  the  primitive  strata  is  considered  to  have  been  occasioned  by 
this  granite,  with  its  syenites  and  porphyries. 

(2.)  Syenite  is  a  compound  of  felspar,  hornblende,  and  quartz :  in  short,  it  is  a  granite  in 
which  the  mica  is  replaced  by  hornblende.     Some  of  the  primitive  traps  belong  to  tliis  head. 

(3.)  Porphyry  is  a  rock  with  a  felspar  basis,  including  grains  and  crystals  of  felspar  and 
quartz,  and  sometimes  scales  of  mica.     This  porphyry  is  a  mere  modification  of  granite. 

(4.)  Protogine  is  a  granular  compound  of  felspar,  quartz,  and  chlorite.  It  differs  from 
granite  in  the  mica  being  replaced  by  chlorite. 

(5.)  Serpentine  is  a  simple  green-coloured  rock,  with  a  compact  fracture,  feeble  trans- 
lucency  on  the  edges,  which  yields  readily  to  the  knife,  and  feels  greasy. 

(fi.)  Diallage  rock  is  a  compound  of  felspar  and  diallage.  It  belongs  probably  to  the 
primitive  trap  series. 

Sect.  VII. — Transition  Rocks. 

The  rocks  of  this  class,  in  the  regular  succession,  rest  immediately  upon  those  of  the 
primitive  class.  Most  of  the  rocks  are  distinctly  stratified,  and  the  strata  are  frequently 
vertical,  and,  like  those  of  the  primitive  class,  exhibit  the  same  general  direction  through- 
out great  tracts  of  country.  Some  of  the  deposits  are  of  a  chemical,  others  of  a  meclianical 
nature ;  limestone  is  an  example  of  a  chemical,  greywacke  of  a  meclianical  deposit.    Thev 

Vol.  I.  2U 


:>30  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  U. 

are  distino^uished  fix)m  primitive  rocks  by  the  presence  of  fossil  orfranic  remains,  and  the 
positive  characters  are  drawn  from  the  occurrence  of  certain  fossil  crustacoous  animals, 
shells,  and  corals.  The  extensive  deposits  of  limestone,  particularly  of  tlie  variegated  kinds 
Sp  highly  i)rized  for  ornamental  purposes,  which  they  contain;  the  fine  granites  and  por- 
phyries which  tliey  afford ;  and  the  ores  of  lead  and  copper  distributed  among  them,  are 
proofs  of  their  importance  in  the  arts.  In  this  class  there  are  also  Neptunian  and  Plutonian 
rocks.  The  Neptiaiian  are  the  following,  viz.  1.  Greywacke.  2.  Transition  clay  slate.  3. 
Gneiss  and  mica  skte.  4.  Quartz  rock.  5.  Red  sandstone.  6.  Limestone.  7.  Glance  coal. 
The  Plutonian  are,  1.  Granite.    2.  Syenite.    3.  Porphyry.    4.  Trap.    5.  Serpentine. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Neptunian  Transition  Rocks. 

(1.)  Greywache  is  a  conglomerated  rock,  having  a  basis  of  clay  slate,  in  which  fragments 
of  various  primitive  rocks,  as  clay  slate,  quartz  rock,  &.c.  occur  imbedded.  When  the 
imbedded  fragments  become  very  small,  and  the  quantity  of  the  basis  increases,  the  rock 
acquires  a  slaty  fracture,  and  is  named  greywache  slate. 

(2.)  Transition  clay  slate.  This  is  the  rock  known  under  the  name  roofing  slate.  It 
sometimes  contains  trilobites. 

(3.)  Gneiss  and  mica  slate.  These  have  the  same  general  aspect  as  the  varieties  met 
with  in  primitive  regions. 

(4.)  Quartz  rock.  This  rock  very  much  resembles  the  kinds  met  with  in  primitive  moun- 
tains. 

(5.)  Limestone.  It  frequently  occurs  with  less  lustre  and  translucency  than  primitive 
limestones,  and  often  exhibits  in  the  same  bed  various  tints  and  shades  of  beautiful  colours. 
It  is  frequently  traversed  by  veins  of  calcareous  spar.  Some  varieties  are  conglomerated, 
forming  the  brecciated  marble  of  artists ;  and  others  contain  fossil  shells  and  corals,  and  also 
the  characteristic  trilobite. 

(6.)  Glance  coal,  or  Anthracite.  Beds  of  this  coal,  known  by  its  metallic  lustre,  and 
burning  without  flame  or  smoke,  are  met  with  in  transition  districts. 

Sjibsect.  2, — Plutonian  Transition  Rocks. 

(1.)  Granite.  This  rock  does  not  differ  materially  from  that  of  the  primitive  period.  It  is 
principally  distinguished  by  its  being  intermingled  with  greywacke  and  other  transition  rocks. 

(2.)  Syenite.  This  rock,  which  has  the  same  mineralogical  characters  with  the  primi- 
tive varieties,  very  generally  contains  crystals  of  sphene. 

(3.)  Porphyry.  This  porphyry  has  sometimes  a  basis  of  felspar,  sometimes  of  clay  stone, 
and  as  usual  contains  imbedded  grains  and  crystals  of  felspar.  It  occurs  either  alone,  or 
associated  with  syenite  and  trap,  forming  mountains,  and  even  ranges  of  mountains. 

(4.)  Trap.  In  this  as  in  the  primitive  trap,  the  sole  or  predominating  mineral  is  horn- 
blende.    It  passes  into  syenite. 

(5.)  Serpentine.  This  rock  does  not  differ  materially  from  the  primitive  rock  of  the 
same  name :  geognostically  it  is  distinguished  from  it  by  its  alternating  with,  and  sometimes 
traversing  in  the  form  of  veins,  greywacke  and  other  characteristic  transition  rocks. 

Sect.  VIII. — Secondary  Rocks. 

This  very  interesting  class  of  rocks  rests,  in  the  regular  succession,  immediately  upon 
those  of  the  transition  class.  Much  of  the  mineral  matter  of  which  they  are  composed 
appears  to  have  been  deposited  from  a  state  of  mechanical  suspension,  a  circumstance  which 
may  be  considered  as  distinguishing  them,  in  some  measure,  from  the  transition  class,  w^here 
chemical  deposits  prevail  over  those  of  ,a  mechanical  nature.  They  abound  in  fossil  organic 
remains,  and  it  is  here  that  for  the  first  time  we  meet  with  remains  cf  vertebrated  animals, 
as  lacertcR  and  other  species  of  the  same  general  description.  Coal,  which  occurs  but  in 
small  quantity  in  transition  deposits,  is  profusely  distributed  among  secondary  formations. 
Of  ores,  by  far  the  most  abundant,  and  at  the  same  time  most  important  in  an  economical 
view,  are  those  of  iron  and  lead :  of  these  the  iron  (it  is  the  common  clay  ironstone,  the 
aluminous  carbonate  of  iron,)  is  the  most  abundant  and  most  widely  distributed.  In  this,  as 
in  the  preceding  class,  there  are  Neptunian  and  Plutonian  rocks.  The  Neptunian  rocks  are 
the  following:—!.  Sandstone.  2.  Slate.  3.  Limestone.  4.  Gypsum.  5.  Coal.  The 
Plutonian  are,  1.  Granite.     2.  Porphyry.     3.  Trap. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Neptunian  Secondary  Rocks. 

In  the  primitive  and  transition  classes  geologists  have  not  hitherto  observed  any  very 
determinate  arrangement  among  the  Neptunian  deposits ;  whereas  in  the  present  class  a 
determinate  order  has  been  discovered  throughout  the  whole  series.  In  our  sketch  we 
sliall  follow  the  order  of  succession,  beginning  with  the  oldest,  and  finishing  our  account 
with  a  description  of  tlie  newest  formation.  The  whole  Neptunian  series  is  divided  into 
formations  of  sandstone  and  formations  of  limestone  ;  the  other  members  of  the  series,  as  the 
elate,  gypsum,  coal,  and  ironstone,  occurring  subordinate  to  these. 

First  seco7idary  formation  ;  or  the  old  red  sandstone.     This  formation  is  a  sandstone  of  a 


Book  II.  GEOGNOSY.  231 

red  colour,  and,  being  the  oldest  of  tlie  sandstones,  is  named  the  old  red  sandstone.  It  is 
composed  of  particles  of  quartz,  with  occasional  scales  of  mica  and  fragments  of  felspar, 
held  together  by  an  iron-shot  basis  or  ground.  Sometimes  it  is  associated  with  a  conglome- 
rate made  up  of  fragments  of  transition  and  primitive  rocks. 

Second  secondary  formation,  or  mountain  lit?iest07ic,  or  metalliferous  limestone,  or  car- 
honiferous  limestone  of  geologists.  This  deposit  rests,  generally  conformably,  sometimes 
also  unconformably,  on  the  old  red  sandstone.  It  is  distinctly  stratified,  and  the  strata 
are  frequently  more  or  less  inclined.  Its  colours  are  generally  gray;  the  fracture  is 
compact.  Sometunes  it  has  a  granular  foliated  structure,  particularly  where  it  occurs  in 
contact  with  trap  rocks.  Some  varieties,  viz.  those  named  lucullite,  have  a  black  colour. 
It  contains  fossil  organic  remains  of  animals  of  various  descriptions.  Of  these  the  most 
characteristic  are  genera  of  the  trilobite  tribe. 

Third  secondary  formation  ;  or  the  second  secondary  sandstone,  or  the  great  coal  forma- 
tion. This  very  important  deposit  is  a  compound  formation,  therefore  consists  of  different 
rocks.  Of  these  rocks  the  predominating  one  is  sandstone.  The  rocks  of  the  formation 
are  the  following : — 1.  Sandstone.  2.  Slate.  3.  Clay.  4.  Limestone.  5.  Coal.  6.  Iron- 
stone. 1.  Sandstone.  The  general  colours  are  white  and  gray  ;  sometimes  also  it  is  reddish, 
and  then  it  much  resembles  tlie  old  red  sandstone.  Some  varieties  are  entirely  com- 
posed of  particles  of  quartz,  held  together  by  a  very  inconsiderable  basis  or  ground ;  others 
contain,  besides  quartz,  also  felspar  and  mica ',  these  are  by  some  geologists  named  arkose. 
It  fi-equently  contains  coaly  matter,  and  casts  and  impressions  of  plants. — 2.  Slate.  Of  the 
slate  there  are  two  kinds,  named  slate  clay  and  bituminous  shale,  both  of  which  are  mere 
modifications  of  clay  with  the  slaty  structure.  These  also  contain  fossil  organic  remains. — 
3.  Clay.  This  is  compact  clay  without  the  slaty  structure,  and  from  its  use  in  the  arts  is 
named  fire  clay. — 4.  Limestone.  This  limestone  very  much  resembles  the  mountain  lime- 
stone w'hich  lies  below  the  coal ;  but  hitherto  no  trilobites  have  been  found  in  it.  It  alternates 
in  beds  with  tlie  other  rocks  of  this  formation.  Some  geologists  refer  it  to  the  mountain 
limestone,  and  consequently  that  limestone  to  the  coal  formation ;  an  opinion  which  may  be 
correct. — 5.  Coal.  The  coal  in  this  formation  occurs  in  beds  that  alternate  with  the  slates, 
sandstone,  and  limestones.  The  coal  is  bituminous  or  black  coal. — 6.  Ironstone.  This  iron- 
stone is  the  common  gray  clay  ironstone  of  mineralogists.  It  is  an  aluminous  carbonate  of 
iron,  and  is  the  species  of  ironstone  which  affords  most  of  the  iron  manufactured  in  Great 
Britain.     It  occurs  in  beds  or  imbedded,  and  most  frequently  in  the  slate  of  this  formation. 

Fourth  secondary  formation  ;  the  second  secondary  limest07ie  ;  the  7nagnesian  and  alpine 
limestone  of  authors.  This  formation,  in  the  regular  succession,  rests  immediately  upon 
the  coal  formation.  It  contains  several  varieties  of  limestone.  One  of  these,  which  fre- 
quently occupies  the  lowest  part  of  the  deposit,  has  a  brownisli  black  colour,  a  thick  slaty 
fracture,  and  emits  an  animal  bituminous  smell,  and  is  named  bituminous  marl  slate. 
Another  variety  has  a  yellowish  gray,  or  even  at  times  an  ochre  yellow  colour,  with  a 
compact  or  small  granular  foliated  structure,  with  a  low  degree  of  lustre,  and  is  named 
magnesian  limestone.  Another  variety  has  a  brownish  or  yellowisli  colour,  is  sometimes 
compact,  sometimes  granular  or  cavernous,  impregnated  with  sparry  iron,  forms  the  upper 
part  of  the  deposit,  and  is  called  calcaire  ferrifere.  Wlien  this  variety  becomes  charged 
with  bitumen  and  cavernous,  it  is  named  by  German  miners  raiichwacke.  It  abounds 
in  the  fossil  shell «named  Productus  aculeatus.  This  formation  does  not  abound  in  fossil 
organic  remains.  No  true  ferns,  but  fossil  fuci  and  zosterce,  occur  in  it.  BTemains  of 
the  monitor,  and  it  is  said  also  of  the  crocodile,  have  been  met  with  in  it.  Fishes  of  the 
genus  cha;todon  and  of  other  tribes,  and  numerous  remains  of  shells  and  corals,  occur  more 
or  less  frequently  in  different  varieties  of  the  limestone.  The  trilobite  tribe,  so  abundant  in 
the  transition  period,  and  also  in  the  first  secondary  limestone,  occur  here  along  with  ortho- 
ceratites.  It  is  the  species  named  trilobites  bituminous.  Entrochi  and  pentacrlni  of  great 
size  also  occur  in  it.  The  shells  are  not  distributed  throughout  the  whole  mass  of  the  beds, 
but  rather  occur  in  particular  parts.     The  following  are  the  shells : — 

Orthoceratites,  very  rare.  Encrinus  racemosus. 

Ammonites  gibbosus.  Productus  rugosus. 

Terebratida  paradoxa.  Mytilus  rostratus. 

.  Terebratula  elongata.  Terebratida  ovata,  lacunosa,  trigonclla. 
Spirifer  alatus. 

Fifth  secondary  formation  ;  the  third  secondary  sandstone,  or  variegated  sandstone,  or 
new  red  sandstone.  In  this  formation,  besides  the  sandstone,  there  are,  when  the  deposit 
is  complete,  also  beds  of  marl,  with  gypsum  and  rock-salt.  The  inferior  part  of  this  form- 
ation is  a  red  coloured  sandstone  conglomerate,  which  rarely  contains  subordinate  beds  of 
dolomite,  but  no  fossil  organic  remains.  Above  this  reposes  what  may  be  called  the  middle 
part  of  tlie  deposit,  which  is  the  variegated  sandstone,  so  named  because  it  sometimes 
exhibits  different  colours,  principally  red,  witli  yellow  and  gray  blotches.  It  is  composed 
of  fine  grains  of  quartz,  with  a  little  mica,  and  sometimes  felspar,  held  together  by  a  base 


232  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

of  ferruginous  clay.  It  contains  but  few  organic  remains,  principally  of  vegetables.  Tlie 
upper  part  of  tlie  deposit  is  generally  composed  of  beds  of  a  clayey  marl,  always  more  or 
less  slaty,  and  generally  alternating  in  the  lower  part  with  beds  of  the  sandstone.  Its 
colours  are  red,  gray,  and  yellow ;  sometimes  it  is  variegated  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
sandstone  with  which  it  alternates.  It  contains  subordinate  beds  of  gypsum,  and  rock-salt, 
and  sometimes  also  beds  of  dolomite.  It  contains  littoral  shells  and  bones  oi^  saurian  animals. 

Sixth  secondary  formation  ;  the  shell  limestone,  or  muschel  kalkstein.  This  interestin'^ 
deposit,  in  the  regular  succession,  rests  immediately  on  the  variegated  or  new  red  sandstone 
formation.  This  limestone  is  of  a  gray,  yellow,  or  reddisli  tint  of  colour. — It  is  compact, 
but  the  fracture  surfaces  exhibit  numerous  sliining  facets  from  animal  fossil  remains.  Beds 
of  marl,  which  are  sometimes  oolitic,  alternate  witii  it.  It  often  abounds  in  well  preserved 
fossil  shells;  hence  the  name  shell  limestone.  It  sometimes  contains  ^'■//psi^m  and  rock-salt. 
It  contains  besides  numerous  species  of  fossil  shells,  often  very  well  preserved,  bones  of  great 
saurian  animals,  and  impressions  of  fuci  and  ferns.  Corals  and  echinites  are  rare,  but 
entrochites  are  sometimes  so  abundant  that  in  some  parts  of  Germany  it  is  named  trochital 
limestone  (trochiten  kalk).  The  encrinites  liliitbrmis,.  very  common  in  this  formation,  is 
considered  to  be  characteristic  of  it.  Of  the  fossil  shells,  the  Ammonites  nodosus  and  Avicula 
socialis  are  considered  as  characteristic  of  the  shell  limestone. 

Seventh  secondary  formation  ;  the  third  secondary  sandstone,  red  ground,  marnes  irisees, 
Keuper.  This  deposit  is  principally  composed  of  sandstone,  marls,  and  dolomites  with  salt 
and  gypsum.  It  has  been  divided  into  the  following  four  groups:-^!.  Keuper  salt  and 
gypsum.  2.  Inferior  keuper,  3.  Variegated  marls.  4.  Upper  or  superior  keuper. — The 
salt  and  gypsum,  with  tiieir  marls  and  beds  of  saline  clay,  the  most  important  members  of 
this  formation  in  an  economical  point  of  view,  occupy  the  lowest  part  of  the  series.  Several 
extensive  salt-mines  occupy  this  situation. — Tlie  inferior  keuper,  that  which  rests  on  the 
gvpsum  and  salt,  is  a  sandstone  which  is  red  in  the  upper  strata,  but  gradually  passes  into 
gray  in  the  lower.  This  sandstone  sometimes  alternates  with  marls,  slate  clay,  and  dolomites, 
and  contains  beds  of  gypsum  and  coal.  The  slate  clay  contains  bivalve  shells,  a  species  of 
Ophiura,  and  several  species  of  Equisetum,  Filices,  and  also  some  ('ycaducea. — The  varie- 
gated marls  (marnes  irisees),  resting  upon  the  inferior  keuper,  exhibit  alternate  stripes  of 
white,  green,  violet,  red,  gray,  and  blue ;  they  are  generally  compact  or  slaty,  and  soft. 
They  contain  few  or  no  organic  remains,  very  little  gypsum,  and  no  rock-salt. — Tlie  tipper 
keuper  is  sandstone  of  a  gray,  yellow,  or  variegated  colour.  It  is  composed  principally  of 
grains  of  quartz,  generally  but  loosely  held  together,  so  that  the  mass  can  frequently  be 
pres.sed  into  grains  between  the  fingers.  Contains  some  traces  of  coal,  and  a  few  fossil  shells 
and  impressions  of  plants. 

Eighth  secondary  formation,  or  fourth  secondary  limestone,  contains  the  lias  and  oolite 
limestones  and  Jura  limestone  of  authors.  This,  which  is  one  of  the  most'  extensive  and 
important  of  the  secondary  formations,  may  be  divided  into  the  following  members;  pro- 
ceeding, as  usual,  from  below  upwards : — 1.  Lias.  2.  Oolite.  3.  Oxford  clay.  4.  Coral  rag. 
5.  Kimmeridge  clay.    6.  Portland  oolite. 

(1.)  Lias.  Lias  is  a  provincial  name  applied  to  limestone  shales,  and  marl  stones,  and 
some  sandstones  that  occur  along  with  them.  The  marls  are  sometimes  very  bituminous, 
and  contain  beds  of  lignite  or  brown  coal,  and  also  fossil  shells,  and  occasionally  beds  of 
gypsum.  The  fossil  vegetables  of  the  lias  are  lignites,  fossil  wood,  sometimes  siliceous 
impressions  of  ferns,  cycadacea?,  and  fiici.  Tiie  animal  remains  are  numerous  and  interest- 
ing. It  is  in  this  deposit  that  bones  and  skeletons  of  extinct  tribes  of  saurian  animals  are 
met  with;  such  as  tlie  gftnem  geosaurus,  ichthyosaurus,  and  pie  siosaur  us.  Different  species 
of  fshes  and  of  crabs  also  occur.  The  lias  contains  an  immense  quantity  of  fossil  shells,  of 
which  the  predominating  one  is  tlie  Grypha;a  arcuata ;  hence  the  marl  stones  or  limestones 
of  tiie  lias  have  been  named  grypliite  limestones.  Besides,  the  following  may  also  be 
mentioned  as  characteristic  fossils,  viz.  Ammonites  Buclandii,  Plagiostoma  gigantea, 
Btlcmnites  paxillosus,  and  Belemnites  digitalis. 

(2.)  Oolite.  The  oolite  is  divided  into  inferior  oolite  and  great  oolite.  Inferior  oolite. 
This  is  a  limestone  composed  of  round  granular  concretions,  resembling  the  roe  of  fishes'; 
hence  the  name  oolite,  or  roestone,  given  to  it.  It  is  associated  with  compact  limestones 
and  marls,  and  sometimes  it  abounds  in  fossil  organic  remains.  It  contains,  as  at  Brora  in 
Sutherland,  beds  of  coal.  The  fossil  vegetables,  which  are  numerous  and  often  well  pre- 
served, are  of  the  fern  and  cycas  tribes.  It  also  contains  bones  and  skeletons  of  great 
extent,  saurian  animals,  also  tortoises  and  crabs.  Species  of  the  tribe  echinus,  which  makes 
its  first  appearance  in  the  eighth  secondary  formation,  are  not  uncommon  ;  the  crinoid  family 
has  also  representatives  here,  so  also  have  several  genera  of  the  coral  tribe.  The  charac- 
teristic fossil  shells  of  the  inferior  oolite  are  the  Belemnites  aalensis  and  Bel.  sidcatus. — 
Great  oolite.  This  is  a  thick  deposit,  composed  chiefly  of  an  oolitic  limestone.  It  contains 
beds  of  dolomite,  and  sometimes  rests  upon  beds  of  fullers''  earth.  Resting  upon  this  oolite 
is  the  Bradford  clay ;  next  i\\e  forest  marble,  to  which  belongs  the  lithographic  limestones 
of  Bavaria.     This  forest  marble,  which  includes  also  the  Stonesfeld  slate,  contains  remains 


Book  II.  GEOGNOSY.  233 

of  Jlyin^  reptiles,  terrestrial  mammifera  ?  saurian  animals,  insects,  marine  shells,  and 
vegetables.  The  upper  member  of  this  great  oolite  series  is  named  cornbrash,  which  is  a 
bhiish  and  wliitish  compact  limestone  with  marl. 

(3.)  Oxford  clay  and  Kelloway  rock.  The  Oxford  clay  is  a  bluish  argillaceous  marl, 
which  becomes  brown  on  exposure  to  the  air.  It  contains  subordinate  beds  of  calcarei.«i» 
marl,  and  also  the  calcareous  clayey  nodules,  named  septaria.  Underneath  is  the  Kelloway 
rock,  a  particular  kind  of  calcareous  rock.  The  marls  sometimes  contain  bones  of  the  ich- 
thyosaurus. The  fossil  shells  arc  pretty  numerous,  but  our  limited  space  will  not  allow  an 
enumeration  of  them. 

(4.)  Coral  rag  is  a  loosely  aggregated  calcareous  rock,  abounding  in  different  species  of 
madrepores ;  the  rock  is  sometimes  marly,  and  of  a  gray  colour.  Below  the  coral  rag  is  a 
bed  of  ferruginous  siliceous  sand,  containing  a  calcareous  grit  or  sandstone,  and  siliceo- 
calcareous  concretions.  It  is  in  this  part  that  the  fossil  organic  femains  are  most  abundant 
and  most  perfectly  preserved.  Fossil  Cycadacece  occur ;  also,  as  in  the  calcareous  grit, 
bones  of  saurian  animals.  Nearly  all  the  madrepores  belong  to  the  genera  Astrea,  Caryo- 
fhyllea,  and  Meandrina.  Echinites  of  the  genera  Cidaris  and  Clypeus  are  met  with. 
Tlie  fossil  shells  have  not  been  thoroughly  examined. 

(.5.)  Kimmeridge  clay.  The  lower  beds  of  the  preceding  deposit  alternate  with  a  blue  or 
yellowish  gray  marl,  which  is  more  or  less  slaty,  and  contains  beds  of  a  very  bituminous 
slate,  and  even  true  lignite  or  brown  coal,  sometimes  forming  beds  of  considerable  thickness. 
An  ichthyosaurus  different  from  that  in  the  lias  is  found  here;  also  remains  of  the  plesio- 
saurus,  and  bones  of  whales,  it  is  said,  have  been  found  in  the  Kimmeridge  clay ;  also  fine 
impressions  of  fishes.  Serpula,  also  species  of  cidaris  and  asterias,  occur  in  this  formation. 
Many  species  of  different  genera  of  marine  shells  are  enumerated  as  occurring  in  it,  parti- 
cularly ammonites,  belemnites,  &c.  It  would  appear  that  the  prevailing  fossil  shells  in  the 
whole  oolite  formation  are  ammonites  and  belemnites.  The  belemnites  do  not  occur  lower 
down  in  the  series  than  the  lias. 

(6.)  Portland  oolite.  This  is  a  limestone  which  is  frequently  loosely  aggregated,  some- 
times oolitic,  forming  the  last  deposit  of  secondary  limestone  with  this  structure,  none  of  the 
superior  or  newer  secondary  limestones  possessing  it.  It  contains  petrified  monocotyledonous 
and  dicotyledonous  plants.  Remains  of  large  saurian  animals,  and  also  of  fishes,  are  met 
with  in  it.  Ammonites,  trigonia,  and  gryphites,  are  abundant.  The  most  characteristic 
shells  are  the  Ammonites  triplicatus  and  the  Pecten  lamellosus.  A  cidaris  and  madrepore 
have  also  been  discovered  in  it. 

Ninth  secondary  formation.  Wealden  clay  and  Purbeck  stone.  This  remarkable  form- 
ation abounds  in  fresh-water  shells  and  land  plants ;  but,  in  England  at  least,  contains  no 
marine  species;  hence  it  is  an  example  of  a  fresh-water  deposit  between  two  marine  depo- 
sits, viz.  the  oolite  and  chalk.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  future  observations  will  prove 
that  even  in  England  it  contains  marine  shells.  There  are  two  members  of  this  formation, 
viz.  the  Weald  clay,  and  Purbeck  stone. 

(1.)  Weald  Clay.  This  is  a  bluish  or  grayish  coloured  clay,  containing  subordinate  beds 
of  argillaceous  limestone.  The  limestone  abounds  in  shells  belonging  to  the  fresh-water 
genus  paludintz  ;  also  a  great  quantity  of  the  crustaceous  tribe  named  cypris.  Broion  iron 
ore,  beds  of  lignite,  and  beds  of  sandstone  much  resembling  some  of  the  varieties  of  the 
coal  formation,  also  occur  in  it.  It  contains  impressions  of  ferns,  but  of  different  species 
from  those  in  the  coal  formation. 

(2.)  Purbeck  stone  is  a  clayey  limestone,  which  alternates  with  marls.  It  abounds  in 
paludincB,  also  contains  beautiful  impressions  of  fresh-water  fishes,  and  of  tortoises  and 
crocodiles. 

Tenth  secondary  formation,  or  chalk  formation.  This  formation  is  well  characterised, 
by  its  organic  remains  and  flints.  Five  beds  occur  in  this  formation;  viz.  1.  Lower  green 
sand  ;  2.  Gault  clay ;  3.  Upper  green  sand  ;  4.  Tuffaceous  chalk ;  .5.  Chalk. 

(1.)  Lower  green  sand.  This  sand  does  not  differ  from  the  upper;  but  the  fossil  organic 
remains  are  less  abundant.  The  shells  are  ammonites,  terebratulites,  trigonia,  &c.  In 
Great  Britain  the  trigonia  alceformis  is  considered  as  characteristic  of  this  lower  green 
sand. 

(2.)  Gault.  The  green  sand  is  divided  into  two  by  a  very  thick  bed  of  bluish  gray  clay, 
known  in  many  of  the  districts  where  it  occurs  under  the  name  of  gault.  It  contains  am- 
monites and  other  shells,  particularly  the  Inoceramus  sulcatus. 

(3.)  Upper  green  sand.  The  lower  part  of  the  tuffaceous  chalk,  containing  a  prodigious 
quantity  of  fossils  and  of  iron  pyrites,  becomes  more  and  more  charged  with  green  points, 
and  we  reach  a  mass  composed  of  a  green  sand  more  or  less  marly,  and  oilen  a  green  coloured 
calcareous  sandstone.  Fragments  of  silieified  wood,  and  also  parts  of  shells  penetrated  with 
silica;  teeth  of  fishes,  but  parts  of  no  other  vertebrated  animals,  occur  in  it.  The  fossil 
shells  are  very  numerous  :  species  of  the  genera  cidaris  and  spatangus  are  met  with,  and 
also  corals  of  various  kinds. 

(A.)   Tuffaceous  chalk,  which  is  generally  composed  of  a  cretaceous  matter,  clay  and  sand. 

Vol.  I.  20*  2E 


234  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.-  Part  II. 

It  is  softer  than  chalk,  and  towards  the  lower  part  of  the  mass  the  clay  predominates,  and 
slaty  clay  marl  is  found.  When  the  sand  predominates,  a  loosely  ag-gregate  grayish  sand- 
stone is  formed.  No  flints  occur  in  this  tuflaceous  chalk,  their  place  being  taken  by  chert. 
Fossil  vegetables,  even  lignite,  are  found  m  it.  Fossils  are  most  abundant  in  the  lower  part 
of  this  deposit.  The  chief  are  belemniles,  ammonites,  naulilites,  hamitcs,  baculites,  turri- 
lites,  ecliinites,  with  madrepores  and  encrinites. 

(5.)  The  uppermost  is  tlie  chalk  properly  so  called,  of  which  there  are  two  principal 
kinds,  viz.  the  upper  or  soft  or  common  chalk,  which  abounds  in  flints  in  beds,  veins,  and 
imbedded  masses ;  and  the  lower  or  hard  chalk,  in  which  flint  is  more  rarely  met  with. . 
These  chalks  also  contain  iron  pyrites  and  calcareous  spar.  The  fossils  are  vertebrce  and 
teeth  of  fishes ;  numerous  ec/ani/es  and  terebratulites  occur  throughout  the  whole  mass; 
and  in  the  descending  order,  ammonites  and  belemniles  first  make  tlieir  appearance  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  chalk. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Plutonian  or  Igneous  Secondary  Rocks. 

Igneous  rocks  appear,  at  different  determinate  periods,  to  have  broken  in  among  the 
Neptunian  rocks  of  this  class,  and  also  to  have  forced  up  through  them  older  rocks  of  various 
descriptions,  forming  mountains,  mountain  ranges,  and  groups  of  mountains.  The  igneous 
rocks  are  porphyry,  and  sometimes  also  granite  and  syenite. 

Sect.  IX. —  Tertiary  Rocks. 
SuBSECT.  1. — Neptunian  Tertiary  Rocks. 

The  rocks  of  this  class  were  first  pointed  out  by  Werner ;  but  it  was  not  until  the  publi- 
cation of  the  excellent  work  of  Cuvier  and  Brongniart  on  the  geology  of  Paris,  that  their 
importance  was  felt  and  acknowledged  by  geologists.  In  the  regular  succession  they  rest 
immediately  upon  the  clialk  or  uppermost  member  of  the  secondary  class.  Although  the 
rocks  are  looser  in  texture  than  those  of  the  secondary  class,  yet  among  them  beds  occur 
equally  compact  with  those  of  the  secondary  class.  They  abound  in  fossil  remains  of  tlie 
animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms ;  although  many  species  are  difterent  from  the  present  ones, 
many  of  the  genera  are  the  same.  The  following  are  the  Neptunian  rocks  in  the  order  of 
their  occurrence,  from  below  upwards  :  1.  Plastic  clay.  2.  Calcaire  grossier,  or  London 
clay.  3.  Gypsum  with  bones.  4.  Superior  marine  sandstones  and  sands,  sandstone  of  Fon- 
tainebleau.  5.  Upper  fi-esh-water  formation. 

(1.)  Plastic  clay.  This  clay  is  frequently  divided  into  two  beds  by  a  bed  of  sand;  the 
upper  bed  is  more  or  less  mixed  with  the  sand,  the  lower  bed  is  pure,  kneads  completely  with 
water,  and  is  infusible  in  the  porcelain  furnace.  The  upper  bed  abounds  in  fossil  remains  ; 
the  lower  bed  contains  none.  Jet  and  brown  coal,  which  are  fossilised  remains  of  dicotyle- 
donous and  monocotyledonous  plants  occur,  in  it.  Remains  of  the  palm  tribe  are  very 
frequent ;  but  ferns  have  not  been  met  with.  Insects  well  preserved  in  amber  are  also  met 
witli.  The  fossil  shells  are  partly  fresh-water,  partly  marine,  which  are  sometimes  separate, 
sometimes  mixed  together. 

(2.)  Calcaire  grossier,  or  a  cerites  of  French  authors,  the  London  clay  of  English 
geologists.  This  deposit  is  sometimes  separated  from  the  plastic  clay  by  a  bed  of  sand, 
which  occasionally  contains  pure  and  solid  sandstone,  but  no  petrifactions.  Resting  upon 
this  sand  is  a  bed  of  shelly  limestone,  abounding  in  green  coloured  grains  of  silicate  of 
iron,  and  which  sometimes  passes  into  a  kind  of  sand ;  it  is  in  this  limestone  that  the  num- 
mulite  shells  are  so  abundant,  and  which  are  mixed  with  corals  and  numerous  shells  in  a 
high  state  of  preservation.  Immediately  above  this  lies  the  great  bed  of  true  calcaire 
grossier.  It  is  so  compjict,  that  in  the  Paris  basin,  where  it  abounds,  it  is  used  extensively 
as  a  building-stone.  It  is  the  common  building-stone  in  Paris.  It  contains  marine  shells 
well  preserved,  and  also  remains  of  plants.  In  some  districts  it  is  divided  into  two  beds 
by  an  interposed  bed  of  lignite  or  brown  coal,  which  is  intermixed  with  fresh-water  shells. 
It  is  interesting  to  notice,  that  here  a  limestone  abounding  in  marine  shells  is  separated 
into  two  beds  by  an  interposed  mass  of  coal,  filled  with  fi-esh-water  shells.  Around  London 
there  is  a  great  deposit  of  clay  abounding  in  the  same  .shells  as  occur  in  the  calcaire  grassier; 
thence,  for  this  and  other  reasons,  it  is  considered  as  the  equivalent  of  the  Paris  calcaire 
grossier.  The  uppermost  part  of  this  formation  consists  of  sand,  hornstone,  and  sandstone, 
with  alternating  beds  of  limestone.     It  sometimes  abounds  in  cerites. 

(3.)  Gypsum  with  bones.  This  deposit  may  be  considered  as  consisting  of  three  stages  ; 
a  lower,  a  middle,  and  an  upper.  The  lower  part,  or  that  which  rests  immediately  upon 
the  calcaire  grossier,  consists  of  gray  and  white  limestone,  more  or  less  compact,  penetrated 
in  all  directions  by  silica.  This  silica,  when  it  finds  its  way  into  cavities  in  the  limestone, 
lines  them  with  chalcedony  or  with  quartz  crystals.  It  contains  species  of  the  fresh-water 
genera  Lrjmnea  and  Planorbis.  The  middle  part  is  composed  of  gypsum  which  alternates 
with  layers  of  marl.     It  is  in  this  gypsum  that  remams  of  the  genera  Palceotheriwn,  Anaplo- 


Book  II.  GEOGNOSY.  235 

thcrium,  of  various  cainivora,  also  different  species  of  birds  and  of  fresh-water  fishes,  like- 
wise the  Tronex,  Testudo,  and  Crocodilus,  are  met  with  :  and  of  the  shells,  the  most  char- 
acteristic is  the  Cyclostoma  muinia.  Here  also  in  the  marls  occurs  tiiat  curious  kind  of 
opal  named  menilite  ;  a  mineral  which  in  some  degree  may  be  considered  as  characterising 
this  gypsum  deposit.  In  this  gypsum  is  situated  the  salt  of  Wielickza.  The  upper  part 
consists  of  marls,  with  fresh-water  shells  of  the  lymnea  and  planorbis  tribes,  remains  of 
fishes,  and  frequently  remains  of  the  palm  tribe. 

(4.)  Superior  marine  sands  and  sandsto7ies.  The  lower  part  of  this  deposit  is  a  green- 
coloured  argillaceous  marl  with  celestine,  upon  which  there  are  marls  containing  fossil 
oysters.  The  middle  part  consists  of  micaceous  sands,  and  sandstones  without  shells.  The 
upper  part  is  sandstone  with  marine  shells. 

(5.)  Upper  fresh-water  formation.  The  lower  part  of  this  deposit  consists  of  sands,  marls, 
and  vesicular  quartz  or  millstone  (meuliere),  without  shells.  The  millstone  occurs  rarely 
in  beds,  usually  in  angular  masses  in  the  marls  and  sands.  The  upper  part  consists  of  cal- 
careous marls,  limestones,  and  millstones,  containing  fresh-water  shells.  This  formation 
contains  of  fossil  plants,  species  of  Exagenites,  Lycopodites,  Poacites,  Chara,  and  Nymphea. 
It  is  farther  characterised  by  the  numerous  fossil  fresh-wat€r  shells  of  the  same  genera  as 
occur  at  present  in  the  neighbourhood,  but  of  diflerent  species.  The  genera  are,  Lymna;a, 
Planorbis,  Potamides,  Cyclostoma,  Helix,  and  Bulimus.  The  gyrogonites  of  Lamarck, 
which  are  small  round  grooved  bodies,  are  not  animal  remains,  but  seeds  of  the  plant  chara. 

M.  Desnoyers  describes  a  marine  deposit  met  with  in  the  basin  of  the  Loire,  as  resting 
upon  the  upper  fresh-water  formation.  The  deposit  appears  to  be  the  same  as  the  crag  of 
English  geologists,  and  has  been  lately  met  with  also  in  Provence. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Plutonian  or  Ignigenous  Tertiary  Rocks. 
The  rough  felspathose  porphyries,  known  under  the  name  trachyte,  which  occur  in  vast 
abundance  in  many  countries,  appear  to  be  of  the  same  age  with  the  tertiary  rocks.  Basalt, 
a  grayish-black  compound  of  augite  and  felspar,  in  which  the  minerals  are  not  distinguisha- 
ble by  the  naked  eye  ;  greenstone  or  dolerite,  a  compound,  but  of  a  green  colour,  in  which 
the  augite  and  felspar  grains  are  distinguishable ;  wacke,  which  is  a  clayey  greenstone  ; 
amygdaloid,  which  is  greenstone  or  wacke  with  the  amy  gdaloidal  structure ;  and  clinkstone 
or  phonolite,  which  is  a  slaty  felspar,  are  found  associated  with  tertiary  rocks.  Some  classes 
of  mountains,  as  Mont  Blanc,  and  the  Scandmavian  ranges,  are  conjectured  to  have  been 
upraised  partly  during  and  partly  after  the  deposition  of  the  tertiary  rocks. 

Sect.  X. — Alluvial  Rocks. 

Under  this  head  we  include  the  various  calcareous  deposits,  peat,  clays,  loams,  sands,  gra- 
vels, and  rolled  masses  or  boulders,  which,  in  the  regular  succession,  rest  upon  the  newest 
or  uppermost  rocks  of  the  tertiary  class.  These  deposits  have  been  variously  arranged  ac- 
cording to  their  supposed  relative  antiqvity  :  probably  they  may  be  arranged  with  sufficient 
distinctness,  according  to  their  situation,  in  the  following  manner : — 1.  Littoral  or  sea-coast . 
allinnnm,  as  downs.  2.  River  alluvium,  that  met  with  on  the  bottom  and  sides  of  rivers. 
3.  Lake  alluvium,  that  on  the  sides,  &c.  of  lakes.  4.  Spring  alluvium,  that  formed  by 
springs,  as  calc  tuffa,  calc  sinter,  travertine,  siliceous  sinter,  &c.  5.  Rain  alluvium,  that 
deposited  by  and  moved  by  rain-water.  6.  Plutonian  alluvium,  that  formed  and  distributed 
over  tracts  of  country  by  the  upraising  of  chains  of  mountains. 

In  tliis  alluvium,  remains  of  vegetables  and  animals  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  The 
vegetables,  as  far  as  is  known  at  present,  are  either  foreign  species  or  species  identical  with 
those  of  the  country  where  their  remains  are  found.  In  the  older  or  Plutonian  alluvia, 
neither  remains  of  human  industry  nor  bones  of  the  human  species  have  been  found ;  but 
numerous  bones  and  skeletons  of  land  quadrupeds. 

These  quadrupeds  are  either  of  extinct  species  of  living  genera,  as  the  elephant,  rhino- 
ceros, hippopotamus,  tapir,  bear,  and  lion ;  or  of  living  species,  as  the  beaver,  rat,  ox,  deer, 
sheep,  and  dog;  or  species  of  extinct  genera,  as  m.astodon  and  megatherium. 

Sect.  XI. — Volcanic  Rocks. 

These  are  rocky  masses  which  owe  their  origin  to  volcanoes.  They  are  divided  into  old 
and  new,  or  ancient  and  modern. 

Ancient  volcanic  rocks.  Under  this  division  we  include  those  volcanic  rocks  connected 
with  volcanoes,  which  have  not  been  in  a  state  of  activity  since  the  commencement  of  our 
history.  These  rocks  very  much  resemble  basalt,  and  have  been  sent  from  the  interior  of 
the  earth  in  the  form  of  streams  or  currents.  In  almost  every  country  where  they  occur, 
we  find  craters  from  whence  they  have  streamed.  These  dark-coloured  basaltic-like  rocks, 
are  accompanied  with  puzzolana  and  scoriae,  very  much  resembling  those  of  active  volcanoes. 
Sometimes  ligliter  coloured  lavas,  named  leucostine,  and  which  resemble  trachyte,  occur 
along  witli  tlic  darker  varieties. 

Modern  volcanic  rocks.  These,  as  already  enumerated  and  described  at  p.  2l3,  214.,  are 
lavas,  scorias,  ashes,  sands,  &,c. 


236  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  Part  IL 


BOOK    III. 

GENERAL    PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY  UNDER  ITS  RELATION  TO 
ORGANIZED  AND  LIVING  BEINGS. 

In  considerino'  the  extensive  ransfe  of  subjects  which  this  book  embraces,  we  have  arranged 
them  as  they  successively  rise  above  the  scale  of  inanimate  nature. 

Tlie  first  chapter  treats  of  g-cofjraphy,  in  its  relation  to  botany,  or  to  the  distribution  of 
plants  over  the  surface  of  the  globe. 

The  second  chapter  considers  it  in  its  relation  to  zoology,  or  the  distribution  of  animals, 
including  man  viewed  simply  as  to  his  physical  condition. 

The  third  chapter  views  geography  in  reference  to  human  society,  to  man  in  his  political, 
moral,  and  social  condition. 


CHAPTER  L 

GEOGRAPHY  CONSIDERED  IN  RELATION  TO  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PLANTS. 

In  proportion  as  our  knowledge  increases  relative  to  any  of  the  sciences,  we  find  a  more 
intimate  relation  and  connexion  between  them.  Formerly  geography  was  only  studied  as  it 
regarded  the  surface  of  the  eartli  itself,  its  figure,  tiie  constitution  of  the  several  regions  and 
countries,  their  boundaries,  &c. ;  and  botany  has  had  too  many  votaries  who  devoted  their  atten- 
tion almost  exclusively  to  determining  the  generic  and  specific  names  of  plants,  neglecting  the 
more  beautiful  and  philosophical  parts  of  the  science.  Of  late  years,  indeed,  our  systems  of 
geography  have,  in  some  instances,  contained  a  meagre  catalogue  of  the  vegetable  produc- 
tions of  the  different  regions,  but  nothing  that  could  give  the  least  information  with  respect 
to  the  laws  of  their  general  distribution :  and  now  that  some  of  the  most  able  naturalists  and 
philosophers  of  our  day  have,  by  their  labours,  tiirown  new  light  upon  this  interesting  sub- 
ject, we  should  feel  that  our  work  would  ill  merit  tlie  character  which  we  hope  it  may  obtain 
Vw-ith  the  public,  were  we  to  omit  a  notice  of  it.  At  the  same  time,  the  limits  of  our  publica- 
tion will  permit  us  to  give  only  a  sketch  of  what  indeed  must  bo  considered  as  still  in  its 
infancy ;  and  those  who  have  most  devoted  their  attention  to  botanical  geography  will  most 
readily  join  with  Mirbel  in  declaring  that  "  we  are  even  yet  far  from  having  arrived  at  that 
period  when  it  will  be  possible  to  write  a  good  history  of  this  subject.  What  w'e  do 
know  of  climates  and  of  vegetation,  is  little,  in  comparison  with  what  we  iiave  yet  to  learn; 
and  hence  it  would  be  rash  in  us  to  form  an  estimate  of  what  we  do  not  know  by  what  we 
are  already  acquainted  with.  The  surest  way  is  to  confine  ourselves  to  collecting  and 
arranging  facts,  leaving,  to  those  who  may  follow  us,  the  charge  of  discovering  and  de- 
veloping the  theory." 

To  e.Kliibit  the  present  state  of  botanical  science,  we  shall  endeavour  to  put  together  the 
more  interesting  facts,  collected  principally  from  the  writings  of  our  most  authentic  travel- 
lers and  naturalists;  and,  devoting  this  memoir  to  vegetable  geography  in  its  more  en- 
larged and  general  sense,  shall  afterwards,  in  the  different  countries,  under  the  head  of 
botany,  point  out  some  of  the  most  striking  and  important  productions  of  their  respective 
regions.  As  the  nature  of  the  present  work  does  not  permit  us  to  enter  minutely  into  the 
subject  in  all  its  bearings,  we  shall  give  a  popular  view  of  it,  as  little  encumbered  as  possible 
with  technical  terms. 

That  certain  vegetables  are  confined  to  certain  districts  or  limits,  depending  in  a  great 
measure,  but  by  no  means  altogether,  upon  soil  and  climate,  must  be  familiar  to  the  most 
careless  inquirer  into  the  works  of  nature.  In  regard  to  climate,  the  two  extremes  are  re- 
presented by  the  country  within  the  tropics,  and  that  which  approaches  the  poles.  In  the 
one,  nature  exhibits  herself  in  her  most  lovely  and  her  most  magnificent  and  exuberant  form, 
and  the  earth  is  covered  with  vegetables  which  indicate  a  never-ending  summer;  whilst  in 
the  others  a  brief  summer,  a  few  days  of  freedom  from  frost  and  snow,  call  into  existence  a 
thinly  scattered  vegetation  of  small  and  stunted  fiov.ering  plants,  which  scarcely  rise  above 
the  mosses  and  lichens  that  surround  them ;  and  the  intermediate  zones  will  be  found  to  be 
occupied  by  other  races,  graduilly,  however,  increasing  in  difierence  as  they  approach  to 
one  or  other  of  these  extremities.  The  same  gradation  exists,  we  know,  upon  a  lofty  moun- 
tain, situated  within  the  tropics.  At  its  base  may  be  seen  those  plants  which  are  peculiar 
to  the  tropics;  and  the  beauty,  the  grandeur  and  perpetual  verdure  will  gradually  diminish 
in  the  ascent,  until  a  soil  and  climate  be  found  on  the  hio-her  summits  similar  in  respect  to 
climate  an  I  pro.luctions  to  those  in  the  vicinity  of  the  poles. 

In  regard  to  climate  and  vegetable  productions,  our  globe  has  been  aptly  compared,  in  it." 
two  hemispheres,  to  two  immense  'mountains,  placed  base  to  base,  tne  circumference  oi 


Book  HI,  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY.  237 

which  at  the  foot  is  constituted  by  the  equator,  and  the  two  poles  represent  the  summits, 
crowned  with  perpetual  glaciers. 

That  almost  every  country  possesses  a  vegetation  peculiar  to  itself,  is  also  well  known  ;  and 
this  is  particularly  the  case  with  countries  whose  natural  boundaries  are  formed  by  moun- 
tains, seas,  or  deserts,  even  in  the  same  or  different  degrees  of  latitude.  Europe  exhibits  a 
widely  different  class  of  plants  from  that  part  of  Nortii  America  which  lies  immediately  op- 
posite to  it.  Tlie  botany  of  Southern  Africa  has  little  or  no  resemblance  to  that  of  the  same 
parallels  in  South  America,  or  to  that  of  New  Holland.  In  Great  Britain,  some  plants  are 
confined  to  tiie  eastern  and  some  io  the  western  side  of  the  island.  In  Scotland,  the  Tut- 
sanc  and  tlie  Isle  of  Man  Cabbage  are  never  found  but  on  the  western  side  of  the  country, 
and  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  pale  Butterivort  (Pinguicula  Lusitanica),  both  in  England 
and  Scotland.  Nature  has  constituted  the  barrier,  for  by  art  they  may  be  cultivated  as  well 
on  one  as  the  other  side  of  the  island. 

Botanical  geography  is  constituted  by  considering  plants  in  relation  to  their  habitation, 
region,  or  the  country  in  which  they  grow,  and  in  regard  to  their  locality  or  particular  station, 
and  forming  a  collection  of  facts,  deduced  from  these  circumstances,  from  which  general 
laws  may  be  derived :  nor  is  this  a  science  destitute  of  advantages ;  such,  we  mean,  as  are 
immediately  manifest ;  for  there  are  few,  in  the  present  age,  who  will  be  disposed  to  deny 
that  tlie  study  of  the  works  of  nature,  like  every  thing  that  can  exalt  and  refine  the  mind, 
is  higlily  deserving  of  our  attention.  Vegetable  geography  is  intimately  connected  with  hor- 
ticulture. Our  gardens  will  be  better  stocked  with  vegetables  and  fruits,  our  forests  with 
trees,  our  fields  with  corn,  and  our  pastures  with  grasses,  in  proportion  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  relation  of  plants  with  the  exterior  elements.  Nay,  Schouw  has  justly  observed,  that  a 
good  chart  of  the  distribution  of  the  vegetable  forms  over  any  given  country  will  afford  a  far 
more  correct  idea  of  the  productive  strength  of  that  country  than  many  statistical  tables. 
The  systematic  botanist  may  thence  derive  benefit ;  for  by  it  he  will  be  better  able  to  deter- 
mine whether  certain  kinds  of  plants  are  species  or  varieties  ;  he  will  consider  that  a  dif- 
ferent local  situation  produces  difl'erent  effects  upon  them ;  that  those  growing  in  wet  places 
are  less  hairy  or  downy  than  those  growing  in  dry ;  that  at  great  elevations  plants  are  more 
dwarf  in  their  stature,  with  fewer  leaves,  but  with  larger  and  more  brilliant  flowers  than 
tliose  found  at  lesser  heights.  The  station,  too,  of  certain  plants,  or  groups  of  plants,  fre- 
quently leads  to  a  discovery  of  characters  diverse  from  other  individuals  of  otiier  countries 
with  which  they  had  been  associated.  Thus  the  Canadian  Strawberry  and  the  Canadian 
chickweed  Wintergreen  (Trientalis),  though  long  confounded  with  the  European  Strawber- 
ry and  Trientalis,  are  found  to  be  quite  distinct.  The  regions,  too,  and  the  limits  of  those 
regions,  of  very  important  medicinal  drugs,  are  determined  by  vegetable  geography. 

Sect.  I. — Progress  of  Botanical  Geography. 
This  branch  of  science  had  been,  however,  for  a  long  time,  wholly  neglected.  Linnaeus, 
indeed,  with  whom  originated  so  many  improvements  in  botany,  besides  what  related  to  sys- 
tematic arrangement,  was  the  first  writer  who  gave  stations  for  plants,  as  he  called  them,  or 
rather  habitations,  or  frequently  both  combined,  and  this  plan  has  been  followed  by  every  suc- 
ceeding systematic  botanist.  Yet  although  these  stations  or  habitations  are  frequently  con- 
sulted in  the  geographical  arrangement  of  plants,  they  are  too  vague  and  uncertain  to  be 
generally  depended  upon ;  and  they  must  be  employed  with  caution.  De  Saussure,  who  so 
assiduously  studied  vegetable  physiology,  was  particularly  attentive,  on  that  account,  to  the 
elevation  at  which  plants  grow  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  and  appears  to  have  been  the 
first  to  ascertain  that  elevation  barometrically.  JVIr.  Young,  the  celebrated  agriculturist,  in 
his  Travels  upon  the  Continent,  determined  with  considerable  accuracy  the  northern  boun- 
daries of  several  of  the  most  important  cultivated  plants,  the  Olive,  the  Vine,  and  the 
Maize ;  whilst  Soulavie,  in  the  south  of  Fiance,  has  characterised  the  limits  of  them,  and 
of  the  Orange  and  Chestnut.  These,  and  other  authors  of  less  note,  prepared  the  way, 
during  the  last  century,  for  the  more  important  labours  of  the  present,  when  the  study  has 
begun  to  rank  as  a  science.  Stromeyer  described,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  boundaries  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  in  a  work  entitled  "A  Specime7i  of  the  History  of  V(  get  able  Geogra- 
phy,'''' Gottingen,  1800.  The  work  of  Kielmann,  entitled  "  A  Dissertation  concerning  Vege- 
tation in  the  Alpine  Regions,'"  Tubingen,  1804,  was  followed  by  that  of  Treviranus,  named 
"  Biologic,'''  which  seems  to  be  the  first  wherein  attention  was  paid  to  the  distribution  of 
plants  according  to  their  natural  families;  the  latter  author  dividing  the  globe  into  regions 
or  distinct  Floras;  and  De  CandoUe,  about  the  same  time,  partitioned  France  into  regions  in 
the  same  way,  and  wrote  on  the  influence  of  height  upon  vegetation.  To  the  celebrated 
Hnmboklt,  however,  we  are  indebted  for  the  most  valuable  writings  on  vegetable  geography, 
which  have  first  given  it  the  true  clinractor  of  a  science.  His  "  Essai  stir  la  Geo^raphie 
dcs  Plantes,''''  in  1807,  and  his  beautifid  '■''  Tableaux  de  la  Nature,^''  contained  his  first  ideas 
on  t!ie  subject ;  while  his  celebrated  "  Prolegomena  de  distrilmtione  geographica  Planfa- 
rum  secundum  cceli  temperiem  et  altitudinem  moiitium,'"  forming  the  introductory  chapter 
to  the  botanical  part  of  his  travels ;  his  invaluable  "  Memoir  on  Isothermal  Lines  and  the 


238  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  P.vrt  II. 

Distribution  of  Heat  over  the  Globe,  published  in  the  Memoires  d'Arcueil,  and  translated 
into  Brewster's  and  Jameson's  Philosophical  Journal,  vol.  iii. ;  together  with  his  later  work 
on  the  subject,  "  New  Enquiries  into  the  Laws  which  are  observed  in  the  Distribution  of 
Vegetable  Forrns,^^  likewise  inserted  in  the  Edin.  Phil.  Journal,  vol.  vi.,  may  be  considered 
as  the  most  important  dissertations  on  a  comprehensive  scale  that  have  yet  appeared.  In  the 
mean  time,  other  eminent  naturalists,  by  their  well-directed  labours,  contributed  materially 
to  extend  the  science :  Wahlenberg,  for  example,  in  his  admirable  Flora  Lapponica,  and  in 
that  of  a  portion  of  Switzerland,  and  of  the  Carpathian  Alps ;  whilst  Von  Bucli,  m  his  Tra- 
vels in  Norioay,  detailed  many  curious  facts  respecting  the  distribution  of  vegetables  in  that 
climate,  and  also  ui  his  interesting  Voyage  to  the  Canaries,  made  in  company  with  Pro- 
tfessor  Smith.  Mr.  R.  Brown  has  published  memoirs  wiiich  rank  among  the  most  valuable 
that  have  appeared  on  this  subject.  We  particularly  allude  to  his  "  Remarks,  Geographical 
and  Systematic,  on  the  Botany  of  Terra  Australis,  1814,"  and  "  Observations  on  the  Her- 
barium collected  by  Professor  Christ.  Stnith,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Congo,  1818."  Dr. 
Schouw  compiled,  in  1824,  an  admirable  history  of  the  science,  of  which  some  portions  have 
been  translated  into  Brewster's  and  Jameson's  Journals.  This  valuable  work  is  accompa- 
nied by  an  Atlas  of  several  maps  of  the  world ;  each  exhibiting  the  geographical  extent  of 
certain  tribes  or  families  of  vegetables,  indicated  by  different  colours;  so  that  we  see,  at  one 
view,  upon  a  plan  of  the  world,  the  countries  in  which  these  plants  are  found,  their  bounda- 
ries, and  their  comparative  abundance,  indicated  by  the  greater  or  less  depth  of  colour  em- 
ployed. De  CandoUe,  in  the  "  Nouveau  Dictionnaire  des  Sciences  Aaturelles,"  has  giv.en 
an  admirable  resume  of  these  writers,  and  has  added  much  important  original  information. 
A  somewhat  similar  plan  is  adopted  by  M.  Brongniart  in  the  "  Dictionnaire  Classique 
d'Histoire  Natiirelle"  Mr.  Allan  Cunningham,  both  in  Mr.  Barron  Field's  " Memoirs  of 
New  South  Wales,"  and  in  the  second  volume  of  "  Captain  King''s  Survey  of  the  Inter- 
tropical Coasts  of  Australia,"  has  furnished  some  excellent  remarks  upon  the  distribution 
of  vegetable.s,  especially  of  the  less  frequented  parts  of  New  Holland.  The  "  Memoires  du 
Museum  d'Histoire  Naturelle"  contain  some  important  papers  on  this  subject,  particularly 
that  of  Mirbel,  "  Sur  la  Gcographie  des  Conifcres,"  a  tribe  of  plants  valuable  for  its  eco- 
nomical uses ;  and  his  "  Recherches  sur  la  Distribution  Geographique  des  Vegetaux  pha- 
nerogames  dans  Vancien  Monde,  depuis  VEquateur  jusquau  Pole  Arctique :  and,  lastly, 
we  shall  name  a  useful  little  manual,  entitled  a  "  Lecture  on  the  Geography  of  Plants,"  by 
Mr.  J.  Barton. 

Sect.  II. — On  the  Infuence  of  the  Elements  on  Plants. 
In  regarding  the  limits  to  which  certain  plants  are  circimiscribed  upon  the  surface  of  the 
globe,  we  shall  see  that  it  is  with  them  as  with  the  mighty  ocean  ;  they  are  equally  subject 
to  that  fiat  of  the  Almighty,  "  Thus  far  shalt  thou  go,  and  no  farther."  The  Palms,  the 
Tree-Ferns,  the  parasitical  Orchideae,  are  ever  confined  to  the  tropics ;  the  Cruciferous  and 
Umbelliferous  plants  almost  exclusively  to  the  temperate  regions  ;  while  the  Coniferous 
plants,  and  many  of  the  Amentaceous  tribes  flourish  in  those  of  the  north ;  and  since  these 
are  all  affected  by  physical  agents,  we  must  consider,  before  proceeding  any  farther,  the 
influences  which  the  elements  or  exterior  agents  exercise  upon  plants.  These  M.  de  Can- 
doUe considers  to  be  Heat,  Light,  Moisture,  Soil,  Atmosphere. 

SuBSECT.  I. — On  the  Influence  of  Heat. 
Heat  is  the  most  obvious  and  powerfiil  agent  in  affecting  the  existence  and  growth  of 
plants:  and  of  this  we  have  continual  experience  before  our  eyes.  In  winter  all  vegetation 
is  at  a  stand,  and  we  can  only  cultivate  those  plants  which  are  in  a  continued  state  of 
vegetation,  by  artificial  heat.  Plants  are  nourished  either  by  water  alone,  or  by  substances 
dissolved  or  suspended  in  the  water.  Hence  vegetation  is  arrested  when  the  temperature 
is  below  the  freezing  point ;  for  the  water,  becomuig  solid,  cannot  enter  the  vegetable 
tissue.  Again,  as  in  the  great  deserts  of  many  countries,  the  heat  may  be  so  great  that  the 
earth  is  dried  up,  and  cannot  part  with  its  nutritive  properties.  These  effects,  however,  it 
is  but  reasonable  to  suppose,  are  more  remarkable  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth  than  at  a 
considerable  depth :  hence  it  happens  that  trees  which  have  long  tap-roots  resist  botli  the 
extremes  of  temperature  better  than  those  whose  roots  are  nearer  to  the  surface ;  their  fibres 
penetrate  into  a  soil,  whose  temperature  is  greater  in  winter  than  that  of  the  outer  air,  so 
that  the  fluids  imbibed  keep  the  interior  of  large  trees,  as  has  been  ascertained  by  experi- 
ment, at  a  degree  of  heat  pretty  nearly  the  same  as  that  indicated  by  a  thermometer  placed 
at  the  roots  of  such  trees.  Hence,  the  greater  the  thickness  of  the  stem  or  branch,  and  the 
greater  the  number  of  layers  interposed  between  the  pith  (the  softest  part  being  the  moistest 
and  the  most  susceptible  of  cold)  and  the  exterior  air,  the  better  are  they  able  to  resist  the 
severity  of  the  cold.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  a  shrub  or  tree  as  it  grows  older  becomes 
more  hardened  against  frost.  De  CandoUe  relates  that  at  Montpellier  the  Pride  of  India 
(Melia  Azedarach)  when  young  is  destroyed  by  a  moderate  degree  of  cold ;  but  that  v/hen 


Book  III.  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY.  239 

it  attains  a  more  advanced  age,  it  will  endure,  in  the  garden  at  Geneva,  an  intensity  of 
atmosphere  four  times  as  severe  as  that  which  killed  the  young  plant  in  the  south  of  France. 

Again,  in  proportion  as  the  exterior  layers  are  deprived  of  sap  or  watery  fluid,  and  fortified 
by  a  deposit  of  carbon  and  resinous  matter,  the  more  powerfully  tiioy  withstand  the  cold. 
Every  gardener  and  cultivator  is  acquainted  vvitii  tiie  fact  that  in  cold  and  wet  summ.ers 
when  the  sun  and  heat  have  been  insufficient  to  produce  good  bark  upon  the  new  shoots  of 
the  truit-trees,  they  are  liable  to  be  affected  by  a  very  moderate  frost  in  the  ensuing  winter. 
Succulent  plants  and  Mnnocolylednnons  plants,  in  general,  which  have  no  distinct  bark, 
are  higlily  susceptible  of  cold ;  whilst  the  Birch,  which  is  fenced  around  with  numerous 
layers  of  old  and  dry  bark,  and  the  Fir,  whose  bark  abounds  with  resin,  endure  an  intense 
degree  of  it  without  injury.  At  Fort  Enterprise,  in  North  America,  lat.  64°  30",  Dr. 
Richardson  has  ascertained  that  tiie  Banksian  Pine  (Pinus  Banksiana),  the  v)hite,  the  red, 
and  black  Spruce,  the  small-fruited  Larch,  and  other  Amentaceous  trees,  bear  a  degree  of 
cold  equal  to  44°  below  zero  of  Fahrenheit ;  and  in  Siberia,  lat.  65°  28",  the  common  Larch, 
tlie  Siberian  Stone  Pine,  the  Alder,  Birch,  and  Juniper,  &.c.  attain  their  greatest  size,  and 
are  not  affected  by  the  extremest  cold  of  that  severe  climate. 

Powerful  summer  heats  are  capable  of  causing  trees  and  shrubs  to  endure  the  most  trying 
effects  of  t:old  in  the  ensuing  winter,  as  we  find  in  innumerable  instances ;  and  vice  versa. 
Hence,  in  Great  Britain,  so  many  vegetables,  fruit-trees  in  pariicular,  for  want  of  a  suffi- 
ciently powerful  sun  in  summer,  are  affected  by  our  comparatively  moderate  frosts  in  winter; 
whil&t  upon  continents  in  the  same  degree  of  latitude  the  same  trees  arrive  at  the  highest 
degree  of  perfection.  Even  in  the  climate  of  Paris  the  Pistacia  tree  and  the  Oleander  will 
not  bear  tiie  winter.  Yet  the  winters  there  are  mild  in  comparison  with  those  which  prevail 
in  the  environs  of  Peking,  where  the  Oleander  was  found  by  Lord  Macartney  to  remain 
abroad  the  whole  year ;  and  at  Casbin  in  Persia,  where  Chardin  assures  us  that  the  Pistacia 
nuts,  produced  in  the  open  air,  are  larger  than  those  of  Syria.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
heat  of  these  two  countries  in  summer  is  infinitely  greater  tliaii  that  at  Paris ;  the  summer 
temperature  of  Peking  especially  nearly  equals  that  of  Cairo,  and  surpasses  that  of  Algiers. 
For  the  same  reason,  too,  the  Weepinfr  Willow  becomes  a  large  tree  in  England ;  while  in 
Scotland,  where  the  winters  are  at  least  as  mild,  but  where  the  summer  affords  much  less 
warmth,  tliis  beautiful  tree  can  only  be  cultivated  in  highly  favoured  situations,  and  even 
there  its  vegetation  is  exceedingly  languid:  its  young  shoots,  not  ripened  by  the  summer 
sun,  are  destroyed  even  by  a  slight  frost. 

Hence  the  influence  of  temperature  upon  the  geography  of  plants  is  pointed  out  by  M. 
de  Candolle  under  threg  points  of  view : — 1.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  year.  2.  The 
extreme  of  temperature,  whether  in  regard  to  cold  or  heat.  3.  The  distribution  of  tempera- 
ture in  the  different  months  of  the  year. 

The  mean  temperature,  that  point  which  it  has  for  a  long  time  been  the  great  object  to 
ascertain,  is  in  reality  what  is  of  the  least  importance  in  regard  to  the  geography  of  plants. 
In  a  general  view,  it  may  be  usefiil  to  take  it  into  consideration ;  but  the  mean  temperature 
is  oflen  determined  by  circumstances  so  widely  different,  that  the  consequences  and  the 
analogies  to  be  deduced  from  them  relative  to  vegetables  would  be  very  erroneous. 

By  attending  to  the  extreme  points  of  temperature,  results  more  limited,  but  far  more 
exact,  are  to  be  obtained.  Thus,  every  locality  which,  though  at  only  short  intervals,  affords 
a  degree  of  cold  or  heat  of  certain  intensity,  cannot  but  produce  plants  which  are  capable 
of  supporting  those  extreme  degrees.  When,  however,  these  widely  different  temperatures 
recur  at  very  long  intervals,  man  may  cultivate  in  such  a  country  a  vegetable  which  cannot 
exist  in  a  wild  state ;  either  because,  when  destroyed  by  the  rigour  of  the  season,  he  restores 
it  by  seeds  or  by  plants  derived  from  a  more  temperate  country  ;  or  because  he  shelters  it 
from  the  inclemency  of  the  air ;  or,  because  he  is  satisfied  with  the  product  of  the  plant, 
although  it  should  not  bring  its  seeds  to  perfection.  And  thus  it  is  that,  in  the  south  of 
Europe,  the  Vine,  Olive,  and  Orange  trees  oflen  vegetate  exceedingly  well  for  all  the  pur- 
poses for  which  they  are  required,  though,  if  left  to  themselves,  they  could  not  propagate 
themselves,  nor  sustain  the  winter.  Thus  we  see  a  wide  difference  in  the  geography  of 
plants,  between  those  in  a  state  of  nature,  and  those  individuals  whose  growth  is  artificially 
encouraged  by  man. 

This,  indeed,  is  a  subject  closely  connected  with  the  acclimatation  oj"  plants,  or  the 
power  which  man  is  supposed  to  exert  over  them  in  inuring  them  by  degrees  to  a  climate 
not  originally  natural  to  them.  This  power  is,  however,  denied  by  very  able  vegetable 
physiologists.  Mirbel,  in  particular,  declares  that  he  has  known  many  species  indeed 
whose  wants  have  been,  to  a  certain  degree,  artificially  supplied ;  but  not  one  whose  con- 
stitution has  been  changed.  "  If,"  he  says,  "  from  time  to  time,  exotics  mingle  themselves 
with  our  indigenous  tribes,  propagate  as  they  do,  and  even  dispute  the  very  possession  of  the 
soil  with  the  native  inhabitants  ;  this,  assuredly,  is  not  the  work  of  man,  but  it  is  the 
climate  wiiich  dispenses  this  faculty  of  naturalization."  Cultivators,  however,  maintain  that 
seedlings  from  Myrtles,  which  had  ripened  their  fruit  in  Devonshire  in  the  open  air,  are 
better  able  to  endure  the  cold  of  tlie  climate  than  those  seeds  perfected  by  artificial  heat,  or 


240  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  II. 

that  have  come  from  the  warmer  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  true,  the  power  of  so  acclimating 
itself  already  exists  in  the  vegetable  ;  but  it  is  man  that  calls  it  into  action,  for  naturally  the 
myrtle  would  never  extend  itself  to  these  latitudes.  Nay,  something  of  the  same  kind 
M.  Mirbel  himself  allows,  where  he  says,  "  When  we  consider  that  the  Vine  is  cultivated 
in  the  plains  of  Hindostan  and  Arabia,  between  tlie  18th  and  15th  parallels ;  that  it  is  cul- 
tivated on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  and  Maine,  in  hit.  .51°;  in  Thibet,  at  an  elevation  above 
the  level  of  the  sea  of  from  9,000  to  nearly  11,000  feet,  under  the  32d  degree  of  latitude; 
what  astonishes  and  interests  us  tlie  most  is,  not  that  the  vine  inhabits  countries  so  remote 
from  one  another,  or  that  it  grows  at  so  great  an  elevation  above  the  sea,  but  that  it  possesses 
in  so  eminent  a  degree  the  property  of  accommodating  itself  to  different  climates ;  a  pro- 
perty, indeed,  much  more  restricted  m  a  great  number  of  vegetables,  which  extend  from  the 
equator  to  the  tropics  on  both  sides,  without  ever  crossing  them ;  fo'-  notwithstanding  the 
greater  distance  between  the  23d  degree  of  south  latitude  and  the  23d  degree  of  north  lati- 
tude, the  climatic  diflerences  are  much  less  from  one  tropic  to  the  other  than  from  the  plains 
of  Hindostan  to- the  banks  of  the  Maine." 

The  distribution  of  heat  at  different  months  of  the  year  is  what  we  shall  find  to  be  of 
the  most  importance  in  regard  to  vegetable  geography.  Some  climates  are  eminently  uni- 
form ;  a  certain  mean  temperature  is  produced  by  a  mild  winter  and  a  moderate  degree  of 
warmth  in  summer.  This  is  frequently  the  case  on  the  sea-coasts,  because  the  extremes  of 
heat  are  continually  modified  by  tlie  sea ;  that  vast  reservoir  of  nearly  equal  temperature, 
which  therefore  imparts  heat  in  winter  and  cold  in  summer,  and  enables  even  tropical  plants 
to  subsist  in  some  situations  of  the  temperate  zone.  Such  are  the  western  shores  of  Europe 
and  America,  and  a  great  portion  of  the  southern  hemisphere.  A  similar  mean  temperature 
may  indeed  be  produced  by  a  comhination  of  very  severe  winters  and  very  hot  summers,  as 
in  the  great  continents  compared  with  islands,  or  the  shores  of  those  continents ;  or  the 
eastern  side  of  continents  as  compared  with  the  western ;  or  the  northern  with  the  southern 
hemisphere ;  but  these  two  climates,  as  may  be  expected,  will  produce  a  very  different 
vegetation. 

Annual  plants,  which  require  heat  during  the  summer  to  ripen  their  seeds,  and  which 
pass  the  winter,  so  to  sa)',  in  torpidity,  in  the  state  of  grain,  indifferent  to  the  intensity  of 
cold,*  abound  most  in  those  regions  where  the  extremes  are  the  greatest ;  whilst  the  peren- 
nial 2>liints,  which  can  better  dispense  with  the  maturing  of  tlieir  seeds,  and  which  are 
injured  by  the  severities  of  winter,  affect  the  temperate  climates.  Of  these,  again,  those 
kinds  which  have  deciduous  leaves  accommodate  themselves  best  to  unequal  temperatures; 
whilst  the  individuals  on  which  the  foliage  remains,  or  evergreens,  give  the  preference  to 
districts  where  the  temperature  is  more  constantly  equal. 

Mirbel  reckons  that  there  are  about  1.50  or  160  natural  groups  or  families  of  plants  in  the 
Old  World,  types  of  all  which  exist  in  the  tropical  parts  of  it.  Beyond  these  limits,  a  great 
number  become  gradually  extinct.  In  the  48th  degree  of  latitude,  scarcely  one  half  of 
that  number  appear ;  in  the  65th,  not  40 ;  and  but  17  in  the  vicinity  of  the  polar  regions. 
He  further  est.' nates,  that  within  the  tropics  the  proportion  of  woody  species,  trees  and  shrubs, 
equals,  if  it  does  not  exceed,  that  of  herbaceous,  annual,  biennial,  and  perennial  plants. 
The  relative  number  of  the  woody  species  to  the  herbaceous,  annual,  biennial,  and  perennial, 
decreases  from  the  equator  to  the  poles;  but,  as  an  equivalent,  the  proportion  of  perennial 
to  annual  or  biennial  plants  goes  on  increasing.  Near  the  extreme  limits  of  vegetation 
these  are,  at  least,  as  twenty  to  one. 

We  must,  however,  by  no  means  conclude  that  the  same  elevation  in  corre.sponding 
degrees  of  latitude  is  necessarily  suited  to  the  vegetation  of  the  same  plants.  A  number  of 
circumstances  may  exist  to  modify  the  degree  of  heat  at  the  same  elevation.  In  Switzer- 
land, for  example,  the  elevation  of  the  valley  of  Untersee  is  the  same  as  that  of  Gestein ; 
yet  the  thermometer,  in  1822-3,  fell  only  to  8°  below  zero  in  the  former  spot;  whereas 
at  Gestein  it  fell  to  10-2°,  ^"^  ^^  Berne  to  16°.  The  depth  of  the  valleys  influences 
vegetation;  the  deeper  they  are,  the  more  intense  is  the  cold  on  the  summits  of  the 
surrounding  mountains.  Thus,  the  pine  does  not  thrive  on  the  Bragel,  at  a  height  of  5100 
feet;  whereas  it  succeeds  perfectly,  at  the  same  elevation,  on  the  Rhetian  Alps,  the  valleys 
of  the  Lintli,  the  Muotta,  and  Kloen  being  deeper  than  those  of  the  latter  districts.  In  like 
manner,  in  the  valley  of  the  Davos,  agricultural  produce  is  certain  in  places  much  more 
elevated  than  the  Bernese  valleys,  because  the  latter  are  deeper.  The  warm  winds  from 
Italy  have  a  perceptible  power  over  the  vegetation  of  the  contiguous  parts  of  Switzerland  ; 
but  the  degrees  of  that  influence  dejiend  upon  c  rcumstances.  In  the  valley  of  the  Inn, 
barley  and  flax  are  cultivated  with  success  at  an  elevation  of  more  tlian  5400  feet;  whereas 
at  Laret,  in  tlie  valley  of  Davos,  though  the  lieiglit  is  only  4900  feet,  no  grain  will  thrive. 
Yet,  tJiese  valleys  are  alike  in  most  respects,  and  are  surrounded  by  mountains  of  simila- 
altitudes;  they  are  both  sheltered  from  the  north-east  wind;  their  soil  is  of  the  same  nature  ; 

♦Seeds-  biine,  in  general,  furnished  with  few  orirans  which  abound  in  moisture,  are  in  a  desrree  ins^insible  to 
the  extremis  of  heat  and  r.dld  ;  whence  it  arises  that,  in  conveying  them  from  one  country  to  another,  they  pass 
tlirougU  a  variety  of  climate  uninjured. 


Book  III.  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY  241 

but  in  the  valley  of  the  Inn,  the  warm  winds  from  Italy  are  intercepted  only  by  a  single 
chain  of  mountains,  whereas  two  chains  lie  between  Italy  and  the  valley  of  Davos :  and, 
besides,  the  latter  being-  of  smaller  extent  than  the  former,  it  admits  of  the  reception  of  less 
solar  heat.  In  the  Oberland  of  Berne,  an  increase  in  height  of  2000  feet  diminishes  the 
crop  one  third.* 

SuBSECT.  2. — On  the  Influence  of  Light. 

The  influence  of  the  solar  light  upon  vegetation  De  Candolle  considers  to  be  as  important 
as  that  of  lemperature ;  and  although  it  acts  less  powerfully  upon  the  geographical  distri- 
bution of  plants,  it  nevertheless  merits  a  particular  notice. 

Light  is  that  agent  wliich  operates  in  producing  the  greatest  number  of  phenomena  in 
vegetable  life.  It  determines,  in  a  great  measure,  the  absorption ;  for  plants  imbibe  less 
humidity  during  the  night  and  in  darkness.  It  completely  influences  the  watery  exhalations 
of  the  green  parts  of  plants ;  for  these  parts  do  not  exhale  during  the  night  or  in  obscurity, 
whilst  these  exhalations  are  very  considerable  during  the  day,  and  especially  under  the 
direct  influence  of  the  rays  of  the  sun.  The  light  affects,  in  most  cases,  the  decomposition 
of  the  carbonic  acid;  and  consequently  the  deposition  of  carbon  in  vegetables,  their  sub- 
stance and  their  growth,  the  intensity  of  their  sensible  properties,  and  the  direction  of  many 
organs.  It  is  the  principal,  and  perhaps  the  only,  cause  of  those  singular  movements  known 
by  the  name  of  the  sleep  of  -plants ;  and,  lastly,  during  the  absence  of  light  the  green  parts 
absorb  a  certain  quantity  of  oxygen  gas.  Although  these  different  causes  affect  all  vege- 
tables, yet  they  are  not  affected  in  the  same  degree. 

Light  is  more  equally  distributed  tiian  heat  upon  the  surface  of  the  globe ;  but  its  mode 
of  diffusion  induces  some  very  important  consequences.  In  the  countries  situated  under  the 
equator,  an  intense  light,  smce  it  acts  more  perpendicularly,  influences  vegetables  nearly 
equally,  during  twelve  hours  each  day,  throughout  the  whole  year.  In  proportion  as  we 
recede  from  the  equator  and  approach  the  poles,  the  intensity  of  the  more  oblique  rays  gra- 
dually diminishes ;  but  in  I'egard  to  the  distribution  of  these  rays,  the  light  is  completely 
wanting  during  the  winter,  when  the  absence  of  vegetation  indeed  renders  it  nearly  useless 
to  plants ;  and  it  is  continued  during  almost  the  whole  period  of  vegetation,  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  its  lengthened  influence  compensates  wholly  or  in  part  for  its  want  of  intensity. 
Thus  we  see  that,  independently  of  what  concerns  the  temperature,  plants  which  lose  their 
leaves  can  better  exist  in  northern  countries,  and  that  those  whose  vegetation  is  continued 
have  need  of  the  southern  regions.  And  another  beautiful  and  just  remark  is  made  by  De 
Candolle,  in  reference  to  the  distribution  of  light ;  namely,  that  those  plants  whose  foliage 
and  flowers  maintain  habitually  and  constantly  the  same  position,  can  live  in  northern  cli- 
mates, where  the  light  is  almost  continued  in  summer;  whilst  it  is  in  the  regions  of  the 
south  that  we  find,  as  might  naturally  be  expected,  those  species  which  are  remarkable  for 
the  alternate  closing  and  expanding,  or  sleeping  and  waking,  of  their  flowers,  a  motion 
which  has  an  intimate  connexion  with  tlie  alternation  of  days  and  nights.  Thus  we  see 
why  it  is  found  so  difficult  in  our  country  to  cultivate  many  of  the  tropical  vegetables,  or,  at 
any  rate,  to  bring  them  to  perfection.  M.  de  Humboldt  has  proved  that  it  is  less  owing  to 
the  absence  of  heat  than  to  the  want  of  sufficient  solar  light  that  the  Vine  does  not  ripen 
its  fruit  beneath  the  fo?gy  skies  of  Normandy  ;  and  M.  Mirbel  has  satisfied  himself  that  the 
uninterrupted  action  of  the  sun's  rays,  during  a  great  number  of  days,  is  the  cause  of  the 
astonisliingly  rapid  developement  of  alpine  plants  in  high  northern  regions.f  Dr.  Richard- 
son, too,  states  that  the  sugar-boilers  in  the  Canadian  forests  observe  that  the  flow  of  sap  in 
the  Sugar  Maple  (Negundo  fraxinifolium)  is  not  so  immediately  influenced  by  a  high  mean 
temperature  as  by  the  power  of  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  The  greatest  quantity  of  sap  is 
collected  when  a  smart  frost  during  night  is  succeeded  by  a  warm  sunshiny  day.  Again, 
Humboldt  assures  us,  that  in  all  places  where  the  mean  temperature  is  below  62°  6',  the 
revival  of  nature  takes  place  in  spring  in  that  month  whose  mean  temperature  reaches  42° 
8',  or  46°  4'.     At  Cumberland  House,  Dr.  Richardson  found   vernation  to  begin  in  May, 

*We  may  here  mention  a  riirinus  fact  nf  vesetation  restins  upon  a  basis  of  ice.  The  glacier  of  Rnccosecco, 
which  forms  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Berneria,  has  on  its  summit  a  valley  filled  with  ice  ;  and  on  this  the  ava- 
lanclios  have  hroncht  down  masses  of  earth.  This  earth  produces  a  number  of  alpine  plants,  that  afford  abun* 
diint  and  nourfshing  food  to  the  flocks  of  the  inhabitants  of  Samaden.  This  singular  pasture  has  been  used  ever 
since  the  year  1531). 

f  "  Vesetables,"  savs  M.  Mirbel,  in  his  Elimens  de  Physiologic  Vegetale,  "  when  secluded  from  the  lisht.  send  out 
loiijj,  thin,  and  whitish  shoots ;  their  substance  becomes  lax,  and  without  firmness;  in  fact,  they  are  bleached. 
Thf  operation  of  tlie  luminous  beams  om  these  organised  bodies  consists  chiefly  in  separatiuff  the  constituent 
parts  of  water  and  carbonic  acid,  wliich  they  contain,  and  in  disenjjaging  the  oxycen  of  the  latter.  The  carbonic 
a'-i  I,  with  the  hydroceu  and  oxycen  of  the  water,  produce  those  eums,  resins,  and  oils,  which  flow  in  the  vessels 
an  I  which  fill  Ihf!  cells.  These  juices  nourish  the  membranes,  and  bring  them  into  the  lisneons  state  ;  a  result 
which  beconi-is  more  marked  as  the  light  is  strongest  and  its  action  most  protracted.  Darkness  and  light  prodnre, 
therefore,  riiametrically  opposite  effects  on  v('getntion.  Darkness,  by  keeping  up  the  softness  of  the  vegetable 
parts,  favours  their  increase  in  lengtli ;  light,  by  ministering  to  th^ir  nourishment,  consoli'intes  them,  and  arrests 
their  growth.  Hence  it  f  illows  that  a  fine  state  of  vegetation,  such  as  unites  in  Just  proportions  size  and  strength, 
iiiu.st  depend,  in  a  measure,  on  the  nicely  balanced  alternation  of  day  and  night.  Now,  the  hyperborean  plants 
spring  lip  at  a  period  wli';n  the  sun  is  constantly  above  the  horizon,  and  the  light  which  incessantly  acts  upon 
thorn  cnnfiruis  and  perfects  them  before  they  have  time  to  attain  a  considerable  degree  of  length.  Their  vegeta- 
tion i.^  active,  but  soon  over  ;  ihev  are  robust,  but  small."' 

Vol.  I.  ■  21  S  F 


242  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  Part  11. 

when  the  mean  toinporaturo  was  only  49°,  noarly  ^^  bolow  that  whicii  Rxron  Huniboldt 
considorotl  necessary  tor  the  evolution  of  deciduous  leaves;  but  he  adds,  "//ir  h)f{ii(iirr  of 
the  direct  rays  of  thr  sun  was  at  this  time  very  irrcat,  and  the  liifjh  temperature  of  the  last 
decade  of  the  niontli  compensated  for  the  lirel."  We  can  imitate  the  native  climes  of  many 
of  the  delicate  exotics,  as  far  as  rejjards  temperature;  and  in  suuuuer,  when  tlie  days  are 
lonjj,  we  see  them  tlourish  almost  as  if  they  were  in  their  natural  situations;  but  in  winter 
they  lanijuish,  and  of\en  die,  especially  the  more  tender  species,  sudi  as  the  lledysantin 
gyrans,  and  the  hinnhle  plant  (Mimosa  pudica).  It  is  evident  tliat  tliey  want  tliat  distribu- 
tion o\'  liiiht  wliich  is  most  conjrenial  to  tliem. 

Plants,  then,  are  arraujred  in  their  dil^erent  localities,  accordinjr  to  the  certain  quantity  of 
lijjht  which  they  may  require.  All  those  with  veiy  watery  leaves,  which  evaporate  much, 
which  are  of  a  succulent  nature,  which,  havinj:;  few  jwres  or  or<jans  of  eva|xiration,  need  a 
stimulus  to  determine  their  action,  all  whieli  have  a  tissue  aboundiuir  in  carbon,  or  which 
contiiin  very  resiiums  or  oily  juices,  or  which  oH'er  a  great  extent  of  green  surface,  require 
much  light,  and  are  generally  found  in  ex^xised  places;  the  rest,  according  as  tiiey  are  more 
or  less  distinguished  by  these  properties,  exist  either  under  the  slight  shadow  of  bushes,  or 
beneath  tlie  more  powerful  shelter  of  hedges  and  walls,  or  of  forests;  or,  as  is  the  case  with 
many  Fiimri,  in  caves  and  darkness.  These  last  are,  indeed,  destitute  of  any  green  colour; 
but  Mosses,  Ferns,  and  even  some  evergreens,  such  as  the  Ivy,  flourish  best  beneath  the 
shade  of  dense  forests,  if  the  trees  of  those  forests  liave  deciduous  leaves ;  and  in  situations 
where  plants  that  vegetate  only  during  the  summer  could  scarcely  live. 

The  subject,  liowever,  of  the  action  of  light  upon  vegetation,  has  not  yet  received  the 
attention  which  it  deserves.  INIany  more  observations  and  experiments  are  required  before 
we  can  employ  it  witJi  certainty  in  connexion  with  botanical  geography. 

SuBSECT.  3. — On  the  Influence  of  Moisture. 

Water  being  the  vehicle  by  means  of  which  nourishment  is  conveyed  into  the  plant,  and, 
indeed,  itself  yielding  a  large  proywrtion  or  even  the  whole  of  the  nutriment  of  many  ve- 
getables, it  follows  that  this  element  is  not  only  of  the  highest  importance  in  vegetable 
economy,  but  one  of  the  causes  wiiich  affects  most  powerfully  tlie  geographical  distribution 
of  plants  upon  the  surface  of  the  globe. 

Those  vegetables,  in  particular,  necessarily  absorb  a  great  quantity  of  water,  which  have 
a  large  and  spongv  cellular  tissue ;  those  whicli  possess  broadly  expanded  sotl  leaves,  fur- 
nished with  a  great  number  of  cortical  pores;  those  iiaving  few  or  no  hairs  on  their  surface; 
those  whose  growth  is  very  rajiid,  whicli  deposit  but  little  oily  or  resinous  matter;  those  of 
which  the  texture  is  not  subject  to  be  changed  or  corrupted  by  humidity ;  those,  in  fine, 
whose  roots  are  very  numerous^  generally  need  to  absorb  much  moisture,  and  cannot  live 
but  in  places  where  they  find  naturally  a  large  proportion  of  it.  On  tlie  other  liand,  those 
plants  which  are  of  a  firm  and  compact  cellular  tissue,  which  have  small  or  rigid  leaves, 
furnished  with  very  few  pores,  which  are  abundantly  clothed  with  hairs,  of  which  the 
growth  is  slow,  and  which  deposit,  during  th?  progress  of  their  vegetation,  much  oily  or 
resinous  matter;  those  whose  cellular  tissue  is  liable  to  be  changed  and  decayed  by  too  much 
moisture,  and  of  which  the  roots  are  not  numerous,  require  little  water,  and  prefer,  for  their 
natural  situation,  dry  places.  Great  differences,  however,  are  prodiKed,  according  to  tlie 
nature  of  the  water  that  is  absorbed ;  the  less  it  is  charged  witli  the  nutritive  principle,  the 
more  necessary  is  it  that  the  vegetable  shall  absorb,  in  a  given  time,  enough  to  suffice  for  its 
support.  Again,  the  more  the  water  abounds  with  substances  which  alter  its  fiuiditj'  or 
transparency,  and  which,  masmuch  as  they  are  solid  particles,  tend  to  obstruct  the  orifices 
of  the  pores,  or  to  impede  absorption  by  their  viscosity,  the  less  do  such  vegetables  imbibe  in 
a  given  time. 

The  very  nature  even  of  those  substances  dissolved  or  suspended  in  the  water  has  a  great 
influence  upon  the  topojrraphical  distribution  or  the  locality  of  plants.  The  matters  so  dis- 
solved are,  1.  Carbonic  acid.  2.  Atmospheric  air.  3.  Animal  and  vegetable  substances.  4. 
Alkaline  principles  or  earths.  Those  plants  whose  cellular  tissue  is  fimnd  to  contain  much 
carbon,  sucli  as  trees  producing  hard  wockI,  avoid,  more  than  others,  the  vicinity  of  waters 
which  are  extremely  pure,  and  which  contain  but  little  carbonic  acid  gas.  Plants  whicli 
exhibit  much  azote  in  their  cliemical  composition,  such  as  the  Cruciferous  Plants  and  the 
Funsri,  seek  those  spots  where  there  is  much  animal  matter  in  solution.  Tiiose.  again,  which 
present,  when  chemically  analyzed,  a  considerable  quantity  of  certain  eartb.y  siibstance.s, 
such  as  silica*  in  the  Monocotylcdonous  Plants,  gypsum  in  the  Lesruminos(P,  ttc.  will  re- 
quire it  in  a  greater  or  less  proportion  in  the  soil  where  they  grow ;  and  if  it  does  not  exist 
there  naturally,  tlie  agriculturist  must  supply  it  artificially  ;  and  those  species  which  yield, 

*  This  silica,  we  know,  ahnimds  in  the  crasses,  as  well  as  in  other  monocotvleilonons  pl.-jnts  ;  and  M.  do  rnmlnlle 
observes,  that  it  is  in  consenuence  of  its  existence  in  the  erasses,  fee  and  of  the  comparative  Imiissohibility  which 
is  the  result,  that  it  is  preferred  by  almost  all  nations  of  the  world  for  a  covering  to  (heir  houses.  The  people 
of  the  North  thus  employ  straw  for  that  purpose,  on  the  same  principle  that  those  of  the  tropics  use  the  leavesof 
the  palms. 


Book  HI.  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY.  243 

when  burned,  a  more  abundant  portion  of  alkaline  substances  than  usual,  can  only  flourish 
or  even  live  where  these  matters  abound.  The  species  which  have  need  of  carbonate  of 
soda  will  only  grow  successfully  near  the  sea  or  saline  lakes  or  springs.  Thus  the  different 
property  of  the  substances  dissolved  in  the  water  is  evidently  one  of  the  many  causes  which 
determine  the  stations  of  tlie  vegetable  species. 

SuBSECT.  4. — On  the  Influence  of  the  Soil. 

The  influence  of  soil  M.  de  Candolle  considers  as  perhaps  more  complicated  than  that  of 
the  preceding  agents.     He  reduces  it  to  the  following  heads : — 

(1.)  The  soil  serves  as  a  means  of  support  to  vegetables,  and  con.sequently  its  consistence 
or  tenacity  ought  to  possess,  in  this  point  of  view,  a  peculiar  fitness  for  sustaining,  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  plants  exhibiting  verj'  various  forms.  Thus,  soils  composed  of  blow- 
ing sand  can  only  serve  as  a  support  to  vegetables  which  are  of  very  humble  stature  and 
prostrate  growth,  so  that  the  wmds  may  not  overturn  them ;  or  to  trees,  furnished  with  very 
deep  and  branching  roots,  which  may  attach  them  into  this  moveable  matrix.  The  contrary 
holds  good  in  regard  to  very  compact  soils.  Small-rooted  plants  may  thus  be  firmly  enough 
fixed,  and  they  may  subsist ;  but  the  very  large  roots  are  incapable  of  penetrating  into  soils 
that  are  very  tenacious.  The  two  extremes  of  these  soils  present  an  equally  sterile  vege- 
tation. Sands  which  are  not  sufficiently  stationar}'  (as  those  very  remarkable  ones  on  the 
northern  shores  of  the  Moray  Frith),  water  which  is  subject  to  very  rapid  currents,  clay  of 
an  extremely  compact  nature,  or  rocks  of  great  hardness,  are  equally  unfiiendly  to  the 
growth  of  plants. 

(2.)  The  chemical  nature  of  the  earths  or  stones  of  which  the  soil  is  composed,  aflects 
the  choice  of  vegetables,  as  regards  their  flourishing  in  such  situations.  But  this  subject, 
simple  as  it  appears  at  first  sight,  is  in  reality  very  complicated.  For  the  difierent  earths 
act  upon  vegetation  by  physical  circumstances ;  as,  for  example,  according  as  they  absorb 
the  surrounding  water  with  more  or  less  facility,  retain  it  with  more  or  less  force,  or  part 
with  it  more  or  less  easilj'.  Now,  the  celebrated  Kirwan  ascertained  by  a  comparative 
analj-sis  of  earths  which  were  reckoned  excellent  for  the  growth  of  wheat  in  various  coun- 
tries, that  thej'  contain  more  silica  if  the  climate  is  more  subject  to  rain,  more  alumine  if 
the  contrary  be  the  case ;  in  short,  that  the  soil,  to  be  good  for  any  given  vegetable,  ought 
to  have  the  power  of  absorbing  more  moisttire  in  a  dry  climate,  less  in  an  humid  atmosphere : 
whence  it  is  plain  that  in  different  localities  the  same  species  of  vegetable  may  be  found  in 
difierent  soils. 

(3.)  Ever}-  kind  of  rock  has  a  certain  degree  of  tenacity,  and  a  certain  disposition  to 
decompose  or  become  pulverized:  whence  results  the  greater  or  less  facility  of  particular 
soils  to  be  formed  either  of  sand  or  gravel,  and  to  be  composed  of  fragments  of  a  nearly 
determined  form  and  size.  Certain  vegetables,  from  causes  which  we  shall  presently  indicate, 
wdl  prefer  such  or  such  of  this  sand  or  gravel ;  but  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  soil  does  not 
act  here  immediately ;  thus,  when  we  find  calcareous  rocks  which  decompose  like  argilla- 
ceous schist,  the  same  species  of  vegetation  is  observed.  These  two  considerations  are 
particularly  applicable  to  lichens. 

(4.)  Rocks,  according  to  their  colour  or  their  nature,  are  more  susceptible  of  being  heated 
by  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun ;  and  consequently  they  may,  in  some  degree,  modify  the 
temperature  of  a  given  place ;  and  influence  also,  though  slightly,  the  choice  of  plants 
capable  of  succeeding  upon  them. 

But,  independently  of  all  these  physical  causes,  it  may  be  asked,  whether  the  chemical 
nature  of  rocks  has  any  effect  upon  vegetables  ]  It  is  generally  considered  to  be  so ;  but  it 
must  be  allowed  that  tliis  action  has  been  frequently  very  much  exaggerated.  Bory  de  St. 
Vincent,  indeed,  has  assured  us  that  calamine,  or  native  carbonate  of  zinc,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  is  always  indicated,  to  a  certainty,  by  particular  plants:  and  the  fact  is 
confirmed  by  a  little  work,  since  published,  called  A  Flora  of  the  Enviro.is  of  Spa.  The 
yellmr  heartsease,  a  small  variety  of  the  common  eyehright  (Euphrasia  officinalis),  the  white 
Campion  '(Silene  inflata),  a  Sandwort  (Arenaria),  a  shrubby  Lichen,  a  species  of  Bromus 
(Brome-grass),  constitute  this  poor  but  constant  vegetation.  These,  however,  no  doubt, 
grow  in  greater  abundance  and  perfection  in  other  soils :  the  wonder  is  that  they  do  not 
altogether  perish  here ;  for  even  the  gallinaceous  birds,  which  eat  gravel  to  triturate  their 
food,  die  from  swallowing  fragments  of  calamine.  It  must  be  remarked,  in  reality,  that  plants 
do  not  oflen  live  upon  pure  rock,  but  among  the  decomposed  matter  of  that  rock :  that  the 
rocks,  even  though  very  circumscribed,  often  present  very  different  natures :  that  vegetable 
mould  is  not  only  formed  by  the  rocks  which  immediately  surround  it,  but  also  by  the 
admixture  of  earthy  substances  carried  by  the  waters,  and  transported  by  the  winds,  or  by 
the  remains  of  animals  and  vegetables  which  have  before  existed  there.  Hence  it  v^ill  be 
understood  how  the  vegetable  earths' differ  much  less  in  themselves,  thaii  the  rocks  which 
produce  them  or  serve  to  support  them  :  and  that  the  greater  number  of  plants  yield,  in  most 
situations,  the  alimentary  earths  v.hich  are  necessary  for  them.  Indeed,  afler  various 
botanical  joiunevs  made  through  France,  !M.  de  Candolle  has  found  nearly  the  same  plants 


244  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  Part  II. 

vegetating  spontaneously  in  almost  all  the  different  rocky  substances.  It  has  been  said  that 
the  Box  (Buxus  sempervLrens)  grows  only  in  calcareous  soils,  and  it  certainly  prefers  them; 
but  It  is  found  abundantly  in  the  argillaceous  calcareous  schistose  rocks  of  the  I'yrenees; 
and  it  is  even  seen  among  the  granite  of  Britany  and  upon  the  volcanic  parts  of  Auvergne. 
The  Chestnut  has  been  said  to  avoid  a  calcareous  country ;  but  there  are  beautiful  chestnuts 
on  botii  sides  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  at  the  foot  of  the  calcareous  mountains  of  Jura  and 
Chublais. 

Pure  magnesia,  M.  Carradori  has  found,  by  chemical  experiment,  acts  as  a  poison  on  most 
plants:  yet  AI.  Duna!,  in  visiting  a  portion  of  the  environs  of  Liinel,  where  the  soil  presents 
a  great  quantity  of  almost  pure  magnesia,  found  there  the  same  plants  as  in  the  surrounding 
calcareous  soil,  and  the  roots  flourishing  in  the  cleltsof  this  magnesian  rock.  Thus  we  must 
be  careful  not  to  attach  too  much  importance  to  the  nature  of  the  earth,  which  is  frequently 
acted  upon  by  causes  purely  physical. 

SuBSECT.  5. — At7nospheric  Injluence. 

The  atmosphere,  taken  in  its  pure  state,  we  know  to  be  composed,  at  all  times,  of  the 
same  proportions  of  azote  and  oxygen ;  and  ui  such  cases  we  may  suppose  its  action  to  be 
similar  upon  all  vegetables.  But  the  atmosphere  also  is  of  dificrent  degrees  of  transparency 
or  density ;  it  holds  in  solution  other  matters  or  substances,  which  mix  with  it  in  certain 
places,  and  render  it  more  or  less  suitable  to  certain  species  of  plants.  In  mines,  for  instance, 
the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  or  of  hydrogen,  may  be  so  great  as  to  preclude  vegeta- 
tion altogether  :  or  to  allow  only  of  the  growth  of  such  individuals  as  are  very  strong  and 
vigorous,  or  particularly  absorbent  of  these  substances.  Then,  too,  the  air  charged  with 
saline  emanations  from  the  sea  injures  some  plants,  and  on  the  other  hand  encourages  the 
developement  of  such  as  require  carbonate  of  soda ;  as  may  be  seen  in  the  valleys  of  the 
south  of  Europe,  where  maritime  plants  affording  soda  may  be  cultivated  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  ocean,  provided  that  they  lie  open  towards  the  sea,  and  are  exposed  to  the 
winds  that  blow  from  it. 

We  cultivate  in  our  inland  gardens,  languidly  and  but  for  a  year  or  two,  many  of  the 
maritime  plants,  such  as  the  Lithospermum.  The  Nitraria  Schoberi  is  improved  by  em- 
ploying salt  where  it  is  grown.  Many  of  the  Statices  may  be,  however,  easily  cultivated, 
and  one  of  them,  the  common  Thrift  (S.  Armeria)  even  succeeds  in  crowded  towns,  whence 
its  English  name ;  yet  its  native  country  is  either  on  the  shores  of  the  sea  or  in  salt  marshes, 
or  upon  the  summits  of  the  highest  mountains. 

The  most  general  influence,  however,  exercised  by  the  atmosphere,  is  its  power  of  con- 
taining and  parting  with  moisture,  or  its  hygroscopic  action.  The  atmosphere  is  habitually 
charged  with  moisture  ;  sometimes  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  invisible,  and  then  only  ascer- 
tainable by  the  hygrometer;  at  other  times  visible  in  a  state  of  vapour  or  dew;  and  we  find 
that  vegetables  in  general  succeed  better  in  a  climate  where,  at  a  given  degree  of  tem- 
perature, the  air  is  moderately  moist,  than  in  another  where  it  is  either  too  much  saturated 
with  moisture  or  too  dry.  This  is  a  circumstance  which  cannot  well  be  imitated  in  the  cul- 
tivation of  plants  in  the  open  air:  but  in  our  stoves,  and  especially  by  the  aid  of  steam,  the 
various  degrees  of  humidity  necessary  to  a  vigorous  vegetation  may  be  produced  to  the 
greatest  nicety. 

The  agitation  or  movement  of  the  air  by  winds  and  other  causes  exercises  some  power 
over  vegetation  ;  but  we  are  too  little  acquainted  with  this  subject  to  be  able  to  deduce  any 
particular  theory  from  it. 

Of  all  the  atmospheric  influences,  the  most  difiicult  to  reduce  to  its  proper  value  is  that  of 
density ;  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  the  influence  of  height  or  elevation  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  This  M.  de  Candolle  has  made  the  subject  of  a  memoir  in  the  volume  of  the  Soci- 
ety of  Arcueil,  and  we  shall  here  give  his  general  ideas  upon  it. 

In  proportion  as  we  are  elevated  in  the  air,  the  temperature  as  well  as  the  moisture  con- 
tinues to  diminish ;  a  circumstance  which  appears  to  depend  upon  this,  that  the  rare  air  has 
more  capacity  for  heat  tlian  dense  air.  The  facts  that  go  to  prove  that  the  diminution  of 
the  temperature  upon  high  mountains  is  one  of  the  causes  which  most  affect  the  distribution 
of  vegetables,  are  the  following: — 

(1.)  The  natural  situation  of  each  plant  at  a  determined  elevation  above  the  level  of  the 
sea  is  so  much  the  greater  in  proportion  as  the  country  is  nearer  the  equator,  and  less  in 
more  temperate  regions ;  that  is  to  say,  the  farther  w^e  recede  from  the  equator,  the  greater 
influence  has  the  exposure  upon  the  temperature. 

(2.)  In  temperate  climates,  as  France,  for  instance,  those  plants  which  are  but  little  affect- 
ed by  temperature,  and  which  grow  in  all  its  latitudes,  are  found  also  at  all  those  elevations 
where  the  earth  is  not  covered  by  eternal  snows  ;  from  the  level  of  the  sea  to  the  summits 
of  the  mountains.  M.  de  Candolle  has  detected  about  700  examples  of  tliis  law ;  Lhe  com- 
mon Heath,  the  Juniper,  the  Birch,  &z.c.  grown  indifl^erently  at  the  level  of  tlie  sea,  and  at 
a  height  of  10,000  feet. 

(3.)  If  plants  which,  according  to  their  nature,  avoid  either  too  high  or  too  low  a  degree  oS 


Book  III.  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY.  245 

temperature,  yet  ^ow  at  different  latitudes,  wc  may  observe  that  it  is  at  heights  where  tlie 
effect  of  elevation  may  compensate  that  of  latitude;  thus  t!ie  native  plants  of  the  northern 
plains  will  be  seen  to  g-row  upon  the  mountains  of  the  south. 

(4.)  Plants  which  are  cultivated  upon  a  large  scale  are  guided  by  laws  which  entirely 
correspond  with  tlie  preceding  ;  those  which  are  cultivated  in  various  latitudes  will  grow 
indiiferently  at  various  heights ;  those  which  are  only  found  at  certain  latitudes  will  extend 
no  farther  than  to  proportional  elevations.  The  potatoe,  which  succeeds  so  well  in  our 
plains,  is  cultivated  in  Peru  at  an  elevation  of  10,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea :  the 
olive,  which  nowhere  passes  44°  north  latitude,  will  not  grow  at  a  height  exceedino-  1250 
feet. 

(5.)  The  elevation  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  wlien  we  compare  the  temperature  of  the 
seasons,  establishes  effects  very  analogous  to  tiiose  which  result  from  the  distance  from  the 
equator ;  so  that  there  is  the  more  analogy  between  the  results  on  vegetation  in  the  two 
cases.  In  proportion  as  we  rise  in  a  direct  line,  it  follows,  from  the  lessened  density  of  the 
air,  that  the  intenseness  of  the  solar  light  continues  to  increase ;  this  effect  is  represent- 
ed in  the  line  of  distances  from  the  equator,  because  the  perpetuity  of  light  during  the 
continuance"  of  vegetation  is  so  much  the  greater  in  proportion  as  the  latitude  is  more 
elevated. 

(6.)  In  proportion  to  the  greater  height  upon  the  mountains,  so  will  the  hygrometer  be  seen 
to  indicate  a  less  degree  of  humidity  ;  the  same  general  effect  takes  place  as  we  recede  from 
the  equator  towards  the  poles. 

On  mountains,  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  where  the  plants  are  constantly  moistened 
with  water  in  a  freezing  state,  tiiose  species,  to  which  a  warm  temperature  is  unfriendly, 
will  live  at  interior  heights  to  those  which  tliey  brave  in  the  same  latitude,  when  they  are 
not  watered  from  those  cold  sources. 

It  would  appear  therefore,  from  all  these  considerations,  that  the  situation  or  fixed  locality 
of  plants  at  certain  heights  depends  mainly  on  the  fall  of  tlie  temperature  attributable  to 
that  elevation.  Now,  the  only  purely  theoretical  point  of  view,  saysM.  de  CandoUe,  accord- 
ing to  which  we  can  comprehend  how  the  rarefaction  of  the  air  bears  in  itself  a  direct  influ- 
ence upon  vegetation,  is  this  ;  that  plants  require  to  absorb  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  oxy- 
gen gas  in  tlieir  green  or  their  coloured  parts.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  tliere  is  a  certain 
point  of  elevation  where  the  atmosphere  becomes  too  much  rarefied  to  supply  the  wants  of 
plants ;  but  where  this  is  the  case  the  mountains  are  always  clothed  with  snow.  M.  de 
Humboldt,  too,  inclines  to  think  that  the  pressure  of  the  air  may  act  in  encouraging  and  in- 
creasing the  quantity  of  evaporation.  But  we  must  say  that  direct  experiment  is  still  want- 
ing to  confirm  these  opinions  (and  this  is  perhaps  unattainable  in  the  present  state  of 
science),  in  order  that  we  may  form  a  conclusive  judgment  on  their  value. 

Sect.  III. — Station  and  Habitation  of  Plants. 

The  station  and  habitation  of  plants  must  next  engage  a  portion  of  our  attention.  They 
are  both  important:  the  former  implies  their  situation  as  regarding  local  circumstances,  and 
the  action  of  physical  causes  upon  vegetables;  the  latter  implies  the  geographical  position. 
When  we  say  that  such  a  plant  is  found  in  marshes,  on  the  sea-shore,  in  woods,  or  upon 
mountains,  in  England,  in  France,  in  N(;rth  America ;  by  the  marshes,  shore,  woods,  or 
mountains,  we  mean  what  we  here  term  the  station ;  and  by  England,  France,  or  North 
America,  the  habitation :  such  is  the  sense,  at  least,  in  which  we  shall  here  use  the  terms ; 
for  in  systematic  botanical  writings  the  meaning  is  by  no  means  always  thus  restricted. 

The  seeds  of  plants,  by  varied  and  beautiful  means,  are  widely  dispersed  by  the  liberal 
hand  of  nature  ;  whilst  some,  however,  fall  upon  barren  ground,  or  a  soil  unfit  for  the  nature 
of  that  particular  vegetable,  others  take  root  in  situations,  both  with  regard  to  the  earth 
and  surrounding  medium,  which  are  in  harmony  with  their  growth,  and  produce,  "  some 
thirty,  some  sixty,  and  some  an  hundred-fold."  There  are,  again,  tribes  which,  under  these 
circumstances,  increase  so  prodigiously  that  they  destroy  vegetables  of  a  less  vigorous 
growth,  and,  to  the  exclusion  of  others,  appropriate  to  themselves  a  great  extent  of  the  surface 
of  the  earth.  Such  are  termed  by  Humboldt  social  plants.  In  this  way,  and  notwithstand- 
ing the  extreme  poverty  of  the  soil,  the  Seaside  Se.da;e  (Carex  arenaria),  the  upright  Sea 
Lyyneffrass  (Elymus  arenarius),  and  the  Sen-reed  or  Marram*  (Arundo  arenaria),  occupy  a 
prodigious  surface  of  the  sandy  shores  of  Great  Britain,  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  other 
vegetation;  their  long,  creeping,  and  entangled  roots  serving  to  bind  the  sands  together,  and 
thus  foiming  a  barrier  to  the  encroachments  of  the  sea.  Thus  it  is  with  the  heaths  in  the 
same  country,  where  the  sterile  moors  are  purple  with  the  blossoms  of  tlie  heath. 

The  flowers  of  the  Gentians  cover,  as  with  a  carpet  of  the  most  brilliant  ultramarine 
blu",  the  sides  of  the  alpine  hills  in  Switzerland  and  the  south  of  Europe.  In  England  the 
fiel  Is  are  too  often  red  v/ith  Poppies,  and  ihe  marshes  are  whitened  with  the  "snowy  beard" 
of  tlie  Cottonqrass,  and  the  pastures  with  the  blossoms  of  the  Cardamine  pratensis,  so  that 

*  ThH  Cpllic  name  of  this  plant  is  Mnraim.    A  villacre  upon  the  sea  coast  of  Norfolk  is  named  Marham,  from 
the  great  abundance  in  which  the  Arundo  arenaria  grows  in  its  vicinity. 

21* 


246  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  P.uit  H. 

they  appear  at  a  distance  as  if  covered  with  linen  laid  out  for  bleaching,  whence  arises  the 
vulgar  English  name*  of  the  latter  plant.  Some  of  these  plants  thus  living  in  society  are 
continually  striving  with  their  neighbours,  till  the  strongest  obtain  the  victory.  Many  low 
perennial'and  herbaceous  vesretables  are  overpowered  by  a  colony  of  taller  shrubs ;  such  as 
the  Whin  or  Furze  and  the  Broojji :  and  these  in  their  turns  must  occasionally  give  place 
to  trees  and  shrubs  of  a  larger  and  stronger  growth.  Mr.  Brown  has,  however,  noticed  a 
curious  fact  in  regard  to  the  Field  Eryngo  (Eryngium  campestre,)  and  the  Starthistle 
(Centaurea  Calcitrapa),  whicii  cover  much  cultivated  ground  upon  the  continent:  viz.  that 
these  two  engrossers  are  never  mixed  together  indiscriminately,  but  that  each  forms  groups 
of  partial  masses,  placed  at  certain  distances  from  their  rivals. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  plants,  which,  from  tlie  circumstance  of  their  not  increasing 
much  by  root,  or  bearing  few  seeds,  or  such  seeds  as  from  their  ligiit  and  volatile  nature  are 
much  dispersed,  and  which  are  not  particular  in  their  clioice  of  soil,  do  net  form  groups,  but 
lie  scattered  {Plantes  eparses,  es[r(nees,  or  rares,  of  the  French). 

The  former  kind,  or  "  social  plants,"  are  those  which  it  will  be  most  important  for  us  to 
consider  in  relation  to  Botanical  Geography. 

.The  stations  of  plants  being  thus,  as  we  have' already  mentioned,  liable  to  the  influence 
of  physical  agents,  it  becomes  necessary  to  define  them  by  terms  which  are  calculated  at 
once  to  point  out  the  places  and  the  circumstances  in  which  they  grow.  This,  however,  is 
a  task  of  no  small  difficulty  ;  for,  without  swelling  the  list  to  an  immeasurable  length,  it  will 
be  impossible  to  define  the  various  local  situations  of  plants.  There  are  many  situations 
which  produce  only  one  or  two  kinds:  for  example,  the  snow,  in  the  highest  arctic  regions 
to  which  travellers  have  attained,  has  been  found  to  nourish  and  to  bring  to  the  greatest  per- 
fection that  highly  curious  vegetable,  the  Red  Snmv  (Protococcus  nivalis).  The  truffle 
(Tuber  cibarium)  is  found  entirely  hid  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Some  fmiffi  are 
detected  upon  the  dead  horns  and  hoofs  of  animals  (no  plant  exists  upon  living  bodiesj),  and 
upon  dead  chrysalides;  and  \x)th  fiinfri  and  mosses  grow  on  the  dung  of  animals.  Paper 
nourishes  the  minute  Conferva  dendroidea :  the  glass  of  windows,  and  the  glass  table  of  the 
microscope,  if  laid  by  in  a  moist  state  for  a  certain  length  of  time,  produce  the  Conferva 
fenestralis.  Wine-casks  in  damp  cellars  give  birth  to  the  Racodinm  cellare :  and  Dutrochet 
has  detected  living  vegetables  in  Madeira  wine  and  in  Goulard  water,  (a  solution  of  Saturn). 
These,  however,  and  many  others  that  might  be  noticed,  may  be  numbered  among  the  extra- 
ordinary stations,  and  they  principally  affect  cryptogamic  vegetables.  In  a  popular  view  of 
the  subject,  though  we  cannot  altogether  omit  the  notice  of  such  minute  yet  curious  vege- 
table productions,  we  shall  mainly  direct  our  attention  to  the  more  conspicuous  plants ;  and 
they  may  be  thus  divided.  1.  Maritime  or  saline  plants.  These  are  terrestrial,  but  grow- 
ing upon  the  borders  of  the  ocean  or  near  salt  lakes ;  as  the  Saltworts  (Salsolee)  and  Glass- 
icorts  (Salicorniffi),  &c.  Hence  these  plants  abound  in  the  interior  of  Africa  and  the  Rus- 
sian dominions,  where  there  are  saltpans,  as  well  as  on  the  shores.  2.  Marine  Plants. 
This  tribe  is  indeed  mostly  cryptogamic,  and  comprises  the  Alsace,  Fuci,  Ulvce,  &c.  The 
phcEnogamous,  or  perfect  marine  plants,  are  the  Sea-wracks  (Ruppia  and  Zostera),  and  a 
few  others  allied  to  them.  3.  Aquatic  plants.  Growuig  in  fresh  water.  Both  stagnant 
pools  and  rimning  streams  in  various  situations,  abound  in  plants.  Some  are  entirely  sub- 
merged, but  in  tliis  case,  with  the  rare  exception  of  the  little  Aivlivort  (Subularia  aquatica), 
the  flowers  rise  to  the  surface  of  the  water  for  the  purnose  of  fructification.!  4.  Marsh  or 
swamp  plants.  5.  Meadow  aiid  pasture  plants.  6.  Field  plants.  This  tribe  often  includes 
such  as,  introduced  with  the  grain  sown  in  those  di-'tricts,  are  equall)^  placed  there  by  the 
hand  of  man.  7.  Rock  plants,  which  may  include  the  natives  of  very  stony  spots,  and  such 
as  grow  upon  walls.  Walls,  although  artificial  structures,  are  known  to  produce  many  plants 
in  greater  perfection  than  natural  rock ;  yet  we  must  not  suppose  that  any  vegetable  is 
exclusively  confined  to  this  habitat.  The  Holosteum  umhellatnm  and  Draha  muralis  may 
be  cited  as  exampjesof  this  tribe  in  England  ;  and  amongst  mosses,  the  Grimmia  pulvinata, 
Tortula  muralis^  &c.  8.  Sand  Plants.  9.  Plants  of  dry  moors,  where  heaths  (Ericae) 
abound.  10.  Plants  which  attach  themselves  to  the  vicinity  of  places  inhabited  by  man. 
Such  are  the  Dock,  Nettle,  &c. ;  these  species  follow  everywhere  the  human  footsteps,  even 

*  Lady's  Smock.    Such  yilants  were  in  olilen  time  dedicated  to  Our  Lady  the  Virgin  Mary. 

f  Srhnuw,  indeed,  has  a  tribe  of  plants  which  he  calls  "  Planta:  Epizocc,"  attached  to  lirivg  animals.  Thns,  he  says, 
Pari  anil  other  AlgT.  are  attached  to  whales,  mussels,  and  barnacles.  But  in  this  case  the  plant?  manifestly  adhere 
to  a  deal  portion  of  the  animal ;  like  those  vegetables  which  exist  upon  the  outer  and  dead  part  of  the  bark  of  trees. 

1  Ravinond  certainly  observed,  in  the  Pyrenees,  a  species  of  Oo7r/oof,  the  Water  Cro?/-/oo?  (Ranunculus  aqua- 
tilis.')  pro'lucinff  its  flower  and  fruit  wholly  under  water ;  but  upon  a  closer  investiiatlon  of  the  phenomenon,  he 
found  »hat  in  these  cases  the  calyx  enclosed  a  clobule  of  air,  with  which  this  important  function  of  fertilization 
was  performed.  Thf  curious  aquatic,  VnV.ii^nrria  spirnlis.  has  a  still  more  wonderful  contrivance  for  brinsing  the 
male  and  female  flowers  in  contact.  The  plant  is  din;cious.  The  female  flower  is  attached  to  the  parent  plant 
by  means  of  a  very  Ions  stalk,  spirally  twisted  like  a  corkscrew,  so  tliat  when  it  is  in  perfection,  it  rises  to  the 
surface  hv  the  untwistini  of  the  stalk.  The  male  flowers,  upon  a  separate  plant,  are  almost  sessile,  borne  on  a 
very  short  straijht  stem,  which  never  could  reach  the  surface  without  detachinc  themselves  from  the  plant.  This 
they  do  at  thf  proper  season  ;  they  float  upon  the  top  of  the  water  alone  with  the  female  flowers,  scatter,  their 
pollen,  and  die.  The  female  blossoms  on  the  contrary,  by  the  spiral  twisting  of  their  stalks,  retire,  and  ripen 
their  seeds  under  water. 


Book  IH.  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY.  247 

to  the  huts  and  cabins  of  the  highest  mountains ;  encouraged,  perhaps  by  the  presence  of 
animal  substances,  and  the  azote  which  in  such  substances  is  known  to  abound.  11.  Forest 
plants,  consisting  of  such  trees  as  live  in  society.  12.  Plants  of  the  hedges,  as  are  many 
climbing  plants,  the  Honeysuckle,  the  Traveller'' s  joy,  the  Bryony,  &c.  13.  Subterranean 
plants.  Those  that  live  in  mines  and  caves,  and  vvliicii,  tliough  tolerably  numerous  and  im- 
portant, are  yet  mostly  cryptogamous.  One  species,  a  fungus,  yields  a  pale  phosphoric  liglit 
of  considerable  intensity.  14.  Alpine  or  7nountain  plants,  ibr  it  is  very  ditiiculttodrav;  the 
Imiit,  and  indeed  they  will  depend  nmch  upon  latitude.  A  plant  which  grows  upon  a  hill  ot 
inconsiderable  elevation  in  Norway,  Lapland,  and  Iceland,  will  of  course  inhabit  the  loftiest 
Alps  of  the  south  of  Europe.  Again,  upon  mountains  that  have  no  perpetual  snow  lying  on 
them,  alpine  plants  will  be  found  mucli  higher  than  on  such  as  have  continued  streams  of 
cold  snow-water  descending,  which  affect  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  at  much  lower  regions. 
15.  Parasitic  plants,  such  as  the  Misscltoe,  the  various  species  of  Loranthus,  &c.,  and  the 
most  wonderful  of  all  vegetable  productions,  the  Raffiesia  Arnoldii :  these,  as  their  name 
implies,  derive  nourishment  from  a  living  portion  of  tlie  vegetable  to  which  they  attach 
tliemselves.  This  is  the  case,  too,  with  many  Fungi  which  subsist  upon  the  living  foliage 
of  plants;  some  exclusively  on  the  upper,  others  as  invariably  on  the  lower  side  of  these 
leaves ;  and,  lastly,  the  name  of  16.  Pseudo-parasites  has  been  given  to  a  very  extensive 
tribe,  which  subsists  upon  the  decayed  portions  of  the -trunk  or  brandies  of  the  trees  to 
which  they  are  attached,  as  many  of  the  Lichens,  Mosses,  &c. ;  or  which  are  simply  attach- 
ed by  the  surface  of  their  roots  to  tropical  trees,  obtaining  no  nourishment  from  them,  but 
from  the  surrounding  element.  ,  Among  this  number  may  be  reckoned  that  numerous  and 
singular  family  of  the  Orchidece,  called,  from  their  nature  and  property,  "  air  plants." 
Greatly  as  this  list  might  be  swelled,  we  shall  {ind  that  even  here  there  is  a  gradation  and 
an  approximation  of  one  tribe  to  another;  but  these  are  amply  sufficient  for  our  purpose. 

We  have  been  able  to  account  in  some  measure  for  the  stations  of  plants,  affected  as  these 
are  by  local  circumstances;  but  the  study  of  the  succeeding  part,  which  refers  to  their  habi- 
tations, considered  in  their  most  extensive  scale,  for  instance,  as  belonging  to  certain  regions 
or  countries,  we  shall  find  to  be  much  more  difficult;  and  we  must  frequently  be  content  to 
study  and  to  admire  the  amazing  variety  of  vegetable  forms  which  the  beneficent  hand  of 
nature  has  scattered  over  the  different  parts  of  our  world,  without  being  able  to  account  for 
tliese  important  plienomena.  In  New  Holland  we  find  almost  exclusively,  all  the  species 
of  Banksia,  Goodenia,  and  Epacris,  and  tiie  curious  A'Cacicp.  without  leaves,  but  with  peti- 
oles so  much  enlarged  as  to  assume  the  shape  and  perform  the  functions  of  leaves.  At  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  Fig  Marigolds  (Mesembryanthema),  the  Stapelice,  the  numerous 
kinds  of  Ixia,  Gladiolus,  Pelargonium,  and  Prolea  abound.  The  Auranliacece,  the  family 
of  plants  to  which  the  Orange  and  Lemon  belong,  are  of  Asiatic  origin ;  as  the  Camellia 
and  Thea  are  of  Chinese.  Those  curious  plants,  the  Mutisice,  the  various  species  of  Fuch- 
sia, the  Cinchona;  or  medicinal  barks,  the  Cacti,  are  all  peculiar  to  South  America.  If  a 
few  of  them  are  found  in  other  countries,  such  circumstances  are  of  very  rare  occurrence, 
and  do  not  overturn  the  general  laws  for  the  exclusive  existence  of  many  plants  in  certain 
countries.  There  are  in  the  temperate  parts  of  Europe  one  species  of  Ixia,  one  of  Gladio- 
lus, and  in  the  north  of  Africa  and  south  of  Europe  a  few  kinds  of  Fig  Marigold.  Within 
tiie  tropics  the  genera  of  plants  tliroughout  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  are  similar,  but  rare- 
ly are  the  species  the  same.  This  rule  nearly  holds  good  on  the  opposite  continents  in  tem- 
perate climates.  We  find  the  Oriental  Plane  (Platanus  orientalis)  in  the  old  world,  and 
the  Occidental  Plane  (P.  occidentalis)  in  the  new.  Even  in  the  two  hemispheres,  in  simi- 
lar parallels  of  latitude,  the  genera  of  plants  have  a  great  affinity :  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  great  continent  of  America  has  many  in  common  with  the  north  of  Europe ;  and  the 
plants  of  the  latter  region,  transported  thither,  succeed  extremely  well. 

To  what  extent  plants  migrate,  unaided  by  man,  it  is  not  easy  to  say ;  but  that  such  mi- 
gration is  going  on,  by  various  means  and  causes,  cannot  be  questioned.  Islands  which  lie 
near  to  continents,  and  which  evidently  appear  at  one  period  to  have  been  joined  with  them, 
as  England  for  example,  although  they  may  contain  a  vegetation  similar  to  that  of  the  neigh- 
bouring continental  shores,  have  always  a  smaller  number  of  species ;  and  this  can  only  be 
accounted  for  by  tlie  interruption  which  straits  or  seas  occasion  to  the  progress  of  the  seeds. 

The  Field  Eryngo  (Eryngium  campestre),  to  which  we  have  already  alluded,  the  Venns^s 
looking-glass  (Campanula  Speculum),  and  many  other  plants  of  France  and  Germany,  seem 
to  stop  at  the  line  formed  by  the  sea ;  yet  these,  and  many  other  vegetables  of  France,  reach 
a  limit  upon  the  same  continent  more  northern  than  any  part  of  England. 

The  migration  of  plants  may  be  reckoned  to  be  facilitated  by  the  following  causes.  1.  7Vie 
sea  and  its  currents,  but  to  a  very  limited  extent;  for  if  the  seed  be  of  such  a  nature  thrt 
the  water  penetrates  its  integuments  and  readies  the  embryo,  life  is  destroyed.  Yet  to  such 
a  distance  are  they  carried  by  this  medium,  that  upon  the  coasts  of  Britain,  of  Iceland,  and 
Norway,  the  seeds  of  tiie  West  Indies  are  frequently  cast,  and  it  is  said  sometimes  even  in 
a  fit  state  for  vegetation.  2.  Rivers,  by  the  continual  movement  of  their  waters,  convey 
many  plants  to  a  considerable  distance  from  their  original  place  of  growtli ;  and  the  banks 


248  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  Part  II. 

of  streams  are  generally  adorned  with  a  vegetation  of  a  more  varied  kind  than  the  districts 
remote  from  them.  Thus,  too,  the  different  species  of  Saxifrage  and  other  alpine  plants 
are,  in  mountainous  regions,  brought  down  from  the  higher  situations,  and  flourish  in  the 
valleys.  3.  Winds,  which  waft  the  light,  w  inged,  and  pappose  seeds  to  immense  distances, 
and  by  means  of  which  they  are  widely  dispersed.  4.  Animals,  wliich,  in  wandering  from 
place  to  place,  often  carry  on  their  coats  those  seeds  which  have  hooked  bristles,  &c.  5. 
Birds,  which,  swallowing  berries  and  other  fruits,  pass  the  seeds  in  a  perfect  slate,  and,  it 
is  even  said,  somcthnes  better  fitted  for  germination  than  before.  In  tliis  manner  the  seeds 
are  often  deposited  in  the  places  necessary  for  their  growth,  and  to  which  they  could  not 
otherwise  have  reached  ;  of  which  a  familiar  instance  is  found  in  the  j\Iisseltoe. 

Man  is  however  the  most  active  agent  in  the  dispersion  of  plants,  and  we  must  not  over- 
look the  important  consequences  of  his  influence.  Sometimes,  indeed,  the  causes  are  acci- 
dental, but  more  frequently  intentional.  The  sliipwreck  of  a  vessel  on  the  island  of  Guernsey, 
having  some  bulbs  on  board  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  caused  a  plarit  to  propagate  in  tlie 
sands  upon  the  shores  of  that  mild  climate,  to  wOiicii  has  been  since  given  the  name  of  A^na- 
ryllis  Hurniensis  or  Guernsey  Lily,  and  a  branch  of  trade  of  some  importance  is  carried  on 
in  the  sale  of  this  very  root.  At  Buenos  Ayres,  a  species  of  ilr/Jc/ioAe  (Cynara  Cardun- 
culus)  has  increased  so  much  by  seeds  imported  from  Europe,  that  Air.  Head,  in  his  aniusing 
"  Sketches  of  a  Journey  across  the  Pampas,"  &c.  tells  us  that  "  there  are  three  regions  of 
vegetation  between  Buenos  Ayres  and  the  base  of  the  Cordilleras;  a  space  of  900  miles: 
the  first  of  which  is  covered,  for  180  miles,  with  clover  and  thistles.  This  region,"  the 
author  continues,  "  varies  with  the  seasons  of  the  year  in  a  most  extraordinary  manner.  In 
winter,  the  leaves  of  the  thistles*  are  large  and  luxuriant,  and  the  whole  surface  of  tlio 
country  has  the  rough  appearance  of  a  turnip  field.  The  clover  in  this  season  is  extremely 
rich  and  strong;  and  the  sight  of  the  wild  cattle  grazing  in  full  liberty  on  such  pasture  is 
very  beautiful.  In  spring  the  clover  has  vanisiied,  the  leaves  of  the  thistles  have  extended 
along  the  ground,  and  the  country  still  looks  like  a  rough  crop  of  turnips.  In  less  than  a 
month  the  change  is  most  extraordinary  ;  the  whole  region  becomes  a  luxuriant  wood  of 
enormous  tliistles,  which  have  suddenly  shot  up  to  a  height  of  ten  or  eleven  feet,  and  are  all  in 
full  bloom.  The  road  or  path  is  liemmed  in  on  both  sides ;  the  view  is  completely  obstnicted  ; 
not  an  animal  is  to  be  seen ;  and  t!ie  stems  of  tiie  tliistles  are  so  close  to  each  other,  and  so 
strong,  that,  independent  of  the  prickles  with  which  tliey  are  armed,  they  form  an  impene- 
trable barrier.  The  sudden  growth  of  tliese  plants  is  quite  astonishing ;  and  though  it 
would  be  an  unusual  misfortune  in  military  history,  yet  it  is  really  possible  that  an  invading 
army,  unacquainted  with  this  country,  might  be  imprisoned  by  these  thistles  before  it  had 
time  to  escape  fi"om  them.  The  summer  is  not  over  before  the  scene  undergoes  another 
rapid  change :  the  thistles  suddenly  lose  their  sap  and  verdure,  their  heads  droop,  the  leaves 
shrink  and  fade,  the  stems  become  black  and  dead;  and  they  remain  rattling  with  the 
breeze,  one  against  another,  until  the  violence  of  the  pampero  or  hurricane  levels  them  with 
the  ground,  when  they  rapidly  decompose  and  disappear,  the  clover  rushes  up,  and  the  scene 
is  again  verdant." 

The  strong-scented  Everlasting  (Elichrysum  foetidum),  a  native  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
has  found  a  soil  and  climate  equally  suited  to  its  growth  on  the  shores  of  Brest,  where  it 
covers  a  great  portion  of  the  sands,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  aboriginal  natives  of  the  soil. 
Wheal  is  supposed  to  be  indigenous  to  Barbary.  The  pot atoe,  first  found  in  South  America, 
is  now  cultivated  all  over  the  world.  Rice,  fi-om  Asia,  is  grown  to  an  immense  extent  in 
America,  &c. ;  these,  and  many  other  plants  similarly  circumstanced,  which  we  could  men- 
tion, together  with  those  that  adorn  our  gardens,  often  owe  their  wide  diffusion  to  havuig 
escaped  into  uncultivated  places,  and  become  to  a  certain  degree  naturalised  there. 

But  there  are  limits  to  migration,  for  some  of  which  we  can  account,  and  for  others  we 
cannot.  Even  many  garden  plants,  which,  escaping  by  accident,  or  designedly  placed  in 
uncultivated  spots  so  as  to  appear  wild,  have  only  for  a  time  maintained  a  languid  existence, 
and  then  have  disappeared  altogether.  Thus  we  know  that  the  beautiful  Gentianella  (Gen- 
tiana  acaulis)  cannot  have  a  title  to  a  place  in  the  British  Flora,  nor  can  some  others,  which 
are  mere  outcasts  from  gardens.  Some  plants  are  wholly  confined  to  particular  spots,  and 
can  be  found  nowhere  else.  The  Tree-Pink  (Dianthus  arboreus)  grows  still  on  the  single 
rock  in  the  island  of  Crete,  where  Prosper  Alpinus  first  detected  it;  and  the  Double  Cocoa- 
nut  of  the  isle  Praslin,  one  of  the  little  group  of  islands  called  the  Seychelles,  notwith- 
standing the  annual  migration  of  its  nuts  for  many  thousands  of  miles,  has  never  established 
itself  in  any  other  place.  Nature  has  planted  the  common  Thrift  (Statice  Armeria),  the 
Scurvy  Grasses  (Cochlearia  anglica  and  danica),  and  the  Rose-root  (Rhodiola  rosea),  in 
rocky  and  stony  places,  upon  shores  and  on  the  tops  of  the  highest  mountains ;  yet  these 
plants  are  never  found  in  any  intermediate  places. 

The  visible  obstacles  to  the  migration  of  plants  are — 

(1.)  The  sea,  which,  though  we  have  introduced  it  as  a  means  of  extending  the  habitations 

*  From  specimons  in  niir  H.Tbarium,-wo  liave  ascertaineil  that  this  thistle  is  the  Cardoon  (Cviiara  CarUunculus), 
introduced  no  doubt  froi:i  Europe  as  an  article  of  food,  but  now  growing  wild,  useless,  and  pernicious. 


Book  III.  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY.  249 

of  plants,  is  yet  a  far  greater  impediment,  by  the  injury  it  does  to  the  seeds,  and  the  diffi- 
culty of  their  being-  conveyed  to  distant  countries  in  a  sufficiently  short  time  to  prevent  the 
natural  death  of  the  seed.  It  must  be  observed,  too,  that  the  greater  number  of  seeds  have 
a  specific  gravity  heavier  than  that  of  water  when  in  a  living  state.  The  Double  Cocoa- 
nut,  when  found  floating,  has  always  lost  its  vegetative  property.  The  living  nut  is  im- 
mensely heavy,  and  would  inevitably  sink. 

(2.)  Dry  and  burning  deserts.  These,  in  spite  of  their  oases,  which  have  been  happily 
assimilated  to  the  isles  of  the  ocean,  prove  a  powerful  obstacle  to  the  transport  of  seeds. 
Thus,  those  districts  of  Africa  which  are  separated  from  one  another  by  the  scorching  sands 
of  Saiiara  exhibit  a  great  dissimilarity  in  their  vegetation.  The  plants  of  Morocco  and  the 
nortliern  parts  of  Africa  have  little  resemblance  to  the  indigenous  growth  of  Senegal ;  whilst 
the  affinity  of  the  vegetables  brought  by  Caillaud  from  Upper  Egypt  to  those  collected  by 
Palisot  de  Beauvois  in  Oware  and  Benin  would  in  itself  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  no  very 
great  and  continued  deserts  intervene  between  these  far  distant  countries. 

(3.)  Mountain  ranges.  The  barriers  wliich  these  present  would  almost  be  insurmountable, 
were  it  not  for  the  defiles  wiiich  here  and  there  occur,  forming  passages  for  men  and  ani- 
mals, as  well  as  for  plants.  Thus,  the  plants  on  the  Italian  side  of  the  Alps  are  quite  differ- 
ent from  those  on  the  Switzerland  side ;  thcce  of  the  Spanish  Pyrenees  from  those  of  the 
French  Pyrenees;  and  it  was  a  subject  of  peculiar  regret  to  the  enterprising  Drummond, 
when  he  readied  the  summits  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  North  America,  that  his  commis- 
sion did  not  allow  him  to  penetrate  farther  into  the  western  side  of  that  great  continent, 
where  he  found,  every  step  he  took,  a  vegetation  very  different  from  what  had  been  presented 
to  him  by  the  eastern  side. 

A  knowledge  of  the  Natural  Orders  of  plants  is  in  no  department  of  botany  so  important 
as  in  treating  of  their  geographical  distribution.  The  system  of  Linnaeus,  or  the  Artificial 
Arrangement,  does  not,  as  we  know,  regard  the  habits  and  affinities  of  vegetables,  but  simply 
and  beautifully  points  out  to  us,  by  certain  characters,  the  means  of  arriving  at  the  know- 
ledge of  any  given  species.  The  natural  method,  which  owes  so  much  to  the  labours  of 
Jussieu,  Decandolle  and  Brown,  has  a  higher  object  in  view,  that  of  grouping  plants  together 
according  to  their  natural  affinities ;  and  by  such  an  arrangement  we  are  often  led  to  other 
and  very  important  results.  The  primary  divisions  of  the  Natural  Method  are,  first,  acoty- 
LEDO.NEs,  or  plants  which  have  no  cotyledons  to  the  seed :  these  are  synonymous  to  the 
Cryptogamia,  and  include  the  Mosses,  Lichens,  Sea-toeeds,  Fungi,  Ferns,  &c. ;  secondly, 
MON'ocoTYLEi/ONES ;  those  whose  seeds  have  one  cotyledon,  such  as  the  Grasses,  Liliaceous 
Plants,  the  Rushes,  Sedges,  the  Palms,  c^c. ;  and,  thirdly,  dicotyledones,  or  the  plants 
wliich  have  two  or  rarely  more  cotyledons  to  the  seed,  such  as  our  Shrubs  and  Trees,  and 
very  many  Herbaceous  Plants.  Each  of  these  possesses  external  characters  which,  though 
not  very  easily  defined  in  words,  yet  cannot  fail  to  strike  the  observer  who  devotes  his  atten- 
tion, even  for  a  little  while,  to  the  subject;  and  we  find  that,  in  a  great  proportion  of 
instances,  they  have  not  only  a  peculiar  station,  but  that  their  geographical  distribution  is 
different. 

The  AcoTYLEDONOus  plants  increase  in  number  in  proportion  to  the  other  great  classes,  as 
we  recede  from  the  equator  to  the  poles ;  with  the  exception,  however,  of  the  Ferns.  The 
latter  abound  more  within  the  tropics  than  anywhere  else:  not,  however,  so  much  in  open 
plains  as  in  the  sheltered,  moist,  and  hilly  countries;  so  that  their  maximum  is  in  the  moun- 
tainous part  of  the  tropics.  The  island  of  Martinique  afforded  to  the  Abbe  Plumier  a  rich 
and  abundant  harvest  of  ferns ;  and  some  isles  of  small  extent  are  said  to  have  one-third  of 
their  vegetation  composed  of  tliis  kind  of  plants. 

Among  the  monocotyledonous  Plants,  the  Palms  are  exclusively  confined  to  the  tropics  : 
the  Liliaceous  plants  abound  there  and  in  the  warm  zones;  the  three  families  of  Grasses, 
Sedges  (Cyperacese),  and  Rushes  (Junci),  present  some  important  differences  in  regard  to  a 
comparison  with  the  phaenogamous  or  flowering  plants.  The  disparity  between  these  latter 
and  the  grasses  is  not  great  in  each  of  the  zones ;  whilst  the  two  other  families,  the  Cype- 
racecB  and  Junci,  diminish  near  the  equator  and  increase  towards  the  north.  Nevertheless, 
tliere  are  exceptions  to  this  rule ;  for  the  grasses  are  very  rare  upon  the  coasts  of  Greenland. 
In  what  we  have  now  said,  we  allude  to  the  grasses,  &c.  in  a  wild  state ;  having  no  refer- 
ence to  those  regions  where  so  many  of  the  grass  tribe,  as  the  Wheat,  Barley,  Oat,  Maize, 
Rye,  Rice,  Sic,  are  found  simply  in  a  state  of  cultivation. 

The  dicotyledonous  plants  are  the  most  extensively  distributed,  and  we  must  offer  some 
further  remarks  upon  them.  The  Compound,  or  Syngenesious  plants  (Compositce),  as  every 
one  knows,  form  a  very  extensive  natural  family.  They  are  diflused  throughout  the  whole 
eartli,  but  they  are  most  abundant  in  the  temperate  and  tropical  climates.  Fewer,  however, 
of  tliem  are  found  in  the  warm  regions  of  equinoctial  America  than  in  the  sub-alpine  and 
temperate  districts  of  the  same  country.  At  the  Congo  and  Sierra  Leone  in  Africa,  in  the 
East  Indies  and  New  Holland,  they  e.xist  in  comparatively  smaller  numbers  than  in  other 
regions  situated  in  similar  parallels,  but  which  afford  situations  more  congenial  to  their 

Vol.  1.  2G 


250  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  Part  II. 

growth.  Again,  in  the  frozen  zone,  in  Kamtscliatka  and  Lapland,  the  relative  proportion  of 
plants  of  this  family  is  one-half  less  than  in  the  temperate  climates. 

The  Leguminous  plants  (to  which  the  Pea,  the  Bean,  &c.  belong-,  and  such  as  bear  papi- 
lionaceous flowers,)  abound  most  in  the  equinoctial  regions:  they  diminish  gradually  in  each 
heniispliere  in  diverging  from  the  equator,  except  indeed  in  certain  countries  where  particu- 
lar genera,  by  the  multiplicity  of  their  species,  give  a  peculiar  feature  to  the  vegetation,  as 
in  yiberia  and  the  vast  provinces  of  Russia,  where  so  many  Astragali  or  Bitter-vetches  are 
found. 

Mr.  Brown  has  judiciously  separated  the  natural  order  of  Rubiacece  into  two  groups : 
those  with  verticillate  leaves  and  no  stipules  (the  StellatcB  of  Linnaeus),  to  which  belong  the 
Goosegrass  (Galium),  Madder  (Rubia),  &c.,  and  which  are  almost  peculiar  to  the  temperate 
zones;  and  the  true  Rubiacea:,  with  opposite  pairs  of  leaves,  and  two  opposite  stipules 
(which  are  in  fact  abortive  leaves,  and  thus  show  their  affinity  with  the  Stellate;),  to  wliich 
helong  the  real  medicinal  barks  (or  Cinchona;),  and  some  otlier  nearly  related  plants  pos- 
sessing similar  virtues :  these  latter  are  almost  wholly  confined  to  the  equinoctial  regions. 

The  two  well-known  and  extensive  natural  families,  the  Umbellifemus  and  Cruciferous 
plants,  are  very  rare  in  the  tropics,  if  we  except  the  mountains.  They  abound  in  the  soutia 
of  Europe,  and  especially  about  the  valley  or  basin  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Sect.  IV. —  View  of  Botanical  Regions. 

To  divide  the  globe  into  botanical  regions  or  districts  will  not  be  difficult,  seeing  that  cer- 
tain countries  possess  a  peculiar  vegetation,  and  that  numerous  impediments  prevent  emi- 
gration ;  seeing,  too,  that  certain  forms  or  tribes  are  incompatible  with  certain  climates. 
M.  De  Candolle  has  constituted  twenty  of  those  regions  ;  but  although  each  is,  to  a  certain 
degree,  peculiar  in  its  vegetable  productions,  it  would  require  more  space  than  we  ran  devote 
to  such  a  subject  to  characterise  them.  We  must,  therefore,  content  ourselves  with  giving 
a  bare  list.  1.  Hyperborean  region.  This  district  includes  the  northern  extremity  of  Asia, 
Europe,  and  America ;  and  gradually  merges  into  the  following.  2.  European  region  ; 
comprising  all  Europe,  except  the  part  bordering  upon  the  pole,  and  the  southern  districts 
approaching  the  Mediterranean.  To  the  east  it  extends  to  the  Altaic  mountains.  3.  Sibe- 
rian  region,  comprehending  the  great  plains  of  Siberia  and  Tartary.  4.  Mediterranean 
region ;  comprising  all  the  basin  of  this  great  inland  sea ;  that  is,  Africa  on  this  side  the 
Sahara,  and  that  part  of  Europe  which  is  sheltered  from  the  north  by  a  more  or  less  conti- 
nued range  of  mountains.  5.  Oriental  region  ;  thus  called  relatively  to  southern  Europe, 
and  containing  the  coimtries  bordering  upon  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas.  6.  India,  with 
its  archipelago.  7.  China,  Cochinchina,  and  Japan.  8.  New  Holland.  9.  The  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  or  southern  extremity  of  Africa,  beyond  the  tropics.  10.  Abyssinia,  Nubia,  and 
the  Mozambique  Coast  (imperfectly  known).  11.  Equinoctial  Africa ;  viz.  the  neighbour- 
liood  of  the  Congo,  the  Senegal,  and  Niger.  12.  The  Canary  Isles.  13.  The  United 
Slates  of  North  America.  14.  The  Western  and  Temperate  Coasts  of  North  America. 
15.  The  West  Indian  Isles.  16.  Mexico.  17.  Tropical  South  America.  18.  Chili.  19. 
Southern  Brazil  and  Buenos  Ayres.     20.  The  Straits  of  Magellan. 

Many  of  the  productions  of  these  regions  will  be  considered  somewhat  at  large  in  other 
parts  of  this  work;  and  we  shall  conclude  our  introductory  sketch  of  Botanical  Geograpliy 
by  a  notice  of  Professor  Schouw's  Phyto-Geographics  or  General  Botanical  Division  of  the 
Globe.  This  is  illustrated  by  a  map,  which  accompanies  tliis  memoir.  Unlike  M.  De  Can- 
dolle, Professor  Schouw  characterises  the  regions  by  the  most  remarkable  feature  of  tlieir 
vegetation,  adopting  commonly  used  geographical  terms  only  where  he  conceives  that  a  cer- 
tain division  of  the  earth  ought  to  constitute  a  distinct  region,  but  is  not  sufficiently  acquainted 
with  its  productions  to  determine  and  define  their  forms.  He  makes  the  characteristic  fea- 
ture of  his  regions  to  depend  on  these  facts :  first,  that  at  least  one-half  of  tlie  species  should 
be  peculiar  to  that  region ;  secondly,  that  at  least  a  quarter  of  the  genera  should  belong 
exclusively  to  it,  or  at  least  have  there  a  decided  maxinuim,  so  that  their  species  in  other 
districts  might  merely  be  considered  as  their  representatives;  and,  thirdly,  that  individual 
families  of  plants  be  either  peculiar  to  the  region,  or  else  have  their  maxima  there ;  never- 
theless, when  this  last  characteristic  is  wanting,  while  the  difference  in  genera  and  species 
is  very  considerable,  it  may  yet  be  admitted  as  a  region. 

Professor  Schouw  in  this  manner  reckons  twenty-two  regions : — 

(1.)  Region  of  Saxifrages  and  Mosses,  or  the  Alpine  Arctic  Flora. — This  corresjwnds 
with  De  Candolle's  first  region,  and  comprehends  all  tlie  countries  within  the  polar  circle ; 
namely,  Lapland,  the  north  part  of  Russia  and  Siberia,  Kamtschatka,  Russian  America,  part 
of  British  America,  Greenland,  and  Iceland ;  but  Professor  Schouw  adds  to  it,  with  nmch 
propriety,  part  of  the  Scottish  and  Scandinavian  mountains,  as  far  as  they  fall  within  the 
alpine  region,  as  also  the  mountains  in  the  southern  and  central  parts  of  Europe,  Inasmuch 
us  they  are  related  to  the  alpine  regions.  It  is  characterised  by  the  abundance  of  mosses 
and  lichens,  the  presence  of  the  Saxifrages,  Gentians,  Chickweed  tribe  (Alsinea^),  Sedges, 
and  Willows ;  an  entire  absence  of  tropical  families ;  a  considerable  decrease  of  tlie  peculiar 


Book  III.  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY.  251 

forms  of  the  temperate  zone;  by  the  forests  of  beech  at  fir,  or  else  the  total  want  of  trees; 
the  scarcity  of  animals,  and  the  prevalence  of  csespitose  plants,  whose  blossoms  are  large  in 
proportion,  and  g-enerally  of  a  pale  colour. 

(2.)  Region  of  the  Umbelliferous  and  Cruciferous  plants. — This  tribe  takes  in  the  whole 
of  Europe,  except  what  belongs  to  the  preceding  division,  from  the  Pyrenees,  tiie  mountains 
of  the  south  of  France,  of  Switzerland,  and  the  north  of  Greece,  the  greater  part  of  Siberia, 
and  tlie  country  about  Mount  Caucasus.  Schouw  has  characterized  it  by  the  cruciferous 
and  umbelliferous  plants,  because  they  form  a  larger  portion  of  the  total  number  than  any 
other  kinds,  and  because  it  may  thus  be  best  separated  from  the  vegetation  of  North  America 
in  tlie  same  parallel.  It  is  not  easily  distinguished  from  the  next  region ;  but  it  may  be  said 
of  it,  that  Fungi  abound  more,  that  the  Rosaceous  family  and  the  Crowfoots  (Ranunculacese), 
the  Amentaceous  and  Coniferous  tribes  (Pines),  form  rather  a  large  proportion  ;  that  it  bears 
a  resemblance  to  many  of  the  polar  forms,  especially  in  the  abundance  of  its  Sedges  (Cype- 
raceie) ;  that  its  meadows  are  most  flourishing,  and  that  almost  all  the  trees  are  deciduous  in 
winter.  In  tlie  northern  part  of  this  region,  the  Cichoracece  (a  tribe  of  the  Compositse  or 
syngenesious  plants,  including  the  Endive,  Lettuce,  Dandelion,  &c.)  much  prevail ;  while 
in  its  southern  division,  or  in  northern  Asia,  the  CynarocephalcB  (Artichoke  and  Thistle 
tribes),  together  with  the  Butter-vetches  (Astragali),  and  Saline  plants  (Sea-worts  and  Glass- 
worts),  seem  to  have  their  maximum. 

(3.)  Region  of  the  Labiate  fiowers  and  Caryophyllea  (to  which  the  Pink,  the  Catchfly, 
the  Sandtoorts,  &c.  belong)  ;  or  the  Mediterranean  Flora. — This  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  Pyrenees,  the  Alps  of  Switzerland  and  of  the  south  of  France,  and  the  north  of  Greece, 
and  thus  includes  the  three  peninsulas  of  southern  Europe,  namely,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Greece ; 
on  the  east  by  Asia  Minor  and  its  islands ;  on  the  south  it  takes  in  Egypt  and  all  the  north 
of  Africa  as  far  as  the  deserts;  and,  lastly,  it  includes  the  Canary  Islands,  Madeira,  and  the 
Azores.  It  is  marked  especially  by  the  two  families  above  mentioned,  which  are  much  rarer 
both  to  the  north  and  south  of  the  countries  just  enumerated,  and  in  the  corresponding 
parallels  in  North  America.  The  Compositte,  the  Stellatce  (Goosegrass,  Madder,  &c.),  and 
the  rough-leaved  plants  {Asperifolia;),  are  here  in  considerable  numbers,  as  well  as  in  the 
similar  latitudes.  A  few  tropical  plants,  or  individuals  allied  to  them,  now  appear;  one  or 
two  Palms,  the  Laurels,  the  Aru7n  tribe,  the  Terebinthacecs  (Pistacia,  &c.),  some  tropical 
grasses  and  true  Cyperaceoi.  .  Nightshades  (Solanese),  Leguminous  plants,  the  Mallow  and 
Nettle  tribes,  and  the  Spurges  (Euphorbiacese),  increase ;  Evergreens  are  numerous ;  vege- 
tation never  entirely  ceases,  but  verdant  meadows  are  more  rare.  This  region  may  be  sub- 
divided into  provinces:  of  the  Cisti,  Spain  and  Portugal;  of  the  Sage  and  Scabious,  the 
south  of  France,  Italy,  and  Sicily;  of  the  shrubby  Labiatce,  the  Levant,  Greece,  Asia  Minor, 
and  the  southern  part  of  the  Caucasian  country ;  and  of  Houseleeks  (Semperviva),  the  Canary 
Isles,  probably  also  the  Azores,  Madeira,  and  the  north-west  coast  of  Africa.  Many  Sem- 
pervivcE,  some  succulent  plants.  Spurges  and  Cacalice,  cliaracterise  especially  this  province. 

(4.)  The  Japanese  region. — The  eastern  temperate  part  of  the  old  continent,  namely, 
Japan,  the  north  of  China,  and  Cliinese  Tartary,  probably  forms  a  peculiar  region ;  but  we  are 
too  little  acquainted  with  the  botany  of  these  countries  to  admit  it  with  certainty,  and  still 
less  arc  we  able  to  define  correctly  the  characteristics  of  its  Flora.  Of  the  358  genera  found 
in  Japan,  270  occur  in  Europe  and  the  north  of  Africa,  and  about  the  same  number  in  North 
America ;  so  that  its  Flora  seems  to  occupy  a  middle  place  between  those  of  the  old  and  new 
worlds.  Its  vegetation,  indeed,  approaches  more  to  the  tropical  than  to  the  European ;  for 
we  meet  with  tlie  Cycas  family,  the  Scitamineai  (to  wiiicli  belong  the  Ginger,  Cardamom, 
&c.),  the  Bananas,  the  Palms,  the  Anonoi  or  Custard-apples,  and  the  Sapindaceee ;  so  that 
there  is  a  considerable  affinity,  as  miglit  be  expected  from  its  situation,  to  the  flora  of  India. 
The  families  of  the  Buckthorns  (RJiamni)  and  Honeysuckles  are  found  in  a  relatively  con- 
siderable number,  and  they  exhibit  some  peculiar  genera ;  thus,  perhaps,  this  region  might 
be  correctly  termed  that  of  the  Rhamni  and  the  Caprifoliacea. 

(5.)  Region  of  the  Asters  and  Solidagos  (Michaelmas-daisies  and  golden-rods.) — The 
eastern  part  of  North  America,  with  tlie  exception  of  such  as  belongs  to  the  first  or  arctic 
district,  comprehends  without  doubt  two  regions;  for  amongst  417  genera  in  Walter's  Flora 
of  Carolina,  117  are  wanting  in  Barton's  Flora  of  Philadelphia.  The  northern  divisions  of 
the  United  States  have,  indeed,  but  few  genera  which  do  not  occur  also  in  the  southern  ;  but 
this  only  shows  that  a  sunilar  relation  exists  here  to  what  takes  place  between  the  north  and 
south  of  Europe.  The  southern  region  will  include  Florida,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi, 
Louisiana,  and  Carolina;  the  northern  contains  the  other  states  of  North  America.  What 
characterises  this  region  is  (besides  the  number  of  species  of  the  genera  Aster  and  SoUdago), 
the  great  variety  of  Oaks  and  Firs ;  the  very  few  Cruciferce  and  UmbellifercB,  Cichnracece 
and  CynarocephalcB ;  the  total  absence  of  the  genus  Erica,  and  the  presence  of  more  nume- 
rous species  of  the  allied  family  of  Vaccinium  (Whortleberries)  than  are  to  be  met  with  in 
Europe. 

(6.)  Region  of  Magnolia;. — This,  wliicli  comprises  the  southern  parts  of  North  America, 
is  separated  from  the  preceding  region  by  the  number  of  tropical  forms  which  here  appear. 


252  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  Part  II. 

and  which  show  themselves  more  frequently  than  on  the  similarparallclsof  theold  continent 
(such,  for  instance,  as  the  ScilaminetB,  Cycadece,  Ano7iacecc,  Sapindacefc,  Melustomea, 
Cacti,  &c.)  From  the  old  world,  too,  in  corresponding  latitudes,  it  is  still  further  distin- 
guished by  a  smaller  proportion  of  Labiatce  and  Caryophyllece. ;  and  by  having  more  trees  of 
broad-shining  foliage  and  splendid  blossoms,  (the  Magnolias,  the  Tulip-lrce,  the  Horse- 
chestnut,  6i.c.)  and  with  pinnated  leaves  (the  (ileditschicc,  Robinice,  Acacice,  &c.) 

(7.)  Region  of  the  Cacti,  Peppers,  and  Melastomas ;  a  very  extensive  region,  including 
the  lower  districts  of  Mexico,  Guatemala,  the  West  Indies,  New  Grenada,  Venezuela, 
Guiana,  and  Peru,  perhaps  also,  a  part  of  Brazil ;  in  short,  all  intertropical  America.  The 
three  families  here  mentioned  appear  peculiarly  to  characterise  these  countries ;  for  the  first 
belongs  exclusively  to  America,  and  of  the  other  two  there  exist  comparatively  few  species 
out  of  these  districts.  Palms,  the  Rubiacece,  the  Hnlanecc,  (in  which  are  classed  the  Sight- 
shades  and  Potatoe),  the  rough-leaved  plants  (Boraginero),  the  Passion-Jlowers  and  Comj)0- 
sitce,  are  here  very  common.  It  may  admit  of  several  provinces,  as  that  of  the  Ferns  and 
Orchidea  (in  the  West  India  islands) ;  of  the  Palms  (the  continent  of  South  America.) 
Brazil  ought  certainly  to  constitute  a  peculiar  province,  if  indeed  it  be  not  a  distinct  region ; 
and  the  works  of  Spix  and  Martins,  St.  Hilaire,  the  Prince  de  Neuwied,  &c.,  will  soon  enable 
us  to  characterise  its  vegetable  forms.  The  Melastoma  and  Palms  appear  to  belong  to  the 
more  numerous  inmates  of  this  region. 

(8.)  Region  of  the  Cinchoncs  (or  Medicinal  Barks.) — It  appears  from  Humboldt's  works 
that  the  middle  districts  (such  at  least  in  respect  to  their  altitude)  of  South  America  should 
form  a  distinct  region  from  that  last  mentioned,  as  they  diifer  considerably  from  the  low 
lands ;  and  the  name  now  proposed  seems  to  be  characteristic  of  their  vegetation,  at  least  of 
Peru  and  New  Grenada,  though  certainly  not  of  Mexico,  where  the  species  of  Cinchona  are 
w'anting. 

(9.)  Region  of  Escallonice,  Vaccinia  (Whortleberries),  and  Winterce  (Winter's  Barks). 
— These,  according  to  Humboldt,  occupy  the  highest  parts  of  South  America.  Besides  the 
plants  mentioned,  there  belong  to  this  region  many  species  of  Lobelia,  Gentian,  Slipprr- 
ivort  {Calceolaria),  Sage,  several  European  genera  of  Grasses,  Brome,  Festuca  and  Poa, 
the  Cichoracecs,  as  Hypochceris  and  Apargia;  as  well  as  the  more  strictly  speaking  alpine 
plants  (Saxifrages,  Whitlow-grasses,  Sandworts,  and  Sedges.)  Perhaps  also  tliose  parts 
of  the  high  lands  where  the  species  of  Oak  and  Fir  flourish  belong  to  the  same  region,  though 
in  all  probability  they  constitute  a  peculiar  province. 

(10.)  Chilian  region. — It  appears  that  Chili  should  form  a  distinct  region ;  for  amongst 
the  genera  which  appear  there,  not  one  half  are  found  in  the  low  districts  of  South  America. 
Its  character,  perhaps,  most  resembles  that  of  the  mountainous  country  in  its  Slippericorts, 
EscullonicB,  WeimnannicE,  Bcsa,  Bellflowers,  and  Buddlecc ;  but  yet  the  difference  is 
scarcely  sufficient  to  constitute  it  a  province.  The  Flora  of  this  country  appears  to  be  essen- 
tially distinct  from  that  of  New  Holland,  the  Cape,  and  New  Zealand;  though  an  approach 
to  them  is  observable  in  Goodenia,  Araucaria  (Chilian  pine,)  the  Protea  family,  Gunnera, 
and  Ancistrum. 

(11.)  Region  of  arborescent  Compositce  (syngenesious  plants  with  tree-like  stems.) — 
This  takes  in  Buenos  Ayres,  and  in  general  the  eastern  side  of  the  temperate  part  of  South 
America.  It  has  been  already  remarked,  that  the  Flora  of  this  district  of  the  world  agrees 
to  a  considerable  degree  with  that  of  Europe  ;  amongst  109  genera,  70  are  likewise  European, 
and  85  in  the  north  temperate  zone.  On  the  other  hand,  it  differs  considerably  from  the 
Floras  of  the  Cape  and  of  New  Holland,  for  the  Proteas,  the  Myrtle  tribe,  and  the  Mimosas 
are  either  wholly  wanting,  or  are  seen  but  sparingly ;  and  there  are  no  Epacridcp,  Heaths, 
IridccB,  Mesemhryanthema,  or  Geraniums.  Nor  can  it  be  compared  with  the  Flora  of  the 
north-west  coast  of  America  ;  for  amongst  189  genera  mentioned,  only  35  are  found  in  Chili. 
The  characteristics  of  this  region  seem  to  lie  in  the  great  number  of  Arborescent  Syngenesia;, 
(particularly  of  the  sub-family  Boopidea:),  which,  however,  do  not  exclusively  appertain  to 
it,  but  are  also  seen  at  the  Cape. 

(12.)  Antarctic  region. — This  includes  the  countries  near  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  There 
is  a  considerable  affinity  between  the  vegetation  here  and  what  is  seen  in  the  north  temperate 
zone ;  for,  amongst  82  known  genera  from  thence,  there  are  59  of  them  which  have  species 
in  the  northern  hemisphere.  The  arctic  polar  forms  also  appear,  such  as  Sedges  (Carices), 
Saxifrages,  Gentians,  Arbutus,  and  Primroses.  Some  resemblance  to  the  highlands  of 
South  America  and  to  Chili  is  also  shown  in  the  Slippcrworts,  Ourisia,  Bcea,  Bolax,  Win- 
tera,  Escallonia ;  to  the  Cape,  in  the  genera  Gladiolus,  Witsenia,  Gunnera,  Ancistrum, 
Oxalis ;  and  to  New  Holland,  in  Proteacea  and  Mniarum, 

(13.)  Region  of  Neiv  Zealand. — This  well  deserves  to  be  characterised  as  a  separate 
region,  although  its  vegetation  be  a  mixture  of  what  prevails  on  the  nearest  continents,  as 
South  America,  Southern  Africa,  and  New  Holland.  It  has,  in  common  with  South  Ame- 
rica, Ancistrum,  Weinmannia,  VVintera  ;  with  Southern  Africa,  the  Fig  Marigolds,  Gna- 
phalium  Xeranthema  (Everlastings),  Tctragonia  (the  famous  New  Zealand  Spinach),  Wood- 
eorrel,  and  Passerina ;  and  with  New  Holland,  the  Epacris,  Melaleuca,  Myoporum ;  with 


Book  IH.  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY.  253 

both  the  latter,  the  families  of  Proteacea  and  ResliacecE :  some  species  also  are  common 
both  to  New  Holland  and  Van  Diemen's  land,  for  instance  Mniarum  biflorum,  Samolus  lit- 
ioralis,  Gentiana  montana ;  the  first  also  a  native  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan. 

(14.)  Region  of  Epacrides  and  Eucalypti:  comprehending  the  temperate  parts  of  New 
Holland,  together  with  Van  Diemen's  Land. — This  region  is  very  marked.  The  families  of 
Starkhousea:  and  Tremandrea:  are  quite  peculiar  to  New  Holland,  the  Epacridece  nearly  so. 
ProteacccB,  Acacice,  Aphyllcc,  and  thegreater  number  of  tlie  Myr-<Ze  family  (especially  of  the 
genera  Eucalyptus,  Leplospermum,  IMelaleuca) :  the  StylidecB,  Restiacice,  CasuarinecB, 
Diosmeaz,  separate  it  from  other  regions.  The  tropical  part  of  New  Holland,  according  to 
Brown,  can  hardly  be  united  to  this,  but  must  be  either  a  particular  region,  whose  Flora 
resembles  that  of  India,  or  else  a  province  of  this  latter  region. 

(15.)  Region  of  Eig-Marigolds  (Mesembryanthema)  and  Stapelias. — This  comprehends 
the  souruern  e.xtremity  of  Africa,  the  Flora  of  whicli  is  distinguished  by  a  high  degree  of 
peculiarity.  By  the  families  ProteacecB,  RestiacecB,  PolygalcB  (Milkworts),  Diosmecc,  it  may 
be  recognised  from  most  others,  except  New  Holland,  and  from  this  it  is  distinguished  by  the 
two  numerous  genera  Mesernbryanthemiim  and  Stapelia,  and  by  the  family  JEriceee,  which 
is  here  more  abundant  than  anywhere  else.  Further  characteristics  of  this  region  may  be 
found  in  tiie  many  Iridecn,  GeranicE,  Oxalideo',  and  the  extremely  large  proportion  of  Com- 
positcc.  On  the  other  hand,  there  exist  in  this  district,  as  in  New  Holland,  but  very  sparingly, 
those  peculiar  forms  of  the  northern  temperate  zones,  the  Criiciferce,  Ranunculacecc,  Rosa^ 
ce(r,  UmbcllifercE,  CaryophylletB. 

(16.)  Region  of  Western  Africa. — We  are  only  acquainted  with  Guinea  and  Congo,  the 
vegetation  of  which,  as  we  have  already  remarked,  possesses  but  few  peculiarities,  and  is  a 
mixture  of  the  Floras  of  Asia  and  America,  though  most  resembling  the  former.  The  Ame- 
rican tropical  families  of  Cacti,  Peppers,  Palms,  Passion-flowers,  are  either  absent  entirely, 
or  tliey  occur  in  small  numbers.  Legiiminosoi  are  more  numerous  than  in  America.  Above 
two  thirds  of  the  genera  and  some  of  the  species  of  Guinea  are  found  also  in  the  East 
Indies.  On  the  other  hand,  this  region  approximates  to  America,  in  possessing  many  Ru- 
biacecE,  as  also  in  the  genera  Schwenkia,  Elais  (a  palm),  Paullinia,  Malpighia,  and  several 
more  whicli  are  wanting  in  Asia,  and  in  several  species  which  it  has  in  common  with  Ame- 
rica. A  considerable  proportion  of  Grasses  and  Sedges  (Cyperacefe),  with  the  peculiar  genus 
Adansonia  (the  Baobab,  wliich  is  the  largest  known  tree  in  the  world),  belong  to  the  char- 
acteristics of  this  country.     Tlie  interior  of  Africa  is  unknown  to  us. 

(17.)  Region  of  Eastern  Africa. — Of  the  coast  of  this  side  of  Africa  and  the  adjacent 
islands  our  knowledge  is  imperfect.  We  are  tolerably  acquainted  with  the  islands  of  Bour- 
bon and  France ;  of  Madagascar  we  know  but  little ;  and  of  the  east  coast  itself  scarcely 
any  tiling.  The  Flora  of  the  two  first-named  islands  has  a  considerable  resemblance  to  that- 
of  India.  Amongst  290  known  genera,  196  of  them  (equal  to  two  thirds)  are  found  also  in 
India;  and  of  the  species,  not  a  few  are  likewise  Indian;  many  of  these,  however,  may  have 
been  introduced  by  the  constant  intercourse  that  takes  place  between  these  two  parts  of  the 
globe.  The  genera  Eugenia,  Ficus  (fig),  Urtica  (nettle).  Euphorbia  (spurge),  Hedysarum, 
Panicum,  Andropogon,  Sida,  Pandanus  (screw-pine),  Draccena  (dragon-wood),  Conyza 
are  very  numerous  in  species,  as  are  the  same  genera  in  India.  In  ferns,  these  islands  are 
peculiarly  rich.  Again,  their  flora  differs  considerably  from  tlie  South  African ;  an  analogy 
existing,  however,  in  their  possessing  single  representatives  of  the  Cape  genera  Erica,  Ixia, 
Gladiolus,  Bleria,  Mesembryanthemum,  Seriphium,  and  several  arborescent  Syngenesicc. 
Still  less  is  the  affinity  to  the  extra-tropical  parts  of  New  Holland.  The  similarity  is 
stronger  to  the  tropical  portion  of  that  country,  of  which  the  flora  also  approaches  that  of 
India.  Single  genera  are  all  that  it  seems  to  possess  in  common  with  America;  for  instance, 
Melicocca,  Ruizia,  Dodoncpa,  Dichondra.  The  following  are,  perhaps,  peculiar  to  this 
region,  Latania,  Hubertia,  Poupartia,  Tristernma,  FissiUa,  Cordylina,  Assonia,  Fernalia, 
Lubinia,  and  others.  The  flora  of  Madagascar  seems  very  peculiar.  It  agrees  with  the 
islands  last  mentioned ;  and  several  genera  are  seen  nowhere  else  than  in  them  and  Mada- 
gascar ;  for  example,  Danais,  Ambora,  Dombeya,  Dufourea,  Didymomeles,  Senacea ;  several 
species  also  are  common  to  both ;  as  Didipnomelcs  Madagascariensis,  Danais  fragrans. 
Cinchona  Afro-inda.  Still,  among  tlie  161  known  genera  from  Madagascar,  54  only  are 
found  in  the  Isles  of  France  and  Bourbon ;  so  that  there  miglit  be  good  grounds  for  forming 
a  separate  region  of  the  first ;  unless,  perhaps,  the  east  coast  of  Africa  should  come  under 
tlie  same.  With  New  Holland  and  the  Cape,  Madagascar  has  probably  still  less  in  common 
than  the  two  other  islands. 

(IR.)  Scitaminean  region  (of  the  Turmeric,  Zedoary,  Cardamom,  Indian-shot,  Szc.\  or 
the  Indian  Flora. — To  this  appertain  India,  east  and  west  of  tlie  Ganges,  together  witli  the 
islands  between  India  and  New  Holland ;  perhaps,  also,  that  division  of  New  Holland  which 
falls  within  the  tropics.  The  Scitaminece  are  here  in  far  greater  numbers  than  in  America; 
also,  though  to  a  less  degree,  the  Legu?ninos(P,  Cucurbit aceo',  Tiliacea.  The  previously 
mentioned  South  American  forms  are  rare,  or  else  wanting.  This  region  should  be  separated 
Vol.  I.  22 


254  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  Part  II. 

into  several  provinces;  but  as  yet  we  know  too  little  to  undertake  such  a  division  with  any 
degree  of  certainty. 

(19.)  The  Indian  highlands  ought  to  form  one  or  perhaps  two  regions,  their  vegetation 
being  very  dissimilar  to  that  of  the  lowlands:  in  the  middle  region,  MelastomcE,  Orchidecc, 
and  Filices,  appear  to  prevail ;  in  the  higher,  tlie  vegetation  is  more  like  the  European  and 
North  Asiatic,  and  probably  the  Japanese  :  these  districts  perhaps  constitute  one  region  with 
the  wliole  of  Central  Asia;  but  of  all  these  countries  we  sliall  know  much  more  when  the 
Flora  of  India  by  Roxburgh  and  Wallich  is  completed. 

(20.)  The  Flora  of  the  South  of  China  and  of  Cochinchina  partly  resembles  that  of  India, 
especially  in  regard  to  families  ;  but  still  Loureiro's  Flora  contains  a  great  many  peculiar 
genera.  It  is  true  that  perhaps  the  number  of  tliese  genera  might  be  reduced;  but  even 
then,  the  vegetation  of  tliis  tract  will  probably  prove  sufficiently  peculiar  to  constitute  a 
distinct  region. 

(21.)  The  region  of  the  CassicB  and  Miinosce,  which  prevail  particularly  in  Arabia  and 
Persia,  seems  likewise  to  liave  a  good  right  to  be  separated  from  India,  as  it  is  already 
sufficiently  distinct  from  the  Mediterranean  region  (No.  3.) ;  for,  of  281  genera  mentioned 
by  Forskiil,  109  only  are  found  in  the  south  of  Europe.  It  is  more  probable  that  the  Flora 
of  Nubia  and  part  of  Central  Africa  appertains  to  this  region.  Abyssinia  perhaps  forms  a 
distinct  region,  its  elevated  parts  possessing  such  a  different  climate. 

(22.)  The  islands  in  the  South  Sea  which  lie  within  the  tropics  form  perhaps  a  separate 
region ;  though  with  but  a  slender  degree  of  peculiarity.  Among  214  genera,  173  are 
found  in  India ;  most  of  the  remainder  are  in  common  with  America ;  for  instance,  Chio- 
cocca,  Weinmannia.  Guajacum.  Of  the  species  which  exist  equally  in  tiiem  and  Asia,  are 
Zapania  nodiflora,  Kyllingia  monoccphala,  Fimhristylis  dichotoma,  Tournefortia  argentea, 
Plumbago  zetjlanica,  Morinda  umbellata,  Sophora  tomentosa.  In  common  with  America, 
Dodoncea  viscosa,  Sapindus  saponaria  (soap-berry) :  with  both  Rhizophora  Mangle  (man- 
grove tree) :  it  has  also  some  in  common  with  New  Holland,  as  Daphne  indica  (a  species 
of  Spurge  Laurel).  Peculiar  families,  or  such  as  have  there  a  decided  maximum,  can 
scarcely  be  cited ;  though,  on  the  other  hand,  most  of  the  species  are  peculiar.  The  Bread- 
fruit is  among  the  characteristics  of  these  islands ;  though  this  tree  is  not  confined  to  the 
Sou  til  Seas. 

The  limit  of  the  present  essay  does  not  allow  of  the  intended  introduction  of  the  geo- 
grapliical  situation  of  many  of  the  more  useful  and  important  plants,  which  Professor  Schouw 
has  so  ably  delineated  ;  such  as  that  of  the  Beech,  the  Vine,  the  Fir  tribes,  the  Heaths, 
Corn,  and  such  fruits  or  vegetables  as  are  employed  as  bread :  the  Palms,  the  Proteaca, 
which  form  so  remarkably  striking  a  feature  in  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  in  New  Holland ; 
the  Composite,  which  are  perhaps  more  universally  diffused  than  any  other  kind  of  plant; 
the  Crucifer<E,  to  which  the  Cabbage,  Turnip,  Mustard,  Scurvy-grass,  &.c.  appertain; 
and  the  leguminous  tribes,  whose  seeds  (as  the  Pea  and  Bean)  are  so  valuable  for  man, 
and  whose  foliage,  as  the  Lupine  and  Trefoil,  &c.  affords  most  of  the  nourishment  to  cattle. 
We  must  endeavour  to  incorporate  these  with  the  vegetation  of  the  various  regions  where 
they  are  found  in  the  greatest  abundance. 


CHAPTER  II. 

GEOGRAPHY  CONSIDERED  IN  RELATION  TO  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  MAN  AND  ANIMALS. 

The  gcograpliic  distribution  of  animated  beings  is  a  brancli  of  natural  history  which  only 
of  late  years  has  engaged  the  attention  of  philosophers.  The  celebrated  Blumenbach  was 
the  first,  we  believe,  who  generalized  the  numerous  facts  connected  with  the  physiology  of 
man,  and  proved  that  all  the  varieties  may  be  referred  to  certain  types  of  form,  equally 
distinct  in  their  physical  structure  and  in  their  geographic  distribution.  But  whether  from 
prejudice,  or  from  the  varied  and  comprehensive  sphere  of  zoology,  which  renders  the  subject 
too  vast  for  the  power  of  any  one  mind,  certain  it  is  that  animal  geography  has  been  almost 
neglected.  Isolated  details,  relative  to  particular  countries,  classes,  or  families,  have  been  suc- 
cessfully investigated ;  but  no  one  has  yet  attempted  to  generalize  these  materials,  and  use  them 
towards  the  discovery  of  the  laws  of  creation.  An  attempt  to  ascertain  the  range  of  par- 
ticular species  simply  within  a  certain  district  or  kingdom,  is  merely  an  inquiry  into  their 
local  distribution ;  but  if  our  views  are  extended  beyond  such  confines,  and  we  embrace  a 
large  portion  of  the  globe,  tracing  the  relations  of  its  animals,  with  those  of  the  remaining 
portions,  it  is  then  only  that  we  enter  upon  the  comprehensive  subject  of  geographic  dis- 
tribution. 

The  inquiries  relative  to  physical  distribution,  when  directed  to  the  animal  world,  assume 
a  higher  importance  than  those,  however  interesting,  which  regard  plants:  for  not  only  do 
animals  appear  incalculably  more  numerous  than  vegetables,  but  their  natural  range,  depen- 
dent on  a  multiplicity  of  concurrent  causes,  appears  to  be  much  more  distinctly  marked. 


Book  III.  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN.  ^55 

Plants,  indeed,  in  a  great  degree,  are  stationary  beings ;  but  nature  has  wisely  providec  for 
their  removal  and  dispersion  to  the  most  distant  regions,  by  the  diversified  structure  or  tena- 
cious vitality  with  which  the  seeds  of  numerous  families  are  endowed;  hence  they  become 
transported  by  various  natural  causes  to  distant  shores,  and,  without  any  assistance  from 
human  aid,  take  root,  flourish,  and  increase,  in  lands  far  distant  from  those  which  appear  to 
have  been  tlieir  native  regions.  It  is  otherwise  with  animals :  they  may,  it  is  true,  be 
removed  from  their  birth-place,  and  even  become  domesticated  and  naturalized  elsewhere ; 
but,  with  the  exception  of  those  which  seem  to  have  been  originally  destined  for  the  service 
of  man,  such  naturalization  is  only  effected  by  artificial  means,  and  by  slow  degrees,  through 
several  generations.  If  such  transported  animals  be  left  to  tliemselves,  or  rather  to  the 
natural  resources  for  supporting  life  peculiar  to  their  new  abode,  they  almost  invariably  pine 
and  die.  Again,  plants,  from  being  inferior  to  animals  in  the  complexity  of  their  structure, 
are,  perhaps,  necessarily  dependent  on  fewer  causes  for  retaining  the  vital  energy ;  their 
dispersion  is,  consequently,  upon  the  whole,  much  more  extensive.  It  may  be  mentioned, 
in  support  of  this  remark,  that  out  of  600  plants  discovered  in  tropical  Africa  by  Professor 
Smith,  one-twelfth  have  been  ascertained,  by  Robert  Brown,  to  be  natives  also  of  India  and 
South  America.  Now,  if  either  the  vertebrated  or  invertebrated  animals,  not  aquatic,  of 
Western  Africa,  were  compared  in  a  similar  way  with  those  of  the  parallel  latitudes  in 
America  and  India,  the  proportion  collectively  would  hardly  amount  to  one  in  a  hundred : 
indeed,  with  regard  to  the  vertebrated  orders,  it  is  very  questionable  whether  even  one  spe- 
cies is  truly  indigenous  to  tropical  Africa  and  to  America;  so  totally  different  are  the  zoolo- 
gical features  of  these  continents,  even  at  their  nearest  approximation :  and  yet,  in  the 
above  number  of  plants,  no  less  than  twenty-tv/o  species  are  enumerated,  as  common  to  equi- 
noctial Africa,  India,  and  America.  These  facts,  while  they  strengthen  the  belief  that 
zoology  is  a  more  favourable  field  than  botany  for  discovering  the  laws  of  natural  distribu- 
tion, lead  us  to  consider  the  modes  by  which  such  inquii'ies  are  most  beneficially  prosecuted. 

Sect.  I. — Modes  of  investigating  the  Subject. 

The  powerful  effect  produced  on  animals  by  temperature,  food,  and  locality,  are  known  to 
all :  whether  as  regards  the  range  of  any  particular  species,  or  the  numbers  of  which  it  may 
be  composed.  The  effect  of  these  agencies  is  indeed  so  great,  that  some  writers  have  looked 
upon  them  as  primary  causes,  and  have  imagined  that  by  such  laws  alone  has  nature  regu- 
lated the  distribution  of  the  whole  animal  creation.  Very  many  instances,  no  doubt,  from 
among  the  diversities  of  animal  structure,  may  be  urged  in  support  of  this  theory ;  but  how 
far  it  can  be  reconciled  with  other  and  more  general  facts,  which  will  be  apparent  on  a 
wider  view  of  the  subject,  we  shall  hereafter  investigate.  It  is  clear  that,  by  whatever 
laws  Nature  may  have  been  guided,  numerous  exceptions  will  be  found,  proportionate  to  the 
vast  and  almost  infinite  variety  she  has  displayed  in  her  productions.  There  is,  perhaps,  no 
theory  professing  to  explain  the  laws  of  Nature,  whether  on  animal  distribution  or  natural 
affinities,  which  the  wit  of  man  could  possibly  devise,  that  might  not  be  supported  with  great 
plausibility,  by  certain  facts,  presented  by  those  radiating  threads  of  connexion,  and  those 
apparent  deviations  from  her  general  laws,  which  are  everywhere  apparent :  yet  these  will 
frequently  be  opposed  to  other  facts ;  and  thus  it  becomes  necessary,  before  determining  on 
whicli  side  the  preponderance  of  evidence  lies,  that  we  take  as  wide  a  survey  of  the  general 
distribution  of  animals  as  the  existing  state  of  knowledge  will  admit.  To  set  out  with  the 
belief  that  the  laws  of  geographic  distribution  are  fully  ascertained,  and  that  nothing  remains 
but  to  make  ourselves  acquainted  with  the  range  of  individual  species,  is  a  doctrine  which 
can  only  be  compared  to  those  principles  of  classification  insisted  upon  by  the  methodists  of 
the  last  age  in  natural  history,  who  considered  that  all  tlie  generic  groups  had  been  discovered, 
and  that  future  naturalists  had  nothing  left  but  to  appropriate  to  them  the  newly  discovered 
species,  in  the  best  manner  they  could. 

Towards  the  discovery  of  the  natural  geography  of  animals  there  is,  however,  another 
mode  of  investigation,  analogous  to  what  we  now  pursue,  in  searching  after  the  true  series 
(if  their  affinities :  this  is,  to  lay  aside  all  preconceived  theories,  and  to  begin  with  considering 
the  primary  causes  of  geograpliic  distribution  to  be,  what  in  truth  they  really  are,  totally 
unlcnown.  We  are  thus  compelled  to  take  a  general  survey  of  all  the  existing  animals  yet 
discovered,  and  now  dispersed  over  the  globe;  and,  from  the  facts  so  elicited,  endeavour  to 
attain  such  general  inferences  as  are  supported  by  a  preponderance  of  evidence,  fiirnished 
by  nature  herself.  By  the  first  method,  as  it  has  been  truly  said,  we  make  nature  bend  to 
our  own  arbitrary  theories;  while  by  the  second  we  humbly  endeavour  to  receive  her 
instructions ;  striving  to  obtain  a  glimpse  of  that  stupendous  plan  which  can  never  be  fully 
understood  by  fallible  and  imperfect  mortals. 

The  geographic  distribution  of  man  is  connected  in  our  survey  with  that  of  animals ;  not 
so  mucli  in  compliance  with  the  popular  notion,  by  which  the  noblest  work  of  God  is  classed 
as  a  genus  next  to  the  brute,  but  because  we  may  fairly  presume,  from  the  great  diversity 


250  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  Part  II. 

observed  among  the  human  species,  that  their  variation  and  dispersion  is  regulated  by  some 
general  plan ;  and  that  such  plan  may  be  analogous  to  that  wliich  is  apparent  in  tlie  distri- 
bution of  animals.  It  may  be  urged,  indeed,  tliat  such  a  remarkable  coincidence,  if  proved, 
might  tend  to  sanction  the  modern  theory  of  classing  man  and  brutes  together ;  but  tiie  only 
legitimate  construction  which  we  think  could  be  fairly  drawn  from  sucli  a  fact  would  be, 
that  there  is  but  one  plan  of  geograpliic  distribution  and  of  creation  througliout  nature. 

Against  classing  man  with  quadrupeds  we  must  enter  our  decided  protest.  And  here  we 
cannot  refrain  from  expressing  regret  that  a  naturalist  of  no  ordinary  talent  has  recently 
adopted  this  degrading  theory,  in  apparent  opposition  to  his  former  most  just  and  philosopliic 
views  of  the  subject.  He  admits  "  the  greatness  of  tlie  gulf  between  man  and  the  orang 
outang ;"  yet,  because  tliey  possess  certain  analogies  of  physical  structure,  is  it  a  necessary 
conclusion  tlmt  they  form  one  group]  (Linn.  Trans,  xvi.  1.  p.  22.)  This,  at  least,  was  not 
the  opinion  (_as  this  philosopher  candidly  admits)  of  either  Aristotle  or  Ray,  whom  he  justly 
considers  the  two  greatest  zoologists  tliat  have  ever  existed.  It  has  been  argued  that  the 
natural  pride  of  philosophy  withlield  such  men  from  classing  tliem.selves  with  brutes ;  but 
we  are  more  disposed  to  think  they  were  influenced  by  higher  considerations.  However 
this  may  be,  there  is  an  innate  repugnance,  or  rather  a  disgust  and  abhorrence,  in  every 
human  mind,  enlightened  or  illiterate,  against  the  admission  of  such  a  relationship.  Reve- 
lation everywhere  places  max,  even  in  his  fillcn  state,  in  absolute  contrast  and  contradiction 
with  "  the  beasts  that  perish."  It  is  not  merely  a  feeling  of  pride ;  it  is  an  innate  loatliing, 
engrafled  in  our  nature,  apparently  for  the  very  purpose  of  teaching  us  how  immeasurably 
far  we  are  removed  from  the  brutes  that  have  no  understanding.  Man  has  fallen,  miserably 
fallen,  but  this  is  from  the  corruption  of  that  pure  spirit  with  which  he  was  created:  his 
form  was  then,  as  it  is  now ;  nor  are  we  to  suppose  that  7nan,  as  he  came  fashioned  by  his 
Creator,  without  sin,  was  clothed  in  a  difTerent  form  to  that  wliich  he  now,  in  a  sinful  state, 
exhibits.  Are  we  then  to  place  such  a  being  in  a  zoological  circle,  surrounded  witli  apes 
and  baboons  1  or  are  material  and  immaterial  natures  so  closely  allied,  tliat  tliey  may  be 
classed  together  ] 

There  is  another  argument  against  including  man  in  the  zoological  circle,  furnished  by 
the  verj'^  theory  upon  which  that  hypothesis  is  built.  If  the  circular  system  is  part  of  the 
system  of  nature,  wliicli  at  this  time  of  day  is  perfectly  demonstrable,  every  being  has  two 
affinities:  by  the  one,  it  is  connected  to  that  which  precedes  it;  by  the  other,  to  that  by 
which  it  is  succeeded;  Now,  botbre  we  can  bring  man  within  the  circle  of  the  Quadruma- 
na,  on  the  strength  of  his  affinity  (whether  near  or  remote)  to  the  orang  outang,  we  must 
show  to  what  class  of  animals  he  is  connected  on  the  other  hand.  What  tJien  are  our  dou- 
ble affinities  in  the  vertebrate  circle  ]  We  may  be  allied  distantly,  perhaps,  to  Simla.  But 
where  is  the  second  affinity?  If  tiiis  cannot  be  pointed  out,  the  whole  theory,  in  our  esti- 
mation, falls  to  the  ground,  since  the  presumed  ti/pe  of  the  animal  kingdom  contradicts  the 
laws  by  which  creation  is  supposed  to  be  regulated ;  man  exliibiting  a  single  affinity,  and 
the  rest  of  organised  matter  a  double  one.  Take  him  from  the  animal  circle, — place  him 
between  matter  and  spirit : — and  his  double  affinities  become  at  once  apparent. 

A  general  sketcii  of  the  physical  peculiarities  of  man  in  all  his  variations  will  first  claim 
our  attention ;  the  regions  inhabited  by  the  ditferont  races,  and  the  affinities  by  which  they 
appear  connected,  will  also  be  briefly  noticed.  This  part  of  our  subject  will  be  conducted 
on  a  somewhat  different  plan  from  that  which  we  shall  pursue  in  the  sequel.  Tlie  profound 
researches  of  Blumenbach  and  Cuvier,  and  the  acute  and  patient  investigations  of  Lawrence 
and  Pritchard,  have  all  conspired  to  produce  nearly  t!ie  same  general  conclusions  on  those 
points  to  which  we  shall  particularly  draw  the  reader's  attention.  These  conclusions,  more- 
over, demand  our  fullest  confidence,  from  being  founded  on  as  rigid  analysis  as  the  nature 
of  the  subject  will  admit.  Hence,  we  have  no  need,  in  this  place,  of  entering  into  details, 
or  of  pursuing  the  same  mode  of  investigation  to  which  we  shall  have  recourse  when  sub- 
sequently treating  of  animal  distribution. 

Sect.  II. —  Varieties  of  the  Human  Race. 

The  varieties  of  the  human  race,  according  to  the  opinion  of  the  greatest  comparative 
anatomist,  may  all  be  included  under  three  primary  divisions,  between  which,  in  their~typi- 
cal  examples,  a  very  marked  difl^ercnce  is  observed.  These  M.  Cuvier  has  termed,  1.  the 
fair  or  Caucasian  variety ;  2.  the  yellow  or  Mongolian ;  3.  the  black  or  Ethiopian. 

The  classification  proposed  by  the  celebrated  Blumenbach,  although  apparently  different, 
is  but  a  modification  of  that  promulgated  by  Baron  Cuvier.  The  former  considers  the  Ethio- 
pian type  as  divisible  into  three,  1.  the  American;  2.  the  Negro;  and  3.  the  Malay.  The  latter 
indicates  these  additional  races,  but  considers  their  peculiarities  as  less  prominent  than  those 
of  the  two  former ;  he  does  not  therefore  admit  them  among  the  primary  divisions  of  the 
human  race.  Without,  at  present,  offering  any  opinion  upon  this  question,  we  shall  first 
take  a  rapid  survey  of  the  peculiarities,  pliysical  and  moral,  of  all  these  groups. 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN. 


257 


(1)  The  Caucasian  race  {fig.  70.)  is  typically  characterised  by  a  white  skin;  red  cheeks; 

70 


copious,  soft,  flowing  hair,  generally  curled  or  waving ;  ample  beard ;  small,  oval,  and 
straight  face,  with  tlie  features  very  distinct ;  expanded  forehead ;  large  and  elevated  crani- 
um ;  narrow  nose ;  and  small  mouth. 

The  moral  feelings  and  intellectual  powers  of  this  race  have  been  developed  in  the  highest 
degree  of  perfection  which  human  nature  has  ever  exhibited.  The  Caucasian  has  given 
birtii  to  the  most  civilized  nations,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  and  has  always  exer- 
cised dominion  over  the  rest  of  mankind,  when  not  opposed  by  a  vast  superiority  of  physical 
strength.  The  mighty  nations  of  antiquity,  and  the  no  less  resistless  powers  concentrated 
in  modern  Europe,  evince  the  superiority  of  this  race  in  all  that  ennobles  the  immaterial 
part  of  man,  and  all  that  renders  him  formidable  to  his  fellow-creatures ;  while  every  age 
witnesses  a  progressive  but  a  surprising  advance  in  all  those  qualities  which  indicate  intel- 
lectual endowment. 

The  original  seat  of  tlie  Caucasian  race  is  supposed,  as  the  name  implies,  to  have  been 
that  lofty  chain  of  mountains  between  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas.  This  supposition,  as 
Lawrence  observes,  is  in  unison  with  all  that  can  be  traced  of  the  original  abode  of  our  first 
parents ;  and  is  furtlier  confirmed  by  the  natives  of  these  regions  being,  to  this  day,  the  most 
beautifully  formed  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth.  From  the  Caucasian  Alps  different 
branches  of  this  race  diverge  in  every  direction,  as  from  a  common  centre;  the  peculiarities 
of  each  being  modified,  altered,  and  finally  lost,  in  proportion  as  they  recede  from  the  ori- 
ginal seat  of  their  tribe. 

Of  the  branches  of  the  Caucasian  race,  the  most  powerful  is  the  Pelasgic,  which  spreads 
over  the  greater  part  of  Europe  and  Western  Asia  at  its  most  northern  limits,  while  it  blends 
with  the  Mongolian  race  by  means  of  the  Fins  and  Laplanders.  From  this  branch  sprang 
the  powerful  nations  of  Greece  and  Rome,  which  have  been  succeeded  by  the  mighty  king- 
doms of  modern  Europe.  The  next  is  the  Syrian,  which  takes  a  southerly  direction ;  and 
includes  that  portion  of  Asia  formerly  inhabited  by  the  Assyrians,  Chaldeans,  and  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  The  Indian  branch,  by  some  thought  to  be  tlie  same  with  the  Pelasgic,  passes 
to  the  East,  and  loses  itself  among  the  inferior  casts  of  Hindostan.  A  fourth  branch  is  the 
Scythian  or  Tartaric,  which  spread  over  the  more  northern  parts  of  Asia ;  and  gave  birth  to 
those  wandering  and  ruthless  liordes  who,  by  the  physical  power  of  numbers,  devastated  and 
finally  overthrew  the  polished  empires  of  Greece  and  Rome.  The  wandering  and  pastoral 
habits  of  this  tribe  have  conspired  to  preserve  their  peculiarities  unmixed  with  those  of  the 
neiglibouring  nations;  except,  indeed,  in  Lesser  Tartary,  where  this  branch  of  the  Caucasian 
race  loses  itself  in  the  Mongolian. 

(2.)  The  Mongolian  variety  (Jig.  71.)  has  these  characteristics : — The  skin,  instead  of 


white  or  fair,  is  olive  yellow ;  the  hair  thin,  coarse,  and  straight ;  little  or  no  beard ;  broad 
flattened  face,  with  the  features  running  together  ;  small  and  low  foreliead  ;  square-shaped 
cranium;  wide  and  small  nose;  very  oblique  eyes;  and  thick  lips.  Stature  inferior  to  the 
Caucasian.  In  this  race  the  moral  and  intellectual  energies  have  been  developed  in  an  inferior 
degree.  Tradition,  indeed,  has  assigned  to  the  most  powerful  nation,  the  Chinese,  a  high 
degree  of  civilization,  at  a  period  when  Europe  was  in  a  state  of  barbarism.  Yet  there  are 
many  circumstances  which  throw  considerable  suspicion  on  this  fact :  and  even  if  it  be  allowed, 
&  stronger  proof  could  not  possibly  be  produced  to  show  the  limited  intellectual  powers  of  this 
Vol.  I.  22*  2H 


258 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


PartII, 


race ;  for  while  the  European  Caucasian  nations  have  advanced  from  rude  savages  to  become 
masters  of  the  world,  the  Chinese,  after  reaching  a  certain  state  of  civilization,  have  remain- 
ed stationary,  in  every  respect,  through  a  long  series  of  ages.  Solitary  exceptions  cannot 
invalidate  tiie  fact;  and  while  we  know  that,  not  only  in  our  own  times,  but  so  far  back  as 
history  informs  us,  neither  the  sciences,  the  mventions,  nor  tiie  improvements  of  the  last 
three  centuries  have  changed  the  Mongolian  nations  from  what  tliey  tlien  were,  we  can  come 
to  no  other  conclusion  than  that  they  are  nationally  incapacitated  from  further  improve- 
ment. Cuvier  supposes  that  the  origin  of  the  Mongolian  race  may  have  been  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Altai.  From  thence  it  has  spread  over  the  wliole  of  central  and  northern  Asia, 
where  it  is  lost  among  the  Esquimaux  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Caucasian  Tartars  on  the 
other.  It  further  extends  to  the  Eastern  Ocean,  and  includes  the  Japanese,  tlie  Coreans, 
and  a  large  portion  of  the  Siberians.  Its  limits  to  tlie  south  appear  to  extend  no 
farther  than  to  that  part  of  Hindostan  north  of  the  Ganges,  while  the  Mongolian  fea- 
tures only  predominate  over  those  of  the  Indo-Caucasian  in  the  lower  casts  of  the  Eastern 
Peninsula. 

The  origin  of  the  Esquimaux  and  other  polaric  nations  found  on  the  most  northern  limits 
of  Europe  and  America,  has  given  rise  to  great  diversity  of  opinion.  Arguments  of  nearly 
equal  weight,  but  of  opposite  tendency,  have  been  employed  to  show,  on  the  one  hand,  that 
the  Esquimaux  belong  to  the  American  variety ;  and  on  the  other,  to  prove  tlieir  structure 
more  in  unison  with  that  of  the  Mongolian.  The  latter  opinion  has  been  supported  by  Mr. 
Lawrence ;  and  although  we  consider  the  weight  of  argument  to  be  on  this  side,  it  appears 
not  at  all  improbable  that  both  these  suppositions  are  in  part  correct.  We  have  before 
observed,  that  the  characters  of  each  race  become  less  and  less  apparent,  the  farther  they 
are  removed  from  tlieir  particular  type.  The  proximity  of  the  nortiiern  regions  of  Asia  to 
those  of  America,  renders  it  highly  probable  either  that  their  respective  uihabitants  mingled 
their  races  at  a  remote  period,  or  that  tiie  northern  Mongolians,  whose  civilization  is  sup- 
posed to  be  of  so  great  antiquity,  were  the  first  to  emigrate,  and  people  the  northern  regions 
of  America.  At  all  events,  it  appears  certain  that  the  Esquimaux  nations  unite  in  themselves 
many  of  the  characters  of  two  distinct  races ;  and  the  only  theory  by  whicli  we  can  recon- 
cile these  doubts  on  their  true  origin,  is  that  of  supposing  them  to  form  the  link  of  connex- 
ion between  the  ^Mongolian  and  that  race  which  spreads  over  the  remaining  portion  of  the 
new  world.  The  brief  notice  we  have  now  taken  of  the  two  most  powerful  races  or  varie- 
ties of  the  human  form  is  sufficient  to  siiow  their  marked  superiority  over  all  others,  whether 
as  regards  the  symmetry  or  beauty  of  their  physical  structure,  or  the  still  more  striking 
developement  of  their  moral  powers.  Hence  they  both  become  typical,  although  in  different 
degrees,  of  that  perfection  which  the  Creator  has  bestowed  upon  man,  m  this  his  probatory 
state  of  existence. 

The  third  primary  division  or  leading  variety  of  the  human  race,  according  to  the  views 
of  the  illustrious  Cuvier,  is  the  negro  or  Ethiopian.  This,  again,  presents  three  variations, 
considered  by  Cuvier  els  secondary,  and  by  Blumenbach  as  primary.  Although  these  varia- 
tions are  not  so  great  as  those  between  either  the  Caucasian,  the  Mongolian,  or  the  African 
(the  latter  being  considered  the  type  of  the  Ethiopian  variety),  still  they  are  sufficiently  im- 
portant to  merit  a  particular  specification  under  distinct  names ;  and  they  are  accordingly 
termed  the  American,  the  Etliiopian,  and  the  Malay  varieties. 

In  the  American  variety  {fig.  72.)  the  skin  is  dark,  and  more  or  less  red  •  the  hair  black, 

72 


straight,  and  strong,  with  the  beard  small ;  face  and  skull  very  similar  to  the  INIongolian, 
but  the  former  not"so  flattened ;  eyes  sunk;  forehead  low ;  the  nose  and  other  features  being 
somewhat  projecting.  The  moral  and  intellectual  character  of  this  race  is  in  unison  with 
the  great  difference  it  presents  in  outward  form  from  the  Caucasian.  Like  the  Mongolian, 
it  has  remained  stationary ;  but  stopped  at  a  point  very  much  below  that  to  which  tlie 
Asiatics  have  reached.  The  ancient  and  now  extinct  empires  of  Mexico  and  the  Incas 
may  be  considered  analogous  to  those  of  China  and  India,  exhibiting  the  higiiest  point  of 
civilization  to  which  the  two  races  have  ever  reached ;  but  farther  than  this  tlie  comparison 
cannot  be  carried.     Arts,  sciences,  and  all  those  intellectual  endowments  which  have  fol- 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN. 


259 


lowed  the  progress  of  the  Caucasian  race,  and  to  a  certain  extent  belong  also  to  the  Asiatics, 
appear  to  have  made  little  or  no  progress  among  the  Americans,  even  in  the  gorgeous  court 
of  Montezuma.  When  that  monarch  despatched  messengers  to  bring  him  an  account  of  the 
first  Spaniards  who  landed  on  his  territories,  so  ignorant  were  the  Mexicans  of  figures  or 
of  writing,  that  their  report  was  made  in  complicated  hieroglyphics,  mixed  with  rude  figures 
of  the  horses  and  persons  of  these  unknown  invaders.  Their  idolatrous  worship  enjoined 
no  moral  duties,  like  those  of  the  superstition  of  Fo;  and  its  rites  were  celebrated  by  human 
sacrifices  of  such  a  revolting  nature  as  to  be  worthy  only  of  demons.  It  deserves  attention, 
that  wiiile  the  central  portion  of  America  presented  in  its  original  inhabitants  such  a  de- 
graded picture  of  the  human  mind,  the  northern  nations  of  the  new  world,  partaking  more 
of  the  Mongolian  aspect,  evinced  a  higher  degree  of  intellect.  It  is  true  they  were  only 
wandering  Tribes  of  hunters,  yet  they  appear  to  have  had  a  full  belief  in  the  existence  of 
one  "  Great  Spirit,"  and  in  a  blissful  immortality  for  themselves.  The  American  race, 
blending  with  the  Mongolian  to  the  north,  spreads  over  the  whole  of  the  new  world ;  but 
whether  any  traces  of  this  type  exist  beyond  these  limits,  is  a  question  which  has  not  hitherto 
been  investigated. 

In  the  Ethiopian  variety  {fig.  73.),  the  skin  is  black ;  hair  short,  black,  and  woolly ;  skulJ 

73 


compressed  on  the  sides,  and  elongated  towards  the  front ;  forehead  low,  narrow,  and  slant- 
ing ;  cheekbones  very  prominent ;  jaws  projecting,  so  as  to  render  the  upper  front  teeth 
oblique;  eyes  prominent;  nose  broad  and  flat;  lips  (especially  the  upper  one)  particularly 
thick.  The  Atrican  or  Ethiopian  race  has  ever  remained  in  a  rude  and  comparatively  bar- 
barous state.  Their  cities  are  but  congregations  of  huts ;  their  laws,  the  despotic  whim  of 
the  reiffning  chief  Incessantly  occupied  in  war  or  in  the  chase,  they  seek  not  to  perpetuate 
their  ideas.  They  have  no  written  language,  nor  even  a  code  of  hieroglyphics.  Abundantly 
supplied  by  nature  with  every  necessary  of  life,  they  have  retained  their  character  un- 
changed, after  centuries  of  intercourse  with  the  most  enlightened  nations.  Different  branches 
of  this  type  spread  over  the  whole  of  the  African  continent,  excepting  those  parts  bordering 
the  north  and  east  of  the  Great  Desert,  which  are  occupied  by  the  Caucasian  Syrians,  and 
where  all  traces  of  the  negro  formation  disappear. 

The  Malay  variety  {fig.  74.)  varies  in  the  colour  of  the  skin  from  a  light  tawny  to  a  deep 

74 


brown,  approaching  to  black ;  hair  black,  more  or  less  curled,  and  abundant ;  head  rather 
narrow  ;  bones  of  the  face  large  and  prominent ;  nose  full  and  broad  towards  the  tip.  Under 
this  variety,  observes  Mr.  La.srence,  are  included  races  of  men  very  different  in  organiza- 
tion and  qualities.  They  nevertlieless  present  certain  general  points  of  resemblance,  which 
forbid  their  association  with  either  of  the  foregoing  varieties.  Under  this  head  are,  there- 
fore, inckuled  the  inhabitants  of  Malacca,  of  Sumatra,  and  of  the  innumerable  islands  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago  and  the  great  Pacific  Ocean.  Most  of  these  tribes  are  stated  to  speak 
the  Malay  language,  which  may  be  tniced,  in  the  various  ramifications  of  this  diversified 
race,  fi-om  Madagascar  to  Easter  Island.     Their  moral  character  is  no  less  various  than  their 


260  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  Part  II. 

outward  form.  In  such  as,  by  the  colour  of  their  skin  and  their  woolly  hair,  show  a  general 
approximation  to  the  African  type,  the  mental  powers  are  little  developed.  Their  lanouage, 
however,  is  stated  to  be  peculiar,  and  they  appear  to  have  a  copious  bushy  beard.  {Law- 
rence, 489.)  Branches  of  this  division  of  the  Malay  race  spread  over  the  great  islands  of 
Sumatra,  Borneo,  and  Andaman ;  and  they  appear  also  to  occupy  the  Molucca  and  Philippine 
Islands.  They  are  described  as  living  m  tlie  same  state  of  wild  and  savage  barbarity  as  do 
the  Bushmen  of  Southern  Africa,  and  such  other  branches  of  the  Ethiopian  variety  as  appear 
the  lowest  in  the  scale  of  form  and  intellect.  TJicre  is,  however,  a  lighter-coloured  and 
superior  race,  inhabiting  some  of  the  Indian  islands,  where  an  oval  countenance,  longer  hair, 
and  finer  form,  evince  a  much  greater  affinity  with  the  Indo-Caucasian  type  on  one  side, 
and  a  strong  analogy  to  the  New  Zealandcrs  and  Pacific  tribes  on  the  other.  Proceeding 
along  the  same  insular  chain,  we  meet  with  "negro-like  men"  having  curly  hair,  in  the 
immense  island  of  New  Guinea,  and  in  those  soutli-western  groups  denominated  New  Ire- 
land, New  Hebrides,  and  New  Caledonia.  The  natives  of  the  vast  continent  of  New  Hol- 
land show  strong  indications  of  the  same  origin,  and  of  the  same  untameable  barbarism ; 
yet  their  features  are  described  as  not  unpleasant,  their  skin  is  rather  copper-coloured  than 
black,  and  their  hair  either  curling  or  straight.  The  natives  of  the  interior  have  been 
described  as  somewhat  more  civilized,  and  as  speaking  a  language  different  from  tliat  used 
on  tfie  coast.  In  the  neighbouring  island  of  New  Zealand  a  considerable  change  from  the 
black  Malayan  tribes  takes  place.  The  superior  castes  of  these  islanders  in  their  persons 
are  tall,  active,  and  well  made ;  their  skin  is  brown,  and  their  long  black  hair  is  sometimes 
straight,  sometimes  curling.  A  degree  of  intellect,  superior  to  all  the  tribes  we  have 
enumerated,  accompanies  these  personal  advantages.  Retaining  many  of  the  barbarous 
customs  of  their  neighbours,  the  New  Zealanders  have,  nevertheless,  made  some  progress 
in  the  arts  of  life  since  their  intercourse  with  Europeans:  they  believe  in  a  Supreme  Being, 
and  in  a  happy  immortality ;  and  evince,  m  various  ways,  a  desire  to  improve  their  condition. 
The  natives  of  the  Friendly  Islands  have  the  dark  complexion  of  the  New  Zealanders,  but  are 
a  much  superior  race.  They  are  of  the  ordinary  European  stature,  though  some  are  above 
six  feet  high ;  their  colour  is  a  deep  brown,  verging  in  the  better  classes  on  a  light  olive ; 
their  features,  like  those  of  the  New  Zealanders,  are  various,  approximating  in  some  respects 
to  them,  and  also  to  the  true  Europeans.  Their  progress  in  civilization  and  in  intellectual 
developement  is  considerable ;  as  a  proof  of  which,  it  is  mentioned  that  they  have  terms  to 
express  numbers  up  to  100,000.  The  Otaheitians  have  long  been  celebrated  for  their  per- 
sonal beauty :  the  lower  orders,  indeed,  are  of  the  same  brown  tint  so  generally  prevalent 
in  the  Friendly  Islands,  but  in  those  of  a  superior  caste  this  is  gradually  lost,  until  we  find 
in  the  higher  ranks  a  skin  nearly  white,  or  at  least  but  slightly  tinged  with  brown;  and 
although  the  usual  colour  of  their  hair  is  black,  yet  it  is  of  a  fine  texture,  and  frequent 
instances  occur  in  which  it  is  brown,  flaxen,  and  even  red.  Their  persons  are  well  made, 
their  features  sometimes  even  beautiful,  and  a  blush  may  be  readily  observed  on  the  cheek 
of  the  women.  The  harmony  of  their  language,  and  their  simple  though  refined  manners, 
have  been  universally  remarked.  These  national  characteristics  extend  to  the  Society 
Islands.  Lastly,  The  natives  of  the  Marquesas  have  been  described  as  the  finest  race  in  the 
Southern  Ocean :  "  in  form  they  are,  perhaps,  the  finest  in  the  world."  Their  skin  is 
naturally  "  very  fair,"  and  the  colour  of  their  hair  exhibits  all  the  varied  shades,  (excepting 
red),  which  are  found  in  the  different  tribes  of  the  Caucasian  race. 

Sect.  III. — On  the  Causes  of  these  Varieties. 

The  following  questions  naturally  arise  from  considering  these  characteristics  of  the  most 
prominent  varieties  of  the  human  race ;  founded  as  they  are  on  the  concurrent  testimony  of 
travellers,  and  generalised  by  the  most  eminent  physiologists: — 1.  Whether  these  races,  so 
dissimilar  in  their  typical  peculiarities,  have  originally  proceeded  from  one,  or  from  distinct 
stocks?  2.  Are  they  so  strongly  marked  as  not  to  present  many  and  great  deviations?  and, 
3.  To  what  causes  are  they  to  be  attributed  ! 

In  regard  to  tlie  origin  of  tlie  human  race,  there  have  not  been  wanting  those,  who, 
disbelieving  the  evidences  of  the  Mosaic  history,  have  attempted  to  establish  the  hypothesis 
that  these  races  have  each  sprung  from  difierent  stocks ;  or,  that  they  are,  in  fact,  so  many 
species.  Now,  this,  at  the  best,  is  but  an  assumption  perfectly  gratuitous;  not  only  because 
every  record  from  which  it  could  receive  any  support  is  expressly  opposed  to  it,  but  because 
it  is  in  direct  violation  of  a  primary  and  universal  law  of  nature  :  a  law  by  which  the  lowest 
being  of  the  animal  creation  shrinks  instinctively  fi-om  intermixing  its  species  with  that  of 
another.  It  has,  moreover,  been  fully  ascertained  that,  however  great  the  variations  of  the 
human  form  may  be,  such  variations  among  different  breeds  of  the  same  species  of  animal 
are  even  greater.  Unless,  therefore,  it  can  be  proved  that  the  laws  of  nature  with  respect 
to  man  and  animals  are  contradictory,  we  shall,  by  attaching  the  least  weight  to  the  above 
theory,  openly  violate  every  principle  of  philosophic  reasoning,  as  well  as  renounce  all  belief 
in  revealed  religion.  On  this  head  the  Mosaic  records  are  clear  and  explicit ;  and  however 
the  bceptic  may  deny  their  inspiration,  he  cannot  bring  forward,  on  his  side,  any  testimony 


Book  IIL  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN.  261 

of  such  remote  antiquity,  or  of  such  generally  admitted  credibility.  As  to  the  second  ques- 
tion, it  must  not  be  understood  that,  in  arranging  the  varieties  of  man  under  a  certain  num- 
ber of  divisions,  and  assigning  to  each  a  peculiar  character,  there  does  not  occur  many  and 
very  remarkable  exceptions  in  each.  So  much,  indeed,  is  this  tJie  case,  that  there  are  not 
wanting  instances  of  native  African  tribes  having  the  light  skin  of  Europeans,  Caucasians 
combining  the  Mongolian  with  the  Malay  structure,  Americans  resembling  whites,  and  Afri- 
cans with  the  copper-coloured  skin  of  the  American ;  nay,  even  in  the  same  island  or  pro- 
vince, a  great  diversity  both  in  language  and  in  pliysical  structure,  is  sometimes  apparent,  and 
tills  between  tribes  bordering  close  upon  each  other ;  so  that,  with  the  exception  of  a  com- 
paratively small  portion  of  each  principal  race,  we  find  so  much  diversity  in  the  remaining 
or  aberrant  branches — the  typical  peculiarities  become  so  modified,  altered,  or  evanescent, 
that  it  is  totally  impossible  to  draw  an  absolute  line  of  demarcation  between  them. 

This  point  has  frequently  been  adverted  to  by  a  well-known  physiologist,  who  says,  "  there 
is  no  circumstance,  whether  of  corporeal  structure  or  of  mental  endowment,  which  does  not 
pass  by  imperceptible  gradations  into  the  opposite  character,  rendering  all  those  distinctions 
merely  relative,  and  reducing  them  to  differences  in  degree.  It  is  concluded,  therefore,  that 
every  arrangement  of  these  varieties  must  be  in  a  great  measure  arbitrary."  {Lawrence's 
Led.  p.  472.)  Yet,  admitting  this  variation  to  the  fullest  extent,  it  cannot  alter  the  correct- 
ness of  the  principle  on  which  these  distinctions  are  founded.  Whatever  might  have  been 
formerly  thought  as  to  the  nature  of  terms  employed  by  naturalists  to  designate  the  particu- 
lar groups  of  animals,  it  is  now  generally  admitted  that,  throughout  nature,  there  are  no 
isolating  distinctions,  save  such  as  separate  species.  The  characters  of  every  zoological 
group,  of  whatever  magnitude  or  denomination,  are  subject  to  exceptions  equally  numerous. 
The  typical  peculiarities  may,  indeed,  be  prominent;  but  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
objects  which  are  embraced  under  any  definition,  will  be  the  diversity  of  those  imperceptible 
gradations,  those  threads  of  connexion,  which  shoot  out  in  all  directions,  and  unite  not  only 
genera  and  orders,  but  the  primary  kingdoms  of  the  animal  and  the  vegetable  worlds.  It 
is,  therefore,  irrelevant  to  argue  that,  because  these  divisions  are  liable  to  numerous  excep- 
tions, and  are  not  always  Uniform  and  constant,  they  are  either  artificial  or  objectionable : 
for  as  we  find  that  all  natural  groups,  both  in  the  animal  and  vegetable  worlds,  are  subject 
to  the  same  variations,  they  are  therefore  liable  to  the  same  objections.  .  In  short,  if  such 
reasoning  is  valid,  the  distinction  between  plants  and  animals  can  no  longer  be  maintained  ; 
for  it  is  to  this  day  unsettled  at  what  point  the  peculiarities  of  one  are  lost,  and  those  of  the 
other  assumed. 

The  causes  that  may  have  led  to  these  variations  in  the  human  species,  form  the  only 
question  of  a  general  nature  remaining  to  be  discussed.  It  has  been  argued  by  some  writers, 
that  particular  climates,  food,  and  modes  of  life,  have  gradually  operated,  through  a  succes- 
sion of  ages,  to  produce  these  efl^ects  on  the  colour,  stature,  and  intellect  of  different  nations. 
But,  however  greatly  these  causes  may  affect  individuals,  or  even  to  a  certain  extent  a  whole 
people,  they  entirely  fail  when  brought  to  solve  our  present  question  ;  were  it  otherwise,  the 
same  causes  would  naturally  have  the  same  efl^ect  on  all  the  inhabitants  of  a  particular 
region ;  but  sucli,  as  is  well  known,  is  far  from  being  the  case.  The  negro,  under  a  tropical 
sun,  is  black  ;  while  an  Indian  of  Para,  in  the  same  degree  of  latitude,  is  reddish  brown.  No 
race  produces  men  more  athletic,  or  more  finely  formed,  than  are  witnessed  among  the  Gold 
Coast  negroes ;  yettliey  inhabit,  proverbially,  some  of  the  most  pestilential  districts  of  Africa. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  New  Hollanders,  and  the  South  African  Bushmen,  living  in  a  salu- 
brious climate,  are  described  as  lean,  squalid,  and  with  an  appearance  scarcely  human.  It 
is  therefore  obvious,  that  neither  the  physical  nor  the  moral  condition  of  man  can  be  so 
aflfected  by  climate,  or  other  external  agencies,  as  to  produce  any  great  or  permanent  varia- 
tion in  his  form.  Indeed,  when  we  consider  that  such  agencies  have  not  produced  any 
physical  change  in  any  one  nation,  within  the  memory  or  the  records  of  man,  we  are  tempted 
to  believe  that  in  a  general  point  of  view,  their  influence  has  been  very  slight;  otherwise, 
there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  but  that  the  same  natural  causes  which  operated  at  one  period 
of  time,  would  still  continue  to  do  so  at  another ;  and  that  we  should  find  the  descendants 
of  Europeans  long  since  settled  in  the  New  World,  and  in  Southern  Africa,  beginning  to 
assume  the  red  tinge  of  the  American,  or  the  black  skin  of  the  Ethiopian.  Still  less  can  it 
be  supposed  that  this  departure  from  one  common  standard  has  been  effected  by  civilization, 
a  consequent  developement  of  tlie  mental  fiiculties,  or  even  by  diversified  modes  of  life.  Man, 
in  remote  ages,  must  have  lived  pretty  nearly  the  same  life  in  every  region;  whether  as 
shepherds,  hunters,  or  tillers  of  the  field,  their  food,  habits,  and  modes  of  life,  must  have  been 
simple  and  regular.  Whence  comes  it,  then,  that  nations  which  still  retain  a  great  portion 
of  v.'Iiat  may  be  conceived  their  primitive  simplicity,  do  not  exhibit  a  corresponding  resem- 
blance in  physical  structure]  If  food,  raiment,  and  moral  improvement  have  such  a  powerful 
effect  in  modifying  tJie  human  frame,  it  would  naturally  follow  that  tribes  living  nearly  in  a 
state  of  nature  would  all  show  a  close  approximation  to  one  common  type;  that"  they  would, 
in  short,  retain  more  of  the  lineaments  and  characters  which  must  have  belonged  to  our  first 
parents,  than  if  they  had  deviated  from  their  primitive  simplicity;  yet  the  very  reverse  of 


262  SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY,  Part  IT. 

this  is  the  fact.  The  apparent  aborigines  of  every  nation  are  those  in  which  the  leading 
characters  of  their  own  tribe  are  most  conspicuous;  and  whicli  exhibit  the  strongest  contrast 
to  those  of  others.  It  is  only  when  they  have  made  some  progress  in  the  arts  of  life,  wiien 
conquest  or  commerce  has  led  to  a  union  witli  otiier  races,  tliat  the  national  characteristics, 
both  personal  and  mental,  give  way,  and  begin  either  to  blend  or  to  be  lost  in  other  modifica- 
tions. These  reasons,  did  they  more  immediately  concern  the  purposes  of  this  essay,  might 
be  much  enlarged  upon,  more  particularly  as  they  have  been  oli'ered  by  some  deservedly 
eminent  writers  as  a  satisfactory  solution  of  the  question  we  are  now  discussing.  Yet,  allow- 
ing to  all  these  causes  tlie  full  effect  they  are  known  to  have  produced,  we  must  yet  confess 
they  ai)pear  to  us  totally  inadequate  to  explain  tlie  origin  of  the  races  of  man.  A  writer 
intimately  versed  on  this  subject  has  well  observed,  tiiat  "  external  aii-encies,  whether  phy- 
sical or  moral,  will  not  account  for  the  bodily  and  mental  differences  wiiich  characterise  the 
several  tribes  of  mankind."  {Lawrence\s  Lectiirfu,  p.  481.)  We  liavo,  in  short,  nowbrouglit 
the  inquiry  to  a  point  wiiere  human  reason  is  baffled  :  there  is  neither  history  nor  tradition  to 
guide  us  in  a  research  which  carries  us  back  to  tlie  obscurity  of  ages  ;  to  that  remote  period 
when  tlie  earth,  for  a  second  time,  was  again  peopled,  if  not  by  a  single  pair,  yet  by  the  three 
sons  of  a  single  family. 

We  are  now  to  view  the  question  in  another  light.  It  has  been  generally  admitted,  even 
by  those  who  reject  the  Mosaic  testimony,  that  the  diversity  in  the  human  structure  can  in 
no  way  be  accounted  for  by  any  known  combination  of  natural  causes :  are  we,  therefore, 
to  suppose,  in  a  question  which  concerns  the  most  perfect  earthly  being  made  by  Omnipo- 
tence, that  notliing  superjiatnral  is  to  enter !  that  causes  whicii  effect  the  developement  not 
only  of  the  material  but  of  the  spiritual  essence  of  man,  have  been  left  to  ciiance !  Is  it  not 
more  reasonable  to  conclude,  that,  for  purposes  unknown  to  us,  a  supernatural  agency  was 
employed  ?  and  that  the  immediate  descendants  of  the  sons  of  Noali  were  as  distinctly  mark- 
ed in  their  outward  form  as  they  were  in  their  moral  character !  The  sacred  writings,  it  is 
true,  are  not  \vritten  to  answer  philosophic  inquiries.  Those  who,  in  the  present  age,  have 
been  the  most  profound  investigators  of  nature,  discover  in  every  part  of  creation  a  symbolic 
relationship;  a  mysterious  system  of  types  and  symbols,  which  extends  from  the  most  com- 
plex to  the  most  simple  of  organized  beings :  and  when  we  know,  tor  instance,  that  even  the 
colours  of  a  bird  or  an  insect  have  a  direct  reference  to  such  a  system,  and  are  employed  as 
typical  indications  of  its  station  in  nature,  can  it  be  supposed  that  such  a  system  does  not 
extend  to  man  1  That  this  will  not,  in  the  present  infancy  of  our  inquiries,  admit  of  such 
direct  and  unanswerable  proof  as  amounts  to  mathematical  demonstration,  we  do  not  attempt 
to  deny ;  but  that  such  a  supposition  is  in  harmony  with  that  perfection  which  belongs  to 
the  works  of  Omnipotence,  every  reasonable  person  must  admit.  Nor  are  there  wanting 
circumstances  which  give  some  degree  of  sanction  to  this  belief  The  curse  pronounced 
upon  Canaan  as  the  son  of  Ham  has  unquestionably  been  fulfilled.  Learned  commentators 
agree  in  considering  that  central  Afi'ica  was  peopled  by  his  descendants,  and  these  have  been 
for  ages,  and  still  continue  to  be,  '*  a  servant  of  servants,"  to  their  more  favoured  brethren. 
Even  their  own  despotic  governments  render  the  subjects  but  slaves.  In  them  the  human 
form  is  most  debased,  the  divinity  of  mind  least  developed.  They  still  exhibit  those  leading 
resemblances  which  rendered  Cain  a  type  of  Canaan:  with  few  exceptions,  they  are,  to  this 
day,  but  "  wanderers  and  vagabonds"  on  the  earth.  The  blessings  pronounced  on  the  two 
remaining  sons  of  Noah,  it  has  been  well  observed,  are  of  a  very  different  nature:  Shem  was 
more  peculiarly  favoured  than  his  brother ;  from  his  race  not  only  the  great  patriarchs  who 
typified  Christ,  but  even  Christ  himself,  descended.  The  peculiarity  of  the  Jewish  polity, 
which  preserved  the  physical  peculiarities  of  their  race  pure  and  unmixed  through  successive 
■gpnerations,  leaves  us  in  no  doubt  that  they  belong  to  the  Caucasian  type,  in  which,  both 
■in  structure  and  intellect,  a  marked  superiority  over  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  has  been 
universally  admitted.  The  early  descendants  of  Japhetli,  as  is  plainly  intimated  by  Moses, 
were  eminently  warlike.  All  writers  agree  in  considering  that  from  the  Mongolian  race 
descended  those  vast  and  overpowering  hordes  of  barbaric  warriors  who,  at  remote  periods 
of  time,  conquered  all  Asia,  and  devastated  Europe  under  Attila,  Zingis  Khan,  and  Tamer- 
lane. "  It  is  remarkable,"  says  Dr.  Scott,  "  that  the  first  king  of  whom  we  read  in  authentic 
history,  is  Nimrod,  the  mighty  hunter."  The  same  learned  writer  mentions  that  there  is 
.some  ground  for  believing  that  the  greatest  part  of  Asia  (now  peopled  by  the  Mongolian  race) 
descended  from  Japlieth.  The  population  of  Asia  has  been  frequently  mentioned  as  in  an 
equal  ratio  to  the  superiority  of  its  size  over  Europe,  or  rather  of  those  countries  over  which 
the  Caucasian  variety  has  spread.  Thus,  in  every  sense,  it  appears,  that  the  promise  to 
Noah's  first  son,  "  God  shall  enlarge  Japheth,  and  Canaan  shall  be  his  servant,"  has  literally 
and  figuratively  been  fulfilled. 

Tliat  the  three  sons  of  Noah  overspread  and  peopled  the  whole  earth,  is  so  expressly 
stated  in  Scripture,  that,  if  we  had  not  to  argue  against  those  who  unfortunately  disbelieve 
such  evidence,  we  might  here  stop :  let  us,  however,  inquire  how  far  the  truth  of  this  decla- 
ration is  substantiated  by  other  considerations.  Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  there  is  a 
curious,  if  not  a  remarkable,  analogy  between  the  predictions  of  Noah,  on  the  future  descend- 


Book  IH.  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN.  263 

ants  of  his  three  sons,  and  the  actual  state  of  those  races  which  are  generally  supposed  to 
have  sprung  from  them.  It  may  here  be  again  remarked,  that  although,  to  render  the 
subject  more  clear,  we  have  adopted  the  quinary  arrangement  of  Blumenbach,  yet  that 
Cuvier  and  other  learned  pliysiologists  are  of  opinion  that  the  primary  varieties  of  the  human 
form  are  more  properly  but  three ;  namely,  Caucasian,  the  Mongolian,  and  the  Ethiopian. 
This  number  corresponds  with  that  of  Noah's  sons :  assigning,  therefore,  the  Mongolian  race  to 
Japheth,  and  the  Ethiopian  to  Ham,  tlie  Caucasian,  the  noblest  race,  will  belong  to  Shem 
the  third  son  of  Noah,  himself  descended  fi-om  Seth  the  tliArd  son  of  Adam.  Tiiat  the 
primary  distinctions  of  the  imman  varieties  are  but  three,  has  been  further  maintained  by  the 
erudite  Pritchard,  who,  wiiile  he  rejects  the  nomenclature  both  of  Blumenbach  and  Cuvier, 
as  implying  absolute  divisions,  arranges  the  leading  varieties  of  the  human  skull  under  three 
sections,  differing  from  those  of  Cuvier  only  by  name.  That  the  three  sons  of  Noah,  who 
were  to  "replenish  the  earth,"  and  on  whose  progeny  very  opposite  destinies  were  pro- 
nounced, should  give  birth  to  difl^erent  races,  is  wliat  might  reasonably  be  conjectured.  But 
that  the  observations  of  those  who  do,  and  of  those  who  do  not  believe  the  Mosaic  history 
sliould  tend  to  confirm  its  truth,  by  pointing  out  in  what  respect  these  three  races  do  actually 
differ,  both  physically  and  morally,  is,  to  say  the  least,  a  singular  coincidence.  It  amounts, 
in  short,  to  presumptive  evidence  that  a  mysterious,  but  a  very  beautiful  analogy  pervades 
throughout ;  and  teaches  us  to  look  beyond  natural  causes,  in  attempting  to  account  for 
effects  apparently  interwoven  in  the  plans  of  Omnipotence. 

To  reconcile  the  different  theories  regarding  the  number  of  primary  variations  in  the 
human  form  is  our  next  object.  The  greatest  authorities  on  this  subject  are  Blumenbach 
and  Lawrence,  Cuvier  and  Pritchard.  The  first  two,  as  already  observed,  maintain  that  the 
primary  divisions  are  five  ;  while  the  latter,  with  more  show  of  reason,  contend  that  there 
are  but  three,  although  they  readily  admit  the  distinctions  assigned  to  the  other  two.  In 
what  manner,  therefore,  can  these  opposite  theories  be  reconciled  1  To  do  this,  we  must 
revert  to  a  third  and  very  remarkable  one,  which,  although  it  has  hitherto  been  solely  di- 
rected to  the  animal  kingdom,  will  yet  be  found  to  exercise  a  very  important  influence  on 
the  present  question :  we  allude  to  the  circular  theory  of  MacLeay.  It  is  the  opinion  of 
this  learned  naturalist  that  every  group  of  organised  beings  divides  itself,  as  it  were,  into 
two  branches  of  affinities,  which  finally  uniting  again  at  their  opposite  extremities,  form  a 
circle  ;  and  that  this  disposition  of  affinities  holds  good,  not  only  in  every  group,  of  what- 
ever magnitude  or  denomination,  but  tlirougliout  the  animal  and  the  vegetable  world.  It 
has  been  further  shown  that  as  such  a  circular  arrangement  of  beings  cannot,  of  necessity, 
present  any  absolute  or  isolated  divisions,  (for  it  could  not  then  be  continuous  and  circular), 
yet,  that  there  may  be  traced,  in  each  circle,  five  deviations  or  varieties  of  structure  ;  which, 
however  conspicuous  in  their  typical  examples,  are  blended  and  lost  the  nearer  they  approx- 
imate to  each  other.  Now,  so  far  as  regards  the  affinities  of  animals,  this  circular  theory 
has  been  demonstrated ;  but  it  long  remained  a  matter  of  doubt  what  number  of  primary 
divisions  every  group  contained.  Mr.  MacLeay  considers  there  are  five  ;  and  this  accords 
with  Blumenbach's  arrangement  of  the  human  species.  M.  Cuvier,  and  Dr.  Pritchard,  as 
we  have  before  stated,  limit  the  leading  varieties  of  man  to  three.  In  our  arrangement  of 
the  order  Insessores  {North.  Zoology,  vol.  ii.),  one  of  the  most  comprehensive  divisions  in 
ornithology,  we  have  shown  that  the  primary  divisions  of  every  natural  group  are  only  three  ; 
one  of  which,  by  forming  a  circle  of  its  own,  includes  three  of  those  pointed  out  by  Mr. 
MacLeay, — thus  making  the  number  five.  Now,  this  theory,  on  the  natural  divisions  of 
birds,  rests  upon  no  speculative  assumption;  it  is  founded  on  the  most  rigorous  and  minute 
analysis,  and  has  thus  been  capable  of  mathematic  demonstration.  The  question,  whether 
this  theory  is  applicable  to  one  part  only  of  the  animal  creation,  or  whether  there  is  pre- 
sumptive evidence  to  conclude  that  it  pervades  all  nature,  has  been  discussed  at  some 
length  m  the  "  Introductory  Observations  on  tlie  Natural  System,"  prefixed  to  the  same 
work.  In  some  respects  tlie  trinary  and  the  quijiary  theory  of  divisions  may  be  thought 
virtually  the  same  ;  and  so  far  as  regards  our  present  subject,  considered  abstractly,  this 
observation  may  be  true.  We  can  analyze  a  group  of  insects,  of  birds,  or  of  other  animals, 
but  how  are  we  to  analyze  the  different  modifications  of  man  ]  The  thing  is  utterly  impos- 
sible. Now,  as  every  true  theory  must  rest  upon  analysis,  our  present  views  on  this 
subject  would  be  purely  speculative,  did  they  not  so  strikingly  and  wonderfully  coincide 
with  those  in  other  departments  of  nature,  into  which  we  can  prosecute  minute  research, 
and  attain  logical  demonstration.  Besides,  by  supposing  that  there  are  five  principal  varia- 
tions in  man,  each  equally  important  with  the  other,  we  entirely  destroy  the  beautifijl 
analogy  between  these  variations  and  the  sacred  writings.  But  without  entering  farther 
upon  this  question,  it  will  be  sufficient  for  our  present  purpose  to  repeat,  that,  in  regard  to 
man,  the  views  of  Blumenbach  and  Cuvier  are  virtually  the  same;  for  if,  with  the  former, 
we  reckon  five,  there  will  be  two  groups  more  conspicuously  typical  of  perfection,  and  three 
others,  wliich,  however  distinct  in  many  respects,  possess  several  characters  in  common.  If, 
on  tlie  other  hand,  we  follow  Cuvier  and  Pritchard,  and  restrict  tlie  number  to  three,  we  have 
the  Caucasian  and  the  Mongolian  as  the  two  principal  groups,  while  there  is  a  third,  typi- 


264  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  Part  IT. 

cally  represented  indeed  by  the  p]thiopian,  but  still  so  diversified  as  to  admit  of  a  threefold 
division,  into  the  American,  the  African,  and  tlie  Malay  varieties. 

That  the  variation  of  man  has  been  regulated  by  similar  -laws  to  those  which  have  been 
traced  throu<,''hout  nature,  is  a  conclusion  supported  by  strong  and  presumptive  evidence  ; 
drawn  both  from  the  sacred  writings,  and  from  inferences  in  zoological  science,  which  no 
one  liiis  ventured  to  dispute.  In  establishing  this  point,  I  have  studiously  confined  myself 
to  such  facts,  connected  with  the  physical  history  of  man,  as  rest  on  high  and  indisputable 
autliority.  On  a  subject  so  vast  and  intricate,  illustrated  by  the  united  labours  of  the  most 
acute  philosophers  now  living,  little  that  is  ncvv'  couJd  be  said,  and  that  little  might  have 
been  suspected  of  being  brought  forward  to  favour  a  particular  theory.  In  the  preceding 
sketch  of  the  principal  diiferences  in  man,  we  have,  therefore,  merely  condensed  the  obser- 
vations and  facts  detailed  in  the  writings  of  Blumenbach,  Cuvier,  Pritchard,  Lawrence,  and 
Sumner  ;  rather  wishing,  that,  whatever  inferences  are  drawn  from  such  sources,  the  facts 
themselves  should  rest  on  testimonies  of  so  much  weight. 

The  order  in  which  these  races  are  here  placed  leads  us  to  other  considerations.  Blumen- 
bach is  of  opinion  that  the  American  form  is  intermediate  between  the  Caucasian  and  Mon- 
golian ;  but  we  have  failed  to  discover  any  assigned  reason  for  such  a  disposition,  which 
also  seems  at  variance  with  the  progression  of  developement.  The  geographical  situation 
of  the  two  continents,  as  we  have  before  observed,  renders  it  highly  probable  that  the 
American  variety  is  more  immediately  connected  with  the  Mongolian ;  and  the  simple  flict, 
that  the  Esquimaux  have  been  by  some  considered  as  of  Asiatic  origin,  while  by  others  they 
are  thought  to  exhibit  more  of  the  American  type,  is,  perhaps,  the  strongest  proof  of  their 
intimate  relationship  to  both.  Neither  does  the  American  race  exhibit  any  direct  affinity 
to  the  Caucasian ;  while,  on  the  contrr»ry,  both  their  physical  structure  and  mental  develope- 
ment seem  to  place  them  in  close  approximation  to  the  Africans.  For  these  and  subsequent 
reasons,  we  have  felt  no  hesitation  in  adopting  the  series  intimated  in  the  Res^7ie  Animal. 
We  must  now  advert  to  another  peculiarity  in  this  arrangement,  which  renders  its  simili- 
tude to  the  zoological  series  still  more  remarkable.  This  is  the  progressive  series  of  affinities, 
resulting  from  placing  the  five  leading  varieties  in  the  order  in  which  they  have  been  here 
noticed.  The  Caucasian  and  the  Mongolian  races  present  the  highest  degree  of  civiliza- 
tion, although  in  very  different  degrees  when  compared  with  each  other:  the  regions  they 
respectively  inhabit,  in  like  manner,  approximate  so  closely  as  not  to  be  divided  by  water. 
Yet  the  configuration  of  these  races  is  so  remarkable,  that  they  cannot  be  mistaken  or  con- 
founded. In  the  third  race,  comprehending  the  American,  the  Malay,  and  the  Ethiopian, 
very  marked  deviations  from  the  typical  endowments  of  the  two  former  are  manifest.  This 
inferiority  is  first  shown  in  tlie  American,  whose  outward  form  and  moral  capacity  is  never- 
tiieless  superior  to  the  African.  Yet,  as  nature  in  the  animal  kingdom  is  ever  prone  to 
retrace  her  steps,  and  to  return  again  to  her  original  type ;  so  we  observe  that,  after  exhibit- 
ing, in  some  of  the  African  hordes,  the  lowest  debasement  of  the  human  form,  and  the  least 
capacity  for  mental  improvement,  she  begins,  as  Blumenbach  observes,  in  the  diversified 
races  of  the  Malay  variety,  to  show  a  progressive  but  a  very  marked  inclination  to  return 
through  them  to  the  Caucasian  type.  So  strong,  indeed,  does  this  appear  in  many  tribes  of 
the  South  Sea  Islanders,  not  only  in  the  beauty  of  their  forms,  but  in  the  advance  they  are 
continually  making  towards  intellectual  improvement,  that  every  voyager,  who  has  visited 
their  shores,  concurs  in  likening  them  to  Europeans. 

The  inferences  to  be  drawn  from  this  circular  disposition  are  important,  if  merely  con- 
sidered in  relation  to  those  systems,  which,  by  presupposing  a  lineal  scale  in  creation,  would 
place  the  negro  in  immediate  contact  with  the  monkey.  Now,  without  laying  any  stress 
upon  that  primary  characteristic  of  man,  a  reasoning,  thinking,  and  immaterial  soul,  of 
which  the  body  is  but  a  temporary  receptacle,  we  must,  before  we  consent  to  this  hypothesis, 
get  over  difficulties  which  appear  insurmountable.  That  the  Ethiopian  holds  the  lowest  station 
among  the  varieties  of  his  species,  is  fully  grnnted;  but  that  this  admission  implies  an 
affinity  to  tlie  ape,  does  by  no  means  follow.  There  may  be  an  approximation:  but  it  is 
necessary,  before  we  decide  on  the  degree  of  such  approximation,  that  we  should  examine 
the  relative  affinity  which  the  Ethiopian  bears  to  the  Caucasian.  For  if  it  should  appear 
that  the  difference  between  the  most  perfect  and  the  most  imperfect  of  the  human  races  is 
unquestionably  less  than  between  the  latter  and  the  brutes ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  the 
similarities  between  the  negro  and  tlie  Caucasian  are  decidedly  greater  than  those  between 
the  negro  and  the  ape ;  we  must  admit  that  this  latter  approximation  is  too  slight  to  be 
termed  an  affinity.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  consider  man  only  as  a  material  being,  he 
stands  so  far  removed  from  brutes — the  interval  between  him  and  them  is  so  great — that  it 
would  be  a  violation  of  natural  affinities,  and  certainly  an  insult  on  his  better  nature,  to  class 
him  in  the  same  system.  To  arrive  at  a  just  conclusion  on  this  subject,  we  must  not  look  so 
much  to  any  o??e  point  of  comparison,  or  to  mere  anatomical  analogies,  but  bring  the  dis- 
lingiiisliing  characters  of  each  into  direct  comparison.  Does  the  negro,  it  may  then  be  asked, 
i^vincc  a  deficiency  of  those  qualities  which  belong  to  the  Caucasians  ]  we  allude  not  to  the 
natural  affections,  for  these  are,  in  some  degree,  common  to  brutes ;  but  in  self-privation, 


Book  III.  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN.  265 

compassion,  and  heroic  love  of  their  country.  Are  they  incapable  of  learning  European 
arts,  or  of  inventing  others  suitable  to  their  wants  or  habits  1  To  deny  them  such  qualities 
would  be  preposterous;  they  possess  the  germs  of  others  infinitely  higher,  whicli,  under 
favourable  circumstances,  have  produced  expert  artisans,  skilful  physicians,  pious  divines, 
and  pleasing  poets.  "  I  protest  especially,"  observes  Mr.  Lawrence,  "  against  the  opinion 
which  either  denies  to  the  'Africans  the  enjoyment  of  reason,  or  ascribes  to  the  whole  race 
{)ropensities  whicli  would  degrade  them  even  below  the  level  of  the  brute.  It  can  be  proved 
most  clearly,  that  there  is  no  circumstance  of  bodily  structure  so  peculiar  to  the  negro,  as 
not  to  be  found  also  in  other  far  distant  nations ;  no  character  which  does  not  run  into  those 
of  other  races,  by  as  insensible  gradations  as  those  which  connect  together  all  the  varieties 
of  mankind."  (p.  428.)  To  pursue  this  comparison  farther  is  needless ;  and  to  ask  whether 
the  least  indication  of  such  powers  has  ever  been  manifested  by  the  quadrumanous  animals 
would  be  ridiculous.  The  learned  and  eloquent  Bishop  Sumner  forcibly  observes,  "  There 
is  nothing  pliilosophical  in  the  comparison  of  a  being  possessed  of  improvable  reason  with 
one  that  is  governed  by  natural  instinct,  because  there  is  no  just  affinity  between  the  talents 
which  are  comparetl."  {Records  of  Creation,  vol.  i.  p.  23.)  We  consider  this  argument  as 
conclusive.  To  class  man,  therefore,  in  the  same  zoological  division  with  apes,  merely 
because  both  have  a  hyoid  bone,  is,  to  our  apprehension,  as  glaring  a  violation  of  natural 
affinities  as  to  arrange  bats  with  birds,  because  both  fly  in  the  air,  and  possess  a  crest  to  their 
sternum.  So  far,  indeed,  from  considering  man  as  the  type  of  a  zoological  order  of  brutes, 
we  cannot  allow  that  he  even  belongs  to  the  same  system  in  which  they  are  arranged.  It 
may  be,  that  the  deviations  of  his  structure  are  regulated  by  those  laws  which  govern  the 
universe ;  yet,  nevertheless,  by  his  nobler  qualities  (which  in  fact  are  his  true  distinctions) 
he  belongs  to  a  higher  order  of  beings :  that  he  is,  in  short,  a  link  between  matter  and 
spirit ;  that  he  carries  this  evidence,  through  revelation,  within  himself;  and  will  hereafler 
be  most  assuredly  rewarded  or  punished,  according  as  he  suffers  his  spiritual  or  his  earthly 
nature  to  preponderate. 

Sect.  IV. — On  the  Geographic  Distribution  of  Animals. 

The  geographic  distribution  of  animals  over  the  globe,  is  the  next  subject  of  inquiry.  In 
the  general  outline  of  the  variations  in  man  which  has  been  given  above,  we  have  deemed 
it  more  important  to  seek  atler  general  results  than  to  enter  upon  minute  details.  Our  atten- 
tion has  been  fixed,  not  so  much  on  those  ramifications  which  shoot  out  near  the  extremities 
of  every  branch,  and  become  too  indistinct  for  clear  elucidation,  but  rather  to  the  leading 
branches  themselves,  on  the  nature  of  which  there  has  been  little  diversity  of  opinion. 

In  the  inquiry  regarding  the  geographic  distribution  of  animals,  on  which  we  now  enter, 
tlie  same  mode  will  be  adopted,  but  with  this  difference,  that  whereas  we  hav2  hitherto 
drawn  our  inferences  solely  from  the  facts  and  general  opinions  of  others,  we  shall  now  put 
aside  all  theories  heretofore  promulgated  on  the  distribution  of  animals,  and  merely  depend 
on  simple  facts  for  the  support  of  those  inferences  which  they  may  appear  to  sanction.  We 
shall  first  briefly  notice  those  principles  which  have  been  applied  to  elucidate  the  phenomena 
of  animal  distribution,  and  then  inquire  how  far  they  appear  conducive  to  that  end. 

That  climate,  temperature,  soil,  and  food,  exercise  a  paramount  influence  on  the  distribu- 
tion of  animals,  has  been  generally  believed;  and  on  this  assumption  naturalists  have  divided 
the  world  into  climates,  zones,  or  provinces  regulated  by  degrees  of  longitude  or  latitude. 
Such  has  been  the  favourite  theory  not  only  of  physiologists,  but  of  professed  naturalists, 
whose  knowledge  of  details  might  have  furnished  them  with  insuperable  objections  against 
such  views.  Thus,  the  celebrated  entomologist  Fabricius  conceived  that  the  insect  world 
could  be  naturally  divided  into  eight  climates:  one  of  which  is  made  to  comprehend  all  those 
mountains,  in  every  part  of  the  world,  whose  summits  are  covered  by  eternal  snow.  It  is, 
therefore,  not  surprising  that  M.  Latreille  should  consider  such  a  theory  as  altogether  vague 
in  some  respects,  and  arbitrary  in  others.  But  will  not  the  latter  objection  be  equally  appli- 
cable to  the  distribution  which  this  eminent  naturalist  has  himself  proposed  for  this  part  of 
the  creation  1  At  least,  such  is  the  opinion  of  one  fully  competent  to  judge  the  question. 
"  A  chart  of  animal  geography,"  says  Mr.  Kirbj%  "  which  is  divided  into  climates  of  24°  of 
longitude  and  12°  of  latitude,  wears  upon  its  face  the  stamp  of  an  artificial  and  arbitrary 
system,  rather  than  of  one  according  with  nature."  On  much  the  same  principles  another 
theory  has  been  built,  by  which  the  earth  is  divided  into  seven  zoological  provinces,  or  zones, 
mainly  dependent  on  the  respective  degrees  of  latitude  they  occupy.  Now,  so  far  as  regards 
one  of  thpse  provinces — that  comprehended  within  the  arctic  circle — this  view  of  the  subject, 
at  first  sijjht,  appears  perfectly  just :  for  there  is  not  only  a  strong  analog-y  between  the  groups 
of  animils  inhabiting  such  parts  of  the  two  continents  as  enter  into  this  circle,  but  there  is  also 
an  absolute  affinity  between  them  ;  inasmuch  as  the  arctic  regions  contain  not  only  o-enera, 
but  numerous  species,  common  to  both  continents.  This  theory,  however,  loses  all  its  force 
when  applied  to  such  divisions  as  are  made  to  include  the  tropical  regions  of  Africa,  Ame- 
rica, and  Asia,  in  one  province,  and  the  southern  extremities  of  America  and  Africa  in 
another.     The  zoologist  immediately  perceives  that  the  only  relation  which  these  countries 

Vol.  I.  23  31 


266  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  Part  fl. 

bear  to  each  other  in  their  animal  productions,  is  purely  analogical ;  and  we  are  thus  com- 
pelled to  relinquish  a  theory  which  appears  correct  only  in  one  point  of  view.  Those  and 
other  less  eminent  writers  appear  to  have  erred  in  the  very  foundation  of  their  methods. 
They  assume  as  granted,  what  has  never  yet  been  proved,  that  temperature  exercises  a  pri- 
mary influence  on  animal  distribution.  Were  such  the  case,  it  would  naturally  tbllow  tliat 
the  animals  of  such  parts  of  America,  Africa,  and  Asia,  as  are  placed  in  corresponding 
degrees  of  latitude,  would  be  nearly  of  similar  species ;  or,  at  least,  of  the  same  natural 
genera.  Yet  such,  as  we  shall  hereafter  show,  is  not  the  fact.  Between  the  animals  of 
these  regions  there  is,  indeed,  in  very  many  instances,  a  strong  analogy :  such,  for  instance, 
as  is  apparent  between  the  Trochilidce  of  the  New  World,  the  Cinnyridce  of  Asia  and  Africa, 
and  the  Mclliphagida  of  the  Australian  islands.  Such,  again,  is  that  between  tlie  Toucans 
of  America  {fig.  75.  a),  and  the  hombills  of  Asia  {fig.  75.  b).  Yet  not  one  species  of  these 
birds  occur  in  any  two  of  these  countries.  Nevertheless  it 
cannot  be  denied,  that  the  temperature  and  configuration  of 
a  country  exercises  a  powerful  influence  on  the  distribution 
of  animals.  But  these  effects  are  of  a  secondary  nature,  and 
totally  fail  when  employed  to  elucidate  those  general  princi- 
ples which  appear  to  regulate  the  whole  system  of  animal 
geography.  Such  agencies,  however,  may  be  safely  allowed 
to  possess  much  weight,  when  we  descend  to  details  and  in- 
vestigate the  local  Fauna  of  any  particular  country  or  dis- 
trict. It  has  been  observed  by  the  celebrated  Humboldt,  and 
confirmed  by  an  authority  of  nearly  equal  weight,  that,  with 
regard  to  certain  tribes  of  insects,  their  geographical  distribution  does  not  appear  to  depend 
solely  on  the  degree  of  heat  or  humidity  to  which  they  are  exposed,  or  on  the  particular 
situation  they  inhabit;  "but  rather  on  local  circumstances,  that  are  difficult  to  characterise." 
This  opinion  is  in  unison  with  the  whole  tenor  of  the  facts  to  which  we  shall  hereafter 
advert.  We  must,  therefore,  agree  with  Mr.  Kirby,  and  consider  that  the  distribution,  not 
only  of  insects,  but  of  animals  in  general,  is  "  fixed  by  the  will  of  liie  Creator,  rather  than 
certainly  regulated  by  any  isothermal  lines."  {Introduction  to  Entomology,  vol.  iv.  p.  484.) 
The  distribution  of  animals,  in  connexion  with  that  of  the  human  race,  remains  to  be 
considered.  From  what  has  been  already  stated,  there  appears  strong  reason  to  believe,  that 
the  variations  in  the  structure  of  man  and  of  animals  are  regulated  by  similar  laws;  and 
this  supposition  will  receive  considerable  weight,  should  it  appear,  upon  investigation, 
that  those  divisions  of  our  globe  which  have  been  apportioned  to  the  different  varieties  of 
man,  are  equally  characterised  by  certain  peculiarities  in  their  animal  tribes.  Now,  to 
establish  the  truth  of  such  a  theory,  it  is  necessary  to  waive  all  general  abstract  reasoning, 
and  to  draw  deductions  from  known  facts.  And  it  is  equally  obvious  that,  if  such  facts  are 
to  be  collected  from  the  whole  animal  kingdom,  this  essay  must  be  extended  to  several 
volumes,  even  admitting  that  our  materials  were  sufficiently  extensive  for  such  a  purpose. 
But  the  truth  is,  that  the  data  for  such  a  comprehensive  investigation  are  so  ^e\w,  so  meagre, 
and  so  unsatisfactory  when  compared  with  the  diversity  and  vastness  of  the  subject,  that  they 
sink  into  insignificance.  Nor  will  this  appear  surprising,  if  we  consider  the  astonishing  number 
of  animals  that  have  been  already  described  by  naturalists,  or  are  known  to  exist  in  cabinets  ; 
setting  aside  the  hosts  of  species  yet  unknown,  which,  in  many  departments,  may  possibly 
amount  to  double  or  treble  the  number  we  are  acquainted  with.  Yet,  as  details  of  some 
sort  must  be  gone  into,  it  becomes  absolutely  necessary  to  select  for  such  a  purpose  some 
one  department  of  nature  ;  and  the  result  which  might  follow,  we  may  fairly  presume, 
would  be  in  unison  with  those  that  would  attend  the  investigation  of  other  divisions  of  the 
animal  world,  could  they  be  investigated  upon  the  same  principles.  Nature,  in  all  her 
operations,  is  uniform :  and  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  the  distribution  of  quadrupeds,  birds, 
insects,  or  reptiles,  would  each  be  regulated  by  different  laws. 

In  choosing,  therefore,  from  the  animal  kingdom  some  one  order  of  beings  for  particular 
investigation,  it  might  be  thought  that  the  distribution  of  quadrupeds  would  present  the  best 
field  of  inquiry.  It  possiWy  might,  did  not  their  investigation  involve  certain  points  of  con- 
troversy connected  with  geology,  which,  however  important,  are  not  so  intimately  connected 
with  o\ir  present  object  as  to  render  their  discussion  necessary  in  this  place.  The  division 
of  reptiles  is  subject  to  the  same  objection,  and  is  not  sufficiently  extensive  for  our  purpose. 
The  annulose  animals,  on  the  other  hand,  are  so  numerous  that  they  appear  to  baffle  our 
inquiries;  nor  can  we  hope,  while  yet  in  the  infancy  of  geographic  natural  history,  to  do 
more  than  has  been  already  done  by  the  genius  of  Latreille.  Birds  alone  remain.  It  has, 
indeed,  been  argued,  that  no  very  certain  results  can  attend  the  study  of  their  distribution ; 
because,  from  possessing  the  powers  of  locomotion,  and  the  instinct  of  migration,  in  a  high 
degree,  they  appear  more  widely  dispersed  than  any  other  class  of  animals.  How  far  this 
may  be  true  has  never,  indeed,  been  made  apparent ;  yet,  allowing  the  assertion  its  full 
weight,  we  may  safely  conclude,  that  if,  under  these  disadvantages,  any  definite  notions 
0?  geographic  distribution  can  be  gathered  from  the  study  of  such  volatile  beings,  the 


Book  III.      ,  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  ANIMALS.  267 

results  would  be  materially  strengthened  if  found  to  harmonize  with  what  is  already  known 
on  the  distribution  of  other  orders  of  animals,  which,  from  their  physical  construction,  are 
less  capable  of  extending  their  geographic  range.  It  is  here,  however,  necessary  to  premise, 
that  in  this,  as  in  all  other  branches  of  natural  history,  the  accounts  and  relations  of  tra- 
vellers, not  in  themselves  zoologists,  must  be  received  with  great  caution.  Unacquainted 
with  tliose  nice  distinctions  upon  which  not  only  the  differences  of  species,  but  of  genera 
and  families,  are  now  known  to  depend,  they  perpetually  contradict,  by  a  hasty  application 
of  well-known  names,  some  of  the  most  acknowledged  truths  in  animal  geography.  Nor 
can  the  facts  detailed  in  the  compilations  of  more  scientific  writers  be  always  depended  upon. 
The  voluminous  works  of  a  most  industrious  and  zealous  ornitlaologist  of  the  Linneean  school 
abound  with  mistakes  of  this  nature;  wherein  not  only  species  but  genera  are  said  to  in- 
habit countries  where  they  have  never  been  found  except  in  the  vague  and  erroneous 
narrative  of  travellers.  It  is  the  misfortune  of  those  who  complain  against  the  multiplicity, 
and  regret  the  adoption,  of  modern  divisions,  that  by  so  doing  they  debar  themselves  from 
studying  the  variations  of  physical  structure,  and  neglect  the  main  clue  to  enlarged  concep- 
tions of  zoological  science.  It  is  necessary  to  make  these  allusions,  that  the  reader  may  be 
apprised  of  our  adoption,  in  this  place,  of  the  principal  modern  genera ;  and  our  rejection  of 
many  of  the  localities  erroneously  given  to  certain  species  in  the  general  histories  of  birds. 

1.  The  Caucasian  or  European  Province. 
The  ornithological  features  of  the  Caucasian  range,  or  of  the  regions  over  which  the 
Caucasian  variety  of  the  human  species  is  said  to  be  distributed,  will  first  claim  our  atten- 
tion. It  has  been  already  shown  that  this  range  comprises  such  portion  of  Africa  as  lies 
north  of  the  Great  Desert,  nearly  the  whole  of  Europe,  and  a  considerable  extent  of  Western 
Asia.  Tlie  ornithology  of  the  countries  bordering  upon  this  region  has  been  but  partially 
investigated;  yet  sufficient  is  known  to  siiow  that  it  presents  a  mixture  of  those  species 
which  have  their  chief  metropolis  in  other  countries.  It  has  been  thought  that  the  animals 
of  the  arctic  circle  are  so  peculiar,  as  to  justify  us  in  considering  that  region  in  the  light 
of  a  distinct  zoological  province.  The  objections  against  tliis  idea  have  already  been  alluded 
to ;  and  they  become  more  forcible  when  we  discover,  that  on  calculating  the  number  of 
birds,  both  terrestrial  and  aquatic,  which  occur  within  the  arctic  circle,  they  do  not  amount 
to  more  than  twenty-two ;  and  that  most  of  these,  during  the  greatest  portion  of  the  year, 
are  found  in  the  more  northern  parts  of  Britain  and  America.  They  probably  occur  in  simi- 
lar latitudes  on  the  Asiatic  continent;  but  on  this  point  onr  information  is  defective. 

The  swimming  birds  are  known  to  possess  a  very  wide  range ;  but  this  is  less  extensive, 
perhaps,  than  is  generally  imagined.  The  number  of  species  found  on  the  shores  of  Europe 
and  Northern  Africa,  independently  of  those  more  peculiar  to  the  arctic  circle,  is  sixty. 
Of  these,  two  alone  have  been  discovered  in  the  four  quarters  of  the  globe ;  three  are  com- 
mon to  Europe,  Asia,  and  America;  one  to  Europe,  Asia,  and  Southern  Africa;  and  twenty- 
seven  to  Europe  and  Northern  America:  thus  leaving  twenty-seven  (or  nearly  one-half  the 
number  of  European  natatorial  species)  as  peculiar  to  this  zoological  division  of  the  world. 

Among  the  Grallatores,  or  wadi^rs,  some  particular  species  are  so  widely  dispersed  as  to 
snjrgpst  the  idea  that  the  geographic  range  of  this  order  is  even  wider  than  that  of  the 
^Natfttores ;  and  this,  generally  speaking,  may  be  true.  Of  the  sixty-five  species  described 
as  natives  of  Europe,  thirteen  only  occur  in  Americn,  and  two  only  can  be  reckoned  arctic 
birds,  althoutrh  several  others  occasionally  frequent  those  regions.  Of  the  remainder,  four 
occur  in  Asia ;  two  in  Asia  and  Africa ;  four  in  Asia  and 
America ;  seven  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  America ;  and  the  Whim- 
brel  (Jifi;.  76.)  (Numenius  Phccpus)  is  said  to  be  the  same  in 
all  the  five  divisions  of  the  globe.  It  is  consequently  among 
the  wading  birds  that  we  find  those  whose  range  is  most  exten- 
sive ;  yet,  on  a  general  calculation,  the  number  of  species  pecu- 
liar to  Europe  is  considerably  greater  than  those  of  the  Nata- 
tores ;  the  former  being  as  one  to  two,  the  latter  nearly  as  one 

___^^ to  four.     It  thus  appears,  that,  even  among  birds  of  the  most 

-;^3?=-    =iS=^  vagrant  habits,  the  ornithology  of  Europe  is  characterised  by  a 

The  Whimhrei.  decided  Superiority  in  the  number  of  its  own  peculiar  species. 

The  rapacious  birds,  next  to  the  aquatic  orders,  are  thought  to  be  the  most  widely  distri- 
buted ;  particularly  the  nocturnal  species.  It  is  very  remarkable,  that  out  of  thirteen  dif- 
ferent owls  inhabiting  Europe,  five  only  are  peculiar  to  this  continent;  and  two  of  these 
more  particularly  frequent  the  arctic  regions.  Of  the  rest,  five  occur  in  America,  two  in 
Southern  Africa,  and  one  both  in  Asia  and  America.  The  Falconidcp,  or  diurnal  birds  of 
prey,  in  regard  to  their  species,  have  a  more  restricted  distribution;  yet,  of  these,  the  eagles 
enjoy  no  inconsiderable  range.  Out  of  eight  discovered  in  Europe,  one  is  more  properly 
arctic,  three  have  been  found  in  .several  parts  of  Africa,  and  one  occurs  in  America;  leaving 
three  only  to  Europe.  It  is  singular  Xh^X  those  rapacious  birds  which,  from  the  peculiar 
structure  of  their  wings,  have  been  supoosed  to  enjoy  the  greatest  povrers  of  flight  among 


268 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  II. 


their  cong'eners,  are  those  most  restricted  in  their  geographic  limits.  Tliis  is  proved  by  the 
feet,  that  out  of  eight  genuine  falcons  occurring  in  Europe  and  Northern  Africa,  two  only 
have  been  discovered  in  America.  It  has,  however,  recently  been  stated  that  the  Falco 
peregrinus  of  Australia  is  identically  the  same  as  that  of  Europe :  neither  does  Southern 
Africa,  we  believe,  possess  a  single  European  species,  or  not  one  of  those  inhabiting  the 
northern  extremity  of  that  peninsula ;  the  Mcntagnurd  of  Le  Vaillant,  long  confounded 
with  the  European  Kestril,  bemg  a  decidedly  distinct  species.  Upon  the  whole,  the  di:?tri- 
bution  of  the  forty-four  species  of  European  iJffp/orcs  will  stand  thus:  three  are  Arctic, 
eleven  are  found  also  in  America,  two  in  Asia  and  Africa,  and  one  in  Asia  and  America ; 
leaving  twenty-seven,  or  more  than  one-half,  peculiar  to  European  ornithology. 

The  Gallinaceous  genera  are  few ;  and  their  wide  dispersion 
is  decidedly  against  the  theory,  that  all  birds  with  heavy  bodies 
and  short  wings  are  more  limited  in  their  geographic  range  tiian 
other  terrestrial  tribes.  This  argument  has  been  ingeniously 
used  to  account  for  tiie  very  restricted  limits  withm  which  many 
of  the  Indian  parrots  have  been  found ;  one  or  two  species  being 
frequently  confined  to  a  particular  island.  Ornithologists,  how- 
ever, need  not  be  told  that  tiie  wings  of  the  PsittacidcE  are  pecu- 
liarly adapted  for  strong  and  vigorous  flight ;  and  those  who  have 
seen  these  birds  in  their  native  regions  cannot  fail  to  have  re- 
marked that  their  flight  is  peculiarly  rapid ;  many  genera,  in 
this  respect,  passing  through  the  air  with  the  celerity  of  the 
Jl^iM-  Jiawk.  The  wide  dispersion  of  the  Gallinaceous  order  is  very 
evident.  The  range  of  the  great  bustard  {Jig.  77.)  extends  from 
'^^^^^^t-.c^!^  -"-^  one  extremity  of  temperate  Europe  to  the  confines  of  Asia ;  and 
the  quail,  remarkable  for  its  heavy  body  and  short  wings,  per- 
The  Great  Bustard.  forms  two  annual  migrations,  from  and  to  Nortliern  Africa,  over 

Europe  and  Western  Asia.  We  consider  very  few  of  the  European  Gallinaceous  birds  as 
truly  arctic ;  for  nearly  all  the  species  appear  to  occur  as  plentifully  beyond  those  regions 
as  within  them.  Many  of  the  meridional  European  birds,  as  Upupa  Epops,  Oriolus  galbula, 
Coraceas  garrulus,  &c.,  might  with  equal  justice  be  classed  as  peculiarly  characteristic  of 
Central  or  Southern  Africa.  It  nevertlieless  appears  that,  even  among  the  GallinaceEB, 
fourteen  out  of  twenty-seven  have  their  principal  seat  in  Europe.  The  remainder  are  thus 
apportioned :  five  extend  to  Western  Asia,  five  to  the  confines  of  the  great  African  desert, 
two  are  dispersed  in  Central  Asia  and  Africa,  while  two  only  occur  in  North  America. 

The  Fissirostral  birds,  typically  represented  by  the  swallow, 
are,  of  all  the  insectivorous  tribes,  most  conspicuous  for  their 
powers  of  flight.  With  but  one  exception,  the  European  King- 
fisher {Alctdo  evropcca,  fig.  78),  they  are  all  migratory :  hence 
we  find  that  most  of  the  species  occur  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
European  Fauna.  The  pro|K)rtion  of  those  which  appear  confined 
to  Europe  and  Northern  Africa  is  as  one  to  three. 

The  small  Granivorous  birds  not  only  present  a  great  diversity 
in  their  species,  but  a  considerable  preponderance  in  their  nu- 
merical amount.  Forty-one  are  included  in  the  European  list ; 
two  of  which,  at  certain  seasons,  frequent  the  polar  regions  in 
great  numbers,  but  are  nevertheless  abundant  in  all  the  northern 
latitudes ;  seven  inhabit  North  America,  and  three  extend  both 
to  Asia  and  Africa ;  so  that  Europe  may  be  considered  the  metropolis  of  nearly  thirty  pecu- 
liar species. 

The  Scansorial  birds  are  few ;  yet  eight  out  of  the  fifteen  recorded  as  European  are 
imknovvn  in  other  regions.  It  is  among  the  Insectivorous  and  soft-billed  birds  that  we  must 
look  for  the  principal  ornithological  features  of  any  particular  region.  The  immense  family 
of  Humming-birds  in  the  New  World,  and  of  Melliphagidae,  or  Honey-suckers,  in  the  Aus- 
tralian islands,  would  alone  be  sulficient  to  mark  these  regions  with  a  distinct  zoological 
character.  To  what  cause  we  are  to  attribute  the  fact  that  these  birds,  by  no  means  deficient 
in  the  power  of  flight  (which,  indeed,  in  many  of  them  is  considerably  developed,)  should 
nevertheless  be  so  strictly  confined  within  certain  geographic  limits,  remains  unexplained. 
We  can  only  in  this  place  illustrate  the  fact.  Of  eighty-five  species  belonging  to  the  Lin- 
naean  genera  of  Turdus,  Sylvia,  Parus,  and  ]\Iuscicapa,  eighty-two  are  strictly  European. 
In  this  number  we  of  course  include  those  which  migrate,  at  certain  seasons,  to  Northern 
Africa  and  Western  Asia;  for  these  regions,  it  must  be  always  remembered,  come  within 
the  zoological  province  we  are  now  treating  of;  yet,  if  we  deduct  the  number  of  those  which 
have  actually  been  detected  in  parts  beyond  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  on  one  side, 
and  Western  Asia  on  the  otiier,  they  will  amount  only  to  ten ;  leaving  seventy-two  as  a 
marked  peculiarity  in  tlie  ornithology  of  Europe.  In  further  proof  of  tlie  limited  range  of 
these  families,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  three  only  out  of  eighty-five  have  been  detected  in 


European  Kingfisher. 


Book  lil.  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  ANIMALS.  269 

America ;  and  that  tlie  identity  of  one  of  these  (Parus  atricapillus  L.)  with  an  European 
epecics  (Parus  palustris  L.)  is  very  questionable. 

The  Omnivorous  birds,  as  the  Sturnid,-e,  Corvidffi,  &c.,  are  the  last  requiring  notice.  A 
few  of  these  appear  widely  dispersed ;  but  upon  the  whole,  several  species,  and  even  peculiar 
genera,  are  leit  to  characterise  this  portion  of  the  world,  ^^'e  may  state  their  ''umber  at 
twenty-one  :  thirteen  of  which,  or  more  than  one  half,  habitually  rcbit'e  in  Europe ;  four  occur 
in  Northern  and  Central  Africa;  one  (Pastor  roseus  T.)  inhabits  botli  the  table-land  of  Asia 
and  the  deserts  of  Central  Africa ;  and  three  have  been  found  in  Ame-ica. 

These  details,  tedious  perhaps  to  the  general  reader,  but  interestir.j^  to  the  man  of  science, 
it  becomes  necessary  to  dwell  upon,  before  any  valid  deductions  can  be  drawn  from  the 
facts  they  exhibit.  In  this  difficult  and  somewhat  laborious  investigation  we  have  been 
much  assisted  by  the  writings  of  Wilson,  Temminck,  and  Le  Vaillant ;  but  more  than  all  by 
the  liberality  which  tlirows  the  magnificent  collections  of  the  French  Museum  open  to  the 
use  of  all  scientific  inquirers,  whatever  their  object  or  their  nation  may  be.*  It  cannot, 
however,  be  supposed  that,  even  with  greater  sources  of  information,  some  inaccuracies 
may  not  have  occurred.  Such  calculations,  in  short,  from  their  very  nature,  can  never 
be  perfect;  because  they  are  founded  upon  present  knowledge,  and  that  is  perpetually 
extending.  The  most  that  can  be  done  is  to  make  as  near  an  approximation  to  the  truth  as 
circumstances  will  admit;  and  having  done  this,  the  result  may  be  entitled  to  some  degree  of 
confidence. 

As  a  general  recapitulation  of  the  European  birds,  we  may  state  the  total  number,  exclu- 
sive of  a  few  which  occasionally  appear  at  remote  intervals  as  stragglers,  at  368.  Of  these, 
thirty-one  are  more  peculiar  to  the  arctic  regions  of  Europe,  America,  and  probably  of  Asia; 
tiie  proportion  being  as  one  to  thirteen.  Sixty-eight  (forty  being  aquatic)  occur al?o  intem- 
perate America ;  nine  are  dispersed  over  four  divisions  of  the  globe,  to  neither  of  which  can 
they  be  particularly  appropriated ;  and  either  one  (Numenius  Pliccpus)  or  two  extend  to 
Australia.  Witli  these  deductions,  the  number  will  thus  be  reduced  to  about  280.  If  from 
these  we  abstract  such  others  as  may  possibly  have  a  partial  range  beyond  the  limits  already 
defined,  the  number  may  be  further  reduced  to  about  250;  so  that,  even  with  this  allowance, 
nearly  two  thirds  of  the  birds  of  Europe,  Northern  Africa,  and  Western  Asia  may  safely  be 
considered  as  zoologically  characteristic  of  those  countries-. 

Another  character  in  European  ornithology  deserves  attention.  This  I'egards  the  superior 
number  of  generic  types  which  it  exhibits,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  species.  These 
genera  amount  to  108,  omitting  those  which  have  not  been  generally  adopted,  or  which,  from 
the  modifications  of  form  being  but  slight,  should  more  properly  be  termed  sections.  The 
proportion  which  these  genera  bear  to  the  number  of  species  (estimated  before  at  388) 
amounts  to  more  than  two  to  seven ;  or,  in  other  words,  does  not  give  seven  birds  to  two 
genera.  It  is  further  remarkable,  that  most  of  these  exhibit  in  their  structure  the  greatest 
perfection  of  those  orders  or  families  to  which  they  respectively  belong ;  and  which  groups 
are  denominated  by  naturalists  typical.  True  it  is  that  such  genera  are  widely  dispersed ; 
but  in  no  division  of  the  world  do  they  appear  so  numerous,  in  proportion  to  the  species,  as 
in  Europe.  This  remark  not  only  applies  to  the  typical  genera,  but  is  frequently  applicable 
to  the  number  of  species  they  respectively  contain.  One  instance  may  suffice.  The  noble 
falcons,  or  those  to  whom  the  generic  name  of  Falco  is  now  restricted,  are  generally  con- 
sidered the  most  typical  group  of  their  family  :  of  these,  the  Kestril  {Jig.  79.)  and  five  others 
^g,,,,^  79  have  their  metropolis  in  Europe  and  Northern  Africa.     The 

T  ^N^  /  whole  of  North  America  has  hitherto  produced  but  four.     Le 

Vaillant  enumerates  the  same  number  from  Southern  and  Cen- 
tral Africa.    Those  of  Central  Asia  are  not  known  ;  but  only 
two  have  been  recently  described  as  peculiar  to  the  vast  re- 
gions of  Australia.  Now,  if  we  merely  look  at  these  respective 
numbers,  the  difference  does  not  appear  very  remarkable  ;  but 
,         when  the  great  inferiority  between  the  Caucasian  regions  and 
^  -^-Si    i\'f'^^\\.    those  of  America,  Africa,  and  Australia,  in  point  of  extent,  is 
;;;^'^    \^'->'^'^X      ^^  taken  into  the  account,  it  will  be  immediately  seen  that  the 
„      '      "'  proportion  of  these  eminently  typical  species  in  the  European 

The  Kestril.  f       •  •  .  ■      i      i  :         a  *u      ^      •      i  c 

regions  is  particularly  great.     Among  the  typical  groups  oi 

the  wading  and  swimming  birds  this  is  still  more  apparent ;  so  that,  if  we  endeavour  to 

define  what  is  the  most  striking  feature  in  the  ornithology  of  this  zoological  province,  none 

is  so  remarkable  as  the  number  of  purely  typical  groups.     This  peculiarity  will  be  more 

apparent  on  looking  further  into  the  matter.     The  total  number  of  birds  throughout  tlie 

world,  existing  in  museums  or  clearly  described  in  authentic  works,  may  be  estimated  at 

6000.     These  have  been  arranged  under  about  380  genera ;  but  as  several  of  these  genera 

will  comprise  more  than  one  sub-genus,  we  will  put  down  400  as  a  nearer  approximation  to 

*■  We  have  been  'officially  informed  that,  by  the  laws  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  no  one  can  receive 
permi.-^sion  to  make  use  of  tlieir  Museum,  for  ^;eneral  scientific  purposes;  «ho  is  not  a  member. 

23* 


•270  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  Part  II. 

correctness:  this  would  leave  rather  more  than  fourteen  species  to  each  generic  group 
while,  if  the  ornithology  of  Europe  and  Northern  Africa  is  alone  considered,  tlie  proportion 
is  no  more  than  one  to  three ;  and  even  this  will  be  further  diminished  when  those  geo- 
graphic groups  among  the  Fringillida:  and  SylvuidcB,  which  are  decidedly  peculiar  to  this 
portion  of  tlie  globe,  are  investigated  and  defined.  Now,  it  is  very  singular  that,  in  speak- 
ing of  the  leading  varieties  of  the  Caucasian  race,  a  writer,  whose  testimony  is  no  mean 
authority,  observes,  "  that  the  tribes  among  tlie  Caucas  ans  are  more  numerous  than  in  any 
other."  And  again — "  VVhetlier  we  consider  the  several  nati07is  or  the  individuals  in  each, 
bodily  differences  arc  much  more  numerous  in  the  highly  civilized  Caucasian  variety  tiian  in 
either  of  the  other  divisions  of  mankind."  (Lawrence,  p.  442.  475.)  Wlien  we  glance  over 
the  list  of  those  nations  generally  supposed  to  have  sprung  from  this  type,  we  are  struck 
with  the  justice  of  these  observations.  It  is  the  more  remarkable,  as  the  regions  they  occupy 
are  disproportionably  small,  when  compared  with  those  peopled  by  the  Mongolian  and  Ethi- 
opian races.  That  there  are  instances  wherein  typical  forms  of  higher  groups  tlian  genera 
do  not  occur  witliin  the  European  range,  is  a  circumstance  which  will  not  materially  affect 
the  question.  Tluis  the  only  European  bird  belonging  to  the  Tenuirostres  of  M.  Cuvier 
is  the  European  Hoopoe  (Upupa  Epops),  which  is  certainly  not  a  typical  example;  but  this, 
so  far  as  tribes  are  concerned,  is  the  only  exception  to  the  rule.  It  is  curious,  also,  that  this 
exception  should  occur  in  tiiat  division  wliicli  comprises  the  smallest  and  weakest  of  birds. 
If  we  descend  to  families,  there  is  scarcely  one  pre-eminently  typical  of  its  own  perfection 
which  is  not  European.  A  further  objection  may  possibly  be  urged,  that,  although  such 
forms  are  indeed  abundant  in  tliis  Fauna,  they  are  nevertheless  found  in  nearly  every  other 
part  of  the  world  ;  and  cannot,  therefore,  be  looked  upon  as  characterising  Europe  more  than 
any  other  country :  but  this  will  not  bo  a  just  conclusion,  unless  it  is  first  shown  that 
the  proportion  of  such  types  to  the  total  number  of  European  species  is  not  decidedly 
greater  than  in  any  other  region.  Now  the  facts  we  have  already  stated  prove  this 
beyond  doubt. 

These  results,  obtained  from  unquestionable  data,  are  so  important  to  our  present  inquiry, 
that  their  hasty  notice  would  not  have  been  sufficient.  The  materials  for  illustrating  the 
crnitholotry  of  Europe  are  naturally  more  numerous  than  can  be  expected  for  other  portions 
of  the  globe ;  and  it  became  very  desirable  to  ascertain  how  far  the  ornitliology  of  tliose 
regions,  occupied  by  the  Caucasian  race,  presented  a  peculiarity  of  character  sufficiently 
strong  to  show  a  mutual  relationship  with  the  geograpliic  distribution  of  this  variety  of  man. 
We  are,  I  think,  sufficiently  authorised  to  consider  tiiat  both  are  in  unison.  At  least,  there 
are  so  many  singular  points  of  analogy,  as  to  render  it  highly  probable  that  there  exists  an 
intimate  relationship  between  tlie  distribution  of  one  race  of  mankind  and  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal geographic  divisions  of  birds. 

How  far  this  view  of  European  ornithology  would  be  borne  out  by  an  extended  investiga- 
tion of  other  orders  of  animals,  it  is  impossible  to  say.  Yet  even  if  our  present  limits  would 
permit  the  inquiry,  we  should  have  to  rely  more  upon  theory  than  facts.  Many  of  the 
quadrupeds  of  Europe  have  long  been  slowly  but  certainly  disappearing,  in  proportion  as 
culture  and  civilization  have  advanced  ;  and  any  conclusions  drawn  from  those  which  still 
remain  in  a  wild  state  would  be  open  to  great  objections,  particularly  as  the  question  must 
necessarily  embrace  the  nature  of  those  no  longer  existing,  but  whose  bones  occur  in  a  fossil 
state  throughout  Europe.  We  think  it  may  fairly  be  presumed  that,  in  all  those  convulsions 
which  have  agitited  our  globe,  birds  have  suffered  less  than  any  other  vertebrated  animals. 
Their  fossil  remains  are  few,  and  of  rare  occurrence ;  while  extensive  deposits  of  bones  and 
skeletons,  belonging  to  quadrupeds,  reptiles,  and  fish,  occur  more  or  less  abundantly  in 
almost  every  region,  and  attest  the  wide  destruction  to  which  such  animals  were  exposed. 
It  naturally  follows  that,  in  tracing  the  distribution  of  the  feathered  creation,  we  are  left 
unshackled  by  geological  controversy. 

The  few  observations  on  the  Ichthyology,  Entomology,  and  Conchology  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean we  shall  hereafter  make,  in  conjunction  with  those  of  Britain,  will  be  found  in  unison 
with  those  features  in  the  geographic  distribution  of  birds  we  have  already  traced ;  and  will 
equally  evince  the  propriety  of  including  the  whole  under  one  zoological  division.  This 
we  propo.se  to  name  the  European.  Such  a  designation  is,  indeed,  somewhat  objectionable, 
inasmuch  as  it  embraces  not  only  Europe,  but  Northern  Africa  and  Western  Asia ;  yet  it 
will,  perhaps,  convey  more  definite  ideas  than  if  the  name  were  adopted  from  the  particular 
race  of  men  belongmg  to  these  regions. 

2.  The  Mongolian  or  Asiatic  Province. 
The  birds  of  the  Mongolian  range  will  be  now  adverted  to.  The  typical  nations  of  this 
variety  of  man  occupy  the  remaining  portion  of  the  vast  continent  of  Asia ;  while  their 
characteristic  peculiarities  appear  blended  with  the  Malays  in  the  more  eastern  islands  of 
the  Indian  Archipelago.  The  ornithology  of  such  a  vast  proportion  of  Asia  is  as  varied  as 
it  is  remarkable ;  but  the  very  imperfect  nature  of  the  materials  hitherto  furnished  for  its 
elucidation,  renders  it  unpossible  for  us  to  give  those  satisfactory  data  wliich  have  beer 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  ANIMALS. 


271 


furnished  by  writers  on  the  birds  of  Europe.  Naturalists  look  forward  with  the  greatest 
interest  to  the  speedy  termination  of  the  zoological  researches  of  General  Hardwicke,  as 
likely  to  supply  these  deficiencies.  The  vast  stores  of  knowledge  which  a  long  residence 
in  the  East,  and  an  ardent  passion  for  natural  history,  have  placed  at  the  command  of  this 
naturalist,  render  him  peculiarly  qualified  for  such  an  undertaking. 

For  our  present  purpose,  minute  detail  is  not,  however,  essential.  Whatever  douhts  might 
at  first  have  arisen  on  the  propriety  of  considering  Europe  as  the  centre  of  an  ornithological 
province,  there  can  be  none  with  respect  to  Asia.  It  is  in  these  regions  that  the  chief  seat 
of  the  typical  Gallinaceaj  is  placed ;  they  abound  in  China,  Thibet,  the  Indian  Peninsula, 
and  even  extend  to  those  islands  whicli  are  considered  the  confines  of  the  Mongolian  race. 

Tlie  larger  species,  arranged  in  the  genera 
Pavo  and  Pclyplectron,  appear  to  charac- 
terise the  more  elevated  and  central  parts 
of  the  continent ;  wiiile  those  of  the  genus 
Galbts  are  more  numerous  in  Sumatra, 
Java,  and  the  adjacent  islands.  The  phea- 
S  sants  of  China  and  Thibet  form  a  no  less 
striking  feature  in  Asiatic  ornitliology ;  five 
species  of  magnificent  plumage  are  pecu- 
The  Silver  Pbeasant.  liar:  one  of  these,  the  elegant  Silver  Phea- 

sant {Nycthemerus  argentatus)  (Jig.  80.)  has  been  long  domesticated  in  our  aviaries.  Three 
other  superb  species  represent  a  group  {Lophophorus  Tem.),  discovered  only  upon  the  con- 
tinent. The  whole  of  these  Gallinaceous  genera  are  totally  unknown  in  Africa,  Australia, 
or  in  the  New  World.  When  to  these  we  add  the  Hornbiils  (Buceridcp),  the  Sun-birds 
{CinnyridcE),  tlie  short-legged  Thrushes  (G.  Brachypiis),  the  short-tailed  Thrushes  {PiUcb), 
certain  groups  among  the  Psittacidce,  and  many  otliers  totally  unknown  in  Europe,  Northern 
Africa,  and  Western  Asia,  yet  abounding  in  the  Mongolian  nations,  no  further  details  appear 
necessary  to  mark  the  ornithological  peculiarities  of  Asia,  as  distinct  from  those  of  Europe. 

From  the  Asiatic  islands  it  would,  perliaps,  be  more  natural  if  we  proceeded  at  once  to 
notice  the  Malay  or  Australian  range,  as  it  is  here  that  the  Faunas  of  these  divisions  of  the 
globe  evidently  meet.  But  as  this  would  interfere  with  the  order  observed  in  the  early 
portion  of  this  essay,  we  shall  pass  from  the  northern  regions  of  Asia  to  those  of  the  New 
World ;  particularly  as  both  present  a  mixed  race  of  men,  probably  originating  from  the 
Asiatic  continent. 

3.  The  American  Province. 
We  proceed  to  a  rapid  sketch  of  American  ornithology.  It  has  already  been  shown  that, 
excepting  the  Natatorial  birds,  there  are  fewer  species  common  alike  to  Northern  America 
and  to  Europe  than  might,  perhaps,  have  been  supposed ;  yet,  were  the  proportion  much 
greater,  the  circumstance  would  only  prove  that  nature  knows  no  abrupt  distinction.  It  is 
not  to  the  remote  ramifications  which  she  employs  to  connect  her  chain  of  operations  that 
our  attention  is  to  be  fixed ;  for  they  are  too  subtile  to  be  unravelled  by  beings  with  facul- 
ties so  limited.  But  as  soon  as  she  quits  these  inexplicable  mazes,  and  again  displays  her- 
self in  a  new  but  decided  form,  we  may  hope  to  gain  some  acquaintance  with  her  laws. 
It  is  not,  therefore,  from  either  extremity  of  the  New  World  that  we  must  form  our  opinion 
on  its  zoological  peculiarities.  The  ornithology  of  the  Northern  latitudes  is  evidently 
blended  with  that  of  Europe,  and  in  all  probability  many  of  these  species  exist  in  Northern 
Asia;  those  of  the  more  southern  parts  of  America,  beyond  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  and  Para- 
guay, are  nea,rly  unknown.  It  is  only  witliin  the  last  few  years  that  the  provinces,  elevated 
on  tlie  Mexican  Cordilleras,  and  now  constituting  a  great  republic,  have  been  opened  to  the 
naturalist;  and  although,  as  yet,  but  superficially  explored,  there  is  perhaps  no  region  in  the 
New  World  which  promises  to  yield  more  interesting  facts,  as  connected  with  the  animal 
geography  of  that  hemisphere.  Even  the  configuration  of  the  continent,  at  the  junction  of 
its  two  great  divisions,  is  typical  of  this  distribution.  It  appears  as  if  nature,  elevated  as 
on  a  throne  upon  this  vast  table-land,  7200  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  had  dispensed 
her  forms  to  the  right  hand  and  to  the  left,  retaining  immediately  around 'her  a  typical 
representation  of  every  group.  To  the  north  she  has  given  innumerable  flocks  of  slender- 
billed  insectivorous  birds  (Sylvicola;,  &c.),  which  annually  depart  to  breed  in  those  more 
temperate  climes.  These  are  accompanied  by  particular  species  of  Flycatchers,  Thrushes, 
Pigeons  and  Hangnests  (Icterina);  the  two  latter  in  such  countless  numbers  as  to  darken 
the  air.  To  Southern  America  has  been  more  particularly  assigned  the  Macaws,  Toucans, 
Scanscrial  Creepers  (Dendrocolaptes),  Ant  Thrushes  {Myotherina),  Ground  Doves  (Cha- 
mapel'Hi),  Tanagers  (Tanagra),  Trogons,  Fruit-eaters  {A/npelidce),  and  the  numerous  and 
splendid  race  of  Humming-birds.  Yet  of  all  these  groups,  save  one  {AwpdidcB),  typical 
examples  are  concentrated  on  the  table-land  of  Mexico.  These,  moreover,  are  accompa- 
nied by  some  peculiar  forms,  not  yet  discovered  in  either  portion  of  America,  and  by 
species  among  the  natatorial  tribes  hitherto  found  only  in  the  more  northern  latitudes. 


272  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  Part  II, 

The  typical  Gallinaceous  birds  begin  to  show  themselves  adjoining  the  equator,  nearly 
in  the  same  parallel  of  latitude  as  they  occur  in  Asia :  they  belong,  liowever, 
to  distinct  and  peculiar  types;  as  tiie  genera  Meleagris,  Crax,  Penelope, 
Ourax,  Phosphea,  Ortalida,  and  Opisthoconius.  These  hnd  llieir  represent- 
atives, for  the  most  part,  in  tlie  ancient  continents,  but  not  one  species  has 
been  detected  beyond  tlie  New  World.  The  foregoing  remark  applies  to 
the  two  great  divisions  of  the  ISimicp,  or  Monkeys,  so  accurately  illustrated 
by  those  distinguished  naturalists,  MM.  Cuvier  and  Geotfroy  St.  Hilaire. 

The  Melliphagous  groups  of  America,  at  the  head  of  which  shme  the 
splendid  family  of  Humming-birds  {Jiff.  81.),  form  the  chief  peculiarity  of 
its  ornithology ;  other  races,  scarcely  less  beautiful,  occur  in  Africa,  Asia, 
V^  and  Australia :  yet  the  natural  genera  are  totally  distinct.  The  number 
of  species,  and  tlie  variety  of  forms,  among  the  fi'ugivorous  birds  is  another 
striking  feature  in  the  productions  of  the  New  World.  Under  this  term 
Humming  Bird.  ^,g  j^^^^^  include  the  richly  coloured  Chatterers  (Ampeli(fcB  Sw.)  and 
Manakins  {Piprincc  Sw.);  together  with  the  whole  family  of  Tanagers  (^Tanofi^riiice), 
Hangnests  (Icterina;),  and  Parrots  {Psittacidce).  The  first  four  belong  solely  to  thi's  conti- 
nent, which  more  than  any  other  abounds  in  vast  forests  of  lotly  trees,  affording  a  perpetual 
and  countless  variety  of  fruits  and  berries,  adapted  to  nourish  all  the  families  of  hard  and  soft- 
billed  frugivorous  birds.  If  we  turn  to  the  other  orders  of  vertebrated  animals,  the  Mollusca, 
AnnidoscB,  or  Radiuta,  each  and  all  conspire  to  stamp  certain  peculiar  features  on  the 
zoology  of  the  New  World,  and  to  mark  it  as  a  distinct  zoological  empire. 

4.    The  Ethiopian  or  African  Province. 

The  chief  seat  of  the  Ethiopian  variety  of  our  species  is  central  Africa;  while  most  writers 
agree  in  thinking  that  its  northern  limits  do  not  pass  the  Great  Desert.  The  pestilential 
atmosphere  of  tropical  Africa  has  been  an  insuperable  bar  to  the  researches  of  Europeans; 
and  all  the  ideas  that  can  be  formed  on  the  zoology  of  such  regions  must  be  gathered  from 
the  partial  gleanings  made  by  travellers  on  the  shores  of  Senegal  and  of  Sierra  Leone.  The 
ornithological  productions  received  from  these  districts  evince  a  total  dissimilarity  from  those 
of  Northern  Africa,  but  intimately  accord,  both  in  species  and  genera,  with  the  ornithology 
of  the  south :  to  this,  however,  there  are  several  exceptions.  The  Plantain-eaters  {Miiso- 
phagidcc),  and  the  bristle-necked  Thrushes  {Trichophorvs  Tern.),  are  among  the  groups 
hitherto  found  only  towards  Sierra  Leone.  The  Guinea  Fowl,  as  its  name  implies,  is  most 
abundant  in  the  interior  of  that  country,  where  three  species  have  been  discovered.  The 
common  Bee-eater,  and  the  Golden  Oriole  are  the  only  species  among  the  land  birds  of 
Western  Africa  that  occur  in  the  European  range;  and  these  extend  southward  to  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope.  The  whole  extent  of  Africa  south  of  the  desert  exhibits,  in  short,  a  marlced 
difference  in  its  ornithological  groups  and  species  from  those  belonging  to  Europe,  Northern 
Africa,  and  Western  Asia.  The  comparatively  few  exceptions  of  birds  common  to  Europe 
and  the  Cape  cannot  diminish  the  general  force  of  this  remark,  but  merely  shows  that  a  few 
exceptions  must  never  be  taken  as  the  groundwork  of  any  particular  theory.  It  is  to  one  of 
the  greatest  ornithologists  that  France,  or  indeed  any  other  nation,  has  produced,  that  wb 
are  indebted  for  the  most  perfect  account  of  South  African  ornithology  yet  published ;  but  it 
must  ever  be  regretted  that  this  portion  of  M.  le  Vaillant's  labours  terminated  abruptly ; 
leaving  the  Gallinaceous,  Wading,  and  Swimming  orders  to  be  completed  b\'  some  other, 
who,  with  equal  enterprise  and  observation,  should  visit  the  same  regions,  and  record  their 
manners  with  the  same  veracity. 

Between  the  ornithology  of  Africa  and  of  America  there  is,  within  the  same  parallels  of 
latitude,  a  very  strong  analogy,  although  (in  the  sense  in  which  we  apply  the  term)  there  is 
none  of  affinity.  We  know  not,  in  short,  a  single  perching  bird  common  to  both  continents; 
although  in  the  rapacious  order,  which  among  terrestrial  birds  are  well  known  to  have  nearly 
the  widest  range,  two  or  three  species  occur  which  likewise  inhabit  both  extremities  of 
Africa  no  less  than  North  America. 

The  other  vertebrated  animals,  and  the  insects  of  Southern  Africa,  furnish  similar  results. 
On  examining  the  large  collection  of  insects  formed  by  Mr.  Burchell,  in  the  territories  of-the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  we  could  not  discover  one  out  of  many  hundreds  which  was  to  be  found 
in  a  much  more  considerable  collection  brought  by  us  from  South  America,  although  many 
generic  groups,  particularly  among  the  Lepidoptera,  appeared  common  to  both  continents. 

Between  the  faunas  of  Africa  and  America  the  difference  is  unquestionably  striking;  yet 
there  are  several  points  of  connexion  between  the  ornithology  of  Africa,  Asia,  and  Aus- 
tralia ;  and  these  appear  not  merely  in  generic  groups,  but  even  in  species.  The  Drongo 
Shrikes  (G.  Edolius),  the  Larva-eaters  (G.  Cthlcpyris),  the  typical  Fly-catchers  (G.  ]Mus- 
cipeta,  C),  the  Crab-eaters  (G.  Halcyon),  the  Grakles  (L(7?n^ro/o«?s),  the  African  Saxicolae, 
the  two  groups  of  tropical  Finches  {Estrclda  Amadina  Sw.),  are  all  genera  common  to  these 
three  regions, — to  neitlier  of  wliich,  in  a  geographic  division,  can  they  be  exclusively 
assigned..    But  we  need  not  dwell  further  on  such  resemblances,  which,  after  all,  are  but  sc 


Book  III.  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  ANIMALS.  273 

many  points  of  connexion  between  geographic  divisions,  sufficiently  distinct  in  their  more 
prominent  cliaracters. 

5.   The  Malay  or  Australian  Province. 

Tlie  regions  peopled  by  the  Malay  tribes  is  the  last  zoological  division  requiring  elucida- 
tion. We  have  already  adverted  to  the  grea<^diversity  of  tribes  comprised  under  this  variety 
of  the  human  race,  and  the  little  authentic  information  yet  collected  concernmg  their  origin 
or  history.     The  zoological  results,  however,  are  more  definite. 

On  looking  to  the  Indian  Archipelago,  as  to  that  region  where  physiologists  concur  in 
thinking  that  the  Malayan  form  is  first  apparent,  we  are  told  that  several  of  these  islands 
are  peopled  by  two  different  races  of  men  {Lawrence,  p.  489.  and  Cuvier,  p.  187.)  ;  the  one 
frequently  confined  to  the  inland  tracts,  while  the  other  people  the  maritime  districts :  their 
respective  origins,  however,  are  so  little  known,  that  it  is  still  a  matter  of  doubt  which  has 
usurped  the  territories  of  the  other.  {Marsden^s  Sumatra,  326,  327.)  We  confine  these 
remarks  to  Sumatra  and  Java ;  for  with  regard  to  the  vast  islands  of  Borneo,  Celebes,  and 
those  smaller  groups  to  the  eastward,  we  know  little  or  nothing  of  their  productions  or  of 
their  people. 

That  the  isthmus  of  Malacca  and  the  adjacent  islands  exhibit  the  first  indications  of  a 
peculiar  race  of  people,  is  a  fact  upon  which  all  writers  appear  to  agree ;  and  that  we  here 
begin  to  discern  the  indications  of  a  new  zoological  region  is  equally  certain  :  yet  it  would 
be  altogether  rash,  with  our  present  limited  information,  to  hazard  any  theory  which  would 
respectively  assign  to  these  islands  a  definite  character  in  its  inhabitants  or  productions. 
But  the  zoology  of  Java  and  Sumatra  have  been  of  late  so  zealously  and  ably  investigated 
not  only  by  two  distinguished  British  naturalists,*  but  by  othersf  sent  from  France,  that  we 
sliall  in  this  place  attempt  to  draw  some  results  from  their  labours.  The  ornithology  of  these 
islands,  with  some  few  peculiarities,  differs  in  no  very  decided  manner  from  that  of  southern 
India.  In  both,  the  Gallinaceous  genera,  when  they  occur,  are  the  same,  although  some  ot 
the  Javanese  species  differ.  Of  the  more  typical  Sturnidce,  common  to  the  Old  World,  but 
as  yet  unknown  to  the  Australian  or  Oceanic  islands,  no  less  than  three  inhabit  Java.  To 
these  groups  must  be  added,  Parus,  Sitta,  Bucco,  Cursorius,  Clareola,  Buceros,  Oriolus, 
Brachypus,  and  many  other  genera  characteristic  of  the  ancient 
continents.  The  number  of  typical  Scansorial  birds  within  the 
narrow  limits  of  these  two  islands  is  truly  remarkable.  Eight 
species  of  Pious  are  described  by  Dr.  Horsfield,  and  four  or  five 
otliers ;  one,  the  Malacolophus  Concretus,  Sw.  (Jig.  82.),  of  a 
remarkably  small  size,  have  been  sent  to  France  by  M.  Diard. 
The  total  absence  of  this  family  throughout  the  whole  Australian 
*?)AMi''^^l'<^^^^^  range,  is  a  circumstance  in  itself  sufficiently  strong  to  place  the 
iWiS^'^^  ornitliology  of  Java  and  Sumatra  beyond  such  limits ;  to  which, 

Malacolophus  Concrt-ius.  nevertheless,  it  approximates  very  closely. 
The  birds  of  Java  and  Sumatra,  which  indicate  an  approximation  to  the  Australian 
province  belong  to  certain  genera  common  to  both  regions;  but  unknown  in  Africa  or 
India :  these  are,  Pitta,  Centropus,  Ocypterus,  Prinea,  Pogardiis,  Crateropus,  Dacelo, 
&c.  In  the  Suctorial  birds  (the  Tenuirostres  of  M.  Cuvier,)  we  find  in  Java  an  evident 
departure  from  the  typical  form  of  Cinnyris  towards  the  Melliphagida  of  Australia, 
in  the  genus  DictBum ;  four  of  the  known  species  being  Javanese,  and  three  Austra- 
lian. What  little  is  yet  known  of  the  birds  of  New  Guinea,  and  its  surrounding  islands, 
exhibits  a  still  greater  deviation  from  the  ornithological  features  of  India.  These  enchant- 
ing regions,  long  the  fairy-land  of  naturalists,  remained  nearly  unknown  until  visited  by 
learned  Frenchmen,  to  one  of  whom  has  been  assigned  the  distinguished  honour  of  giving 
to  the  world  the  fruits  of  their  scientific  and  important  discoveries.];  It  is  in  these  islands 
that  the  Melliphagous  genera  begin  to  be  developed  in  the  most  novel  forms,  and  the  most 
sumptuous  plumage.  The  grand  Promerops  of  New  Guinea  can  only  be  likened  to  the 
Australian  Pliloris.  Several  typical  Melliphagidcp  are  in  M.  Lesson's  collections.  To 
these  we  can  now  add  two  species  of  genuine  Philedons  (Cuvier),  and  two  of  the  genus 
Vunga.  The  group  of  which  the  Mvscicapa  carinata  (Sw.)^  is -the  type,  displays  itself  in 
three  new  and  beautifiil  birds,  accurately  described  and  figured  by  M.  Lesson.  The  stay  of 
tlie  French  naturalists  on  the  coast  of  New  Guinea  was  comparatively  short,  and  their 
gleanings  of  its  ornithology  could  not,  from  necessity,  be  otherwise  than  scanty  ;  yet  it  is 
surprising  that,  among  the  birds  thus  procured,  so  large  a  proportion  should  belong  to  groups 
hitherto  supposed  peculiar  to  New  Holland.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  in  a  natural  arrangement 
of  ornitholop-ical  geography,  that  the  islands  of  New  Guinea  may  be  safely  brought  into  that 
division  which  includes  New  Holland,  New  Zealand,  and  their  dependencies:  this  distribu- 

*  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  and  Dr.  Horsfield.  t  MM.  A.  Diivaucel  and  Diard. 

t  M.  Lfsson,  VojacB  autour  du  Monde.  §  Zoological  Illustrations,  vol.  iii.  pi.  147.    Zool.  Journ.  i.  p.  308. 

Vol.  L  ,  2K 


274  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  Part  U. 

tion  has,  indeed,  been  generally  adopted  by  geographers,  merely  from  tlie  relative  positions 
of  these  islands. 

On  the  zoology  of  New  Holland  it  is  scarcely  necessary,  in  this  place,  to  expatiate.     All 
naturalists  concur  in  viewing  this  insular  continent  as  the  chief  metropolis  of  a  peculiar  cre- 
ation of  animals ;  whose  limits  on  one  side  we  have  already  traced,  and  whose  range  on  the " 
other  extends  over  the  innumerable  islands  scattered  in  the  great  Pacific  Ocean.    The  Menura 

Superba  {fii^-  83.)  is  the  most  remarkable  gal- 
linaceous bird  of  this  range.  The  Australian 
province  is  thus  in  full  accordance  with  the  dis- 
tribution assigned  to  the  Malay  variety  of  our 
I  species :  its  connexion  with  Asiatic  zoology  is 
unquestionable;  but  we  have  no  means  of  judg- 
ing into  which  of  the  three  remaining  divisions 
it  blends,  at  its  opposite  extremity.  Of  the  birds 
peculiar  to  those  remote  clusters  of  islands  ad- 
joinmg  the  north-west  coast  of  America  we  are 
completely  ignorant ;  nor  are  our  materials 
Menura  Superba.  sufficient  to  fumish  even  a  plausible  conjecture 

on  the  subject.     Whether  the  Australian  province,  at  its  northern  limits,  unites  again  with 
the  Asiatic,  the  American,  or  the  European,  must  therefore  be  left  to  fliture  discovery. 

We  have  now  completed  a  general  survey  of  the  distribution  of  birds  over  the  globe.  The 
facts  we  have  stated  show  the  propriety  of  arranging  the  whole  under  five  great  divisions  or 
provinces,  which  may  be  distinguished  as  tlie  European,  the  Asiatic,  the  American,  the 
Afi^can,  and  the  Australian :  each  of  these  corresponds,  with  little  variation,  to  the  geogra- 
phic distribution  assigned  by  authors  to  the  different  races  of  man.  We  must,  therefore,  now 
adopt  one  out  of  the  two  following  conclusions :  either  that  there  is  just  and  sufficient 
ground  for  believing  that  tlie  distribution  of  man  and  animals  in  general  has  been  regulated 
by  the  same  laws ;  or,  that  man  and  birds  have  been  distributed  alike,  and  all  other  animals 
differently.  To  us,  at  least,  the  latter  conclusion  appears  highly  improbable  ;  not  only  as  being 
unsupported  by  the  least  shadow  of  evidence,  but  as  opposed  to  that  harmony  in  creation, 
which  is  more  apparent  the  more  it  is  viewed  in  all  its  relations. 

Sect.  V. — General  Summary  of  the  Subject. 

In  offering  these  elucidations  of  a  subject  so  vast  in  itself,  and  so  important  in  all  its 
bearings,  it  will  be  readily  perceived  that  two  different  relations  between  animal  groups  are 
alluded  to ;  one  we  have  considered  as  of  affinity,  the  other  of  analogy  ;  and  as  the  truth  or 
fallacy  of  these  views  will  mainly  depend  on  the  justness  of  these  distinctions,  a  few  obser- 
vations upon  them  appear  necessary.  Naturalists,  in  general,  have  considered  those  resem- 
blances which  exist  between  certain  groups  placed  in  different  regions,  but  in  the  same 
parallels  of  latitude,  as  indicating  affinities ;  and  on  this  supposition,  as  before  stated,  have 
framed  theories  by  which  animal  geograpliy  has  been  divided  into  zones  or  provinces,  limited 
more  or  less  by  certain  degrees  of  latitude.  It  must  be  confessed  that,  upon  a  superficial 
view,  there  are  many  circumstances  which  appear  to  justify  such  a  theory.  Confining  our 
attention  to  that  department  of  nature  which  we  have  throughout  selected,  we  shall  partly 
recapitulate  our  former  observations. 

The  arctic  regions,  in  one  sense,  may  be  considered  an  ornithological  zone ;  for  not  only 
the  same  groups,  but  the  same  species  are  found  in  such  parts  of  Europe,  America,  and  pro- 
bably Asia,  as  enter  within  its  limits.  But  admitting  this  to  the  fiill  extent,  let  us  ask  if 
these  regions — by  the  number,  variety,  and  peculiarity  of  their  animals,  are  entitled  to  hold 
a  primary  rank  with  the  great  geographic  groups  already  mentioned  !  Is  there  to  be  met 
with  among  the  arctic  birds  numerous  species  which  are  not  distributed  far  beyond  such 
limits  ?  Are  there  any  generic  or  sub-generic  groups  which  do  not  occur  even  towards  the 
central  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America?  These  questions  which  must  be  answered  in 
tlie  negative,  sufficiently  prove  that  the  arctic  regions  do  not  possess  the  characteristics  of  a 
primary  division;  they  must  rather  be  looked  upon  as  a  point  of  junction,  where  the  orni- 
thology of  the  three  nortliern  continents  blends  and  liarmonizes  together. 

The  tropical  regions  of  the  Old  and  the  New  Worlds  have  likewise  been  united  in  one 
province.  How  widely  the  ornithology  of  these  countries  really  differs,  has  been  already 
explained.  True  it  is,  that  in  numerous  instances  one  group  typifies  another,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  American  Humming-birds  {TrockilidcE)  being  represented  in  the  Old  World  by  the 
Sun-birds  {CinnyridcE) ;  and  such  relationship,  in  one  sense,  is  certainly  an  affinity,  inas- 
much as  in  the  natural  system  they  appear  to  follow  one  another ;  but  if  we  admit  such  a 
degree  of  affinity  to  be  a  sufficient  guide  to  a  distribution  of  birds,  we  must  also  do  the  same 
with  regard  to  the  varieties  of  man,  since  both  appear  dispersed  upon  the  same  plan.  The 
red  Indian  of  America  as  certainly  represents  the  black  negro  of  Africa  as  the  latter  does 
the  sooty  inhabitant  of  New  Guinea ;  yet  no  one  would  think  of  classing  them  in  the  same 
race,  merely  because  they  inliabited  countries  under  similar  degrees  of  latitude.     The  dis- 


Book  III.'  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCIETY.  275 

persion  of  particular  groups  and  of  their  species,  upon  the  whole,  is  more  in  a  longitudinal 
than  in  a  latitudinal  direction.  This  is  exemplified  in  a  remarkable  manner  by  the  migra- 
tory birds,  which  invariably  proceed  from  north  to  south,  or  from  south  to  north.  It  would, 
indeed,  appear,  that  if  animal  distribution  is  to  be  regulated  by  geographic  degrees,  as  accu- 
rate notions  might  result  from  making  the  divisions  of  longitude  as  of  latitude :  both,  how- 
ever, would  be  clearly  artificial. 

Tliese  parallel  relations  of  analogy,  which  everywhere  present  themselves  in  the  animal 
kingdom,  nevertheless  deserve  our  greatest  attention,  as  fraught  with  peculiar  interest  to 
the  reflecting  mind.  There  are  throughout  nature  so  many  immediate  and  remote  relations, 
so  many  unexplained  ties  of  connexion,  that  the  most  careful  of  her  students  are  perpetually 
misled  in  attempting  to  trace  her  footsteps.  In  ordinary  cases,  the  admirable  distinction 
that  has  been  drawn  between  affinity  and  analogy  (^Hor.  Ent.)  is,  perhaps,  the  best  that  can 
be  given  ;  yet  instances  might  be  named,  in  which  even  this  is  totally  inadequate  to  the  end 
proposed.  Natural  relations  are  so  complicated,  that  series  of  affinities  apparently  incon- 
testable, will  frequently,  upon  rigid  analysis,  turn  out  completely  erroneous ;  proving  no 
more  than  that  nature,  however  diversified,  presents  so  many  points  of  general  resemblance 
and  of  connexion,  that  partial  hannony  will  result  even  from  a  false  combination  of  parts. 
Let  us  not  therefore  conclude,  as  is  now  too  generally  done,  that  by  synthesis  alone  we  can 
exhibit  the  true  affinities  of  nature ;  that  we  may  henceforward,  without  hesitation,  assign 
to  each  of  her  productions  its  true  station  in  the  scale  of  being ;  that  we  have  suddenly, 
and  as  if  by  magic,  got  full  possession  of  that  mighty  secret  which  at  once  explains  her 
laws,  and  expounds  all  that  has  perplexed  the  wise  and  confounded  the  learned,  since  science 
first  dawned  upon  man.  That  the  circular  system  is  the  nearest  approach  yet  made  to  the 
true  disposition  whicli  pervades  nature, — a  system  which,  from  the  perfections  of  its  Creator, 
must  be  replete  with  order  and  beauty  surpassing  our  utmost  comprehension, — is  indisputable, 
because  none  other  has  attempted  to  explain  the  relations  of  parts  and  the  unity  of  the 
whole ;  but  farther  than  this  its  pretensions  must  not  be  carried :  it  still  involves  questions 
of  great  weight,  since  by  one  theory  the  number  of  its  primary  divisions  is  stated  to  be^ue, 
while  by  another,  founded  on  much  more  extensive  analysis,  it  is  maintained  to  be  three. 
The  searcher  after  truth  will  give  to  these  his  patient  investigation,  his  cool  and  unpreju- 
diced judgment :  he  may  then  hope  to  make  one  step  nearer  to  truth ;  for  science,  in  all 
ages,  has  ever  remained  most  stationary  when  the  advocates  of  any  system  have  been  most 
prejudiced. 

It  is  with  these  qualifications  that  the  views  here  taken  on  the  distribution  of  man  and 
animals  are  given  to  the  reader.  It  has  been  our  desire  to  trace  a  connexion,  and  a  unity 
of  plan,  in  both,  and  to  simplify  a  subject  hitherto  involved  in  much  intricacy.  How  far 
this  object  may  have  been  attained,  it  is  not  for  us  to  determine ;  but  he  who  draws  proofs 
of  a  Divine  Creator  from  the  harmony  and  design  apparent  in  his  works,  has  surely  not  writ- 
ten in  vain. 


CHAPTER  m. 

GEOGRAPHY  CONSIDERED  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCIETY. 

Man,  when  considered  not  as  a  mere  animal,  but  as  a  being  endowed  with  thought,  reason, 
and  contrivance,  capable  of  social  intercourse  and  union,  must  be  regarded  as  the  most  con- 
spicuous object  in  the  delineation  of  the  globe.  These  attributes  raise  him  to  the  first  rank 
in  this  lower  world ;  and  in  every  region  occupied  and  improved  by  him,  the  communities 
which  he  has  formed  become  the  most  prominent  characteristic ;  all  otiier  beings  are  there 
subordinate  and  subservient  to  him.  The  description  therefore  which,  in  the  succeeding  part 
of  the  work,  will  be  given  of  the  different  regions  of  the  globe,  must  be  chiefly  employed  in 
delineating  the  aspects  which  man,  as  an  active  and  social  being,  presents.  At  present, 
however,  it  would  be  premature  to  enter  into  the  numerous  details  which  this  subject 
embraces.  We  can  do  little  more  than  indicate  the  following  general  heads,  under  which 
it  will  be  treated: — 1.  Historical  Geography.  2.  Political  Constitution  of  the  different  coun- 
tries.    3.  Productive  Industry.     4.  Civil  and  Social  State  of  Man.    5.  lianguages. 

Sect.  I. — Historical  Geography. 

A  survey  of  the  history  of  man  is  necessary  for  enabling  us  accurately  to  understand, 
and  duly  to  estimate  his  present  condition.  Not  only  inanimate  nature,  but  even  the  animal 
and  vegetable  kingdoms,  if  left  to  themselves,  would  remain  constantly  in  the  same  situation : 
the  changes  and  modifications  undergone  by  them  have  been  produced  entirely  by  man's 
interposition.  That  improved  and  civilized  form  under  which  he  now  appears,  is  the  result 
of  a  continued  succession  of  changes,  which  have  been  taking  place  from  the  earliest  periods 
of  autlientic  history.  All  the  revolutions,  botli  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  have  had  a 
greater  or  less  influence  in  producing  the  present  moral,  political,  and  social  condition  of  man 
in  the  more  improved  quarters  of  the  globe. 


276  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  Part  II. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Ancient  History. 

Ancient  history  is  generally  considered  as  comprehending  tlie  period  which  elapsed  from 
the  earliest  authentic  records,  and  particularly  from  the  rise  of  the  great  monarcliies,  to  the 
downfall  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  various  forms  which  government  and  society  assumed 
during  that  long  period,  though  they  were  instrumental  in  preparing  those  which  have  exist- 
ed in  the  modern  world,  did  not  bear  any  exact  resemblance  to  ihcni.  Through  the  conquest 
of  Rome  by  the  barbarous  nations,  with  which  the  first  of  these  eras  closed,  almost  every 
connexion  between  tliem  was  cut  off,  except  those  of  record  and  tradition. 

The  rise  of  the  great  monarchies,  Egypt,  Assyria,  and  Babylon,  constitutes  the  first  grand 
epoch  in  ancient  history.  It  nearly  coincides  with  tliat  of  the  great  commercial  republics, 
Tyre  and  Carthage.  Human  society,  which  had  before  existed  in  a  verj'  rude  and  imperfect 
shape,  began  to  assume  a  regular,  orderly,  and  even  splendid  character.  All  the  arts  which 
contribute  to  man's  support  and  accommodation  were  carried  to  a  considerable  degree  of 
improvement ;  and  the  foundation  was  laid  of  those  intellectual  attainments,  which  were  to 
constitute  his  highest  honour.  Alphabetic  writing  was  invented  and  widely  diffused ;  the 
arts  of  painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  made  a  considerable  progress;  there  were  even 
formed  some  elements  of  science  and  pliilosophy.  During  this  period,  too,  while  the  world 
generally  was  buried  in  the  darkest  superstition,  a  divine  revelation,  preparatory  for  another 
more  perfect,  having  been  first  communicated  to  tlie  patriarchs,  was  more  formally  disclosed 
to  tlie  legislator  of  the  Jewish  nation. 

The  Persian  empire  embraced  a  wider  extent  of  the  globe  than  any  tliat  liad  previously 
existed,  and  comprehended  those  countries  which  had  been  most  remarkable  as  the  seats  of 
improvement  and  civilization.  Although,  however,  it  thus  became  instrumental  in  linking 
distant  nations  together,  it  bore  chiefly  the  character  of  empty  and  barbarous  pomp,  and  does 
not  appear  to  have  produced  any  material  advance  in  knowledge  and  improvement. 

The  rise^  of  the  Grecian  States  formed,  perliaps,  the  proudest  era  in  the  history  of  the 
human  race.  The  constitutions  then  formed  afforded  a  degree  of  political  liberty,  and  a 
de^•elopement  of  the  higher  energies  of  the  human  mind,  which  could  not  be  attained  in 
extensive  empires,  subjected  to  the  arbitrary  rule  of  a  single  individual.  The  military 
exploits  of  the  Grecian  people,  by  which  they  baffled  the  force  of  almost  the  whole  known 
world  united  under  the  sway  of  Persia,  were  the  most  splendid  that  had  hitherto  illustrated 
the  annals  of  mankind.  Genius  was  exerted  with  nearly  unrivalled  power  in  every  depart- 
ment ;  the  historic  page  unfolded  its  utmost  degree  of  energy  and  beauty ;  and  many  sub- 
lime lessons  of  morality  were  taught  by  the  Grecian  sages.  The  fine  arts,  poetry,  painting, 
and  architecture,  reached  an  eminence  which  they  have  scarcely  since  regained,  and  in  each 
the  purest  models  were  left  for  future  imitation.  After  Greece  had  long  maintained  a  glorious 
defensive  war  against  Persia,  her  arms  were  directed  to  conquest.  The  reign  and  triumphs 
of  Alexander,  while  they  subverted  her  admired  forms  of  civil  polity,  diffused  her  language, 
her  arts,  her  knowledge,  over  a  wide  extent  of  the  eastern  world,  and  thus  spread  a  circle 
of  civilization,  the  traces  of  which  have  never  been  wholly  obliterated. 

The  dominion  of  Rome,  which  succeeded  and  overpowered  that  of  Greece,  extended  over 
a  still  greater  variety  of  countries  and  people,  than  had  been  comprehended  under  any  for- 
mer empire.  Her  character,  at  first  stem  and  austere,  was  gradually  softened ;  and  on 
arriving  at  her  highest  pinnacle  of  wealth  and  power,  she  made  at  the  same  time  an  unri- 
valled display  of  the  pomp  and  refinement  of  polished  life.  She  emulated,  without  fully 
equalling,  what  was  most  brilliant  in  the  arts  and  intellectual  attainments  of  Greece.  But 
the  most  signal  service  which  Rome  rendered  to  the  cause  of  civilization,  was  by  extending 
its  empire  over  wide  regions  in  northern  and  western  Europe,  which  had  previously  been  the 
seat  of  almost  complete  barbarism ;  though  they  now  form  the  most  enlightened  and  im- 
proved portion  of  the  globe. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Modern  History. 

The  downfall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  which  marked  the  commencement  of  modern  his- 
tory, formed  one  of  the  most  remarkable  and  disastrous  eras  in  the  destiny  of  the  world. 
During  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  a  succession  of  barbarous  hordes  from  Germany, 
Scandinavia,  Russia,  and  even  the  remotest  extremities  of  northern  Asia,  poured  in  upon 
civilized  Europe,  and  exterminated  or  reduced  to  bondage  the  greater  part  of  its  people. 
All  the  arts  and  sciences,  which  had  shed  such  a  lustre  on  the  Greek  and  Roman  name, 
disappeared,  leaving  only  some  imperfect  remnants,  which  were  preserved  in  the  depth  of 
monasteries.  The  empire  was  partitioned  into  a  immber  of  disorderly  little  kingdoms,  gra- 
dually merged  into  a  few  great  monarcliies,  which,  in  their  general  outline,  have  continued 
to  the  present  day.  This  era  was  also  distinguished,  in  the  East,  by  the  introduction  of  the 
religion  of  ilohammed,  and  the  rise  of  the  Saracen  power,  which  undertook,  by  force  of 
arms,  to  diffuse  that  religion  over  the  world.  Its  armed  votaries  overran  a  great  part  of 
Asia,  Africa,  and  even  of  Europe,  and  continue  still  to  maintain  a  powerful  influence  over 
the  destinies  of  the  hmnan  species.     For  some  time,  the  states  formed  under  this  system  pre 


Book  III.  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCIETY.  277 

sented  a  somewhat  enlightened  aspect,  and  even  revived  the  expiring  lamp  of  science ;  but 
the  final  issue  of  Moslem  ascendency  has  been,  to  diftuse  through  the  world,  ignorance,  des- 
potism, barbarism,  and  every  principle  hostile  to  human  miprovement. 

The  feudal  system  was  established  gradually  among  the  barbarous  states  formed  out  of 
the  dismembered  portions  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  king,  or  chief,  distributed  the  terri- 
tory among  his  nobles  or  followers,  subject  only  to  the  condition  of  military  service.  These 
nobles,  possessing  almost  uncontrolled  jurisdiction  within  their  own  limits,  holding  at  their 
disposal  tlie  services  of  numerous  vassals,  took  advantage  of  every  interval  of  weakness  in 
the  reign  of  the  sovereign,  and  rendered  his  power  little  more  than  nominal.  They  reduced 
the  body  of  the  people  to  a  state  of  comparative  slavery,  waged  numerous  private  wars  with 
eacii  other,  and  practised  various  robberies  and  extortions.  During  this  turbulent  era,  all 
refined  arts  and  pursuits  languished,  while,  on  the  basis  of  ignorance,  superstition  erected  an 
absolute  and  tyrannical  dominion.  The  institutions  of  chivalry,  however,  wljich  were  then 
formed  and  gradually  improved,  introduced  a  sense  of  honour,  and  a  dignity  and  refinement 
of  manners,  wliich  have  beneficially  influenced  modern  society.  This  period  was  also 
marked  by  the  piratical  inroads  of  the  Scandinavians  or  Northmen,  who  ravaged  all  the 
coasts  of  Europe,  and  obtained  at  least  a  temporary  possession  of  considerable  districts  and 
even  kingdoms.  It  was  marked,  lastly,  by  those  memorable  expeditions  into  the  East, 
called  the  crusades,  which,  though  attended  with  great  extravagance,  and  occasioning  mucli 
disaster  and  bloodshed,  tended,  on  the  whole,  towards  the  improvement  of  European  policy 
and  social  life. 

The  subversion  of  the  feudal  power,  accompanied  by  the  revival  of  knowledge,  arts,  and 
industry,  formed  a  most  memorable  era  in  the  history  of  mankind.  This  change,  which 
had  been  for  several  ages  silently  preparing,  was  carried  into  complete  effect  during  the  fif- 
teenth and  sixteenth  centuries.  The  turbulent  rule  of  the  great  nobles  was  then  broken 
down,  and  was  succeeded  by  several  extensive  but  mildly  administered  monarchies,  along 
with  some  free  and  commercial  republics,  and  in  one  instance  a  limited  constitutional  mon- 
archy. The  reformation  of  religion  eminently  distinguished  this  period ;  but  being  opposed 
by  the  violent  intolerance  of  the  Catholic  churcli,  it  gave  rise  to  a  series  of  dreadful  and 
sangumary  struggles.  A  general  activity  prevailed  throughout  the  whole  sphere  of  human 
exertion.  The  revival  of  learning,  the  invention  of  printing,  the  extension  of  maritime 
enterprise,  leading  to  the  discovery  of  new  regions,  and  of  new  routes  to  those  formerly 
known,  rendered  the  age  peculiarly  eventful  and  interesting.  It  derived,  however,  a  some- 
wliat  disastrous  chai-acter  from  the  establishment  of  the  Turkish  empire  in  the  East,  by 
wliich  the  throne  of  the  Greek  emperors  at  Constantinople  was  finally  subverted,  and  very 
serious  alarms  spread  through  the  whole  body  of  the  European  nations. 

The  modern  system  of  polity  followed,  as  the  result  of  the  great  changes  wliich  had 
taken  place  in  the  preceding  period.  During  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  when 
it  prevailed,  civilization  made  very  remarkable  advances.  The  manners  of  social  life  became 
more  polished  and  refined.  The  arts  and  sciences  were  carried  nearer  to  perfection,  and 
more  widely  diffused  through  the  great  body  of  mankind.  Amicable  relations,  before  un- 
known, were  established  between  the  different  nations  of  Europe ;  fixed  laws  were  agreed 
upon  for  regulating  their  intercourse ;  and  war,  when  it  did  occur,  was  carried  on  with 
greatly  diminished  ferocity.  The  system  of  colonization  in  the  other  quarters  of  the  globe 
was  also  carried  to  a  vast  extent,  particularly  in  America ;  and  thougli  its  first  establishment 
was  attended  with  many  circumstances  of  injustice  and  tyranny,  it  had  the  effect  of  bringing 
those  quarters  of  the  world  into  a  more  improved  and  civilized  condition. 

The  era  of  political  revolution,  wliich  commenced  towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, being  that  which  is  still  in  progress,  cannot  be  characterised  in  so  decided  a  manner. 
The  formation  of  the  great  monarchies  had  delivered  Europe  from  the  turbulent  sway  of  the 
feudal  chieftains ;  yet  tlie  almost  absolute  power  with  which  the  sovereign  was  then  invested, 
was  found  productive  of  many  evils.  The  hereditary  nobles,  exchanging  their  rural  seats 
for  a  residence  in  the  great  capitals,  and  indulging  in  ease  and  luxury,  lost  all  influence  over 
the  body  of  the  people.  The  diffusion  of  intelligence  and  wealth  through  the  middling  and, 
in  some  degree,  even  the  lower  ranks,  was  followed  by  a  demand,  on  their  part,  to  be  ad- 
mitted to  some  share  in  the  administration  of  public  affairs.  This  spirit,  aflier  fermenting 
for  some  time,  and  being  diffiised  by  the  exertions  of  many  distinguished  writers,  produced 
tiie  French  revolution,  and  the  extraordinary  series  of  events  which  have  thence  arisen. 
That  great  crisis  did  not  merely  agitate  the  interior  of  France,  but  by  exposing  it  to  foreign 
interference,  and  then  impelling  its  own  rulers  to  schemes  of  conquest,  it  changed  for  some 
time,  in  an  extraordinary  manner,  the  aspect  of  all  Europe.  Then,  however,  by  a  grand 
re-action,  France  was  driven  back  within  her  original  boundaries,  and  the  political  relations 
of  the  Continent  were  re-established  nearly  on  their  former  footing.  Considerable  agita- 
tions, however,  still  prevail  in  tlie  interior  of  difl^ercnt  kingdoms,  and  their  political  constitu- 
tions have  suffered,  and  are  likely  to  suffer,  material  alterations. 

Vol.  I.  24 


278  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  Part  II. 

Sect.  II. — Political  Constitution. 

The  political  constitution  under  which  any  community  subsists,  forms  a  most  important 
element  in  its  social  condition.  Being'  usually  establislied  within  certain  local  boundaries, 
and  accompanied  with  a  similarity  in  manners,  religion,  and  other  characteristic  circum- 
stances, it  is  the  leading  agent  in  constituting  a  country  or,state.  In  distributing,  therefore, 
the  four  quarters  of  the  globe  into  their  smaller  portions,  the  geographer  uses  cliiefly  politi- 
cal divisions.  He  finds  states  which  have  made  any  progress  in  civilization  arranged  into 
kingdoms,  empires,  and  republics.  The  elements  .of  political  power  appear  to  consist  of 
monarchy,  aristocracy,  and  democracy;  while  the  public  functions,  to  be  exercised  within 
any  state,  are  the  executive,  legislative,  and  judicial. 

A  kmgdom  is  a  state  of  considerable  though  not  vast  extent,  governed  by  a  single  person, 
as  France,  Spain,  Prussia.  The  subjects  are  usually  united  by  a  similarity  of  language  and 
manners,  and  pervaded  by  a  national  spirit.  The  power  of  the  sovereign  is  commonly  ex- 
tensive, though  controlled  in  some  instances  by  national  assemblies ;  and  there  is  almost 
always  a  body  of  nobles  possessed  of  high  privileges  and  immunities. 

An  empire  generally  consists  of  a  number  of  detached  kingdoms,  which  have  been  united 
by  conquest  under  one  head,  as  the  Turkish,  Persian,  and  Chinese.  Being  thus  formed  of 
an  aggregation  of  different  states,  empires  are  usually  of  very  great  extent;  and  as  military 
force  has  been  the  instrument  of  their  combination,  the  sovereigns  exercise  almost  always  an 
unlimited  authority.  The  different  members  having  been  brought  into  union  by  force  only, 
rarely  feel  united  by  any  national  tie,  and  remain  very  dissimilar  in  manners,  religion,  and 
social  institutions. 

Republics  consist  of  states  which  own  the  supremacy  of  no  king  or  sovereign,  but  are 
governed  by  a  senate,  an  assembly  of  the  people,  or  by  both  conjoined.  Though  these  govern- 
ments have  acted  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  history  of  the  world,  they  have  been  generally 
of  small  extent,  consisting,  in  many  instances,  of  not  more  than  a  single  city,  with  a 
limited  circle  of  territory.  Where  tliis  form  of  government  has  been  diffused  over  a  greJit 
surface  of  country,  it  has  consisted  usually  of  a  number  of  states,  joined  in  a  federal  union. 
This  is  remarkably  the  case  with  the  United  States  of  America,  where  such  a  government 
has  been  introduced  on  a  scale  of  greater  magnitude  than  in  any  other  quarter  of  the  globe. 

Monarchy,  among  the  elements  which  compose  the  political  system,  holds  the  most  con- 
spicuous place,  and  is  tlie  most  generally  prevalent.  In  some  cases,  the  power  of  the 
monarch  is  wholly  or  very  nearly  absolute.  In  a  majority  of  instances,  however,  it  is  more 
or  less  controlled  by  the  influence  of  certain  powerful  and  privileged  bodies.  In  some  con- 
stitutions the  power  of  the  monarch  is  combined  with  that  of  aristocratic  and  popular  bodies, 
which  share  with  the  sovereign  all  the  higher  functions  of  government.  These  are  called 
limited  monarchies,  and  are  well  adapted  for  the  preservation  of  a  great  people  in  a  state  of 
peace  and  prosperity.  This  form  of  government,  after  being  for  a  long  time  confined  to 
Britain,  is  now  spreading,  though  with  some  difficulty  and  confusion,  over  the  rest  of  Europe. 

Aristocracy,  or  the  power  vested  in  a  distinguished  and  privileged  class,  is  found  existing 
much  less  fi-equently  as  a  distinct  and  decided  form  of  government,  than  as  an  element  com- 
bined with  monarchy  and  democracy.  Venice,  perhaps,  afforded  almost  the  only  example 
in  which  aristocracy  subsisted  for  a  series  of  ages  pure  and  unmixed.  In  monarchies,  the 
aristocracy  consists  of  a  body  of  nobility,  possessing  various  gradations  of  personal  and 
hereditary  titles  and  rights ;  while  in  a  republic  it  is  formed  into  a  deliberative  body,  or 
senate,  exercising  or  sharing  the  powers  of  the  state.  In  mixed  monarchies,  both  these 
privileges  are  usually  held  by  the  nobles. 

Democracy  is  the  name  given  to  the  government  in  which  the  sovereignty  resides  in  the 
great  body  of  the  citizens.  They  exercise  it,  either  in  a  general  assembly  of  the  whole 
nation,  or  by  means  of  persons  elected,  during  a  certain  period,  to  act  for  the  body  of  their 
constituents.  The  former  was  the  mode  usual  among  the  ancient  republics ;  the  latter  is 
more  prevalent  in  modern  times,  and  is  alone  compatible  with  the  great  extent  of  territory 
occupied  by  the  leading  republics  of  the  present  day.  Popular  government  has  been  very 
generally  combined  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  with  aristocracy,  though  there  seldom  fails  to 
be  an  almost  incessant  opposition  between  the  two  parties. 

The  legislative,  among  the  different  functions  of  the  body  politic,  is  justly  considei'ed 
supreme ;  it  establishes  the  laws  and  regulations,  according  to  which  all  public  affairs  are  to 
be  administered,  and  to  which  the  persons  exercising  the  other  functions  are  bound  to  con- 
form. Countries  in  which  the  legislative  as  well  as  the  executive  power  is  exercised  by  one 
man,  form  absolute  monarchies,  where  every  thing  depends  upon  the  arbitrary  will  of  that 
single  individual.  A  purely  aristocratic  legislature  is  commonly  felt  to  be  severe  and  oppres- 
sive by  the  great  body  of  the  people.  A  government  cannot  be  considered  as  free,  unless 
the  various  classes  of  which  the  nation  is  composed  have  a  voice  in  legislative  arrangements. 
Those  political  systems,  however,  in  whicli  the  laws  are  enacted  by  tlie  whole  body  of  the 
assembled  people,  are  fitted  only  for  a  single  city  with  a  territory  of  limited  extent.  Of 
such  a  nature  and  scale  were  the  ancient  lepublics  of  Greece,  and  also  that  of  Rome,  during 


Book  III.  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCIETY.  279 

the  earlier  periods  of  her  history.  But  when  the  whole  of  a  great  people  are  convened  into 
one  place,  they  form  a  mere  tumultuary  crowd,  incapable  of  any  regular  or  effectual  exer- 
cise of  legislative  functions.  This  disadvantage  has,  among  modern  nations,  been  studiously 
remedied  by  the  representative  system,  under  which  the  inhabitants  of  each  different  dis- 
trict elect  an  individual  imderstood  to  possess  their  confidence,  wlio  exercises  in  their  stead 
the  legislative  flmction.  Upon  this  basis  have  been  founded  those  constitutions  that  have 
been  considered  as  exhibiting  the  most  perfect  forms  of  civil  polity. 

The  judicial  power  provides  for  the  security  of  person  and  property  among  all  ranks  of 
individuals  composing  the  political  body,  and  forms  thus  one  of  the  arrangements  most  essen- 
tial to  general  prosperity  and  well-being.  The  institutions  for  this  purpose  vary  greatly  in 
different  nations  and  stages  of  society.  Among  very  rude  tribes,  the  individual  has  only  liis 
own  strength  and  that  of  his  kindred  to  aid  in  repelling  aggression.  As  sociel^y  advances, 
the  administration  of  justice  between  man  and  man  becomes  a  leading  object  of  public  con- 
cern. In  the  earlier  forms  of  polity,  however,  the  executive  and  legislative  functions  are 
usually  blended  ;  the  monarch,  or  his  deputy,  sits  on  the  tribunal  of  judgment,  and  the  forms 
of  procedure  are  exceedingly  simple.  The  parties  appear,  and  plead  their  cause  viva  voce  ; 
while  the  judge  decides  promptly  and  on  the  spot.  In  the  further  progress  of  improvement, 
it  is  discovered  that  this  branch  of  public  economy  cannot  be  duly  executed,  witliout  being 
entirely  separated  from  the  legislative  and  judicial  departments,  and  made  independent  of 
them.  Hence  arise  the  different  orders,  judges,  lawyers,  and  agents,  by  whom  the  different 
stages  of  procedure  are  conducted ;  written  and  voluminous  codes  of  law  are  formed,  with 
the  view  of  providing  for  every  particular  case.  Yet  the  expense  and  delay  consequent 
upon  these  complicated  arrangements  sometimes  cause  the  society  to  look  back  with  regret 
on  tlie  simple  and  expeditious  machinery  employed  by  their  rude  ancestors. 

Other  important  particulars  are  comprehended  in  the  political  state  of  a  society : — tlie 
titles  of  nobility,  and  the  badges  of  honour  and  distinction  among  individuals ;  the  military 
and  naval  force  employed  in  the  defence  of  a  country ;  the  elements  which  compose  it;  and 
the  manner  in  which  these  are  arranged  and  directed.  Tlie  same  subject  embraces  also  the 
revenue,  its  amount,  the  sources  whence  it  is  derived,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  levied 
and  expended. 

Sect.  III. — Productive  Industry. 

The  industry  of  a  nation  is  employed  in  producing  the  necessaries,  the  conveniences,  the 
ornaments,  and  the  luxuries  of  life — all  that  is  comprehended  under  the  name  of  wealth.  It 
forms  thus  one  of  the  most  important  constituents  of  their  prosperity  and  well-being. 

The  sources  of  national  wealth  are  usually  divided  into  three ;  agriculture,  manufactures, 
and  commerce :  each  of  these  is  divisible  into  several  distinct  branches,  nor  can  the  cata- 
logue be  completed  without  including  the  two  occupations  of  muiing  and  fishing. 

Agriculture,  including  the  means  of  procuring  every  part  of  the  produce  of  land,  or  what 
land  bears  on  its  surface,  is  unquestionably  the  grand  source  of  human  subsistence  and 
accommodation.  Hence  chiefly  are  derived  the  materials  used  in  manufacture  ;  the  objects, 
in  the  exchange  of  which  commerce  consists.  Tlie  modes  in  which  support  and  the  means 
of  enjoyment  are  obtained  fi'om  land  may  be  divided  into  three ;  hunting,  pasturage,  and 
tillage,  which  last  being  the  only  form  in  which  labour  is  employed  upon  the  ground  itself, 
is  more  specially  considered  as  agriculture.  The  collection  of  the  spontaneous  fruits  of  the 
earth,  being  confined  to  a  few  tribes  in  the  lowest  stage  of  improvement,  scarcely  requires 
to  be  taken  into  consideration. 

Hunting,  or  the  chase  of  wild  animals,  to  obtain  their  flesh  as  food,  and  their  skins  as 
raiment,  is  the' earliest  and  rudest  mode  of  procuring  liuman  support.  This  employment 
requires  art  and  contrivance  as  well  as  bold  adventure ;  but  is  usually  accompanied  with  rude 
and  turbulent  habits,  and,  combined  with  them,  constitutes  what  is  called  the  savage  state. 
As  culture  advances,  and  the  greater  proportion  of  the  soil  is  devoted  to  the  plough,  or  to 
the  support  of  tame  animals,  its  range  is  greatly  limited,  and  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation 
becomes  little  more  than  the  amusement  of  the  opulent.  The  chase  of  the  fur-bearing  ani- 
mals, however,  still  afibrds  one  of  the  most  valuaJile  materials  of  commerce. 

Pasturage,  or  the  deriving  of  subsistence  from  herds  and  flocks,  tamed  and  trained  so  as 
to  be  subservient  to  the  use  of  man,  forms  a  more  improved  and  comfortable  occupation  than 
hunting.  Peculiar  habits  of  life  usually  distinguish  nations  subsisting  solely  by  pasturage. 
They  are  oflen  destitute  of  any  fixed  abodes,  moving  from  place  to  place  in  large  bands  or 
encampments,  living  within  their  tents  in  patriarchal  simplicity,  but  towards  other  nations 
practising  on  a  great  scale  war  and  robbery.  These  habits  constitute  what  is  called  the  bar- 
barous state,  still  prevn-lent  among  the  Arabs,  Tartars,  and  other  nations  occupying  an  exten- 
sive portion  of  the  earth's  surtiice. 

Tillage,  or  the  culture  of  the  soil  by  the  processes  of  ploughing  or  sowing,  is  employed, 
by  all  the  more  improved  nations,  as  the  most  efficacious  means  of  drawing  subsistence  from 
the  earth.  In  proportion  to  the  general  improvement  wliich  any  people  have  attained,  is 
usually  the  skill  and  diligence  with  which  this  most  important  art  is  practised.     The  com- 


280  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  Part  III. 

munity  which  derives  its  chief  subsistence  from  the  culture  of  the  soil,  merits  generally,  to 
a  great  extent,  the  character  of  civilized.  Some  of  the  oriental  people,  as  the  Hindoo  and 
Chinese,  practise  this  important  art  with  an  indefatigable  industry  applied  to  every  available 
portion  of  their  soil,  wliich  is  scarcely  to  bo  paralleled  elsewhere;  but  in  Europe,  and  espe- 
cially in  Britain,  the  use  of  machinery,  the  skilful  rotation  of  crops,  and  various  improved 
processes,  render  the  same  measure  of  industry  much  more  productive.  The  objects  of 
culture  vary  exceedingly,  and  for  the  most  part  according  to  the  varieties  of  soil  and  cli- 
mate. Grain,  the  main  staff  of  human  sub.~istence,  forms  everywhere  the  most  extensive 
and  important  object  of  tillage.  Climate  chiefly  determines  the  grain  cultivated  in  any 
particular  region.  In  the  tropical  countries  it  is  rice ;  in  the  best  part  of  the  temperate 
zone,  wheat  and  barley ;  in  the  colder  tracts,  oats  and  rye.  Of  luxuries,  wine  and  oil  are 
the  most  grateful,  and  in  the  most  general  demand ;  they  have  their  almost  exclusive 
growth  in  the  warmer  tracts  of  the  temperate  zone.  The  delicate  fruits,  from  which  they 
are  produced,  do  not  flourish  in  the  excessively  luxuriant  soil  of  the  tropics.  There,  how- 
ever, the  fragrant  aromatic  plants,  and  those  tilled  with  rich  and  saccharine  juices,  produce 
valuable  substances,  which  are  eagerly  sought  after  by  the  natives  of  less  genial  climates. 

Fishery,  by  which  subsistence  and  wealth  are  derived  from  the  waters,  forms  a  peculiar 
branch  of  industry,  which  flourishes  in  every  stage  of  society.  Even  the  rudest  savages, 
wherever  their  situation  admits,  conjoin  it  with  hunting,  as  a  means  of  affording  an  imme- 
diate supply  to  their  wants.  They  practise  it  often  with  a  great  degree  of  diligence  and 
contrivance ;  but  the  progress  of  industry  leads  to  various  processes  for  extending  and 
unproving  this  branch.  By  the  operations  of  salting  and  drying,  fish  is  rendered  fit  to  be 
conveyed  as  merchandise  to  the  most  distant  countries.  Some  of  the  great  maritime  nations 
send  large  fleets  into  remote  seas,  where  they  find  situations  favourable  to  this  pursuit.  The 
whale,  the  cod,  and  the  herring  fisheries  have,  in  this  manner,  been  raised  to  the  rank  of 
great  national  concerns. 

Mining,  or  the  extraction  of  valuable  substances  from  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
can  be  extensively  practised  only  in  a  somewhat  advanced  state  of  human  industry.  Yet 
nature  has  lodged  in  these  dark  repositories  objects  the  most  essentially  conducive  to  the  use 
and  comfort  of  man,  and  others  which  afford  his  most  brilliant  ornaments.  Here  are  found 
the  bright  and  attractive  metals  of  gold  and  silver ;  there  the  solidly  useful  ores  of  iron  and 
copper;  here  glitter  the  diamond,  the  ruby,  and  the  amethyst;  there  extend  vast  beds  of 
coal,  lime,  and  freestone.  Gold,  the  most  precious  of  the  metals,  is  often  the  most  easily 
accessible;  but  we  can  scarcely  give  the  name  of  mining  to  the  operation  by  which  the 
savage  merely  collects  its  grains  in  the  sands  of  the  rivers,  or  even  extracts  it  by  pounding, 
when  mechanically  combined  with  other  substances.  But  metals,  in  general,  when  lodged 
in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  exist  in  the  form  of  ore,  intimately  and  even  chemically  united 
with  other  materials,  from  which  they  can  be  separated  only  by  smelting,  refining,  and  other 
elaborate  and  even  scientific  processes.  From  the  toilsome  nature  of  these  operations,  and 
from  the  gloomy  depths  in  which  they  are  conducted,  it  is  often  difficult  to  procure  a  supply 
of  workmen ;  hence  slaves  and  individuals  condemned  for  crimes  have  been  einployed  to  a 
later  period  in  this  than  in  most  other  species  of  labour.  Whatever  skill  may  be  employed 
in  mining,  it  is  necessarily  a  local  occupation,  nature  having  irregularly  and  almost  capri- 
ciously distributed  its  objects  over  the  different  regions  of  the  globe.  Even  the  experiments 
made  to  discover  whether  metals  are  lodged  in  any  particular  spot,  are  often  attended  with 
considerable  cost,  and  even  peril. 

Manufactures  may  bo  regarded  as  a  process  by  which  man  creates,  as  it  were,  a  value 
for  himself  He  cannot,  indeed,  make  any  new  substance ;  he  can  seldom  even  alter 
essentially  the  quality  of  that  which  is  furnished  to  him ;  but  he  can  altogether  change  its 
character  and  quality,  can  convert  a  rude  and  shapeless  substance  into  one  eminently  con- 
ducive to  benefit,  convenience,  or  ornament.  The  excrescence  shorn  from  an  animal,  the 
pod  hanging  from  a  slirub,  objects  in  themselves  neither  useful  nor  beautiful,  are  converted 
into  commodious  and  magnificent  robes,  adorned  with  the  most  brilliant  tints.  Almost 
every  natural  product  requires  to  undergo  some  change  before  it  is  fitted  for  the  use  of 
civilized  man.  Grain  must  undergo  the  process  of  grinding  and  baking;  the  juice  of  the 
vine,  that  of  fermentation ;  even  animal  food,  that  of  cooking.  But  the  name  of  manufac- 
ture is  not  given  to  these  processes,  nor  to  any  which  do  not,  to  a  material  extent,  increase 
the  value  of  the  stibstances  on  which  they  are  employed.  The  various  articles  of  clothing 
form  the  principal  objects  of  manufacture ;  next  to  which  rank  stuffs  for  ftirniture,  metallic 
implements,  and  utensils.  Manufacturing  skill  and  industry,  carried  to  a  certain  e.xtent, 
mark,  beyond  almost  any  otlier  circumstance,  the  advance  of  a  people  in  arts  and  civiliza- 
tion. The  savage  usually  employs  unaltered  the  substances  with  which  nature  fiirnishes 
him.  He  feeds  on  the  flesh  of  the  animals  which  he  has  killed  in  the  chase ;  he  clothes 
himself  in  their  skins ;  he  consumes  in  their  crude  state  the  roots  and  herbs  which  the  earth 
spontaneously  affords.  Even  the  nations  which  subsist  by  pasturage,  and  have  made,  per- 
haps, a  certain  progress  in  agriculture,  though  they  have  usually  acquired  a  desire  for  articles 
of  fine  manufacture,  prefer  to  obtain  them  from  more  industrious  neighbours,  in  excliange  for 


Book  III.  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  AND  SOCIETY.  281 

their  own  rude  produce.  The  eastern  empires,  for  the  consumption  of  their  courts  and  great 
men,  produce  a  few  articles  of  exquisite  hneness  and  beauty  by  mere  manual  labour,  with- 
out any  capital  or  any  machinery  at  all  costly  or  complicated.  It  is  among  European  nations, 
that  tlie  two  principles,  the  division  of  labour  and  large  capital  employed  in  the  construction 
of  tiie  most  ingenious  machines,  have  enabled  the  manufacturer  to  produce  fabrics  which, 
for  abundance,  elegance,  and  cheapness,  have  surpassed  those  of  every  other  age  or  nation, 
and  have  found  their  way  into  all  tlie  markets  of  the  globe. 

Commerce,  the  third  grand  source  of  national  wealth,  does  not  even  aim  at  producing  any 
new  article,  or  altering  the  texture  or  quality  of  that  in  which  it  traffics.  It  merely  con- 
veys it  from  a  place  in  which  it  is  superabundant,  to  another  in  which  it  is  wanted.  This 
sometimes  confers  an  exchangeable  value  on  that  which  previously  had  none ;  in  every  case, 
wlicre  judiciously  exercised,  it  very  considerably  enliances  the  value  attached  to  the  article 
whicli  it  conveys  from  one  place  to  another. 

The  home  and  the  foreign  trade  form  the  two  great  branches  into  which  commerce  is 
divided.  The  former,  in  consequence  of  each  of  its  transactions  being  on  a  smaller  scale, 
and  afibrding  little  scope  for  brilliant  adventure  and  splendid  speculation,  attracts,  in  general, 
less  notice,  and  is  considered  of  inferior  political  importance ;  yet  it  is  proved  by  Smith  to 
be  by  much  the  most  extensive,  as  well  as  tlie  most  conducive  to  national  prosperity.  Its 
basis  consists  in  the  exciiange  between  the  country  and  the  town,  of  the  grain,  cattle,  and 
other  raw  produce  of  the  one,  for  the  varied  commodities  framed  by  the  manufacturing  in- 
dustry of  the  other,  or,  in  countries  of  great  extent,  of  the  raw  or  manufactured  productions 
of  one  section  for  tliose  of  another.  Home  trade  is  either  coasting  or  inland,  the  former, 
where  practicable,  being  preferred  for  bulky  commodities,  or  those  to  be  conveyed  between 
distant  parts  of  a  kingdom ;  much  of  the  interior  commerce  also  passes  along  rivers  and 
canals.  Foreign  trade  has  no  limits  but  those  of  the  haiiitable  globe ;  and,  for  reasons  simi- 
lar to  tliose  just  hinted  at  in  another  case,  the  more  distant  branches  are  considered  generally 
as  tlie  most  brilliant  and  important ;  while,  in  fact,  the  trade  with  the  countries  most  closely 
contiguous,  from  its  quicker  returns,  ranks  highest  in  real  amount  and  value.  Unfortunately, 
it  has  been  hitherto  much  fettered  by  the  jealousy  and  rivalry  between  neighbouring  nations, 
which  make  eacli  imagine  the  prosperity  of  another  to  be  gained  at  its  expense,  and  every 
commodity  received  from  them,  to  be  so  much  abstracted  from  its  own  wealth.  Although 
this  illiberal  system  has  somewhat  abated,  yet  the  consequence  still  is,  that  intercourse  with 
distant  colonial  possessions  is  more  sure  and  steady  than  with  any  power  entirely  foreign. 
The  extensive  capitals  now  possessed  by  some  European  powers,  especially  Britain,  enable 
them  to  carry  on  the  most  extensive  commerce  with  countries  situated  at  the  greatest  dis- 
tance, and  even  at  tlie  opposite  extremity  of  the  globe.  In  the  interior,  also,  of  the  great 
continents,  there  is  a  foreign  trade  by  land,  carried  on  by  caravans,  which  are  so  numerous 
as  to  resemble  armies,  and  proceed  to  an  immense  distance. 

The  instruments  employed  in  conducting  and  facilitating  commerce,  and  which  are  chiefly 
shipping,  roads,  and  canals,  form  the  most  important  part  of  what  is  called  the  fixed  capital 
of  a  country.  Under  the  head  of  roads,  the  invention  of  railways,  though  yet  only  in  its 
infancy,  promises  to  facilitate,  in  a  remarkable  manner,  the  interior  communications  of  the 
countries  in  which  it  is  employed. 

Sect.  IV. — Civil  and  Social  Condition  of  Man. 

The  population,  or  the  number  of  individuals,  of  whom  any  community  is  composed,  forms, 
if  not  the  most  important,  at  least  the  most  prominent  circumstance  in  its  social  condition, 
and  one  on  which  its  magnitude,  and  its  place  in  the  scale  of  nations,  intimately  depend. 
The  ancient  statesmen  c  jusidered  the  increase  of  the  numbers  of  a  people  as  one  of  the  most 
important  of  national  objects,  with  a  view  both  to  its  prosperity  in  peace,  and  its  strength  in 
war.  Some  politicians  of  the  present  day  take  a  different  view  of  the  subject,  maintaining 
that  population  in  all  circumstances  of  tolerable  peace  and  prosperity  easily  keeps  itself  on 
a  level  with  the  means  of  subsistence,  has  even  a  tendency  to  rise  higher,  and  by  its  super- 
abundance to  produce  a  distressing  degree  of  national  poverty  :  they  have  suggested  schemes 
for  checking  the  progress  of  population. 

The  actual  amount  of  the  population  in  any  particular  period  or  country,  has  been  involved 
in  considerable  uncertainty.  It  is  only  in  modern  Europe,  and  in  the  United  States  of 
North  America,  and  there  very  recently,  that  general  or  careful  enumerations  have  been 
made.  But  in  all  the  other  quarters  of  the  globe,  the  estimates  are  formed  upon  very  vague 
observation,  founded  on  the  density  with  which,  on  a  superficial  view,  the  districts  appear  to 
be  peopled. 

A  national  character  is  found  to  pervade  every  community.  The  particulars  have  been 
often  exaggerated,  tiincifully  delineated,  and  rashly  and  indiscriminately  applied  to  indi- 
viduals ;  but  to  a  certain  extent  such  a  variation  may  be  always  traced  between  one  people 
and  another.  The  grand  distinction,  founded  upon  the  progress  of  arts,  letters,  knowledge, 
and  refinement,  is  into  savage,  barbarous,  and  civilized:  the  first  being  marked  by  the  total 
absence  of  these  improvements ;  the  second,  by  the  possession  of  them  in  only  an  imperfect  • 

Vol.  I.  ^*  2L 


282  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  Part  II. 

and  progressive  degree  ;  the  third,  by  their  having  arrived  at  a  certain  maturity.  Tlie  savage 
state  prevails  among  the  natives  of  America,  and  the  islanders  of  the  South  Sea ;  the  former, 
however,  being  now  in  a  great  measure  supplanted  by  European  colonists.  The  barbarous 
state  is  general  throughout  Africa,  and  extends  over  a  great  part  of  Asia.  The  civilized  state 
is  found  in  the  great  empires  of  Eastern  Asia,  and  in  a  higiier  degree,  as  well  as  under  dif- 
ferent characters,  among  the  nations  of  Europe,  and  tlieir  widely-spread  colonies.  In  these 
last,  too,  civilization  appears  to  continue  in  a  progressive  and  advancing  state,  while  over  the 
rest  of  the  world  it  is  nearly  stationary. 

The  religion  professed  by  any  people  is  a  remarkable  and  most  important  feature  m  their 
social  condition.  Religious  opinions  do  not  come  directly  under  the  cognizance  of  the 
geographer  ;  but  he  is  called  upon  to  mark  this,  as  a  particular  in  which  nations  strikingly 
differ  from  each  other.  The  iiiliabitants  of  the  earth  may,  in  regard  to  religion,  be  divided 
into  three  great  classes, — Christian,  Mahomedan,  and  Pagan.  The  first,  as  to  numerical 
amount,  does  not  exceed  the  second,  and  still  falls  short  of  the  third  ;  but  the  nations  pro- 
fessmg  it,  have  acquired  such  an  ascendency  in  arts,  social  improvement,  and  political 
power,  while  their  colonies  have  filled,  and  are  multiplying  over  aU  the  lately  savage  and 
unoccupied  portions  of  the  globe,  that  in  all  probability  this  faith  will,  in  a  few  generations, 
be  more  widely  difiused  than  any  other.  The  Mahomedan  nations,  though  in  numbers  they 
perhaps  equal  the  last  mentioned,  and  though  they  occupy  a  large  proportion  of  the  most 
fertile  regions  of  tlie  globe,  are  yet  sunk  into  such  a  state  of  slavery  and  degradation,  and 
so  decidedly  surpassed  by  the  Christian  people,  that  their  sway  is  not  likely  to  endure  above 
two  or  three  centuries.  Of  the  Pagan  religions,  nmch  the  most  numerous,  and  the  only 
civilized,  professors,  are  those  attached  to  the  kindred  creeds  of  Brahma  and  Boodh,  estab- 
lished, the  one  over  the  greater  part  of  Hindostan ;  the  other  in  China,  and  other  continental 
kingdoms,  and  insular  territories  of  Eastern  Asia.  From  their  peculiar  habits,  and  the 
imm.utdble  nature  of  their  institutions,  they  are  likely  to  adhere  to  these  systems  with 
greater  pertinacity  than  the  votaries  of  superstition  in  Africa,  the  South  Sea,  and  other 
quarters,  where  the  train  of  belief  and  observance,  however  fantastic,  is  of  a  slighter  and 
looser  texture. 

The  progress  of  knowledge  forms  a  most  conspicuous  chapter  in  the  history  of  the  hilman 
species :  it  follows  generally  that  train  of  civilization  which  we  have  already  delineated.  In 
surveying  different  communities,  various  particulars  connected  with  this  subject  are  highly 
deserving  of  the  attention  of  the  geographer.  Among  these  we  may  mention  the  most 
eminent  philosophers,  men  of  science,  and  authors  who  have  flourished  in  any  nation, — the 
institutions  formed  for  the  promotion  and  advancement  of  science, — the  degree  in  which 
knowledge  is  difliised  throughout  the  community, — the  establishments  formed  for  public  ahd 
private  education. 

The  fine  arts, — which  are  intimately  connected  with  the  more  elevated  and  intellectual 
part  of  man's  nature,  and  of  which  the  successful  cultivation  confers  glory  on  a  people,  and 
polishes  and  improves  their  manners, — merit  to  be  considered  similarly,  and  under  the  same 
general  heads,  as  their  intellectual  attainments. 

There  are  various  points  of  minor  importance,  which  yet  are  distinctive  and  characteristic 
of  a  people,  and  excite  thus  a  just  and  natural  curiosity.  Such  are  the  amusements  in  which 
they  chiefly  delight,  the  peculiar  costunie  in  which  they  are  attired,  the  species  of  food  on 
which  they  subsist,  and  the  liquor  by  which  they  are  exhilarated,  as  well  as  the  mode  in 
which  these  articles  are  prepared  for  their  use. 

Sect.  V. — The  Languages  of  the  World. 

On  the  subjects  now  enumerated,  it  has  been  judged  suflScient  to  indicate  their  nature, 
and  the  light  under  which  they  will  be  treated,  reserving  the  details  for  the  succeeding  part 
of  the  work,  when  they  come  to  be  considered  successively  in  reference  to  the  various  regions 
of  the  globe.  But  there  is  one  subject  into  which  it  will  be  expedient,  even  at  the  present 
stage,  to  enter  more  particularly. 

Language  is  one  of  the  strongest  characteristics  by  which  nations  are  distinguished  from 
eacli  other ;  at  the  same  time  the  dialects  spoken  by  difierent  communities,  even  when  most 
widely  dissimilar,  display  in  many  cases  relations  and  alliances  indicative  of  a  common  origui. 
There  exist  over  the  world  classes  of  languages,  each  of  which  comprehends  the  speech  of 
numerous  people,  and  forms  a  tie  between  them,  marking  early  relations  and  connexions. 
Language  thus  acquires  a  character  especially  geographical,  illustrating  the  origin  and  fami- 
lies of  nations,  and  the  connexions  between  different  countries.  It  will  then  be  advantageous 
to  consider,  in  a  large  and  comprehensive  view,  first,  the  languages  spoken  generally  over 
the  globe,  and  then  those  which  prevail  in  its  different  quarters. 

The  languages  by  which  the  nations  of  the  earth  are  distinguished,  and  from  which  are 
derived  the  names,  not  only  of  its  principal  features,  natural  and  artificial,  but  of  its  different 
regions,  and  of  the  places  contained  in  them,  constitute  an  important  department  of  geo- 
graphy. When  we  contemplate  those  names  in  maps,  a  little  reflection  suffices  to  convince 
us  that  most  of  them  are  to  be  regarded,  not  as  mere  arbitrary  or  fortuitous  appellations,  but 


Book  III.  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCIETY.  283 

as  terms  of  definite  meaning,  or  as  significant  memorials  of  the  people  by  whom  they  were 
imposed ;  and,  in  tracing  those  of  ancient  origin  through  the  mutations  they  have  undergone, 
we  are  compelled  to  summon  history  to  the  aid  of  geograpliy,  for  the  purposes  of  explaining 
them  with  reference  to  the  great  events  which  have,  from  time  to  time,  altered  the  political, 
civil,  and  social  condition  of  the  nations  composing  the  great  family  of  mankind.  Thus, 
without  adverting  to  the  rise,  growth,  and  extinction  of  kingdoms  and  empires  in  Asia,  we 
may  observe,  that  the  series  of  revolutions  which  ended  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Roman 
empire,  and  the  foundation  of  the  existing  system  of  Europe  on  its  ruins,  is  in  nothing  more 
remarkable  than  in  the  change  which  it  contributed  to  produce  in  the  greater  part  of  the 
world,  through  the  migration  of  nations ;  a  change  so  absolute,  that  it  has  served  to  mark 
the  distinction  between  ancient  and  modern  history,  ancient  and  modern  geography,  and 
ancient  and  modern  languages.  Of  this  change  tlie  geographer,  equally  with  the  historian, 
is  at  every  step  of  his  investigations  reminded.  France,  for  instance,  commemorates  in  her 
modern  name  that  branch  of  the  Germanic  family  of  nations  who  prevailed  in  Gaul ;  yet 
she  retains,  not  less  in  her  topographical  vocabulary  than  in  her  language  generally, 
unequivocal  traces  of  Roman  dominion ;  and  we  recognise,  though  strangely  curtailed,  the 
imperial  appellations  Augustodunum  and  Aureliana,  in  Autun  and  Orleans.  Italy  and 
Spain,  preserving  a  semblance  of  their  ancient  names,  exhibit  similar  instances  of  disfigure- 
ment in  those  of  particular  places :  Forum  Julii  and  CtEsar- Augusta  survive  in  Friuli  and 
Saragossa  ;  but  the  Trasimene  suggests  a  less  classic  reminiscence  as  the  lake  of  Perugia ; 
nor  can  the  Betis  and  the  Durias  be  recognised  under  the  more  sonorous  names,  tlie  Gua- 
dalquivir and  the  Guadalaviar  (the  great  river  and  the  white  river),  conferred  on  them  by 
the  Arab  conquerors  of  Spain.  Appellatives,  also  derived  from  languages  little  known, 
whether  ancient  or  modern,  are  liable  to  mutilation  from  the  varying  orthography  of  travel- 
lers ;  and  we  can  no  longer  wonder  at  the  confusion  caused  by  voyagers  in  this  particular, 
when  we  call  to  mind  the  difference  not  only  between  foreign  and  vernacular  names,  but 
between  their  written  and  oral  expression ;  as  when  a  German  spells  his  native  country 
Deutschland,  and  pronounces  it  Teytshland ;  or  a  Persian  writes  for  Persia  Iran,  and  pro- 
nounces it  Eeraun.  But  the  different  idioms  of  the  human  race  claim  our  attention  from 
far  higher  considerations  than  the  mere  naming  of  places  or  of  countries ;  for  geography, 
considered  as  an  auxiliary  to  what  has  been  emphatically  called  "  the  proper  study  of  man- 
kind," is  principally  valuable  as  combining,  with  a  description  of  the  earth,  a  view  of  the 
different  branches  of  the  great  human  family  by  whom  such  vast  portions  of  it  have  been 
"replenished  and  subdued." 

Ethnography  is  the  term  which  has  been  employed  to  designate  this  branch  of  geographi- 
cal science.  It  distinguishes  nations  by  their  languages,  and  professes  to  class  them  in  king- 
doms, families,  genera,  species,  and  varieties ;  but  this  systematic  arrangement  is  as  yet  far 
from  being  completed.  Of  the  numerous  languages  that  are  or  have  been  spoken  on  the  earth, 
many  are  so  imperfectly  known  that  it  is  difficult  to  determine  to  what  family  they  belong. 
For  this  and  other  reasons  it  has  been  deemed  expedient  by  a  modern  writer,  who  appears  to 
have  collated  the  labours  of  his  predecessors  on  the  subject,*  to  adopt  a  geographical  arrange- 
ment, and  consider  languages  in  their  relation  to  the  five  great  divisions  of  the  globe ;  the 
Asiatic,  the  European,  the  African,  the  Oceanic,  and  the  American.  It  is  obvious,  how- 
ever, that  the  ethnographical  and  geographical  limits  of  a  nation  and  its  language  may  be 
widely  different ;  the  Spanish  and  the  British,  for  instance,  extend  ethnographically  to  the 
remotest  regions  of  botli  tlie  Indies.  Adopting  this  arrangement,  not  only  as  most  convenient 
in  regard  to  a  branch  of  knowledge  still  in  its  infancy,  but  as  most  suitable  to  a  geographi- 
cal treatise,  we  shall  proceed,  without  pausing  to  discuss  the  merits  of  any  particular  theory, 
to  offer,  in  this  and  subsequent  parts  of  the  present  work,  such  a  succinct  view  of  the  known 
languages  of  mankind  as  its  just  proportions  will  allow. 

The  distribution  of  languages  into  Shemitic,  Hamitic,  and  Japhetic,  according  to  the 
scriptural  account,  seems  however  entitled  to  some  notice,  as  being  well  warranted  in  rela- 
tion to  the  early  languages  of  the  world,  if  we  can  reconcile  our  thoughts  to  an  affinity  of 
languages  after  their  confusion,  and  the  consequent  dispersion  of  the  human  race.  It  has 
been  placed  in  a  striking  point  of  view  by  the  able  author  of  the  "  History  of  Maritime 
and  Inland  Discovery,"  in  Dr.  Lardner's  Cabinet  Cyclopcedia  ;  and  a  brief  sketch  of  his 
observations  may  be  useful  as  an  introduction  to  an  account  of  languages  more  strictly 
geographical. 

On  reference  to  the  sacred  records,  we  find  that  in  the  order  in  which  the  generations  of 
the  sons  of  Noah  are  given,  Japheth  takes  precedence  of  Ham  and  Shem,  and  is  called  the 
elder.  This  the  learned  writer  we  are  now  citing  has  not  noticed;  he  has  taken  the  names 
in  the  order  which  long  and  universal  usage  has  sanctioned. 

"  The  family  of  Shem,"  he  observes,  "  comprised  the  pastoral  nations  which  were  spread 
over  the  plains  between  the  Euphrates  and  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  from  Ararat  to 
Arabia.     The  Hebrews  themselves  were  of  this  stock;  and  the  resemblance  of  their  lan- 

*  Balbi,  Atlas  Ethnograpliique  dii  Globe.    Paris,  1826. 


284  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  Vart  II. 

guage  with  the  Aramean.  or  ancient  Syrian,  and  with  Arabic,  sufficiently  proves  the  iden- 
tity in  race  of  what  are  called  the  She?mtic  nations.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  assig-ning  to 
each  of  the  sons  of  Shem  his  proper  situation.  Elam  founded  the  kingdom  of  f^lymeis ; 
Assur,  that  of  Assyria;  and  Aram,  the  kingdom  of  Aramea  or  Syria,  a  name  still  clearly 
preserved  in  that  of  Armenia.  From  Arphaxad  were  descended  the  Hebrews  themselves, 
and  the  various  tribes  of  Arabia ;  and  this  close  affinity  of  origin  was  always  manifest  in  the 
lanffuage  and  in  the  intimate  correspondence  of  the  two  nations.  Some  of  the  names  given 
by  Moses  to  tlie  children  of  Shem  are  still  used  in  Arabia  as  local  designations :  thus  there 
is  still  in  that  country  a  district  called  Havilah ;  and  Uzal,  the  name  given  to  Sana  by  tlie 
sacred  historian,  is  not  quite  extinct. 

"The  descendants  of  Ham,"  continues  this  learned  writer,  "constituted  the  most  civilized 
and  industrious  nations  of  the  Mosaic  age.  The  sons  of  that  patriarch  were  Cush,  Mizraim, 
Phut,  and  Canaan.  The  name  of  Ham  is  identical  with  Cham  or  Chamia,  by  which  Egypt 
has  in  all  ages  been  called  by  its  native  inhabitants ;  and  Mizer  or  Mizraim  is  the  name  by 
which  the  same  country,  or  more  probably  the  Delta,  is  still  known  by  the  Turks  and  Ara- 
bians." [We  may  add,  that  it  is  the  name  by  which,  in  the  original  Hebrew,  Egypt  is  called 
in  tlie  admonition  that  precedes  tlie  decalogue.]  "  The  land  of  Phut  appears  to  signify  Libya 
in  general ;  and  the  name  Cush,  though  sometimes  used  vaguely,  is  obviously  applied  to  tlie 
southern  and  eastern  parts  of  Arabia.  The  names  of  Saba,  Sabtah,  Raamah,  and  Sheba, 
children  of  Cush,  have  long  survived  in  the  geography  of  Arabia.  The  posterity  of  Canaan 
rivalled  the  children  of  Mizraim  in  the  early  splendour  of  arts  and  cultivation.  Though  the 
Canaanites,  properly  speaking,  and  the  Phoenicians,  were  separated  from  each  other  by 
Mount  Carmel,  yet,  as  the  same  spirit  of  industry  animated  both,  they  may  in  a  general 
sense  be  considered  as  one  people.  The  Phoenicians  possessed  the  knowledge  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, free  from  superstitious  reluctance  to  venture  upon  the  sea.  Their  local  position 
naturally  engaged  them  in  commercial  enterprise.  Their  chief  cities.  Tyre  and  Sidon,  had 
reached  the  highest  pohit  of  commercial  opulence,  when  the  first  dawn  of  social  polity  was 
only  commencing  in  Greece." 

To  Japlieth,  "  the  Japetus  of  the  Greeks,"  this  writer  concurs  with  others  in  ascribing 
the  superiority  over  the  sons  of  Noah,  if  not  in  the  number  of  his  descendants,  in  the  extent 
of  their  possessions.  All  the  Indo-Teutonic  nations,  stretching  without  interruption  from 
the  extremity  of  Western  Europe,  through  the  peninsula  of  India,  to  the  isle  of  Ceylon,  he 
considers  as  belonging  to  this  common  ancestor.  The  Turkish  nation  also,  occupying  the 
elevated  countries  of  central  Asia,  boasts  the  same  descent.  Their  own  traditions  accord 
with  the  Mosaic  history;  and  indeed  the  affinities  of  language,  which  are  still  evident  among 
all  the  nations  of  the  Japhethian  family,  fully  confirm  the  relation  of  the  sacred  writer ;  yet 
the  meaning  assigned  to  the  patriarch's  name  in  the  Sanscrit  language,  Yapati,  "  lord  of 
the  eartli,"  tells  for  nothing  unless  we  can  suppose  the  name  Japheth  to  be  thence  derived. 

To  Gomer,  the  eldest  of  Japheth's  sons,  is  ascribed,  on  the  authority  of  Joseplius,  the 
distinction  of  being  ancestor  of  the  Celts.  Magog  may  have  been  the  founder  of  some 
Scythian  nation.  Madai  is  recognised  as  the  ancestor  of  the  Medes.  The  posterity  of  Javan 
and  Tubal,  and  Meshech  and  Tiras,  may  be  traced  from  Ararat,  always  called  Masis  by  its 
inhabitants,  through  Phrygia  into  Europe.  Tubal  and  Meshech  left  their  names  to  the 
Tibareni  and  Moschi,  Armenian  tribes,  whose  early  emigrations  appear  to  have  extended 
mto  MoBsia.     In  like  manner  the  Thracians  may  have  owed  their  origin  to  Tiras. 

That  the  progeny  of  Japheth  peopled  Europe,  seems  apparent  on  another  ground,  which 
we  shall  explain,  afler  mentioning  the  remaining  branches  of  his  posterity.  Ashkenaz,  the 
son  of  Gomer,  is  thought  to  be  that  Ascanius  whose  name  so  frequently  occurs  in  the  ancient 
topography  of  Phrygia,  and  from  whom,  probably,  the  Euxine,  at  first  the  Axiiie,  Sea  derived 
its  appellation.-  "  In  Togarmah,"  observes  this  writer,  "  we  see  the  proper  ancestor  of  the 
Armenian  nation,  and  it  is  even  asserted  by  tlie  Turks." 

"  Javan  was  the  Ion  of  the  Greeks,  the  father  of  the  lonians.  In  the  names  of  his  sons 
w^e  find  fresh  proofs  of  the  consistency  of  the  Mosaic  history.  In  Elishah  we  see  the  origin 
of  Ellis  or  Hellas.  The  name  of  Tarshish  is  supposed,  with  little  foundation,  to  refer  to 
Tarsus  in  Cilicia.  Kittim  is  said  to  mean  Cyprus;  and  Dodanim,  or  Rodanim,  is  understood 
to  apply  to  the  island  Rhodes."  Here  we  may  remark,  that  the  sacred  text  contains  a  most 
important  record  relative  to  the  descendants  of  Japheth :  "  By  these  were  the  isles  of  the 
Gentiles  divided  in  their  lands,  every  one  afler  his  tongue  afler  their  families,  in  their 
nations."  Now',  if  the  Oriental  latitude  of  expression  be  allowed  in  this  instance,  the  isles 
of  the  Gentiles  must  include  not  only  the  isles  of  tlie  Mediterranean  and  other  European 
seas,  but  the  pemxsulas  of  Asia  Minor,  of  Greece,  of  Italy,  and  of  Spain. 

To  the  Phcenicians  must  be  partly  ascribed  the  discovery  of  those  territories  collectively 
called  "  The  isles  of  the  Gentiles,"  and  the  earliest  intercourse  with  them.  Unfortunately 
those  early  navigators  have  left  no  records  of  their  discoveries;  and  the  litfle  we  know  of 
their  enterprises  is  derived  from  Scripture,  and  from  the  scattered  notices  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  authors.  They  were,  as  elsewhere  observed,  the  pilots  of  Solomon's  fleet ;  and  as  often 
as  the  fleets  of  Egypt  are  mentioned  by  ancient  historians,  we  find  them  manned  and  guided 


Book  III.  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCIETY.  285 

by  Phoenicians.  Their  commercial  enterprises  had  contributed  to  augment  the  wealth  of 
that  kingdom,  which  had  attained  a  high  degree  of  social  order  and  economy  seven  hundred 
years  before  the  Greeks  became  acquainted  with  the  use  of  money.  The  numerous  colonies 
which  they  planted  along  the  shores  of  the  Euxinc,  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  Atlantic, 
beyond  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  attest  the  extent  of  their  early  voyages.  Those  of  Utica, 
Carthage,  and  Gades,  or  Cadiz,  were  founded  between  twelve  and  eight  hundred  years 
before  the  Christian  era ;  but  the  seas  of  tlie  west  were  probably  explored  for  ages  before 
settlements  were  formed  at  such  a  distance  from  the  parent  state.  Their  geographical 
knowledge,  even  in  the  fabulous  times  of  Greece,  probably  embraced  as  large  a  portion  of 
the  earth  as  that  of  the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Augustus;  but,  with  the  caution  characteristic 
of  a  mercantile  people,  they  forbore  to  communicate  that  knowledge  to  the  rest  of  mankind. 
The  silence  of  these  descendants  of  Ham  leaves  us  in  uncertainty  as  to  the  progress  of  those 
of  Japheth  in  peopling  the  continent,  the  peninsulas,  and  the  isZes  of  Europe.  In  still  deeper 
mystery  is  involved  the  descent  of  the  negro  tribes  of  Africa  from  the  father  of  Canaan. 
Having  thus  briefly  characterized  the  Shemitic,  Hamitic,  and  Japhetic  races,  we  leave  to 
the  consideration  of  the  curious  the  theories  that  have  been  framed  upon  them  in  respect  to 
the  diflerent  idioms  of  mankind,  and  revert  to  the  geographical  arrangement  which  we  pro- 
pose to  adopt. 

Separating  all  the  known  languages  of  the  globe  into  five  grand  divisions,  we  name  them 
the  Asiatic,  the  European,  the  African,  the  Oceanic,  and  the  American,  according  to  the 
part  of  the  world  in  wliich  they  are  spoken.  Then  tracing,  according  to  the  best  autliori- 
ties,  the  several  languages  by  their  affinities,  we  class  those  which  appear  to  be  sister  idioms 
in  one  group,  assigning  to  it  a  distinctive  name ;  as  the  Mongolian  family,  the  Celtic  family, 
or  the  Sanscrit  family,  conformably,  in  most  cases,  to  the  name  of  the  principal  people  of 
each  of  those  families.  But  here  a  difficulty  arises  from  the  variance  between  geograpliic 
and  ethnographic  limits.  Several  nations  included  in  one  of  these  groups  have  dwelt  from 
time  immemorial  at  once  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe ;  others  in  regions  partly  European, 
partly  Asiatic :  to  which  part  of  the  world  then  must  the  family  be  assigned  to  which  those 
nations  belong'?  Two  reasons  influence  the  decision;  the  historical  importance  of  the  people, 
and  its  mass,  or  relative  number,  as  may  be  better  understood  from  one  or  two  examples. 

That  tlie  Chaldeans,  the  Assyrians,  the  Arabs,  the  Hebrews,  and  other  nations  of  the 
great  Shemitic  family,  were  from  the  earliest  times  inhabitants  of  Western  Asia,  we  know 
from  the  writings  of  Moses,  with  which  the  results  of  the  most  eminent  philologers  and 
mathematicians  wonderfully  agree.  These  nations,  therefore,  belong  unquestionably  to 
Asia ;  and  the  comparison  of  the  Gheez  and  Amharic  vocabularies  having  demonstrated  an 
indisputable  affinity  between  tliem  and  the  people  of  Abyssinia,  who  speak  the  idioms  com- 
prehended in  the  branch  called  Abyssinian,  the  languages  of  the  latter  also  are  classed  in 
the  Asiatic  branch,  though  in  all  epochs,  even  anterior  to  historical  tradition,  those  nations 
have  dwelt  in  Africa. 

The  great  mass  of  the  Malay  people  occupies  almost  all  the  isles  of  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, those  of  Polynesia,  and  some  of  Australia.  Hence  we  regard  the  Malay  family 
as  Oceanic,  and  class  all  the  people  characterized  by  this  idiom  as  belonging  to  that  great 
ethnographical  group.  Thus,  besides  the  Malays  of  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  whose  settle- 
ment in  the  extremity  of  Asia  is  of  no  remote  date,  this  division  includes  the  Si  Deia  or 
Formosans  of  Asia,  and  the  Madecasses  of  the  African  isle  Madagascar. 

The  Uralian  nations  belong  equally  to  Europe  and  Asia ;  because,  from  the  little  we 
know  of  them,  they  have  inhabited,  time  out  of  mind,  the  north-east  and  east  of  Europe, 
and  the  north-west  and  west  of  Asia.  Following  the  demarcation  prescribed  by  M.  Malte 
Brun,  we  find  that  the  great  mass  of  the  Uralian  or  Finnish  nations  belongs  to  Europe.  We 
therefore  regard  the  Finnish  family  as  European,  and  class  among  them  all  the  ancient  and 
modern  nations  who,  from  striking  analogies  in  their  respective  idioms,  seem  to  belong  to 
them. 

Tiie  Esquimaux  have  from  time  immemorial  extended  over  all  the  north  of  the  New 
World ;  while  the  sedentary  Tchutchhis,  who  speak  a  language  evidently  related  to  the 
idioms  of  those  American  tribes,  occupy  only  the  extreme  north-east  of  Asia.  The  Tcliutch- 
his  we  therefore  consider  as  American  colonies,  and,  following  the  precedent  of  Balbi, 
re-unite  them  as  such  to  the  other  nations  of  America  who  form  the  family  of  the  Es- 
quimaux. 

Under  a  perfect  ethnographical  arrangement,  the  languages  of  the  Indo-Germanic  nations, 
extending  from  Ceylon  and  the  Ganges  to  the  extreme  west  of  Europe,  and  even  to  Ice- 
land, would  form,  not  a  single  family,  but  rather  an  ethnographic  kingdom  divided  into  six 
families. 

In  subsequent  parts  of  this  work,  the  languages  of  the  earth  will  be  considered  as  divided 
into  five  principal  branches;  the  European,  the  Asiatic,  the  African,  the  American,  and 
the  Oceanic. 


286 


MAP  OF  EUROPE— WEST  part. 


Fig.  84. 


Lonjitude        5        VVeit 


5       Longitude  East  lo       from  Greeawich      15 


Fig.  85. 


MAP  OF  EUROPE— EAST  part. 


287 


25  Longitude  East    30        from  Greenwich        35 


288 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pakt  UI. 


PART   III. 

GEOGRAPHY  CONSIDERED  IN  RELATION  TO  THE  VARIOUS  REGIONS 

OF  THE  GLOBE. 

In  the  second  part  of  this  work,  tlie  principles  of  geography  have  been  treated  of  as 
founded  upon  a  general  survey  of  the  globe.  The  most  extensive  portion  of  our  task  still 
remains.  We  must  delineate  the  leading  objects  of  nature,  art,  and  human  life,  as  they 
appear  successively  in  each  different  region  into  wJiich  the  earth  is  divided. 

Five  great  general  divisions  of  the  earth  are  now  usually  recognized : — 1.  Europe.  2. 
Asia.  3.  Africa.  4.  America.  5.  The  extensive  and  numerous  islands  of  the  South  Sea, 
to  which  the  French  give  the  name  of  Oceania,  the  English  those  of  Australasia  and  Poly- 
nesia, to  which  we  may  add  the  islands  of  the  Polar  Sea.  Each  of  these  will  form  the  sub- 
ject of  a  separate  book. 


BOOK    I. 
EUROPE. 


Europe  is  the  smallest  in  extent  of  the  four  great  continents,  and  yet  we  may  pronounce 
it  the  most  important  of  all  the  divisions  of  the  globe.  Asia,  indeed,  was  the  ciadle  of 
civilization  and  knowledge ;  but  her  empires  soon  became,  and  have  ever  since  continued 
stationary;  while  Europe  has  carried  the  sciences,  arts,  and  refinement,  with  almost  unin- 


References  to  the  Map  of  Europe. — West  Part. 


ENGLAND. 

1.  nurham 

2.  M.rpeih 

3.  Carlisle 

4.  K.  ndal 

5.  York 

«i.  Manchester 

7.  Lincoln 

8.  Chester 

9.  St.  Asaph 

10.  Cardijan 

11.  Llandaff 
Vi.  Worcester 

13.  Gloucester 

14.  Pelerborough 

15.  Norwich 

16.  Cambridee 

17.  Canrerbury 

18.  Dover 

19.  London 

20.  Manchester 

21.  Rristol 
2-2.  Poole 
23.  Exeter 

SCOTLAND. 

1.  Thurso 

2.  Inverness 

3.  Banff 

4.  Aberdeen 
.■>.  Perth 

6.  Edinburgh 

7.  Selkirk 

8.  Ayr 

IRELAND. 

1.  liondonderry 

2.  Sligo 

3.  Gahvay 

4.  Limerick 
.■>.  Cik 

G.  We.xford 

7.  D.ihlin 

8.  Drogheda 

9.  Belfast 

NORWAY. 

1.  Saltdalen 

2.  Seines 

3.  Rys  Vand 

4.  SiEvug 

5.  nroniheim 

6.  Roir.sdal 

7.  Forde 
R.  Arrtat 
9.  Loerig 

10.  Bereen 
ll.Tondal 

12.  Siavanger 

13.  Christiansand 

14.  Tonsl.erg 
1.').  Kongberg 
in.  Goel 

1".  Chrisliania 
is.  Faaldberg 


Tongsinger 
Frederickshall 

SWEDEN. 

Tarna 

Tasjo 

Liden 

Ostursund 

Sundswall 

Hede 

Tara 

Sarna 

Hudiks^-all 

Soderhamn 

Ilusby 

Sal  a 

Orebro 

CarUbdd 

Oville 

Nykoping 

Linkoping 

Jonkoping 

Gottenburg 

F'dkeiiberg 

Malmo 

Chrislianstad 

Kalmar 

Emin 

DENMARK. 

Aiilborg 

VVihyrg 

Veile 

Ripen 

Slesivick 

Kiel 

Copenhagen 

ICELAND. 

Holar 
Bessested 
Sand  fall 


PRUSSIA. 

1.  Colberg 

2.  Siaraard 

3.  Stettin 

4.  Berlin 

5.  Frankfort 
fi.  Posen 

7.  Gnesna 

8.  Lissa 

9.  Breslau 
10.  Glatz 
II    Sagan 

12.  T.irgau 

13.  Magdeburg 

AUSTRIA. 

1.  Olmuiz 

2.  Brnnn 

3.  Tabi.r 

4.  Prasue 

5.  Pllsea 


6.  Lintz 

7.  Krenis 

8.  Presburg 

9.  Vienna 

10.  Sopron 

11.  Gratz 

12.  Bruck 

13.  Villach 

14.  Saltzburg 
l.i.  Hall 

16.  Bri.^en 

17.  Milan 

18.  Mantua 

19.  Padua 

20.  Venice 

21.  Belliino 

22.  Rimini 

23.  Laybach 

24.  A  grim 
2.'>.  Carlstadt 

26.  Zara 

27.  Spalatro 

ITALy. 

1.  Genoa 

2.  Turin 

3.  .Alessandria 

4.  Parma 
."j.  Bologna 

6.  Florence 

7.  Lesliorn 

8.  Orbelello 

9.  Rome 

10.  Nettuno 

11.  Naples 

12.  Polieaslro 

13.  Taranto 

14.  Bitonio 
1.5.  Foagia 

16.  Pe.siara 

17.  .^neona 

18.  Pesaro 

GERMANY. 

1.  Stralsund 

2.  Hamburg 

3.  Bremen 

4.  Oldenburg 

5.  Osnaburg 

6.  Hanover 

7.  Brunswick 

8.  Cassel 
9  Fnlda 

10.  n  irmsladt 

11.  Worms 

12.  Heilbronn 
13..Freyburg 

14.  Ulm 

15.  Augsburg 

16.  Munich 

17.  Niiremburg 

18.  Hof 

19.  Leipzig 

20.  Dresden 


SWITZERLAND. 

1.  Constance 

2.  Berne 

3.  Geneva 

WEST  PRUSSIA. 

1.  Miinsier 

2.  Wesel 
3   Clevcs 

4.  Cologne 

5.  Coblniitz 

6.  Pruym 

NETHERLANDS, 

1.  Amsterdam 

2.  Rotterdam 

3.  An:werp 

4.  Ghent 

5.  Brussels 

6.  Liege 

7.  Lu.vemburg 

FRANCE 

1.  Caliis 

2.  ."Vmiens 

3.  St.  Quintia 

4.  Rnuen 

5.  EvrBu.t 

6.  Caen 

7.  St.  Lo 

8.  St.  Brieux 

9.  Brest 

10   Quimper 

11.  Valines 

12.  Rennes 

13.  .Alencon 
14  (-barirea 
15.  Paris 
10.  S  lissons 

17.  Metz 

18.  Sirasburg 

19.  Fpinal 

20.  CliMumont 

21.  Chatillon 

22.  Troyes 

23.  Orleans 

24.  Tours 

25.  Anders 

26.  Nantes 

27.  La  Roche 
3R.  Poitiers 

29.  Giieret 

30.  Moulins 

31.  Lons 

32.  Lyons 
3:i.  Maron 
34.  Clermont 
.35.  Perigaux 

36.  Bordeaux 

37.  Dax 

38.  Pau 

39.  Toulotise 

40.  Alhy 

41.  Rodez 

42.  Agen 


43.  Aurillac 

44.  Privas 

45.  Chamberry 

46.  Grenoble 

47.  Digne 

48.  Draguinon 

49.  Toulon 

50.  Avignon 

51.  Nismea 

SPAIN. 

1.  Ferrol 

2.  Santiago 

3.  Vigo 

4.  Orense 

5.  Lugo 

6.  Astorga 

7.  Leon 

8.  Oviedo 

9.  Lanes 

10.  Santander 

11.  Bilboa 

12.  Pampeluna 

13.  Vitioria 

14.  Burgos 
1.5.  Palencia 

16.  Zamora 

17.  Salamanca 

18.  Ciudad  Rodrigo 

19.  Avila 

20.  Segovia 

21.  Soria 

22.  Tudela 

23.  Huesca 

24.  Ago 

25.  Barcelona 

26.  Tarragona 

27.  Lerida 

28.  Peniscola 

29.  Sar.igossa 

30.  Teruel 

31.  Utrilla 
32.Giiadaxara 
33.Huete 

.•U.  Toledo 
3.5.  Madrid 

36.  Placentia 

37.  Truxillo 

38.  Badajoz 

39.  Moura 

40.  Zafra 

41.  Cordova 

42.  Andiifar 

43.  Ciudad  Real 

44.  Torrenueva 
4.5.  .AKacete 

46.  Ville  de  Canas 

47.  .Miirviedro 

48.  Valencia 

49.  Villencia 
.50.  Alfuente 
.51.  Murcia 

52.  Vera 
5.3.  Baza 
54.  Granada 


35.  .Mmeria 

56.  Malaga 

57.  Ecija 

58.  Carrnona 

59.  Huchla 

60.  Seville 

61.  Gibraltar 

62.  Cadiz 

PORTUGAL. 

1.  Molgaco 

2.  Braganza 

3.  .Almeida 

4.  Oporto 

5.  Aveyro 

6.  Guarda 

7.  Coimbra 

8.  Leria 

9.  Lisbon 

10.  Obidos 

11.  Abrantes 

12.  Evora 

13.  Alvilo 

14.  Ourique 

15.  Lagos 

16.  Faro. 

R'verM  and  La\a- 
a  Dal.  R. 
b  Moisen,  L. 
c  Wener,  L. 
d  Wetter,  L. 
e  Oder,  R. 
f  Elbe,  R. 
g  Weser,  R. 
h  Rhine.  R. 
i   Meuse,  R. 
i    Seine,  R. 
K  Loire.  R. 
1    Garonne,  R. 
m  Douro,  R. 
n  Tagus,  K. 
o  Guadiana,  R. 
p  Guadalquivir,  R. 
q  Ebro,  R. 
r   Rhone.  R. 
8  Geneva,  L.  of 
t   Cons'ance,  L.  o. 
u  Po.  R. 
V  Drave,  R. 
w  Danube,  R. 

CORSICA. 

1.  Corte 

2.  Porto  Vecchio 

SARDINIA. 

l.Sa.ssari  . 

2.  OrisiRgni 

3.  Cagliari 

SICILY. 

1.  Messina 

2.  Palermo 

3.  Sciacca 

4.  Syracuse 


Book  1. 


EUROPE. 


289 


terrupted  progress,  to  the  comparatively  elevated  state  at  which  they  have  novv^  arrived.  All 
the  branches  of  industry  are  conducted  with  a  skill  and  to  an  extent  unattained  in  any  other 
part  of  the  earth.  European  vessels  carry  on  the  commerce  of  tiie  most  distant  regions. 
'I'he  military  and  political  influence  of  Europe  is  now  of  a  magnitude  with  which  the  most 
powerful  and  populous  empires  of  the  other  continents  can  no  longer  be  compared.  European 
colonists  have  now  peopled,  and  are  more  and  more  peopling,  all  the  formerly  savage  and 
unoccupied  quarters  of  the  earth;  and,  with  tlie  exception  of  some  strongholds  of  ancient 
and  imperfect  civilization,  the  whole  world  is,  through  their  influence,  rapidly  becoming 
civilized  and  European. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  SURVEY  OF  EUROPE. 


Europe  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic. 
On  the  south,  the  grand  inlet  of  the  Mediterranean  divides  it  from  Africa ;  and  the  Grecian 
Archipelago,  witli  its  subordinate  branch,  connected  only  by  a  narrow  strait,  the  Euxine 
or  Black  Sea,  divides  it  from  a  great  part  of  Asia.  Between  the  north-east  extremity  of  the 
Black  Sea  and  the  Northern  Ocean  is  an  interval  of  1400  or  1500  miles  of  land,  formmg 
the  ea.stern  boundary  of  Europe.  Had  this  been  known  to  the  ancients,  they  would  perhaps 
have  identified  Europe  with  Asia;  but  the  separation  is  now  too  deeply  marked,  and  is  de- 
fined by  too  many  characters,  moral  and  political,  ever  to  be  altered.  The  absence  of  sea, 
the  natural  and  most  obvious  boundary  of  a  continent,  has  somewhat  embarrassed  modern 
geographers ;  for  even  a  river  limit  is  here  wanting.    The  chain  of  the  Urals,  running  from 


References  to  the  Map  of  Europe. — East  Part. 


SWEDEN 

1.  AllungHard 

2.  Jiikas  Jervi 
M.  (Ji'liivare 

4.  OI'Kalix 
.-i.  (i.MJun 
fi.  Arjcplog 

7.  l.ulea 

8.  P.iea 

!).  I.ycksfilo 
10.  Lofaniiers 
ll.Uiiiea 
12.  S mira 
\X  Upsal 
14.  Su.ckliolm 

RUSSIA. 

1.  F.iiare 

2.  K.ila 

3.  Viironezkaya 
4   Paniii 

.i.  P  .li'za 

6.  OuTiiba 

7.  Ekosirovskayo 

8.  Kaiidalskava 

9.  Hodankyla 

10.  Kitlila 

11.  KiMnllrask 

12.  Rnvainemi 
i:t.  Tiirnea 
14.  .Aio 

1.5.  Uloabnrg 

if).  Kri'si  Novolok 

17.  Kdiinle 

1><.  Vi-o 

I'.l.  Anilozero 

20   Solkamo 

21.  Kajina 

2J    lirakcslnd 

2:1.  (;urM>y 

21.  V\<:  Pisjarvi 

2.5.  Pielis 

2i;.  Kihi'liiN 

27.  Pur.niala 

2^.  hnovesr 

2(1.  W^sa 

30.  ClnisMn.s.tad 

31.  Bi.irnoburg 

32.  Mm 

33.  Kilkala 
31.  TavafiehuB 
3.1.  I?or?o 

3f).  Vyli.ira 

37.  St.  Petersburg 

38   Olonetz 

3!).  Petrf.zivndsk 

40.  Piivieneiz 

41.  Vasevskaya 

42.  Oiipca 
4!!.  .\rehangel 
44.  U.,Mfrt 

4.5.  Sian>isbische 
4ii.  Muzene 
47.  l.abavkfj 
4^.  Nlkilza 
•i',1.  Ousa 

Vol.  I. 


50.  Ovinnika 
.51.  Gelova 
52.  Stchemass 
5:!.  Burovskaya 
.54.  IMouB'eijskaya 

55.  Pincga 

56.  Verkoiiskci 

57.  Shpstiizi^rskoi 

58.  ClialclieUkaya 

59.  Karshakovska 
fiO   Makaciovska 

61.  Kra^nobosk 

62.  Mi-tvcrskava 
6:1.  Varptisk 

64.  Oust  Sisolsk 

65.  Kai 

66.  Tchprdin 

67.  Solikamsk 
6S.  Vilrenskoe 

69.  Orlova 

70.  0"va 

71.  O  irshkova 

72.  .Mishainovsk 

73.  Ivoiovska 

74.  .'Vkspiitorskoe 

75.  Velikoustong 

76.  Vielsk 

77.  Piidog 

78.  Vileara 

79.  Riebizersk 

80.  Ki.ilov 

81.  Vnlotrda 

82.  Tolma 

83.  Tp.bnchloma 

84.  Koldsbiv 
8.5.  Nikolsk 

86.  Sergievitzi 

87.  Kotelnilch 

88.  S'ob.irlsk'jv 

89.  Viaika 

90.  Ni.liDsk 

91.  (JIazov 

92.  Oi-hansk 

93.  Perm 

94.  Osa 

95.  Krasharfunsk 
9ti.  Blrsk 

97.  S  ir  ipoul 

98.  Klab"uia 

99.  Mal.nish 

100.  Kizaiie 

101.  Sviajsk 

102.  Ki'zmodemi- 

an>k 

103.  Yaransk 
lot.  Vetlouaa 

105.  Varnavin 

106.  Semenov 

107.  Iiirevetz  Povol 

=k(.e 
10=t.  K.-etroiTi 
lO'l.  .1  iroslav 

110.  Hibin.Rk 

111.  Pns.Tbon 

112.  <">:tiujna 

113.  Tikvin 


114.  Yamburg 

115.  Narva 

116.  Revel 
117  Derpi 

118.  Liiga 

119.  Novs-orod 

120.  Valdai 

121.  Oliishka'j 

122.  Btirovitclii 

123.  Viahnei  Volo- 

tcboki 

124.  Oiiu'lilch 
125    Petruvsk 

126.  Knvniv 

127.  Niznpy  Nov- 

gorod 

128.  Bouinsk 

129.  Sinbirsk 

130.  Smgilei 

131.  Sizzan 

132.  Kanader 
133.-Ardo;ov 
134.  P.ilcbinki 
13.5.  N.irovtchat 

136.  Ternnikov 

137.  Murom 

138.  Sudnu'da 

139.  Kasmov 

140.  Moscow 

141.  Pokov 

142.  Tver 

143.  Majaisk 

144.  Ziibtzov 
14.5.  Bieioz 

146.  Velikie  Luki 

147.  Cholm 

148.  Pskov 

149.  Oslrov 
1.50.  I.iii'zin 
151.  Valk 
1.52.  Penau 
1.53   Riga 
151.  Mitau 
1.5.5.  Libaii 

1.56.  Meniel 

1.57.  Spveniziani 
1.5H.  Vilpika 
1.59.  Drissa 
H'O.  Polotzk 

161.  Wiiepsk 

162.  Veliz 

163.  Smolensk 

164.  Dorngobuz 

165.  Kaloii'-'a 

166.  Kalornna 
li;7.  'Pnola 

168.  Kinzan« 

169.  Kozb)V 

170.  Tambov 

171.  Tchembar 
172   Penza 

173.  Pelrovsk 

174.  Volsk 
17.5.  Saratov 

176.  Balashev 

177.  Novokhopeck 


178. 
179. 
180. 
181. 
182. 
183. 
184. 
185. 
186. 
187. 
188. 
189. 
190. 
191. 
1[I2. 
193. 
194. 
195. 
196 
197. 
198. 
199. 
200. 

2o:. 

202. 
203. 
204. 
205. 
206. 
207. 
20S. 
209. 
210. 
211. 
212. 
213. 
214. 
21.5. 
216. 
217. 
218. 
219. 
220. 
2*21 . 
22"' 
223. 

224. 
22.5. 
226. 
w>7 
228! 
22<l. 
230. 
231. 
232 
233' 
214. 
235. 
236. 
237. 
238. 
239. 
240, 
241. 
242. 


Usm^n 

Voronez 

Phatez 

Livni 

Krapivna 

Bolchov 

Orel 

Saraz 

Koslovl 

Moghilew 

Rogatchev 

Slontzk 

Horisev 

Minsk 

Wilna 

Grodno 

Nowograd 

Warsaw 

Rawa 

Vidava 

Lublin 

Mienjirietz 

Brest  Litoy 

Blelsk 

Kobrin 

Pinsk 

Visoizk 

Ovroutch 

Mozir 

Cholmifch 

Ti'hernigov 

N.  Bieluiza 

Rilsk 

Soumi 

K.mrsk 

Oskol 

Voloniki 

Bobrov 

Pavlorsk 

Zatovskaya 

Kamishin 

Ilolinskaya 

Tzaritzin 

Tilkha 

Koslin 

Sheslibalotch- 

kaya 
Tcherkask 
Donetsk 
Iziuna 
Charkov 
Poltava 

Novomoskovsk 
Krenipnt 
Zolotonosha 
Kozelelz 
Kiev 
Padomist 
.liiomir 
Rovno 
Kametz 
Balia 
Gaisin 
Tcherk 

Novomirgorod 
Olviopol 


243.  Nnvogrignrevsk 

244.  Aleksandrovsk 

245.  Ekaterinoslavl 

246.  Oriekhov 

247.  Aleshki 

248.  Cherson 

249.  Tiraspol 

2.50.  Nov  Doubasari 
251.  Billzi 

2.52.  Bender 

2.53.  Akermann 
254.  Ismail 

PRUSSIA. 

1.  Sczueryn 

2.  Konissberg 

3.  Heiisberg 

4.  Marieiiburg 

5.  Dantzic 

6.  Gnesna 

7.  Culm 

8.  Thorn 

9.  Pbitsk 

10.  Posen 

11.  Sieiadz 

12.  Ratibor 

AUSTRIA. 

1.  Treuisen 

2.  Schemnicz 

3.  Eperies 

4.  Ilusa 

5.  Delireczen 

6.  Agria 

7.  Hant 

8.  Buda 

9.  Solt 

10.  Pets 

11.  St.  Maria 

12.  Races 

13.  Belgrade 

14.  Tempswar 
15   Arad 

16.  Bihar 

17.  Clausenburg 

18.  Carlsburg 

19.  Hermanstadt 

20.  Kuti 

21.  Tainopi 

22.  Siry 

23.  Sember 

24.  Lemberg 

25.  Sandeez 

26.  Sendomirje 

27.  Cracow 

TURKEY 

1.  Jnssy 

2.  Biirlat 

3.  Adgrad 

4.  Galatz 

5.  Ibraila 
S.  Silislria 

7.  Bnkarest 

8.  Slatina 

9.  Crotova 


10.  Tchernetz 

11.  Jogodiaa 

12.  Usilza 

13.  Serajevo 

14.  Mostar 

15.  Catiaro 

16.  Novibazar 

17.  Scopia 

18.  Nissa 

19.  Widin 

20.  Sophia 

21.  Oreava 

22.  Niconoli 

23.  Shumla 

24.  Burgos 
2.5.  Midieh 

26.  Constantinople 

27.  Rodosto 

28.  Adrianople 

29.  Cavalla 

30.  Philippoli 

31.  Isbar 

32.  Petolia 

33.  Salonica 

34.  Scutari 

GREECE. 

1.  Berat 

2.  Butrinto 

3.  Jannina 

4.  Arta 

5.  Lepanto 

6.  Tripolitza 

7.  Corinth 

8.  Athens 

9.  Zeitoun 
10.  Larissa 

Rivfrs  and  Lakes 
a  Dwina,  R. 
b  Mezene,  R. 
c  Pitchova,  R. 
d   Kama,  R. 
e  Viaika.  R. 
f  Volga,  R. 
g  Oka,  R. 
h  Don.  R. 
i    Donelz,  R. 
i    Dnieper,  R. 
k  Dniester,  R. 
1    Prulh.  R. 
m  Danube,  R. 
n  Vistula,  R. 
o  Niemen,  R. 
p  Dwina,  R. 
q  Tchudskoe,  L. 
r   llmen,  L. 
8   Ladoga,  L. 
t    Onega,  L. 
u  Puruvesi,  L. 
V   Sego,  L. 
w  Vigo,  L. 
X  Top.  L. 
y  Imandra,  L. 
z  Enaro,  1. 


25 


2M 


290  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

north  to  south,  forms  so  important  a  feature,  that  it  has  been  taken  as  tlie  grand  line  of 
division ;  and  is  protracted  to  the  Black  Sea  by  means  of  continuous  portions  of  the  great 
rivers  Kama,  Volga,  and  Don. 

The  form  of  this  continent  is  singularly  broken  and  varied.  While  Asia,  Africa,  and  the 
two  Americas  are  each  formed  into  a  vast  inland  expanse,  Europe  is  split  into  many  distinct 
portions;  peninsulas,  large  islands,  and  kingdoms,  with  extended  and  winding  coasts.  This 
form  arises  chiefly  out  of  its  inland  seas,  whicli  penetrate  farther,  and  are  more  deeply 
embayed,  tlian  those  of  any  other  part  of  the  globe.  Numerous  gulfs,  scarcely  secondary 
in  magnitude  and  importance,  branch  out  from  them.  The  Mediterranean,  which  forms, 
as  it  were,  a  little  ocean,  separating  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  is  connected  with  the  Atlantic 
only  by  the  celebrated  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  twenty  miles  in  breadth.  Its  great  enclosed 
branches  of  the  Adriatic  and  the  Black  Sea  penetrate,  and  render  maritime,  some  of  tiie 
most  inland  districts  of  the  continent.  In  the  north,  the  Baltic,  with  its  great  gulfs  of 
Bothnia  and  Finland,  is  neitlier  indeed  so  extensive  nor  so  accessible ;  but  it  is  of  the  highest 
commercial  value,  as  affording  a  channel  by  which  the  rude  necessaries,  the  metals  and 
woods  of  the  north,  may  be  exchanged  for  the  wines,  the  silks,  and  other  luxuries  of  the 
south.  The  British  isles,  by  their  varied  configuration,  enclose  beween  themselves  and  the 
opposite  continent  several  important  seas  and  channels.  We  may  add,  that  the  mountains 
and  the  plains  of  Europe  do  not  display  those  immense  unbroken  groups,  or  those  level  and 
almost  endless  expanses,  which  give  so  vast  and  monotonous  a  character  to  the  interior 
regions  of  Asia  and  Africa.  In  general  they  are  separated  into  smaller  portions,  and  are 
happily  and  commodiously  interchanged.  They  have  kept  Europe  divided  into  a  number  of 
separate  nations,  holding  easy  intercourse.  Probably,  this  relative  position  has  been  one 
great  cause  of  that  intellectual  activity,  and  those  vigorous  exertions  in  all  liberal  and  in- 
genious arts,  which  have  raised  this  part  of  the  globe  to  so  high  a  pre-eminence.  The 
immense  inland  plains  of  Russia  and  Poland,  presenting  an  aspect  wholly  Asiatic,  remained, 
even  after  the  civilization  and  improvement  of  all  western  Europe,  sunk  in  the  deepest  bar- 
barism, from  which  they  are  but  slowly  and  with  difficulty  emerging. 

Sect.  I. — Natural  Features. 

The  surface  of  Europe,  as  we  have  observed,  is  very  diversified.  Its  mountains  do  not 
reach  that  stupendous  height,  nor  stretch  in  such  unbroken  cliains,  as  those  of  Asia  and 
America :  nevertheless,  w^e  may  trace  pretty  distinctly  two  highlands,  the  northern  and 
southern,  and  an  intermediate  lowland.  The  southern  highland  comprises  the  most  elevated 
mountains  of  the  continent,  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees,  connected  together  by  the  low  chain 
of  the  Cevennes.  Inferior  branches  from  the  Pyrenees  extend  through  the  Spanish  penin- 
sula ;  while  from  the  Alps  branch  forth  the  Apennines,  which  range  through  all  Italy, 
and  spread  their  lower  slopes  over  the  greater  part  of  southern  Germany.  The  extremity 
of  the  Julian  Alps,  and  the  mountains  of  Dalmatia,  connect  the  range  with  the  great 
Turkish  chains  of  Haemus  and  Rhodope ;  parallel  to  which,  though  with  a  large  group 
intervening,  stretches  the  circuit  of  the  Carpatliian  mountains.  North  of  this,  the  great 
European  lowland  comprises  the  largest  part  of  France,  the  south  of  England,  the 
Netherlands,  Northern  Germany,  all  Poland,  and  the  greater  part  of  Russia.  In  the 
extreme  north  of  Europe  the  mountainous  character  again  prevails.  Tlie  Dofrines  reach 
through  Scandinavia ;  while  tlie  north  of  England  and  nearly  all  Scotland  is  covered  with 
mountains  of  secondary  magnitude.  Of  all  the  European  mountains  the  Alps  are  by  much 
the  highest,  and  perhaps  may  rank  fourth  to  the  Himalaya,  the  Andes,  and  Caucasus,  among 
the  mountain  chains  of  the  globe.  Mont  Blanc  and  Monte  Rosa  exceed  15,000  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  numerous  other  summits  of  this  chain  exemplify  all  the  descending  grades  of 
elevation.  The  Apennines  vary  from  3000  to  6000  feet ;  but  yEtna,  at  their  utmost  extremi- 
ty, is  nearly  11,000.  The  most  elevated  of  the  Pyrenees  rises  somewhat  above  that  height. 
The  Spanish  summits  are  in  general  of  the  level  of  the  Apennine,  except  the  Guadarrama, 
wliich  exceeds  8000  feet,  and  the  Sierra  Nevada,  which  equals  tlie  Pyrenees.  The  Thracian 
chains  have  not  yet  been  subjected  to  survey ;  but  they  doubtless  exceed  those  of  Greece, 
whicli  ascend  to  0000  or  7OO0  feet.  The  Dofrines,  notwithstanding  their  snowy  and  terrible 
aspect,  are  not  of  first-rate  elevation.  The  great  Norwegian  chain  does  not  quite  reach 
9000  feet ;  Ben  Nevis  is  only  4300  feet ;  and  none  of  the  English  mountains  reach  that 
altitude. 

The  rivers  of  Europe  are  numerous,  but  none  of  tliem  of  the  very  first  magnitude. 
The  two  largest  flow  through  the  great  eastern  plain,  a  semi-Asiatic  region,  and  terminate 
in  distant  and  interior  seas,  where  they  contribute  little  to  commercial  intercourse.  Tlie 
Volga,  which  alone  can  come  into  rivalry  with  the  great  rivers  of  Asia,  passes  the  Asiatic 
limit,  v/here  it  spreads  into  the  great  interior  expanse  of  the  Caspian.  The  Black  Sea  absorbs 
the  other  rivers  from  the  great  plain  of  Russia  and  Poland :  it  receives  also  the  noble  stream 
of  the  Danube,  which  belongs  indeed  to  the  central  region  of  Europe ;  but  directing  its 
lower  course  through  barbarous  and  uncultivated  regions,  and  terminating  in  tliis  distant 
receptacle,  it  conduces  only  m  a  secondary  degree  to  the  distribution  of  wealth  and  plenty 


Book  I.  EUROPE.  291 

through  the  continent.  Western  Europe  is  too  much  broken  into  separate  portions,  and 
crossed  by  high  mountain  barriers,  to  allow  to  its  rivers  a  length  of  more  than  from  400  to 
600  miles;  and  they  have  usually  their  entire  course  through  a  single  country, — the  Rhine, 
the  Elbe,  and  tiie  Oder,  through  Germany ;  the  Loire,  the  Rhone,  and  the  Garonne,  through 
France,  the  Po  through  Italy;  the  Ebro,  the  Douro,  the  Tagus,  and  the  Guadalquivir, 
through  Spain.  The  northern  rivers  of  Britain  and  Scandinavia,  restricted  to  a  still  nar- 
rower field,  seldom  accomplish  so  long  a  course  as  200  miles.  Yet,  though  Europe  does 
not  present  the  grand  rivers  which  distinguish  the  greater  continents,  it  is  on  the  whole 
happily  and  commodiously  watered.  Almost  every  part  of  it  enjoys  the  benefit  of  river 
communication  ,■  it  is  neither  overspread  by  the  dreary  swamps  of  America,  nor  the  sandy 
deserts  which  render  uninhabitable  so  great  a  part  of  Asia  and  Africa. 

The  lakes  of  Europe  are  numerous,  chiefly  enclosed  within  its  mountain  regions;  but  few 
of  them  are  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  rank  as  inland  seas.  Those  alone  entitled  to  this 
distinction  are  the  Ladoga  and  the  Onega,  which,  forming  a  sort  of  continuation  of  the  Gulf 
of  Finland,  and  being  situated  in  bleak  and  frozen  regions,  minister  very  little  to  internal 
intercourse.  Finland  is  covered  with  similar  lakes.  The  Wener  and  Wetter  of  Sweden 
rank  next  in  magnitude,  and,  surrounded  by  immense  woods  and  iron  mines,  possess  consid- 
erable beauty  and  value.  Switzerland,  with  its  Italian  border,  is  the  chief  lake-region  of 
Europe :  its  waters,  particularly  those  of  Geneva  and  Lucerne,  enclosed  between  the  loftiest 
snowy  pinnacles  of  the  Alps,  present  scenes  of  grandeur  and  beauty  almost  unrivalled ;  but 
they  are  not  on  such  a  scale  or  so  situated  as  to  afford  any  important  inland  navigation. 
Those  of  England  and  Ireland  are  merely  small  picturesque  features.  Those  of  Scotland 
are  larger  and  more  numerous ;  and  a  chain  of  them,  having  been  connected  by  a  broad 
canal,  was  expected  to  form  a  great  naval  route  across  the  island. 

The  European  soil  is  distinguished  for  productions,  perhaps  surpassing  in  value  those 
of  any  other  quarter  of  the  globe.  It  does  not,  indeed,  possess  that  brilliant  luxuriance  of 
vegetation  which  adorns  the  equatorial 'regions  of  Asia  and  America.  But  corn  and  wine, 
the  most  substantial  and  most  agreeable  articles  of  human  diet,  are  nowhere  produced  on  so 
great  a  scale  or  in  such  high  perfection.  Grain,  of  one  description  or  another,  is  raised  over 
its  whole  surface,  excepting  in  the  extreme  north  ;  wines  throughout  all  its  southern  king- 
doms. In  hemp,  flax,  and  wool,  those  staple  materials  of  clothing,  Europe  is  equally  pre- 
eminent. Silk,  another  valuable  commodity,  it  produces  copiously,  though  not  so  as  to  be 
independent  of  supplies  from  India  and  China.  Cotton  is  the  only  great  material  which  the 
immense  manufactures  of  Europe  derive  almost  entirely  fi-om  foreign  regions.  If  we  except 
the  horse  and  the  camel,  for  which  Asia  is  renowned,  Europe  contains  the  most  valuable  as 
well  as  the  most  numerous  breeds  of  domestic  animals.  Its  northern  forests  produce  the 
finest  timber  in  the  world,  with  the  exception  of  the  teak ;  and  its  iron,  the  most  useful  of 
metals,  surpasses  that  of  the  rest  of  the  world  :  but  all  the  more  precious  substances,  gold, 
silver,  pearls,  jewels,  exist  in  an  extent  so  limited  as  scarcely  to  be  deserving  of  mention. 
The  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  carried  on  with  much  greater  diligence  than  in  any  countries 
except  in  the  south-east  of  Asia ,  while  in  science,  skill,  and  the  extent  of  capital  employed 
upon  it,  European  agriculture  is  quite  unrivalled. 

In  manufacturing  industry,  this  quarter  of  the  world  has,  within  these  few  centuries,  far 
surpassed  all  the  others  of  the  globe.  Asia,  indeed,  has  long  boasted  some  fabrics  of  extra- 
ordinary beauty, — silks,  muslins,  carpets,  and  porcelain, — which  are  not  yet  altogether  equal- 
led :  but  the  looms  and  workshops  of  Europe  now  yield  a  variety  of  fine  and  beautiful  fabrics, 
in  such  profusion,  and  at  so  cheap  a  rate,  as  to  place  them  Avithin  the  reach  of  almost 
every  class  of  society.  This  continent  thus  clotlies  all  the  young  nations  which  have 
issued  from  her  own  bosom,  and  which  fill  nearly  two  entire  quarters  of  the  habitable  earth. 

Commerce,  on  so  great  a  .scale  as  to  connect  together  the  distant  quarters  of  the  world, 
can  hardly  be  said  to  exist  out  of  Europe.  European  vessels  are  found  in  the  utmost  bounds 
of  Asia  and  America,  in  the  snowy  regions  of  either  pole,  and  crowding  the  ports  of  the 
Austral  continent.  There  is  not  now  a  place  on  earth,  however  remote,  affording  any  scope 
for  the  employment  of  commercial  capital,  which  is  not  immediately  filled  with  the  same 
promptitude  as  if  it  had  been  situated  in  the  heart  of  Europe.  The  ships  of  that  continent 
exceed  those  of  all  the  others  in  number  and  dimensions :  they  are  also  the  most  skilfully 
constructed,  and  navigated  by  the  only  seamen  who  are  qualified  to  guide  a  vessel  across  the 
great  oceans.  All  these  observations  are  liable  to  one  exception  :  the  new  American  states 
are  beginning  to  form  a  commercial  and  maritime  system,  modelled  on  that  of  Europe — a 
system  which  may  one  day  surpass  the  original. 

Sect.  II. — Inhabitants. 

The  population  of  Europe,  though  more  closely  calculated  than  that  of  any  other  quarter 
of  the  globe,  is  yet  far  from  being  ascertained  on  data  that  are  very  precise.  In  regard  to 
some  districts,  and  in  particular  to  the  whole  of  the  Turkish  empire,  no  census  has  ever 
been  instituted  ;  in  others,  the  computation  is  founded  only  on  the  number  of  houses :  and  in 
eome,  ten,  twenty,  and  thirty  years  have  elapsed  since  any  was  attempted.* 
*  Ssc  the  Tabic  at  tile  close  of  this  book. 


292  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

The  people  of  Europe  are  divided  chiefly  into  three  great  races,  which  differ,  to  a  very 
marked  degree,  in  language,  political  situation,  and  habits  of  life.  These  are  the  Sclavonic, 
the  Teutonic,  and  a  third  wiiich  Hassel  calls  the  Romish,  as  occupying  tlie  chief  of  tliose 
countries  wliicli  once  composed  the  Western  Empire. 

The  Sclavonic  races  cover  the  greater  extent  of  Europe,  since  they  occupy  the  whole  of 
the  eastern  plain  bordering  on  Asia.  The  people  have  a  resemblance  to  those  of  tliat 
continent;  and  were  considered  almost  as  beyond  the  social  and  political  pale  of  Europe,  till 
within  the  last  half  century.  They  have  now  forcibly  thrust  themselves  into  the  European 
system,  and  rank  among  its  jnost  influential  members.  The  Sclavonic  people  consist  of 
about  twenty-flve  millions  of  Russians,  ten  millions  of  Poles,  Lithuanians,  and  Letts,  and 
about  ten  millions  of  other  races,  known  under  the  names  of  Windes,  Tcheches,  Slawakes, 
Croats,  Morlachians,  wliich  have  found  their  way  into  eastern  Germany,  Hungary,  and  Illy- 
ria.  Without  wishing  to  consider  intellectual  and  moral  qualities  as  necessarily  belonging 
to  any  particular  race  exclusively,  we  may  notice  it  as  a  fact,  that  the  Sclavonians  are,  in 
both  respects,  less  improved  than  other  Europeans.  They  have  only  some  infant  forms  of 
art  and  literature,  which  have  sprung  up  from  the  imitation  of  those  of  the  eastern  nations. 
They  are  generally  subjected  to  absolute  monarchy,  and  the  greater  part  of  them  are  only 
beginning  to  emerge  from  the  degrading  condition  of  personal  slavery.  All  tlie  habits  of 
life  which  connect  them  with  polished  society  have  been  recently  and  studiously  imported 
from  the  west,  and  are  still  intermingled  with  deep  remnants  of  barbarism.  The  majority 
profess  that  superstitious  form  of  Christianity  acknovviedged  by  the  Greek  church.  Yet  they 
are  a  brave,  enterprising,  and  persevering  race,  and  have  established  tliemselves  as  a  ruling 
and  conquering  people,  in  reference  to  all  the  contiguous  nations  of  Europe  and  Asia. 

The  Teutonic  race  occupies  generally  the  centre  and  north  of  Europe ;  besides  Germany, 
their  original  seat,  they  have  filled  the  greater  part  of  Scandinavia,  the  Netherlands,  and 
Great  Britain,  and  may  be  reckoned  at  upwards  of  fifl;y  millions.  Under  the  limitations 
above  stated,  we  may  describe  the  Teutonic  people  generally  as  brave,  hardy,  intelligent, 
and  industrious,  though  somewhat  blunt  and  unpolished.  All  the  sciences,  and  even  the 
arts,  both  useful  and  ornamental,  have  been  carried  among  them  to  the  highest  perfection ; 
yet  they  are  accused  of  wanting  some  of  the  graces  and  agremens  which  embellisli  the 
courts  and  fashionable  circles  of  the  south,  by  whom  they  are  treated  as  semi-barbarians.  A 
great  majority  of  the  Teutonic  nations  are  Protestants ;  and  that  profession  is  in  a  great 
measure  confined  to  them,  and  to  the  nations  in  the  other  parts  of  the  world  who  have  sprung 
from  them. 

The  race  called  Romish,  which  comprehends  the  modem  inhabitants  of  France,  Italy,  and 
Spain,  has  only  a  very  imperfect  claim  to  that  title.  The  Teutonic  nations,  in  conquering 
these  coimtries,  poured  into  them  a  vast  mass  of  their  own  population :  but  Roman  manner 
and  the  Roman  language  had  taken  such  deep  root  in  countries  which  once  constituted  tiie 
main  body  of  the  western  empire,  that  the  latter  forms  still  the  chief  basis  of  the  dialects 
spoken  in  this  part  of  Europe.  The  Romish  were  the  most  early  civilized  of  the  modern 
nations.  They  have  carried  the  polish  of  manners  and  the  cultivation  of  the  elegant  arts 
to  a  higher  pitch  than  any  other  known  nation.  In  solid  energy  and  intelligence,  .they 
scarcely  equal  the  Teutonic  nations.  The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  ruling  religion  in  all  these 
countries,  and  has  among  them  iier  metropolitan  seat. 

Certain  interesting  and  antique  races  inhabit  the  rude  and  mountainous  extremities  of 
Europe.  The  Celts  were  the  most  numerous  people,  .and  at  a  period  of  high  antiquity,  the 
possessors  of  all  western  Europe.  Subdued  and  disarmed  by  the  Romans,  they  rapidly  declined 
when  the  falling  empire  could  no  longer  protect  them,  and  became  the  helpless  victims  of 
that  mighty  torrent  of  barbarous  invasion  which  poured  in  from  the  remotest  extremities 
of  Europe  and  Asia.  At  this  dreadftil  period  they  sought  or  found  a  refuge,  partly  in  Ire- 
land and  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  where  they  exist  under  the  name  of  Gael ;  partly  in 
Wales  and  Britany,  where  they  are  called  Cymri ;  and  partly  in  the  north  of  Spain,  where 
they  are  termed  Basques.  Having  retained  their  condition  unaltered  during  so  many  ages, 
they  cherish  a  fond  attachment  to  antiquity,  and  trace  their  pedigree  higher  than  any  of  the 
Romish  or  Teutonic  nobles.  They  have  a  traditional  poetry  celebrating  tlie  exploits  of  their 
ancestors,  to  wliich  they  are  fondly  attached ;  but  in  general  they  liave,  in  the  rapid  pro- 
gress made  by  the  more  modern  races,  been  letl  somewhat  behind ;  though  individual  emi- 
grants have  raised  themselves  to  eminence  in  every  department.  Hassel  calculates  the 
Gael  at  3,720,000,  which,  from  the  last  census  of  Ireland,  must  be  much  too  low ;  the 
Cymri  at  1,610,000 ;  the  Basques  at  030,000.  The  Greeks,  once  the  most  illustrious  of  all 
the  races,  no  longer  plant  their  colonies  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  still 
occupy  their  old  seats,  and  are  spread  tlirough  difl"erent  parts  of  the  Turkish  empire.  De- 
pressed by  two  thousand  years  of  slavery,  they  had  ceased  to  display  those  high  attributes 
whicli  excited  the  admiration  of  mankind ;  but  the  prospects  of  independence  which  they 
have  now  opened  for  themselves,  afford  some  hope  that  they  may  regain  their  place  in  the 
scale  of  nations.  Their  number  may  be  about  2,100,000.  The  Jews,  that  singularly  inte- 
resting people,  are  spread  through  all  Europe,  but  especially  the  eastern  countries,  Poland^ 


Book  I.  EUROPE.  293 

Russia,  and  Turkey.  They  are  supposed  rather  to  exceed  2,000,000.  Tlie  Gipsies,  in  an 
humbler  sphere,  are  strangely  scattered  over  all  Europe  to  the  supposed  number  of  340,000; 
a  wild,  roaming,  demi-savage  race,  of  unknown  origin,  but  probably  Asiatic  rather  than 
Egyptian. 

Several  Asiatic  nations  have  penetrated  by  conquest  or  migration  into  the  east  of  Europe. 
These  are  chiefly  Tartars,  whom  Hassel  estimates  at  3,250,000  heads.  The  most  prominent 
branch  is  that  of  the  Turks,  the  ruling  people  in  the  Ottoman  empire,  though  they  form  in 
a  few  districts  only  a  majority  of  the  population.  It  seems  doubtful,  however,  if  all  the 
Tartars  who  wander  over  the  southern  steppes  of  Russia  can  be  considered  as  Asiatic  in  their 
origin.  The  Magyars,  who,  to  the  number  of  3,000,000,  prevail  in  Hungary  and  Transyl- 
vania, appear  to  be  also  Asiatic,  or  at  least  to  have  sprung  from  that  most  eastern  border  of 
European  Russia,  which  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  Asia. 

The  religion  of  Europe  is  almost  entirely  monotheistic.  A  mere  handful  of  pagans,  the 
Samoiedes,  are  found  in  its  north-eastern  extremity,  on  the  shores  of  the  Icy  Sea.  Europe 
is  almost  entirely  Christian;  and  the  small  population  of  Mahomedans  who  have  found  their 
way  into  it  consist  of  Asiatic  races,  Turks  and  Tartars.  The  Jews,  however  generally  dif- 
fused, have  nowhere  a  national  church,  nor  are  they  in  any  nation  fully  identified  with  the 
body  of  the  people.  The  Christians  of  Europe  are  divided  into  three  great  churches,  the 
Greek,  the  Latin  or  Roman  Catholic,  and  the  Protestant. 

The  Greek  or  Eastern  church,  which  was  that  of  the  Constantinopolitan  empire,  was 
severed  from  the  Latin  by  the  great  schism  in  the  ninth  century,  caused  by  some  abstruse 
questions  respecting  the  nature  and  person  of  Christ.  It  is  still  professed  by  the  modern 
Greeks,  is  the  established  religion  of  Russia,  and  has  votaries  in  Hungary  and  all  its  append- 
ant territories.  Hassel  reckons  its  numbers  at  32,000,000;  Malte-Brun  at  50,000,000— a 
strange  discrepancy.  We  should  think  the  former  much  nearer  the  truth,  though  perhaps 
somewhat  under  it.  This  religion  having  been  long  prevalent  among  unenlightened  and 
degraded  nations,  has  become  encumbered  with  empty  pc-mp  and  childish  ceremonies ;  and 
mnny  of  its  clergy  are  ill-informed  and  of  irregular  lives. 

The  Roman  Catholic  religion,  which  reigned  so  long  with  supreme  sway  over  Europe, 
embraces  still  a  numerical  majority  of  its  people.  In  Italy,  Spain,  France,  and  the  dominions 
of  the  house  of  Austria,  it  is  dominant  and  almost  exclusive.  It  still  holds  attached  to  it 
a  large  portion  of  the  smaller  states  of  Germany,  and  of  the  Cantons  of  Switzerland.  The 
greater  part  of  Ireland  and  of  Russian  Poland  continue  attached  to  it,  without  regard  to  the 
opposite  systems  supported  by  the  state.  That  intolerance  which  gave  birth  to  so  many 
struggles  in  attempting  to  extirpate  the  Protestant  faith,  has  been  greatly  mitigated,  and, 
except  in  Italy  and  Spain,  all  professions  enjoy  an  almost  complete  toleration.  The  number 
of  Roman  Catholics  seems  to  be  fairly  estimated  at  between  90,000,000  and  100,000,000. 
The  absolute  authority  of  the  Pope  in  matters  of  fiiith  and  worship,  auricular  confession,  the 
prohibition  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  vulgar  tongue,  and  a  splendid  ritual  calculated  to  dazzle 
the  eyes  of  the  multitude,  form  the  peculiar  characters  of  the  Roman  Catholic  system.  The 
monstrous  pretensions  once  advanced  to  excommunicate  and  depose  kings,  and  to  grant  indul- 
gences to  commit  crime,  seem  now  to  be  generally  withdrawn. 

The  Protestant  or  Reformed  religion  raised  its  standard  early  in  the  fifleenth  century,  and 
made  most  rapid  progress,  especially  in  the  north  of  Europe.  It  sought  to  purge  Christianity 
from  the  superstitious  observances  which  had  enveloped  it  during  many  ages  of  darkness;  to 
introduce  a  more  spiritual  and  simple  form  of  worsliip ;  to  break  up  the  institutions  devoted 
to  celibacy ;  to  deny  human  authority  in  matters  of  doctrine,  and  rest  it  solely  on  the  found- 
ation of  Scripture.  It  had  to  maintain  a  dreadful  struggle  against  the  Romish  see,  which 
armed  in  its  cause  all  the  great  monarchs  of  Europe ;  and  in  France  and  Bohemia,  after 
taking  deep  root,  it  was  nearly  extirpated.  It  has  been  finally  established,  however,  in  Great 
Britain,  in  the  Netherlands,  the  north  of  Germany,  and  the  Scandinavian  peninsula.  Not- 
withstanding its  numerical  inferiority,  it  now  ranks  among  its  votaries  the  most  powerful,  the 
most  opulent,  and  the  most  intelligent  nations  of  Europe  and  the  globe.  Its  rejection  of 
human  authority,  and  direct  appeal  to  the  Scriptures,  have  caused  it  to  be  split  into  numerous 
sects  and  divisions.  The  most  prominent  is  into  Lutherans  and  Calvinists  ;  the  Lutherans 
retaining  still  many  of  the  Romish  rites  and  doctrines,  to  which,  in  every  point,  the  Calvinists 
place  themselves  in  the  most  decided  opposition.  The  English  church  may  be  considered  a 
sort  of  medium  between  the  two,  inclining  nearer  to  the  Lutheran.  In  the  Protestant 
countries,  numerous  smaller  sects  have  asserted  the  right  of  private  judgment,  on  which  the 
Reformation  was  founded.  Among  these  are  the^nabaptists,  chiefly  in  Germany,  the  Neth- 
erlands, and  Englar:d,  whom  Hassel  perhaps  underrates  at  240,000;  Methodists  and  Quakers 
in  Britain,  estimated  at  190,000 ;  the  Moravian  brethren  in  Germany,  40,000.  The  Unita- 
rians have  an  established  church  in  Transylvania,  comprising  40,000  souls,  and  are  difflised, 
openly  or  secretly,  through  tlio  other  European  countries,  especially  Britain. 

In  learning,  art,  science,  all  the  pursuits  which  develope  the  intellectual  nature  of  man, 
which  refine  and  enlarge  his  ideas,  Europe  lias  far  surpassed  every  other  continent.  The 
emoires  of  Soutiiern  and  Eastern  Asia  alone  have  an  ancient  traditional  literature,  of  which 


294  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

the  remains  are  yet  preserved.  Lut,  besides  being  now  in  a  very  decayed  state,  it  never 
included  any  authentic  history,  sound  philosophy,  or  accurate  knowledge  of  nature.  An 
extravagant  though  sometimes  poetical  mytliology,  proverbial  maxims  of  wisdom,  and  a 
poetry  replete  with  bold  and  hyperbolical  images,  compose  almost  its  entire  circle.  The 
science  of  Europe  has  been  employed  with  equal  success  in  exploring  the  most  distant  regions 
of  the  universe,  and  in  improving  the  condition  of  man  in  society.  Astronomy,  which  else- 
where is  a  mere  mass  of  superstition  and  wild  conjecture,  has  here  not  only  delineated  witli 
perfect  precision  the  situation  and  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  but  has  disclosed 
niunberless  systems  of  worlds,  of  which  without  her  aid  the  existence  could  never  have 
been  suspected.  Chemistry,  which  was  formerly  a  mere  collection  of  empirical  receipts  and 
chimeras,  is  become  a  mighty  science,  which  analyses  the  most  secret  operations  of  nature, 
and  discovers  important,  and  before  unknown,  substances.  A  similarly  sound  and  compre- 
hensive character  marks  her  attainments  in  physical  science,  and  in  every  brancli  of  natural 
history.  In  regard  to  poetic  fancy,  although  some  natural  flights  may  be  found  among  the 
rudest  tribes,  and  though  the  Orientals  possess  a  peculiar  vein  of  learned  and  studied  orna- 
ment, it  is  in  Europe,  during  eitlier  ancient  or  modern  times,  that  the  polished  and  classic 
models  of  poetical  composition  have  been  exclusively  produced. 

The  invention  of  printing,  and  the  consequent  general  diffusion  of  information  among  all 
classes,  are  features  especially  European.  By  their  means,  in  its  enlightened  countries,  the 
essential  branches  of  knowledge  are  now  placed  within  the  reach  of  the  humblest  classes, 
and  even  the  highest  branches  are  not  absolutely  beyond  their  attainment.  The  endowments 
for  the  support  of  learning  are  very  extensive,  founded  in  a  great  measure  during  the  middle 
ages,  and  bearing  some  stamp  of  the  then  infant  state  of  literature  ;  but  they  are  now  adapting 
themselves  to  modern  improvements.  The  extensive  and  extending  institutions  for  the 
instruction  of  the  lower  orders  have  produced  a  general  difflision  of  intelligence,  to  which 
in  the  other  parts  of  the  world,  if  we  except  America,  there  is  nothing  analogous. 

The  political  state  of  Europe  is  also  peculiarly  fortunate.  Elsewhere,  with  rare  exceptions, 
a  turbulent  anarchy  prevails,  or  va^t  empires  are  subjected  to  the  absolute  sway  of  a  single 
(Jespi-t.  It  is  in  this  continent  only  that  the  secret  has  been  found  of  establishing  a  regular 
and  constitutional  liberty,  in  which  the  extremes  of  tyranny  and  licentiousness  are  equally 
avoided.  Even  the  absolute  monarchies  are  generally  administered  with  mildness,  according 
to  legal  forms,  and  afford  to  the  bulk  of  the  people  a  tolerable  security  of  person  and  pro- 
perty. The  European  states  have  also  established  among  themselves  a  balance  of  power, 
which  sets  bounds  to  the  encroachments  of  any  particular  state,  and  has  repeatedly  rescued 
the  whole  continent  from  the  imminent  danger  of  universal  subjugation.  The  military  and 
naval  power  has  been  raised  to  a  height,  to  which  none  of  the  other  continents  can  offer  any 
effectual  resistance.  A  great  proportion  of  them  has  now  been  conquered,  occupied,  or 
colonised  by  Europe ;  and  if  the  whole  is  not  reduced  under  this  condition,  it  is  only  through 
distance  and  extensive  deserts  that  many  great  countries  still  preserve  their  independence. 

The  geology  of  Europe  will  be  more  advantageously  treated  of  under  its  respective 
countries. 

Sect.  III. — Botany. 

The  botany  of  Europe  presents  some  general  characters,  which  it  may  be  important  to 
notice.  In  the  preliminary  observations,  we  have  given  a  very  general  and  rapid  sketch  of 
the  vegetable  geography  of  the  globe,  taken  in  its  more  enlarged  sense.  We  must  now 
survey  it  in  its  subordinate  divisions;  and  the  plan  which  we  have  prescribed  to  our- 
selves, is,  in  the  first  instance,  under  the  great  principal  divisions  of  the  earth,  to  mention 
the  more  striking  vegetable  features;  and  then,  under  each  respective  country,  to  give  a 
more  particular  statement  of  the  plants  belonging  to  it  which  deserve  notice,  either  from 
their  extreme  abundance,  their  rarity,  their  peculiar  properties  and  qualities,  or  some  circum- 
stance of  general  interest. 

The  nature  of  the  present  publication  only  allowing  us  to  consider,  in  a  very  general 
way,  the  vegetable  productions  as  connected  with  their  geographical  distribution,  we  can- 
not devote  much  space  to  what  concerns  the  primary  divisions.  The  artificial  boundaries 
of  Europe,  especially  to  the  east  and  to  the  south,  are  of  that  nature  that  many  of  what 
might  otherwise  be  ranked  among  its  more  striking  botanical  features  are  gradually  blended 
into  those  of  Asia  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the  north  of  Africa  on  the  other.  Local  circum 
stances,  as  we  have  already  seen,  afiect  the  presence  or  absence  of  certain  plants,  to  an  extent 
more  than  equal  to  that  of  any  artificial  geographical  arrangement.  Temperature,  which 
has  so  powerful  an  effect  upon  them,  varief  in  a  regular  progression  upon  a  lofly  mountain ; 
but  it  is  not  so  in  all  situations,  and  with  the  same  regularity,  especially  on  the  great  conti- 
nents, upon  t!ie  plains  and  low  grounds.  "  Sometimes,"  says  the  eloquent  Mirbel,  "a  chain 
of  mountains  forms  a  barrier  against  the  freezing  winds  of  the  north,*  and  receives  and 

*  In  one  spot,  in  tho  extreme  south  of  Sweden,  facinc  the  sea,  and  backed  by  lofty  hills,  olives  have  succeedeil 
in  the  open  air,  and  ripened  their  fruit  ;  while,  at  the  distance  of  six  Swedish  miles'northward,  the  inhabitants 
clothe  themselves  with  furs  in  the  v/inter,  to  protect  themselves  from  the  severity  of  the  cold. 


Book  III. 


EUROPE. 


295 


refracts  upon  the  plants  the  heat  which  it  derives  from  the  solar  rays ;  sometimes  a  parching 
sirocco  from  the  south  raises  the  temperature ;  in  some  places,  the  winters  are  tempered  by 
the  proximity  to  the  sea ;  whilst  at  other  times  all  these  causes  combined,  produce  a  climate 
so  mild,  that,  to  judge  of  its  geographical  position  only  by  the  indication  of  the  thermometer, 
we  should  suppose  its  latitude  to  be  much  nearer  the  tropics  than  it  actually  is.  Again, 
continued  plains  of  vast  extent,  exactly  on  a  level  with  the  sea,  are  of  rare  occurrence;  and 
if  there  be  but  an  elevation  of  1000  or  1100  feet,  it  Suffices  to  produce  a  considerable  reduc- 
tion of  temperature.  This,  in  its  turn,  obtains  an  influence  over  the  vegetable  creation ;  it 
changes  the  line  of  the  progress  of  plants  in  their  migration ;  it  arrests  them,  and  limits  their 
boundaries.  Sometimes  the  northern  species  proceed  southward  towards  the  tropics;  some- 
times those  of  the  south  noigrate  northwards ;  and  sometimes  groups  belonging  to  both  of  these 

tribes  exchange  countries,  passing  one  an- 
other ;  each  about  to  establish  colonies  in  privi- 
leged stations,  in  the  midst  of  a  vegetable  popu- 
lation to  which  they  are  no  less  strangers  by 
their  physiognomy  than  by  their  temperament." 
We  shall  here  confine,  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, our  observations  to  a  table,  by  ]\1.  Mir- 
bel,  of  the  phfenogamous  (or  flowering)  plants 
of  Europe ;  to  which  have  been  added,  for 
reasons  already  alluded  to,  part  of  those  of 
Asia  and  of  Northern  Africa.  He  divides 
the  northern  hemisphere  into  imaginary  belts 
or  zones ;  the  equatorial,  the  transition  tem- 
perate, the  temperate,  the  transition  frozen, 
and  the  frozen  zones.  The  temperate  transi- 
tion, where  European  vegetation  commences, 
is  limited,  to  the  north,  by  the  disappearance 
of  the  Olive ;  the  temperate  zone  by  the  ces- 
sation of  the  Oak;  and  the  frozen  transition 
by  that  of  the  Fir  {Piiius  sylvestris)  in  the 
west,  and  of  the  Spruce  (P.  Abies)  in  the 
east.  The  frozen  zone  is  divided  into  two 
bands ;  the  loicer  or  southern,  and  the  upper 
or  northern.  Both  are  entirely  destitute  of 
trees ;  but  in  the  first  band  are  many  shrubs 
and  sufl^ruticose  plants  :*  whilst  in  the  second 
scarcely  any  thing  is  found  but  small  herba- 
ceous plants ;  and  these  cease  where  the  line 
of  perpetual  snow  commences.!  Here,  too, 
another  important  fact  must  be  considered, — 
that,  in  the  frozen  or  arctic  regions,  almost 
exactly  the  same  flora  is  exhibited  in  Europe, 
Date  Tree.     Dwarf  Pa'm  Asia,  and  America. 

In  the  extent  of  country  to  which  the  following  table  is  more  peculiarly  applicable,  the 
Dwarf  Palm  (Chamcerops  humilis),  and  the  Date  Tree  (Phoenix  dactylifera),  {fig.  86.),  are 
the  plants  that  have  the  nearest  approximation  to  a  tropical  vegetation,  and  which  are,  of 

course,  the  most  southern.  The  plant  which  is  found  the 
nearest  to  the  pole,  and  which,  there  is  every  reason  to 
believe,  ascends  to  it,  is  the  Palmella  nivalis  (Hooker), 
Red  Snow  (fig.  87.)  of  arctic  navigators,  belonging  to 
the  Cryptogamic  family,  and  which  will  be  more  especially 
noticed  hereafter.  In  speaking  of  veg'etat  on,  however, 
generally,  and  except  the  contrary  is  otherwise  expressed, 
the  Cryptogamic  plants  are  not  taken  into  account ;  partly 
because  we  are  at  present  but  imperfectly  acquainted 
with  their  extent  or  limits,  and  partly  because  they  are  not 
Red  Snow.  of  such  general  interest. 

*The  shrubby  or  suffrnlicose  plants  of  the.  southL-rn  hanil  of  llm  frozen  zone,  are  fifteen  willows:  the  Dwarf 
Birch  {Betula  nana),  the  Humble  Biich  (B.  pumila),  the  White  Birch  (JS.  o/Jn)— this  last  is  only  found  on  the 
Bonthern  coasts  of  Greenlan'i  ;  the  Hoary  Birch  (/?.  iiicana).  the  .rmiiper  {Jinnprrus  rommunU),  the  Trailing  Azalea 
(j?.  procumbens),  the  Blue  Mimziesia  {jil.  r.arulca).  thf  Ledum  pnlii^lre  aii.1  L  l.atifulium,  the  Lapland  Diapcnsia, 
the  Downy  Whortleberry  [Vacciniam  pubesccns),  the  Marsh  Whortleberry  (y.  uliffiriosiim),  the  Red  Cowberry  (K. 
yitis  Iihen'),  tile  Cranberry  (K.  Oxycoccos),  the  Glaucous  Kalinia,  eight  species  of  Rhododendron,  the  Alpine  Arbu- 
tus, the  Crowberry,  the  Coniiiion  Heath,  the  Shrubby  Potentilla,  and  the  Rowan  Fir  (P^rus  aueuparia),  on  the 
southern  shores  of  Greenland. 

t  Almost  the  only  shruhbv  plants  of  the  northern  band  of  the  frozen  zone,  are  the  little  Arctic  Willow  [Salit 
polaris),  the  reticulated  Willow  {S.  reticulata),  and  the  four-sided  Andromeda  (j1  tetragona). 


296 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


COMPARATIVE  TABLE 

Of  the  plisnogamoHS  vegetation  of  a  part  of  the  Temperate  Transition  Zone  (Palestine,  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and 
the  Caiirasiaii  rn^ioiis;  a  portion  of  the  north  of  Africa  ami  the  south  of  Europe  being  comprised  in  this  zone); 
of  the  Temperate  Zone  (Central  Europe  as  far  as  the  Urul  Mountains  and  the  Caspian  Sc^a.  am)  parts  of  Tartary 
borderinc  upon  that  seal;  of  the  Transition  Frozen  Zshc  (Northern  Europe,  Siheria,  and  Kanitschatka) ;  and  all 
the  Frozen  Zone  (Polar  Regions)  of  the  Old  and  New  World.  Extracted  from  M.  Mirhel's  table,  in  the  Mem.  du, 
Museum  d'Hisl.  JVat.  de  Paris. 


Names  of  Natuml  Families. 

Temperate 
Transition  Zoae. 

Temperate 
Zoue. 

Fiolen 
TniDsilioo  Zon*!. 

Frnien 
Z'.ne. 

Co 

ill 
Ills 

S    . 

1  =  1 

tI  So 

•s 

if 

°!^ 

li 
1 

oil 

lis. 

m 

If 

is 

E 

e  »| 
-2  =  1 

Reed-MacM,  Typhioa*',  and  Arume.  Aroideae,.. 

m 

503 
195 

40 
28 
28 
12 

IfO 
40 
61 

106 
13 
1 
3 
S4 

lOG 

e 

20 
103 
16 

e 

30 

1 

63 
101 

n 

65 
67 

s 

10 
f6 
10 

298 
78 
41 
22 
4 
1 
43 

102 

431 
4 
19 
37 
2 

128 

1168 

(iO 

■10 

112 
27 

368 
70 
13 
31 

to 

6 
»1 

8 
10 
24 

3 
19 
200 
975 
16 
30 

1 
36 

5 

I 
70 

1 

1 

9 
89 
2 
3 
55 
30 
St2 

e 

16 

6 

18 

150 

35 

640 

22 

31 

6 

6 

1 

193 

o.oo> 
o.oci 

O.OiS 

0  004 
0.003 
0.003 
O.OOI 
0  O'il 
0  004 
0.008 
0.012 
0.001 

0  004 
0.012 
0  001 
0.002 
0.011 
0.002 
0.001 
0.003 

0.007 
0.011 
0.0112 
0.007 
0.006 

0.001 
0.007 
0.001 
0  036 
0  010 
0  005 
0.003 

0.005 
0  023 
0.052 

0.002 
0.0O4 

0.015 
0  142 
0  OIO 
0.005 
0.014 
0.003 
0.045 
0  008 
0.001 
0.001 
0  009 
0.001 

0.001 
0  001 
0.003 

0.002 

o.<m 

0.119 
0.002 
0.003 

0.004 
0.009 

0001 
0.004 

0  005 
0.003 
0.016 
0  001 
0.002 

0.002 
0.018 
0.004 
0,  00,1 
C  003 
0.001 
0  001 
0  001 

0.023 

10 
246 
275 

42 
SO 
11 
9 
78 
11 
26 
54 

e 

12 
63 

3 

9 
38 

2 
10 

B 

46 
126 
6 
24 
21 

3 

56 

H 

150 

38 
60 

1 
11 

80 

135 

1 

2 

28 

56 

620 

35 

20 

64 

19 

1P3 

49 

8 

14 

36 

7 

I 
5 
23 

11 

152 

2t3 

3 

13 

6 

3 

28 
1 

6 
12 

4 

13 
17 
IW) 
3 
7 
4 
24 
21 
4 
262 
12 
15 
6 
2 

126 

0  002 
0.061 
O.OOSl 

0  010 
0  007 
0.003 
0.002 
0.O20 
0.002 
0.006 
0  013 
0.002 

0.003 

0.015 
O.OOI 
0.002 
0.009 

0.002 
0.002 

0.011 
0.031 
O.COl 
0.01.5 
0.005 

0.001 
0.0014 

ooo-j 

0.007 
0.009 
0.013 
0  002 

0.003 
0.020 
0.033 

0.007 

0.014 
0.131 
0  0O8 
0.005 
0  016 

0  0J5 
0.013 
0  001 
0.003 
0.009 
0.001 

0.001 
0.005 

0  003 
0.038 
0  070 

0.003 

0.001 

0.008 

0  001 
0.003 

0.001 

0.003 
0.004 
0.045 

0.002 
0.001 
0  006 
0.005 
0.001 
0  063 
0. 1103 
0.001 
O.COl 

0  031 

e 

134 
90 

1 
27 
10 

6 

4 
38 

17 
42 
6 

9 

46 

6 
11 
2 

3 

< 

36 
47 
2 
12 
17 

30 
9 
93 
10 
36 
3 

2 
7 
48 
77 

1 

32 

16 
223 
11 

6 
23 
13 
74 
31 

5 

3 
15 

8 

1 

16 

7 
108 
156 

e 

3 
3 

1 
12 

3 

6 

1 
6 
4 

125 

5 
4 
19 

140 
16 
6 
3 
3 
1 

116 

0  003 
0.062 
0.012 

0.012 
0  008 
0  003 
O.OOI 
0.018 

0.008 
0.016 
0.002 

0  00) 
O.oil 

0.003 
0.005 
0.001 
0.001 
0.001 

0.016 
0.022 
0.001 
0.005 
0.008 

0.013 
0  004 
0.013 
0  («4 
OOlO 
0.001 

0  001 
0.0O3 
0.022 
0.036 

ol     I 

.0015 

o.oor 

0.104 
0.005 
0.003 
O.n  0 
0  005 
0.030 
0.014 
0.002 
0.001 
0.007 
0.003 

0.008 

0  003 
0.050 
0.072 

O.OOI 
0.007 

0.001 
0.002 

0.003 
0.003 
0.056 

0.002 
0.009 

0.065 
0.0O7 
0  003 
0.001 
0.001 

0.054 

37 
33 

'A 

2 
1 

5 

1 

20 

a 

3 

1 
11 

2 

23 

4 

2 

1 
27 

3 

41 

2 
3 

26 

4 

6 

28 
16 

1 
35 

3 

60 
1 
3 

21 

0.088 
0.071 

0.028 
0.006 

0.005 
0.002 

0.012 

0.002 
0  045 

0.021 

0.007 
0.002 

0.025 
0.006 
0.054 

0.009 

O.OOI 

0.005 
0.003 

0.0C3 

0.007 
0.097 

0.006 
0  007 
0.059 

0.009 

0.014 

0.061 
0.038 

0.002 
0.080 

0.005 

0  lie 

0.002 
0.005 

0.050 

25 
617 
265 
1 
62 
33 
31 
16 
207 
42 
70 
128 
11 
1 
3 
S»( 
17b 
9 
21 
112 
16 
12 
32 
1 
(6 
166 
18 
73 
71 
> 
10 
109 
14 
S«5 
9^ 
83 
35 
4 
3 
62 
252 
473 

19 
61 

146 

1450 

94 

48 

140 
34 

443 
94 
16 
32 
91 
12 

13 
20 

3 
51 
295 
1168 
16 
35 

1 
39 

6 

76 
1 

1 

10 
41 
2 
6 
60 
35 
636 
8 
22 
5 
39 
154 
35 
717 
37 
40 
7 
8 
2 
272 

<"ol('hJrMni8  C.tk-hiraceae 

Sandal-wood,  SaDtalaceae i 

Daphi:e,  Thymeleat- 

Swallnw Wirt,  A p.xyneae, 

A<'aijtbtiit.  Acaiithareai- 

Vt-rvaius,  Verbpnarcae 

Compound,  Synathereae 

Umbelliferoufi.  UmbL-llirerae, 

Hou-.-le.-ks.  r-fa-«iilea€, 

W  Ml  i-.  ;i.-i(K-  t>iM('rariae 

Myrilt-,  Myitatia.' 

L  ■TirniiioiiB  Dlani'*   Leeumioosae. 

Sumai  hK,  Tfrehtnlhareae 

Bu.  klhonis.  Rhamn.-ae, 

WiKvjsnrreU,  Oxalidrap 

Ge ran?ii m »^  (tJra n i aceae                                        ' ' ' 

Viiit:?t,  Ampelidear- 

Az^darach,  Mi'liar^- 

MaH^Ar       rAc    ^^                    * 

Si.  JohD'B  W..rl.  Hypericineae 

Frankenia    Frankei  iareae 

Momisfed.  Mfni^permeae 

Ranuuculus.  RauuDculaceae 

8193 

3982 

2129 

1 

438 

10.292 

#Ttiis  solitary  Cactus  is  iotroduced  from  America, 


Book  III. 


EUROPE. 


297 


In  tlie  temperate  transition  zone,  out  of  8193  species,  1262  have  been  ascertained  to  be 
woody,  and  6598  herbaceous ;  and  of  these  latter  3861  are  known  to  have  perennial,  and 
2373  annual  or  biennial  roots. 

In  tlie  temperate  zone,  out  of  3982  species,  there  are  357  woody,  and  3625  herbaceous; 
of  wliicli  2610  are  understood  to  have  perennial,  and  944  annual  or  biennial  roots. 

In  tlie  frozen  transition  zone,  out  of  2129  species,  are  193  woody  plants,  and  1936  herba- 
ceous ;  of  which  511  are  supposed  to  have  perennial,  and  .363  annual  or  biennial  roots. 

In  tiio  frozen  zone,  of  tlie  438  species,  46  are  woody,  and  392  herbaceous ;  of  which  371 
are  estimated  to  have  perennial  roots,  and  only  1.5  annual  or  biennial  roots. 

We  have  already  stated  that  in  the  frozen  or  polar  region  the  vegetation  is  very  similar 
throughout  the  north  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America ;  which  may  in  part  arise  from  its 
limited  extent,  and  from  tlie  continents  approaching  comparatively  so  near  to  each  other. 
There  must  necessarily,  too,  be  a  greater  equality  of  temperature  than  in  the  other  zones ; 
the  vegetation  everywhere  appearing  nearly  upon  a  level  with  the  sea.  In  Greenland, 
Schouw  estimates  that  there  is  hardly  one-si.vth  of  the  plants  that  are  not  equally  found  in 
Lapland.  Of  the  genera  of  Greenland  only  two  are  not  found  in  Lapland  {Streptopus  and 
Coptis),  and  both  occur  in  North  America.  We  shall,  by-and-by,  notice  how  analogous  is 
the  vegetation  discovered  during  Captain  Parry's  arctic  voyages  to  that  both  of  the  European 
and  American  continents,  in  corresponding  latitudes.  Even  in  Kamtschatka,  one  half  of 
the  plants  found  by  Wormskiold  are  European ;  and  of  the  genera  only  eight  or  ten  are  not 
European ;  and  they  are  North  American.  But,  as  we  proceed  from  the  Arctic  Regions  to 
the  south,  we  find  the  vegetation  gradually  becoming  more  and  more  dissimilar  between 
America  and  Europe ;  except,  indeed,  when  the  high  mountains  in  the  respective  countries 
are  examined,  and  then  tJic  resemblance  again  appears.  Pursh,  whose  flora  comprises,  to  a 
very  limited  extent,  tlie  plants  of  the  arctic  or  sub-arctic  regions,  or  of  the  lofty  mountains 
of  North  America,  but  is  principally  confined  to  Canada,  and  to  those  districts  of  the  United 
States  whose  latitude  corresponds  pretty  nearly  with  that  of  the  more  temperate  parts  of  the 
European  continent,  has  about  one-seventh  of  his  species  only  European ;  and  if  the  doubt- 
ful natives,  those  probably  introduced  from  the  Old  World,  be  taken  into  account,  only  one- 
tenth  :  out  of  716  genera  of  North  American  plants,  480,  or  two-thirds,  also  occur  in 
Europe,  or  in  Nortliern  Africa. 

Schouw  estimates  the  most  striking  disparities  between  the  vegetation  of  the  western 
parts  of  the  Old  World,  and  the  eastern  parts  of  the  New,  to  be  as  follows : — 

1.  The  Cruciform  {fig.  88.  a)  and  Umbelliferous  families  (b)  :  those  of  the  Pinks  (c)  and 
Labiate  flowers  (fZ)  are  much  the  most  numerous  on  the  old  continent.  The  first,  iti  North 
America,  may  be  estimated  at  oVj  "i  Europe  at  about  4^ ;  and  the  other  families  may  be 
cla.ssed  in  the  following  proportions  : — 

North  America.        France.       Denmark. 

Umbelliferous -     -sV  -sV  '^^ 

Pink  Family ^V  i  ~\ 

Labiate  flowers       -     -     -    -    -     ts  2V  2V 

2.  Of  the  family  with  Compound  flmoers  (Compositcc),  the  groups  of  the  Endives  (e) 

{Cichoracece),  and  of  the  Arti- 
chokes and  Thistles  (Cynaro- 
cephalcc),  are  more  abundant 
in  Europe ;  whilst,  on  the 
other  hand.  North  America 
possesses  such  a  number  of  spe- 
cies of  Michaelmas  Daisy  (As- 
ier),  and  Golden  Rod  {Solida- 
go),  that  they  constitute  one- 
tliird  of  the  compound  flowers 
of  that  country,  forming  a 
striking  feature  in  the  vegeta- 
tion of  the  United  States,  and 
carrying  the  preponderance  in 
favour  of  North  America. 

3.  The  family  of  Bellflow- 
ers  (/)(■  Ca7npanulace(E)ahQunA^ 
most  in  the  Old  World ;  that 
of  the  Cardinal  Flowers  (Lo- 
heliacecc),  in  the  New. 

4.  Not  a  single  species  of  Heath  {g)  is  found  in  the  new  continent ;  while,  in  the  old, 
immense  tracts  are  covered  with  them ;  but  their  places  are  taken  in  America  by  the  Whor- 
tleberries {Yaccinia). 

5.  Both  in  North  America  and  in  Europe,  the  forests  arc  constituted  by  the  families  of 
Vol.  X  2  N 


298  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  HI 

the  Cone-hearinof  {Conifera)  and  Amentaceous  {AmentacecE)  trees;  but  in  America  they  far 
exceed  those  of  Europe  in  respect  to  the  number  of  species. 

6.  In  North  America  we  lind  the  types  or  representatives  of  many  tropical  families; 
as,  for  example,  of  the  Cactuses,  Scitamineoiis  plants,  the  Sago  {Cycadecc),  the  Custard 
Apples  {AnnonacecB),  the  Sapindaceous,  and  the  Melastomaceous  plants :  tliese  are  wholly 
wanting  in  similar  latitudes  in  the  Old  World ;  and  in  regard  to  many  others,  which  are 
common  to  both  countries,  such  as  the  Palms,  Laurels,  Swallow  worts  {Asclepiadece), 
Sumachs,  Cassias,  and  Mimosas,  they  are  more  abundant,  and  generally  reach  a  higher 
northern  latitude,  in  North  America  than  in  the  Old  World.  In  Europe,  again,  there  are 
fewer  arborescent  plants;  for,  according  to  Humboldt,  while  Nortli  America  has  137  trees 
whose  trunks  reach  the  height  of  30  feet  and  upwards,  Europe  possesses  only  45  of  that 
character. 

Siberia,  bounded  as  it  is  on  the  side  of  Europe  by  the  Ural  Mountains,  differs  from  the 
latter  country  in  a  much  less  degree ;  and  it  is  mostly  in  North  American  genera  that  this 
difference  lies ;  as  in  the  presence  of  the  genus  Phlox,  Mitella,  Claylonia,  &c.  and  in  the 
predominance  of  the  tribes  of  Michaelmas  Daisy  {Aster),  Golden  Rod  {S(didago),  Meadow- 
Sweet  (Spirtea),  and  especially  of  the  Milkvetches  (Astragalus)  and  Wormwoods  (Arte- 
misia), as  well  as  (on  account  of  the  numerous  saline  lakes)  the  Goospfoots  and  Saltworts. 
In  the  southern  hemisphere,  the  vegetation  is  very  diflerent  from  that  of  Europe  in  the 
corresponding  degrees  of  latitude.  In  Southern  Africa,  Thunberg  enumerates  118  species 
which  are  analogous  to  those  of  Europe  ;  which  would  probably  be  found  considerably  to 
exceed  tlie  truth,  if  the  species  were  accurately  examined.  Mr.  Brown  assures  us  tliat  the 
Alpine  Catstail  Grass  (Phleum  Alpinuni)  and  the  Moonwort  Fern  (Botrychium  lunaria) 
exist  in  the  Banksian  herbarium,  which  were  gathered  in  the  extreme  parts  of  South  Ame- 
rica :  and  the  same  accurate  writer  observed  45  European  phjenogamous  plants  in  Terra 
Australis,  of  which  23  are  dicotyledonous  and  21  monocotyledonous,  and  121  acotyledonous 
or  Cryptogamia;  namely,  2  of  the  Fern  family,  25  Mosses,  14  Hepaticse,  38  Licliens,  10 
Fungi,  12  AlgEB.*  The  very  general  distribution  of  plants  of  this  class  over  the  surface  of 
the  globe,  we  have  before,  indeed,  had  occasion  to  notice. 

Sect.  IV. — Zoology. 
The  zoological  features  of  Europe,  although  sufficiently  important  to  render  this  continent 
a  primary  division  of  geographic  natural  history,  are  neither  so  extensive  nor  so  varied  as 
those  of  more  genial  regions.  We  have  already  shown  the  propriety  of  including  within 
this  range  the  southern  parts  of  Africa  bordering  the  Great  Desert ;  while  the  western 
provinces  of  Asia  appear  to  partake  both  of  the  European  and  the  Oriental  zoology.  It 
might  be  imagined  that  such  a  division,  including  countries  suffering  by  the  extremes  of 
cold  and  heat,  would  present  animals  of  the  most  diversified  nature  :  but  such  is  by  no  means 
the  case,  at  least  to  any  great  extent.  The  chief  seat  of  this  zoological  province  appears 
to  be  on  the  southern  side  of  Central  Europe,  towards  the  Alps,  or  those  countries  lying 
between  the  latitudes  of  40°  and  .50°  N. ;  as  within  these  parallels  the  greatest  proportionate 
number  of  species  appear  to  be  found.  It  may,  however,  be  more  natural  to  consider  this 
zoological  region  as  presenting  three  minor  divisions :  1.  The  arctic  ;  2.  The  central ;  and, 
3.  The  southern. 

The  arctic  division  w-ill  include  Greenland,  the  islands  of  Spitzbergen  and  Iceland,  and  a 
considerable  part  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Northern  Russia.  The  central  division  may  be 
said  to  commence  towards  the  northern  limits  of  Scotland,  and  to  reach  the  shores  of  North- 
ern Italy ;  or,  more  properly,  to  about  the  4.5th  degree  of  north  latitude.  The  southern 
range  includes  the  whole  of  the  Mediterranean  countries.  Northern  Africa,  and  Asia  Minor. 
The  animals  more  particularly  belonging  to  the  arctic  circle  are  few  in  species.  Those 
dreary  and  inhospitable  regions  afford  but  little  sustenance  to  ruminating  quadrupeds,  or  to 
insectivorous  land  birds;  while  the  intense  cold  is  as  inimical  to  vegetation  as  to  the  pro- 
duction of  insects.  Yet  these  undisturbed  solitudes  are  instinctively  chosen  by  multitudes 
of  marine  animals,  as  secure  retreats  from  the  interruption  of  man,  for  breedmg  and  pro- 
viding for  tlieir  young.  The  polar  seas  abound  with  innumerable  water-fowl ;  tliey  congre- 
gate and  build  among  the  rocks,  whose  surface  they  almost  cover  by  their  numbers. 

Of  the  Herring,  (Jig.  89.)  Pemiant  was  among  the  first   naturalists  who  believed  that 

the  countless  myriads  which  annually  visit  tlie  northern 
shores  of  Europe,  migrated  from  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
The  account  given  by  this  eloquent  writer  is  so  inte- 
resting, that  we  shall  repeat  it  nearly  in  liis  own 
words : — "  The  great  winter  rendezvous  of  the  herring 
British  Herring.  is  within  the  arctic  circle.     Tliere  they  continue  for  ' 

many  months,  in  order  to  recruit  themselves  afler  the  fatigue  of  spawning ;  the  seas  within 
that  space  swarming  with  insect  food  in  a  degree  far  greater  than  in  our  warmer  latitudes. 
Thus  renovated,  this  mighty  army  begins  to  put  itself  in  motion  in  the  spring.    They  appear 

*Of  ihs  121  .icotiieJouous  plants  it  may  be  observed,  that  all,  except  one,  the  Marsilea  quuilrifolia,  are  found 
in  Great  Britaiu. 


Book  I. 


EUROPE. 


299 


off  the  Shetland  Isles  m  April  and  May  :  these  are  only  the  forerunners  of  the  grand  divi- 
feion,  which  comes  in  June ;  and  their  appearance  is  marked  by  certain  signs,  and  by  the 
numbers  of  birds  which  follow  to  prey  upon  them :  but  when  the  main  body  approaches,  its 
breadth  and  its  depth  are  such  as  to  alter  the  appearance  of  the  very  ocean.  It  is  divided 
into  distinct  columns,  of  five  or  six  miles  in  length,  and  three  or  four  in  breadth ;  and  they 
drive  the  water  before  them  with  a  kind  of  rippling.  Sometimes  they  sink  for  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes,  then  rise  again  to  the  surface,  and,  in  bright  weather,  reflect  a  variety  of  splendid 
colours,  like  a  field  of  the  most  precious  gems." 

The  zoology  of  arctic  Europe  has  received  much  less  attention  than  that  of  Northern 
America ;  we  must,  therefore,  be  somewhat  concise  on  this  head.  Among  the  few  original 
writers  who  have  treated  on  the  fauna  of  arctic  Europe,  the  learned  and  acute  Otho  Fabri- 
cius,  many  years  a  resident  in  those  dreary  regions,  deservedly  ranks  foremost.  He  enumer- 
ates thirty-two  species  of  Mainmalia  as  natives  of  Greenland,  nine  of  which  belong  to  the 
genera  of  Walrus  and  Seal  {Tricheciis  and  Phoca),  and  fifteen  to  the  cetaceous  order;  thus 
leaving  but  eight  species  of  terrestrial  quadrupeds,  a  propor- 
tion at  once  explained  by  the  wild  and  desolate  nature  of  these 
regions.  The  number  of  birds,  comprehending  such  as  are 
occasional  visiters,  amounts  to  fifty-two.  Seven  of  these  are 
rapacious,  and  five  are  referable  to  the  families  of  Warblers 
and  Finches  {SylviadcB  and  FringilUda);  the  remainder,  with 
the  solitary  exception  of  the  Ptarmigan  {^g.  90.),  or  Lago- 
pus  mutus,  belong  to  the  wading  and  swimming  orders,  to 
whose  nourishment  and  increase  the  arctic  solitudes  are  par- 
ticularly congenial.  Nevertheless,  by  far  the  greater  number 
of  these  birds  occur  abundantly  in  more  southern  latitudes ; 
and  many  extend  their  flight  to  the  warm  shores  of  the  Me- 
ria.misan.  ditcrrancan.      Those  species,   in  fact,  which  habitually  live 

within  the  arctic  circle,  as  if  by  preference,  are  remarkably  few,  and  offer  no  good  founda- 
tion to  ground  a  belief  that  these  regions  constitute  one  of  the  prunary  groups  in  animal 
geoffraphy. 

The  zoology  of  Central  Europe  may  be  said  to  commence  towards  the  60th  degree  of 
northern  latitude,  where  a  sensible  change  in  the  number  and  species  of  animals  may  be 
perceived ;  vegetation  assumes  a  marked  and  decisive  character ;  and  those  animals  which 
depend  for  their  support  both  on  the  produce  of  the  earth  and  on  the  insect  world  are  greatly 
increased,  at  once  in  number  and  in  species.  Vegetables  furnish  nutrition  to  insects,  and 
seeds  to  birds :  the  former,  again,  become  the  prey  of  the  latter ;  and  thus 
the  supplies  of  nature  are  nicely  and  accurately  balanced,  with  a  just 
regard  to  the  preservation  of  all  her  creatures.  The  dark  pine  forests  of 
^^  .,,  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Lapland  are  the  most  northern  boundaries  of  the 
l^^/  Woodpeckers ;  one  of  which  (Aptermts  tridactylus  Sw.)  is  remarkable 
^/■-'    for  having  but  three  toes  to  its  feet  {fig.  91.),  and  is  more  peculiarly  a 


Three-toed  Woodpecke 


native  of  these  high  latitudes.  The  msectivorous  and  omnivorous  tribes 
begin,  also,  to  be  common ;  while  the  wading  and  natatorial  birds  diminish 
m  numbers,  though  not  in  species ;  for  as  they  congregate  at  certain  seasons 
in  the  polar  seas,  so  during  winter  they  disperse  themselves  on  the  shores 
of  Great  Britain  and  the  Continent.  We  have  no  very  precise  informa- 
tion as  to  t!ie  extreme  northern  range  of  those  birds  whose  chief  metropo- 
lis is  in  Central  Europe ;  and  we  are  still  deficient  in  a  Fauna  Scotica. 
Most  of  the  Arctic  birds  occur  on  the  northern  shores  of  Scotland,  the  islands  of  Orkney 
and  Shetland,  and  on  the  coasts  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark.  Miiller,  in  his  Zoologia 
Danica,  enumerates  57  species  of  Mammalia,  and  131  of  birds,  as  natives  of  that  kingdom. 
Among  the  former,  3  only  are  marine,  and  14  are  Cetacea;:  while  the  land  birds  amount  to 
87,  exclusive  of  26  belonging  to  the  rapacious  genera  of  Eagles,  Falcons,  and  Owls.  On 
comparing  these  numbers  with  those  of  the  Greenland  fauna,  we  observe,  on  the  one  hand, 
a  considerable  diminution  of  marine  Mammalia,  and  a  very  large  addition  to  the  list  of 
terrestrial  birds ;  this  latter  circumstance  is  easily  accounted  for, — they  are  not  formed  to 
endure  extreme  cold ;  and  being  dependent  upon  insects  and  seeds  for  their  support,  their 
dispersion  is  naturally  limited  by  the  facilities  afforded  by  nature  for  supporting  life.  Pro- 
ceeding to  those  countries  which  lie  towards  the  centr^of  Europe,  there  is  a  gradual  aug- 
mentation of  animal  life :  we  may  even  trace  this  change  in  the  local  distribution  of  the 
animals  peculiar  to  the  British  islands.  Many  species,  in  every  department  of  zoology,  are 
common  in  the  southern  and  western  counties  of  England,  which  are  totally  unknown  in  the 
northern  counties  and  in  Scotland.  Even  among  the  domesticated  races,  a  greater  develope- 
ment  of  structure  under  a  more  genial  climate  is  apparent  in  the  horse,  the  sheep,  and  the  ox 
of  Britain,  when  compared  to  those  of  the  islands  and  mountains  of  Scotland;  while  among 
birds  the  gallinaceous  genera,  which,  in  the  former  climates,  breed  and  live  at  all  seasons  in 
the  open  air,  are  reared  and  preserved  with  difficulty  in  countries  farther  north ;  of  these  the 
peacock  and  Guinea  fowl  may  be  cited  as  examples. 


300 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


Brown  European  Bear. 


The  southern  part  of  central  Europe  is,  then,  the  field  best  calculated  for  studying  the 
peculiarities  of  European  zoology.  Commencing  with  the  existing  quadrupeds,  we  may 
remark,  tliat  while  two  species  alone  appear  to  inhabit  the  cold  regions  of  Denmark,  there 
are  thirteen  described  as  natives  of  France  and  the  adjacent  kingdoms,  seven  of  which  have 
been  enumerated  among  British  quadrupeds.  The  great  white  Bear,  which  is  perhaps  more 
truly  an  arctic  animal  than  any  other,  disappears  on  the  southern  shores  of  tiic  Polar  Sea, 
and  is  replaced  in  temperate  Europe  by  the  connnon  brown  species.  Of  this  genus  there  are, 
ccording  to  Cuvier,  but  two  recent  species  belonging  to  Europe,  the  brown  (fig.  92.)  and  the 
black  bear.  Others  imagine,  with  some  show  of  reason,  that 
there  are  more  ;  as  the  varieties  from  the  first  are  very  remark- 
able. The  second  is  the  black  bear  of  Europe,  diflering  from 
that  of  America  in  many  important  points  of  structure :  only 
one  living  example  appears  to  have  been  seen  and  dissected; 
and  this,  having  died  in  confinement,  afforded  no  clue  to  a 
knowledge  of  its  haunts  or  manners. 

The  Wolf  and  the  Fox,  under  different  varieties  or  species, 
appear  generally  distributed  over  Europe  :  to  these  we  must  add 
the  Lynx  and  the  Wild  Cat,  as  the  only  true  rapacious  or  car- 
nivorous animals  that  have  been  appropriated  to  this  division  of 
the  globe.  The  Lynx,  once  common  in  central  Europe,  is  now 
only  known  in  some  parts  of  Spain,  the  Apennines,  and  in  the  northern  kingdoms.  The 
wild  cat  is  still  said  to  be  a  native  of  Britain,  and  is  spread  over  other  kingdoms  on  the  Con- 
tinent. A  recent  author  includes  among  the  "  extinct  animals"  of  Britain  the  hyaena  and 
tiger  whose  bones  have  been  found  in  the  caves  of  Kirkdale,  as  forming  part  of  the  modern 
geographic  distribution  of  animals.  This  hypothesis  lies  open  to  many  and  great  objections. 
If  such  formidable  and  terrific  carnivorous  animals  have  existed  in  Europe  since  the  last 
revolution  of  our  globe,  what  others  constituted  their  prey  ]  Their  food  being  fiesh  alone, 
what  were  the  other  races  of  quadrupeds  destined  by  nature  to  furnish  them  with  subsistence  ? 
■These  questions  must  be  first  considered,  before  we  can  assent  to  an  opinion  so  confidently 
advanced.  Whatever  might  have  been  the  character  of  European  zoology  before  the  deluge, 
certain  it  is,  that  in  its  present  state  it  exhibits  that  harmony  and  consistency  which  peculi- 
arly marks  a  wise  provision  for  all  created  things.  As  the  number  of  European  Mammalia 
is  so  disproportionably  small,  when  compared  with  those  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  so  are 
the  species  which  are  to  keep  their  own  class  under  subjection  feeble  and  few ;  and  this  law 
is  not  only  apparent  among  quadrupeds,  but  is  equally  observable  in  every  other  division  of 
animals.  Now,  as  birds  are  much  more  numerous,  we  find  that  in  addition  to  the  natural 
enemies  in  their  own  class,  there  is  a  group  of  quadrupeds  more  particularly  destructive  to 
the  feathered  tribes.  These  are  the  MustelcE,  or  Weasels;  few  perhaps  in  species,  but  im- 
portant in  their  numbers,  and  in  their  powers  of  destruction.  No  less  than  eight  species 
inhabit  different  parts  of  Europe.  Like  the  monkeys  of  the  tropics,  many  of  them  climb 
trees  and  suck  eggs;  and  by  thus  destroying  birds  in  every  stage  of  life,  from  the  egg  to  the 
.adult,  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  prevent  an  undue  increase  of  numbers. 

On  the  granivorous  quadrupeds  it  may  be  observed,  that  although  the  woods  of  Europe  are 
deficient  in  that  variety  of  pulpy  fruits  so  abundant  in  tropical  countries,  and  upon  which  the 
numerous  monkeys,  bats,  and  other  animals  of  those  regions  principally  live,  yet  there  is  a 

great  diversity  of  nuts  and  grain.  Hence  we  find  a  propor- 
tionate number  of  small  quadrupeds,  whose  subsistence  en- 
tirely depends  upon  these  bountifiil  supplies  of  nature : 
under  this  head  may  be  enumerated  the  Hedgehog,  Squirrel, 
and  tlie  various  Mice,  of  which  seven  species  belong  to. 
Europe.  The  Beaver  {fig.  93.)  is  found  in  tlie  vicinity  of 
the  Rhone,  the  Danube,  the  Rhine,  and  other  of  the  larger 
European  rivers.  If  naturalists  are  correct  in  considering 
this  to  be  identical  with  the  American  beaver,  it  is  one  of 
the  very  few  instances  of  the  same  species  of  animal  inhab- 
Beaver.  itiug  the  temperate  parts  of  the  old  and  new  continents. 

The  black  bear  of  Europe  was  long  confounded  with  that  of  America;  and  a  similar  differ- 
ence may  possibly  exist  between  the  beavers  of  tlie  two  continents. 

The  different  species  of  Mice,  &c.,  now  arranged  under  many  genera,  form  an  important 
part  of  European  zoology;  as  will  appear  from  the  following  list,  furnished  by  Mr.  Griffith 
from  the  valuable  Mam7nalogie  of  M.  Desmarest: — 

1        Mus 


Arvicola  amphihiiis Water  Rat. 

arvalis Fielil  MoiLse. 

fulvus Fulvous  ditto. 

arsoiitorateiisis Strashiirs  ditto. 

Georyclius  Norvesrirus The  Leriuniiig. 

'- terrestris I,and  ditto. 

Mus  sylvaticus Field  Mouse. 

^—  campestris Plain  ditto. 


miisculus House  Mouse. 

riiessarius Harvest  ditto. 

minutus Suiall  ditto. 

airarius Si-tnic  ditto. 

soririnus Shrew-like  ditto. 

dichrurus Partyroloured  Rat. 

islandicus Iceland  ditto. 


Book  I.  EUROPE.  301 

The  Hamsters,  remarkable  for  their  cheek  pouches,  and  belonging  to  the  same  natural 
family  as  the  mice,  have  their  chief  metropolis  in  Siberia;  yet  one  species  (Cricetus  vul- 
garis) extends  to  central  and  northern  Europe.  The  Marmots  (Arctomys  Marmotta,  Bo- 
bac)  are  likewise  nucivorous,  and  occur  on  the  mountains  of  central  and  northern  Europe, 
together  with  the  Spermophilus  citUlus,  or  Soulisk  of  the  Germans.  Of  the  Hare,  four 
species  are  European,  the  snowy,  the  common,  the  calling,  and  the  rabbit;  and  these  com- 
plete the  list  of  European  Glires. 

Among  ruminating  quadrupeds,  the  Elk  and  Reindeer  are  well-known  inhabitants  of  the 
northern  countries;  the  latter  giving  place  to  the  Fallovt'-deer,  the  Stag,  and  the  Roebuck, 
in  the  midland  parts  of  Europe.  In  the  lofty  mountains  and  inaccessible  precipices  of  the 
Alps  and  Pyrenees,  the  Chamois,  Yzard,  and  Ibex  still  live  in  partial  security,  notwith- 
standing the  daring  intrepidity  of  their  hunters.  The  Musmon  is  another  European  quad- 
ruped deserving  particular  notice,  as  being  generally  considered  the  origin  of  all  our  domes- 
tic breeds  of  sheep.  It  appears  still  to  exist  in  a  state  of  nature  among  the  high  mountains 
of  Corsica  and  Sardinia;  and  although  now  extirpated  upon  the  continent,  is  well  ascer- 
tained to  have  formerly  been  common  in  the  mountains  of  Asturia  in  Spain.  Lastly,  it 
appears  incontestable  that  the  ox,  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  nature's  gifts  to  man,  originally 
existed  in  a  wild  state  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  but  whether  as  a  distinct  species  or  mere 
variety  is  still  uncertain.  The  white  ox  of  Scotland  is  a  peculiar  breed,  still  preserved  in 
some  few  parks  of  the  nobility,  and  will  be  noticed  hereafter.  But  a  much  larger  race,  dis- 
tinguished by  Hamilton  Smith  under  the  name  of  the  Fossil  Urus  (Griff'.  Ciiv.  iv.  414.), 
althougii,  probably,  in  existence  long  after  the  invasion  of  Caesar,  is  now  only  known,  like 
the  elk  of  Ireland,  by  its  gigantic  bones. 

From  this  brief  enumeration  of  the  European  quadrupeds  it  will  be  perceived'  that  their 
numbers  are  too  few,  and  their  original  dispersion  too  obscure,  to  allow  of  any  correct  notions 
being  formed  as  to  their  natural  distribution.  With  regard  to  the  origin  of  our  domestic 
animals,  and  the  several  races,  breeds,  or  varieties  that  have  apparently  spnmg  from  them, 
the  reader  must  be  referred  to  the  writings  of  F.  Cuvier,  and  the  extensive  researches  of 
Hamilton  Smith,  whose  acquaintance  with  the  order  of  ruminating  animals,  more  particu- 
larly, is,  perhaps,  superior  to  that  of  any  other  living  zoologist. 

The  ornithological  features  of  the  zoological  province  to  which  Europe  belongs,  have 
already  claimed  our  attention.  We  shall,  therefore,  now  merely  notice  a  few  circumstances 
connected  with  the  ornithology  of  central  Europe.  On  the  highest 
summits  of  the  Alps,  and  in  the  vast  forests  which  clothe  their  sides 
in  Hungary,  Switzerland,  and  the  Tyrol,  are  found  all  the  four  spe- 
cies of  European  Vultures :  only  one  of  these,  Viiltur  fulvus  (Jig. 
94.),  appears  to  have  a  range  in  countries  farther  north ;  yet  all  are 
distributed  over  the  southern  kingdoms,  and  two  are  again  met  with 
on  tlie  northern  limits  of  Africa  and  western  Asia.  The  Iceland  or 
gyr  Falcon,  long  supposed  to  be  peculiar  to  the  high  northern  lati- 
tudes, is  now  considered  the  same  with  the  Fidco  candicans  of  the 
northern  parts  of  Germany.  The  wide  geographic  range  of  the 
rapacious  order  has  already  been  adverted  to;  nor  do  we  find  any 
species  besides  the  Vultures  which  serve  to  mark  the  ornithology 
of  centra]  Europe.  The  forests  of  Germany,  Austria,  Switzerland, 
and  France  appear  to  contain  all  the  European  Woodpeckers,  which, 
Fulvous  Vulture.  notwithstanding  tlieir  wide  dispersion,  are  but  thinly  and  partially 

scattered  in  the  northern  and  southern  kingdoms. 

The  range  of  the  small  insectivorous  birds,  or  warblers,  requires  much  investigation ;  nor 
are  we  at  tiiis  moment  aware  of  any  species  in  Germany  which  does  not  occur  in  France  or 
towards  northern  Italy.  The  few  gallinaceous  birds  of  Europe  are  nearly  all  found  towards 
its  centre,  although  the  different  species  of  grouse  seem  to  affect  the  more  northern  lati- 
tudes. The  warm  covering  of  feathers  which  protects  their  feet,  is  peculiarly  adapted  as 
a  defence  from  the  intense  cold  of  the  polar  regions.  The  Bustards,  on  the  contrary,  occupy 
the  middle  regions  of  Europe,  and  extend  latitudinally  fl-om  the  confines  of  Asia  to  the  shores 
of  the  Atlantic.  The  Bee-eater  (Merops  apiaster),  the  Roller,  the  Hoopoe,  and  the  Golden 
Oriole,  in  their  annual  migrations  from  Africa,  visit  all  the  central  parts  of  the  Continent, 
but  become  progressively  scarce  as  we  advance  northward. 

In  the  tliird  portion  of  the  European  range,  we  comprehend  the  south  of  France,  the  whole 
of  Spahi,  Italy,  and  Turkey,  together  witli'the  coasts  and  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
bordering  Asia  Minor,  and  Northern  Africa. 

On  the  geographic  range  of  the  quadrupeds  more  peculiar  to  these  countries,  little  can  be 
said  ,  as  the  materials  to  be  gathered  Irom  the  relations  of  travellers  unacquainted  with  zoology 
are  generally  most  imperfect.  There  is  no  evidence  of  the  great  northern  ruminating  animals, 
such  as  the  Elk  and  the  Reindeer,  being  found  wild  in  any  of  the  countries  which  border 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  although  a  small  species,  probably  the  fallow  deer  or  the  roebuck, 
Vol.  I.  26 


3(l2 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


is  represented  as  still  to  be  met  with  in  the  extensive  forests  of  Calabria.  The  Porcupine, 
now  wild  in  those  countries,  is  supposed,  (but  with  a  sligflit  show  of  reason,)  to  have  been 
introduced  from  Africa;  but  for  what  purpose  we  are  uninformed.  The  Buffalo  is  domesti- 
cated in  Greece  and  Turkey,  and  some  parts  of  southern  Italy ;  where  it  is  sometimes,  though 
rarely,  used  for  draujrht. 

Tlie  ornitholon-y  of  the  countries  bordering  upon  the  JMediterranean  presents  many 
interesting  peculiarities.  The  vultures,  which  are  seldom  found  northward  of  the  Alps, 
occur  more  frequently  as  the  climate  becomes  warmer.  This  tribe  appears  to  follow  the 
course  of  the  Apennines  in  Italy,  and  of  the  higiicr  mountains  of  Spain  and  Greece,  from 
whence  thej'^  extend  their  range  to  Asia  Minor  and  northern  Africa.  The  Imperial  Eagle 
(Fulco  imperiaUs  Tem.)  is  chiefly  found  in  southern  Europe,  while  the  Golden  Eagle  is 
much  more  numerous  in  the  colder  latitudes.  The  gigantic  Owls  of  the  polar  regions  are 
here  unknown ;  but  two  or  three  horned  species,  of  diminutive  size,  follow  the  migratory 
troops  of  smaller  birds  in  their  annual  journeys  across  the  Mediterranean.  Two  of  these 
small  owls  have  not  yet  been  described.  In  the  extensive  family  of  the  warblers,  many 
appear  peculiar  to  Italy,  Spam,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia ;  and  in  the  latter  island  there  has  recently 
been  discovered  a  second  species  of  European  Starling  {Sturnus 
tinicolor  Tem.)  Cfig.  95.)  The  grouse  of  northern  Europe  are 
rarely,  if  ever,  seen.  But  two  species  of  bustard  {Olis  Tetrao 
and  Houb(ira)  seldom  met  with  farther  north,  are  common  in 
Spain,  Italy,  and  Turkey.  Here  also  we  first  meet  witli  the 
African  and  Asiatic  genera  Ciirsorius  and  Hemipodius ;  birds 
which  delight  in  the  dry  and  arid  plains  of  those  continents,' 
where  they  run  with  amazing  swiftness.  The  rocky  and  un- 
cultivated wastes  of  Spain,  Turkey,  and  Asia  Minor,  furnish 
two  species  of  rock  grouse  (Pterocles)  long  confounded  with 
Sturnus  Uiiicoior.  that  northern  genus,  of  which  it  is  the  representative  in  warm 

climates.  The  beautiful  Wall-creeper,  witli  its  bright  rosy  wings,  although  rare  in  other 
parts  of  Europe,  is  not  uncommon  in  Italy ;  while  the  Golden  Oriole,  the  Bee-eater,  the 
Hoopoe,  and  the  Roller,  four  of  the  most  beautiful  European  birds,  are  so  abundant  in  the  tv;o 
Sicilies  during  the  spring  and  autumnal  migrations,  that  they  may  occasionally  be  seen  hang- 
in^  in  the  poulterers'  shops  of  Naples  and  Palermo.  The  union  of  the  African,  European, 
and  Asiatic  ornithology  on  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  is  ftirther  apparent  among  the 
water-birds.  The  Pelican,  the  Spoon-bill,  and  the  Flamingo,  are  still  to  be  met  with  in  these 
countries ;  although,  from  their  large  size  attracting  the  sportsmen,  they  are  never  seen  in 
any  considerable  numbers. 

TJie  European  reptiles  are  too  few  to  afford  any  material  illustration  of  animal  distribution. 
The  most  remarkable  forms  and  the  greatest  numerical  proportion  occur  in  southern  Europe, 
particularly  in  Italv  and  Greece,  and  the  islands  of  Sicily  and  Malta :  some  of  these,  as  the 
Gecko,  or  house  lizards  of  A^aples  and  Sicily,  belong  to  genera  not  met  ,with  farther  north, 
but  common  on  the  opposite  shores  of  Africa  and  Asia  IMinor. 

The  fish  and  other  marine  animals  of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  coasts  bordering  on  the 
Atlantic  have  not  been  well  investigated,  and  our  slight  acquaintance  with  them  is  insufficient 
to  o-ive  us  any  correct  idea  of  their  nature;  but  on  entering  the  Mediteiranean,  we  find,  at 
Gibraltar,  many  of  those  peculiar  to  much  more  southern  latitudes.  Spain  and  Portugal 
cannot  be  said,  like  England,  France,  or  Holland,  to  have  national  fisheries  ;  but  no  .sooner 
do  we  pass  Gibraltar,  than  these  natural  sources  of  pro.sperity  and  plenty  are  again  opened 
to  the  industry  and  support  of  man.     The  enormous  shoals  of  Anchovies,  (Jig.  96.)  annually 

employ,  in  their  capture  and  preparation,  a  great  number 
of  persons :  and  the  exportation  of  this  highly  flavoured 
little  fish,  to  all  parts  of  the  world,  creates  an  important 
branch  of  permanent  commerce.  The  Herring  and,  we 
believe,  the  Pilchard,  are  not  unknown  in  the  fish-mar- 
kets of  Sicily  and  Malta;  but,  notwithstanding  their 
abundance  in  northern  Europe,  they  are  scarce  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  never  seen  in  any 
considerable  numbers.  The  tunn}"^  fishery  is  peculiar  to  Sicily,  although  there  is  very  little 
doubt  tliat  the  same  fish  frequents  the  sliores  and  islands  of  the  Peloponnesus;  yet  the  tota' 
disregard  of  the  Turks  to  all  sources  of  national  wealth  blinds  them  to  this,  and  to  every 
other  advantage  which  Nature  has  placed  witliin  their  grasp.  The  Ichthyology  of  soutliern 
Europe  is  certainly  of  a  more  marked  and  peculiar  character  than  any  other  department  of 
European  zoology.  Of  nearly  150  species  observed  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  not  more 
than  one-third  belonged  to  tlic  Ichthyology  of  Great  Britain  and  northern  Europe. 

The  Turtle  of  the  Mediterranean  is  that  described  by  authors  under  the  name  of  Testudo 
carella :  writers  have  uniformly  copied  each  other  in  asserting  that  this  is  the  same  as  the 
Loggerhead  Turtle  of  the  West  Indies ;  and  that  its  flesh  is  coarse,  rank,  oily,  and  nol 


Anchovy. 


Book  I. 


EUROPE. 


303 


Cleopatra's  Butterfly. 


edible.     The  ace  iracy  of  both  these  statements  may  bo  questioned.     Whatever  may  be  the 

qualities  of  the  West  Indian  Loggerhead,  we  know,  flora 
personal  experience,  that  the  flesh  of  the  Mediterranean 
species  is  delicious.  We  were  once  becalmed  off  the  Isle 
of  Elba,  and  in  one  morning  captured  a  sufficient  number  ot 
small  turtle  to  supply  the  cabin  table  for  a  week.  They 
made  exquisite  soup ;  and  although  one  of  the  company  was 
ill,  it  arose  from  repletion.  We  omitted  to  draw  and  describe 
the  animal,  from  a  belief  that  it  was  the  Hawk's-bill  Turtle, 
the  only  species  described  as  inhabiting  tlie  Mediterranean ; 
Loegethead  Turtle.  ^'^^  figure  given  by  Gottwold  {fig.  97.)  has  been  considered, 

by  Dr.  Shaw,  as  representing  the  Testudo  caretta. 
Of  European  insects,  a  bare  enumeration  of  the  genera  would  alone  till  a  volume ;  and  in 
the  half-artificial,  half-natural,  arrangement  in  which  our  entomological  systems  at  this 
moment  remain,  it  is  impossible  to  form  any  precise  idea  even  on  the  natural  distribution  of 
the  families.  As  we  approach  the  provinces  of  southern  Italy  and  the  Peloponnesus,  we 
find  many  genera  which  more  properly  characterise  Western  Asia  and  Africa ;  while,  in 
Sicily  and  Malta,  the  geodephagous  groups,  particularly  the 
LimiEean  Carabii,  are  diminished;  apparently  in  species,  but 
certainly  in  numbers.  It  is  in  these  countries  that  the  Ants, 
those  universal  scavengers  of  nature  in  tropical  countries,  begin 
to  appear  in  almost  every  situation,  and  to  perform  those  offices 
which  in  more  temperate  regions  have  been  assigned  to  the 
Geodephaga,  Brachebjtra,  and  Necrophaga  among  coleopter- 
ous insects.  Most  of  the  northern  Butterflies  (Papiliones  Sw.) 
are  common  even  in  Sicily,  where,  notwithstanding  a  dissimilar 
vegetation  and  a  more  heated  atmosphere,  we  find  only  three  or  four  species  unlcnown  to 
the  British  fauna :  among  these,  the  Gonepteryx  Cleopatra  {fig.  98.)  or  Cleopatra's  Butter- 
fly, much  resembles  a  British  species,  but  has  the  middle  of  the  anterior  wings  of  a  rich 
orange. 

The  Radiated  animals  of  the  Mediterranean  are  particularly  numerous ;  the  many  har- 
99  hours,  coves,  and  sub-immersed  rocks,  sheltered  from  those  violent 

commotions  which  agitate  the  mighty  Atlantic,  afford  tliem  secure 
protection,  and  contribute  to  their  rapid  increase.  Their  investiga- 
tion, hitherto  much  neglected,  offers  a  wide  field  for  the  discoveries 
of  naturalists  who  can  study  them  in  their  native  seas.  Numerous 
species  of  Sea  Anemone,  or  animal  flowers,  unfold  themselves  in 
the  crevices  of  the  rocks;  one  of  these  (fig.  99.),  ornamented  with 
rich  purple,  is  particularly  common  on  all  the  shores  of  Sicily. 

The  tubular  and  cellular  polypes,  whose  habitations  are  termed 
corals  and  corallines,  are  generally  abund-  100 

ant  in  warm  latitudes.     Among  these  a 
vast   number   of  species   occurs   on  the 
shores   of  Sicily,   Italy,   and   the   Greek 
Animal  Flowers.  islands,  which  do  uot  inhabit  the  British 

coasts.  Sicily,  for  many  ages,  has  been  celebrated  for  its  fisheries 
of  the  true  red  coral  (fig.  100.) ;  and  it  still  affords  employment  at 
certain  seasons  to  many  fishermen :  but  the  produce  of  the  old 
grounds  of  late  years  has  materially  diminished,  through  want  of 
care  and  due  preservation.  The  Bay  of  Naples  likewise  produces 
this  beautiful  substance,  but  the  pieces  usually  found  are  small,  and 
in  no  great  abundance. 

The  Molluscous  animals  or  shell-fish  of  southern  Europe  are  in 

101  great  variety ;  and  are  mucli  prized  by  Kf<i  Coral 

_^ ^^     all  classes,  as  general  articles  of  food.    It  is  no  uncommon  thing 

— — "^      to  see  from  twelve  to  fifteen  different  sorts  of  shell-fisli,  none  of 

a  small  size,  exposed  in  the  principal  market  at  Naples;  and  we 

"      \^^^  '^^^'*^  ^'^^^  assured  that  double  this  number  are  not  unfrequently 

-¥f  ?,!%   served  at  the  tables  of  the  higlier  ecclesiastics  and  nobility  of 

'^\''\i')'kM  Tarentum  during  Lent,  that  city  being  highly  celebrated  for  its 

^^^    shell-fish.      The   Solen  strigilatus  (fig.  101.)  is  abundant  at 

Si.ien  Sirigiiafus.  Naples,  and  considered  most  delicate  food. 

On  comparing  the  conchology  of  the  Mediterranean  with  that  of  Britain,  there  does  not 

appear  so  much  difference  as  at  first  might  have  been  imagined ;  nor  are  we  aware  of  more 

than  three  or  four  genera  in  those  southern  latitudes  of  which  examples  have  not  been  found 

in  the  British  seas.     Yet,  on  descending  to.  species,  tlie  difference  is  much  greater.    Perhaps 


304 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


two-thirds  or  three-fifths  of  tlie  Mediterranean  shells  have  been  found  in  the  Channel,  and  on 
the  western  or  other  coasts  of  Britain.  The  remaining;  portion  indicate  a  strong  affinity  with 
the  conchology  of  India  and  the  Red  Sea  on  one  hand,  and  tliat  of  Africa,  towards  Senegal, 
on  the  other.  The  fluvintile  species  are  most  numerous  in  central  Europe,  where  tlie  heat 
of  summer  is  less  calculated  to  dry  up  tliose  small  pools  and  shallow  streams,  in  whicli  most 
of  these  univalve  mollusca  delight  to  dwell.  The  fluviatile  bivalves  are  few ;  but  are  of 
species  wh  ch  seem  peculiar  to  the  European  range.  Independently  of  those  common  alike 
to  Britain  and  the  Continent,  there  are  others  in  France  and  the  south  of  Europe  {Jifr,  102). 
Unio  littoruUs  {li)  and  the  true  17.  i«/ai;a  (i)  are  common  in  the  Seine;  and  we  have  received 
another  shell  from  near  Gibraltar,  which  we  suspect  to  be  a  new  species,  intermediate  be- 
tween the  latter  and  ovatus ;  we  name  it 
provisionally  Unio  intermedins  (r,  c). 

The  Cephalopoda,  or  cuttle-fish  of  the 
Mediterranean,  though  not  of  many  species, 
are  sometimes  found  in  prodigious  numbers, 
and  frequently  grow  to  an  enormous  size. 
The  zoology  of  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas 
is  very  little  known. 

The  phosphorescence  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean is  at  times  so  brilliant,  that  it  excites 
the  admiration  of  all  voyagers:  it  therefore 
deserves  to  be  particularly  mentioned.  This 
phenomenon,  is  entirely  produced  by  various 


I 

I 

marine  animals.  Spix,  the  Bavarian  naturalist  and  traveller,  in  his  passage  down  the  Medi- 
terranean, caused  several  buckets  to  be  filled  with  this  luminous  water ;  and  the  following 
results  attended  his  experiments : — 

These  luminous  animalcula  adhered  to  whatever  was  wetted  with  the  water,  and  continued 
to  shine  thereon ;  the  buckets,  when  shaken,  appearing  full  of  luminous  particles.  The 
water,  examined  by  a  microscope,  was  filled  witii  little  bodies,  some  roundish,  some  oblong, 
and  generally  about  the  size  of  a  poppy-seed ;  each  of  these  had,  at  one  end,  a  small  navel- 
like opening,  encircled  by  from  six  to  nine  delicate  filaments  which  float  within  the  bladder, 
and  with  which  the  animal  seems  to  attach  itself  to  other  bodies,  and  to  seize  its  nourish- 
ment. In  the  inside  of  these  bladders  there  v.-ere  many  other  small  darker  points,  crowded 
together  on  one  side,  or  here  and  there  some  larger  ones,  which  might  be  either  the  remains 
of  smaller  animals  which  they  had  swallowed,  or  their  own  spawTi.  These  globular  animal- 
cula (whicli  Spix  considers  to  be  of  the  nature  of  Medusaj)  have  been  named  by  Peron  and 
Lechenault  Arethusa  pelaffica,  and  by  Savigny  Noctiluca  miliaris.  They  swim  in  greater 
or  less  numbers  at  night,  but  in  the  sunshine  they  appear  to  tiie  naked  eye  like  little  drops 
of  grease.  When  put  into  a  vessel  they  soon  die  and  flill  to  the  bottom ;  when  they  come 
near  together,  they  appear  involuntarily  to  attach  each  other,  so  that  they  form  whole  groups. 
The  same  phenomenon  is  sometimes  observed  in  the  day-time,  when  the  sky  is  dark,  which 
rarely  happens :-  as  these  animals  are  seldom  found  in  water  taken  up  in  the  day-time,  it  is 
probable  they  then  sink  to  the  depths  of  the  ocean,  and  only  return  near  the  surface  towards 
night.     (Spix,  Trav.) 

Other  luminous  bodies  resemble  balls  as  large  as  a  nut ;  and  every  wave  striking  a  ship, 
when  filled  with  these  animals,  lights  up  all  surrounding  objects.  Besides  these,  there  are 
sometimes  insulated  luminous  bladders,  like  fiery  balls,  a  foot  in  diameter,  which  rise  singly 
above  the  water ;  and  the  striking  of  two  waves  together  produces  a  shallow  bluish  streak 
of  light,  resembling  the  reflection  of  lightning  on  the  water.     {Spix,  Trav.  i.  44.  47.) 

The  quadrupeds  of  Europe,  according  to  the  most  recent  distribution  of  the  species  (Griff. 
Cuv.),  under  the  modern  divisions,  comprise  about  ninety  species,  arranged  under  the  fol- 
lowing genera  and  sub-genera.  To  these  must  be  added  the  fish-quadrupeds,  or  Cetacese, 
chiefly  inhabiting  the  high  northern  latitudes : — 


SoreT     .    . 
Myg»Ie.    . 
Talia    .    . 

Meira    ."    .' 
Gulo .    .    . 

.    .  8 
.    .2 
.    .  1 
.     .2 
.    .  1 
.     .  I 

Lutra 1 

Canis 1 

Vuipes 3 

Fehs I 

I.vnx I 

Castnr 1 

Arvicnla     ....  4 
GeoiTchus  ....  1 

Mvoxus .    .    . 
Mils  .     .     .     . 
Crice'us      .    . 
Gerbillus     .     . 
Aspjlax.     .     . 
Arctomj-s    .    . 
Sciurus 
Pteromys    .     . 

.    .  2 
.     .  8 
.     .2 
.    .  1 
.    .  1 
.    .  3 
.    .  2 
.    .  1 

Hvstrix .    .     . 
ppu,     .     .     . 

Cernis    .    .     . 
Antilnpe      .     . 
Rupricapra      . 
Capra    .     .     . 
Ovls        .     .     . 

.     .  1 
.     .  3 
.     .  2 
.     .3 
.    .  1 
.    .  I 
.     .  1 

Taunj! 2 

Marine. 

Pl.nca 1 

Tricliecus  ....     I 
Otaria 1 

Fiitorius 
Maries  .     . 

■.■A 

Mirouuga I 

I^nd  Quadrupeds. 
Eriaaceus  ....    2 

The  genera  of  European  birds,  in  reference  to  our  former  remarks  on  the  geographic  dis- 
tribution of  animals,  deserves  particular  attention.  Those  marked  *  are  typical  of  families  or 
sub-families;  those  f  include  sub-genera,  or  subordinate  variations  of  structure  to  which  we 
sliall  n(jt  attacli  a  distinct  patronymic  name ;  either  because  the  higher  groups  have  not  been 
sufficiently  analysed,  or  because  these  subordinate  forms  have  been  mistaken  for  genera. 
Decided  stragglers  are  excluded ;  other  genera,  of  uncertain  rank,  are  not  marked.  The 
typical  genera  of  the  wading  birds  have  not  yet  been  ascertained. 


Book  I. 


EUROPE. 


305 


Ripacioua  Birds. 
»  Vultur  .'Juct. 
Nen|,hion  .Sat'. 

Halijetus  Sav. 
Aqnilji  Ray. 
Aster 
Ace  ip  iter 
»  FaTco 

t  fiuteo 

t  Circus 

t  Strix 

Caprimulgus 

*  Hirundo 
Cypseius  flL 

*  M drops 


Dcntirostres  Cuv. 
■  Muscicapa 

*  Merula  Ray. 
Cinc'Ds 

*  Oriolus 

*  Saxicola 
Erythfeca  Sw. 
Phccriicura  Sw. 

*  Philomela  Sw. 
t  Curriica  Bech. 

»  t  Sylvia  Lin. 

*  t  Farm  iin. 
Accentor  Bech. 
Budyfes  Cuv. 

*  Motacilla  Lin. 
fAnfhus  Bech. 

*  Bonibycilla  Bris. 

*  t  Alauda 

*  t  Einberyza 

*  Carduelis 


Pyr«ta  Cuv. 

*  t  FrJDgiUaSio 

*  Pyrrhula  Cuv. 

*  Sturnus 

*  t  Pas'or  Tern. 
Niicifra^  Brts. 

*  t  Cor V  us 

*  Garrulus 
Fregilus  Cuv. 

*  Coccoihniustes  Brit. 
Corythus  Cuo. 

Climbers. 

*  C« cuius 
Dryotomus  Sw. 
Dendrocopus  Sw. 
Aptenius  Sw. 
Chrysoptilus  Sw. 

*  Sitta  LiJi. 

*  Cerlliia  Lin. 
Tichodroma 
Troglodytes 


*  Upupa  Lin. 
Gallinaceous  Birds. 

Tetran  Lin. 
La°:opus  Ray. 
Lyuni    Sw. 

*  Cnlumba  Lin. 

*  Pha^ianu,  Lm. 

*  Perdiit  Lin, 

*  Colurnix  Tern. 
Pterocles  Ttm. 

*  Otis  Lin. 

Waders. 
Balearica  Bris. 
Grus  Jint, 
Ardea  Ant. 
Fhoenicopterus  Lin. 
Platalea  Lin. 
TaDtalus  Lin. 
Ibis  Ant. 

Bris. 


t  Tolanus  Bechst. 

Recurvirostris 

t  Liniosa 

ScoIop.\x 

t  Machetes  Cuv. 

i  Ph  (laropus 

Phasripus  Cuv. 

Ghreoia 

Rallus 

Crex  Bech. 

Gallinula  Bris. 

Porphyrio  Bris. 

Fulica 

Hae  mat  opus 

t  Calidres  Ilheer. 

Tachydromus^iW. 

StrepsXas  III. 

t  Triuga,  L. 

Vanellus  Bris. 

t  Charadrius  Lin. 

CEdicnemus  Cuv. 


Hunan topus  Bri*. 


*  t  Mergus 

t  CVSI.U5 

Podicens  Lath. 
Colymbus 
t  Uria 

Mormon  III, 
i  Alca 
Hilicus  III. 
Dysporus  lU. 

*  PelecaDUS  Lin. 

*  Sturui  L. 
Thalasgidroma  Vig, 

*  Larus  L. 
Leslris  III. 
Prncellaria  L. 
Fufiiaus  Ray, 


Sect.  V. — Languages. 

Europe,  considered  in  regard  to  its  languages,  comprehends  the  whole  globe,  through  those 
immense  colonies  which  have  been  founded  by  the  nations  of  this  continent  in  every  other 
quarter  of  the  world. 

The  European  languages,  ancient  and  modern,  form  six  families : — 1.  The  family  of  the 
JJ)erlan  languages ;  2.  That  of  the  Celtic  languages ;  3.  That  of  the  Thraco-Pelasgic  or 
Graco-Latin  languages ;  4.  The  family  of  the  Germanic  languages ;  5.  That  of  the  Scla- 
vonic languages ;  6.  The  family  of  the  Uralian  languages,  commonly  called  the  Finnish  or 
Chudic, 

SUBSECT.   1. 

The  Iberian  or  Basque  family  has  been  divided  into  the  two  following  branches : — 1. 
Ancient  languages  long  extinct,  under  which  are  classed  the  idioms  spoken  by  the  Iberians 
in  the  greater  part  of  the  Spanish  peninsula,  in  southern  Gaul,  and  in  some  parts  of  Italy 
and  its  three  great  islands.  2.  Ancient  languages  still  living ;  of  which  the  only  one  remain- 
ing is  the  Escuara  or  Basque,  formerly  spoken  in  a  large  portion  of  Spain  and  of  southern 
Giul,  and  now  spoken  only  by  the  Vascongados  or  Basques  in  the  Spanish  provinces  of 
Biscay  and  Navarre,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  south  of  France.  The  Basques  are  the 
descendants  of  the  ancient  Vascones.  Their  language,  which  resembles  no  other  European 
idiom,  though  it  has  adopted  several  Latin  and  some  German  words,  appears  to  have  a  certain 
affinity  to  the  Sliemitic  languages,  and,  in  its  conjugations,  some  analogy  to  the  languges  of 
America. 

SuBSECT.  2. 

The  Celtic  family  exhibits,  like  the  Basque,  two  branches : — 1.  Ancient  languages  long 
extinct,  among  which  are  classed  the  idioms  spoken  by  the  numerous  Celtic  nations  in  Gaul, 
in  Belgium,  in  Ihe  British  Isles,  in  parts  of  Germany,  Italy,  and  also  Galatia  in  Asia  Minor. 
2.  Ancient  languages  still  living,  of  which  there  are  two :  1.  The  Gallic,  Gaelic  or  Celtic 
Proper,  spoken  in  different  dialects  by  the  descendants  of  the  true  Celts,  in  a  large  portion 
of  Ireland,  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  in  the  Hebrides,  and  in  the  Isle  of  Man.  2.  The 
Cambrian  or  Celto-Belgic,  formerly  spoken  by  the  Cymri  or  Belgse  in  Belgium  and  Britain, 
and  now  confined  to  a  part  of  England  and  France.  In  this  language  are  distinguished 
tiiree  principal  dialects :  the  Welsh,  spoken  and  written  by  the  people  of  that  name  descend- 
ed from  the  ancient  Britons ;  the  Cornish,  formerly  spoken  throughout  Cornwall,  but  extinct 
since  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century ;  and  the  Bas-Breton,  called  also  by  French  writers 
the  Celto-Breton,  spoken  in  the  part  of  France  formerly  called  Lower  Bretagne,  by  the 
descendants  of  those  British  fugitives  who,  in  the  fifth  century,  sought  refuge  and  settled  in 
Armorica.     The  Bas-Breton  has  many  sub-dialects  and  varieties. 

SuBSECT.  3. 

The  numerous  family  of  the  Grasco- Latin  languages  may  be  divided  into  four  branches : 
I.  The  niyrian  ;  II.  The  Etrnscnn  ;  III.  The  Hellenic ;  IV.  The  Italic,  including  the  Latin, 
the  Romaic  or  Romano-Rustic,  tlie  modern  Italian,  the  French,  the  Spanish  or  Castilian,  the 
Portuguese,  and  the  Valaque  or  Wallachian. 

I.  Tiie  Tliraco-IIlyrian  branch  includes  all  those  Thracian  and  Illyrian  nations  once  seated 
in  Asia  Minor  west  of  the  river  Halys,  and  in  Europe  all  over  its  eastern  portion,  from  Nori- 
cum,  occupied  by  Celtic  tribes,  to  the  mouths  of  the  Danube  and  tiie  Dnieper,  and  even 
beyond.  Of  those  nations,  long  extinct,  or  confounded  with  others,  the  principal  were  the 
Phrygians,  tlie  Trojans,  the  Bithynians,  the  Lydians,  the  Carians,  the  Lycians,  the  Cimmerii, 
the  Tauri,  the  Thracians  properly  so  called,  the  Massi,  the  Getse,  the  Macedonians,  the 
ancient  Illyrians,  among  whom  were  tlie  Dalraati  and  the  Istri,  the  Pannonians  or  Paeones, 
the  Veneti,  and  the  Siculi.  In  this  brancli,  according  to  M.  Malte-Brun,  may  be  not  impro- 
perly placed — 

The  Albanian,  spoken  in  Albania  and  other  countries  by  the  Skipatar,  named  Arnauts  by 

Vol.  I,  26  *  20 


306  DESCRIPTRT:  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

the  Turks,  and  generally  known  under  the  name  of  Albanians.  They  form  the  principal 
population  of  Albania,  and  are  scattered  throughout  European  Turkey,  especially  in  Rou- 
melia,  Bulgaria,  and  Macedonia;  others  on  the  Slavonic  military  conlines  of  the  Austrian 
empire,  and  others  in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  This  Scyp,  or 
Albanian  language,  according  to  M.  Malte-Brun,  appears  to  be  formed  of  one-third  of  ancient 
Greek,  especially  the  ^Eolic  dialect,  one-third  Latin,  and  one-third  of  an  idiom  not  yet  ascer- 
tained, probably  the  Illyrian.  The  Albanians  have  three  different  alphabets :  one  sacred  or 
hieratic,  now  fallen  into  disuse ;  another,  the  Greek  alphabet ;  a  third,  the  modem  Italian  or 
Latin.  • 

II.  The  Etruscan,  (we  are  here  reminded  of  the  Osci  and  Jleterosci,  quasi  Elrusci  ?) 
spoken  by  the  Etrurians,  called  also  Tyrrhenians  by  the  Greeks.  This  nation,  according  to 
some,  appears  to  have  been  a  mixture  of  Rha;tian  Celts  with  tlie  Aborigines  of  Italy.  The 
Etruscan  alphabet  was  the  same  with  the  primitive  alphabet  of  the  Greeks ;  it  had  sixteen 
letters,  and  was  written  from  right  to  left. 

III.  The  Pelasgo-Hellenic,  including  the  idioms  in  ancient  times  spoken  by  the  famous 
Pelasgi  and  Hellenes,  long  since  incorporated  with  other  nations.  The  people  of  early 
origin  who  may  with  probability  be  classed  under  this  branch  are,  tiie  Pelasgi,  the  Leleges, 
and  other  tribes  enumerated  by  ancient  geographers  among  the  population  of  Greece  and  its 
isles,  especially  the  Grseci,  originally  a  small  community  of  Thessaly,  but  remarkable  for 
having  given  name  to  the  whole  of  that  celebrated  nation,  whose  language  was — 

The  Hellenic,  or  ancient  Greek,  formerly  spoken  in  Greece  and  its  dependencies,  and 
at  a  later  period  in  a  great  part  of  Sicily,  Lower  Italy,  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  and  its  dependen- 
cies, in  part  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  and  in  other  districts  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean. 

During  the  Macedonian  empire  the  Hellenic  was  spoken  at  all  the  courts  of  the  descend- 
ants of  Alexander,  and  by  persons  of  distinction  in  all  the  countries  subject  to  the  Macedo- 
nians. In  a  subsequent  age,  it  was  studied  by  all  the  most  distinguished  subjects  of  the 
Roman  empire,  and  was  the  prevailing  idiom  in  the  East  until  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  at 
which  period  it  was  studied  with  renewed  ardour  in  the  West.  In  this  language,  270  years 
before  Christ,  was  written  tlie  famous  version  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  called  the  Septua- 
gint ;  in  this  language  also  was  the  Gospel  promulgated  by  the  Apostles ;  and  it  thus  became 
for  ever  sacred.  It  appears  not  the  least  wonderful  among  the  dispensations  of  Providence, 
that  the  light  of  Christianity  should  have  been  originally  diffused  under  the  most  powerful 
empire  and  in  the  most  cultivated  language  of  the  ancient  world,  and  that  it  should  prevail 
notwithstanding  the  power  of  tlie  one,  and  tlie  learning  and  philosophy  for  which  the  other 
was  so  proudly  distinguished.  The  literature  of  the  Greeks,  comprehending  some  of  tlie 
finest  productions  of  the  human  mind,  is,  perhaps,  the  richest  in  the  world,  and  presents  an 
unparalleled  series  of  eminent  writers,  extending  from  the  age  of  Homer  to  the  middle  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  The  language  is  one  of  the  most  flexible,  harmonious,  and  copious 
that  have  ever  existed;  its  grammatical  forms  are  almost  identical  with  those  of  the  Latin, 
to  the  formation  of  which  it  has  greatly  contributed,  but  in  many  essential  points  it  is 
superior,  and  especially  in  the  unlimited  faculty  of  making  as  many  compounds  as  can -be 
required.  M.  Malte-Brun  distinguishes  in  the  ancient  Greek  two  ditlerent  idioms : — 1.  The 
primitive  Hellenic,  which  he  subdivides  into  three  principal  dialects — the  Arcadian,  the 
Thessalian,  with  the  ancient  Macedonian,  and  the  CEnotrian,  transported  into  Italy  and  min- 
gled with  the  Latin ;  2.  The  Hellenic  of  the  historical  times,  divided  into  four  principal 
dialects  and  several  varieties. 

The  Romaic,  or  the  modem  Greek,  spoken  by  the  Greeks  of  our  own  times,  especially 
in  the  Morea,  in  Livadia,  Thessaly,  the  isle  of  Candia,  the  Archipelago,  part  of  Albania, 
Macedonia,  Roumelia,  Thrace,  Asia  Minor,  Cyprus,  and  by  the  Greeks  established  in  Wal- 
lachia,  Moldavia,  Syria,  and  Eg}^pt.  The  Romaic  is  also  spoken  by  tlie  inhabitants  of  tiie 
Ionian  Isles,  by  considerable  numbers  of  Greeks  in  the  Austrian  and  Russian  empires,  and 
some  hundred  of  Mainotes  in  Corsica,  near  Ajaccio.  It  is  divided  into  two  principal  dialects, 
the  Romanic  and  tiie  yEolo-Dorian,  each  including  various  sul>dialects. 

IV.  The  Italic  branch,  so  called,  as  including  the  languages  of  the  aborigines  of  Italy, 
which  form  the  stem  of  the  modern  idioms  comprised  in  this  branch.  Those  aborigines 
were,  the  Euganei,  the  Ausones,  the  Lucani,  the  Brutti,  the  Piceni,  the  Marsi,  the  Latini 
the  Sabines,  and  the  Samnites.  From  a  mi.xture  of  the  three  last  idioms,  primarily  witb. 
the  original  Hellenic,  afterwards  with  the  old  ^Eolian  and  ancient  Doric,  was  formed,  as  M. 
Malte-Brun  inclines  to  think,  the  language  spoken  by  the  Romans,  and  called  the  Latin 
language.     The  languages  included  in  that  branch  are, — 

The  Latin,  which  was  the  written  and  current  language  of  the  higher  classes  in  Italy 
and  througliout  the  Roman  empire.  It  was  very  different  from  the  lingua  plebeia  or  rustica, 
spoken  in  the  rural  districts  of  the  peninsula,  and  by  the  lower  classes  in  Spain,  Gaul,  and 
the  other  provinces.  Its  grammatical  forms  are  similar  to  the  Greek,  though  less  perfect. 
Latin  literature,  formed  on  that  of  Greece,  is  very  rich  in  all  branches  of  knowledge,  and, 
together  with  the  Greek,  is  the  source  from  which  flows  the  literature  of  tlie  modern  nations 
of  Europe.     Its  most  brilliant  epoch  was  the  Augustan  age.     In  this  language  St.  Jerome 


Book  I.  EUROPE.  307 

wrote  the  Vulgate,  or  Latin  translation  of  the  Bible  which  is  used  in  the  Romish  church. 
Tlie  overthrow  of  the  Roman  empire  in  the  fifth  century  gave  birth  to  a  corrupt  Latin, 
mingled  with  a  great  number  of  barbarous  words,  and  named  low  Latin,  which,  until  the 
fourteenth,  was,  almost  exclusively,  the  written  language  throughout  the  West.  In  the  two 
succeeding  centuries,  Latin  literature  again  flourished,  especially  in  Italy ;  but  it  was  only 
to  contribute  to  the  improvement  of  modern  languages,  which  being  diligently  and  success- 
flilly  cultivated,  the  Latin  was  restricted  to  works  of  erudition  alone.  Its  phraseology  has 
had  a  marked  influence  on  that  of  the  most  polite  nations  of  Europe.  It  is  now  a  dead  lan- 
guage, except  in  Poland  and  Hungary,  where  ^ome  educated  persons  speak  it  in  ordinary 
life  with  considerable  purity,  and  with  the  continental  pronunciation,  of  course  almost  unin- 
telligible to  English  travellers,  who  cannot  or  will  not  relinquish  the  Saxon  diphthongal 
sounds  of  the  vowels  A,  I,  and  U,  the  chief  causes  of  their  embarrassment.  Latin  is  no 
longer  employed  except  in  the  Catholic  liturgy,  in  medicine,  in  the  diplomacy  of  the  court 
of  Rome,  and  partially  in  the  literature  of  all  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe.  The  alpha- 
bet, of  twenty-three  letters,  having  been  improved  in  its  characters  by  the  Italians  and 
French,  is  used  by  all  the  people  of  Europe,  except  the  Greeks,  the  Russians,  and  some 
other  nations  who  have  particular  alphabets.  This  same  Latin  alphabet,  with  the  Gothic 
forms  it  assumed  under  the  pen  of  tlie  writers  of  the  middle  ages,  is  used  by  the  Germans 
and  Danes,  and  by  the  Bohemians,  and  other  Slavonic  nations ;  and,  according  to  some 
authors,  its  capital  letters,  truncated  and  squared  to  facilitate  the  inscription  of  them  in  wood 
or  stone,  constitute  the  Runic  alphabet,  formerly  used  in  the  north  of  Europe. 

The  Romana,  or  Romana  Rustica,  spoken  in  the  brightest  ages  of  Rome  by  the  lower 
classes  in  the  south  of  the  empire,  excepting  Greece,  and  some  other  counties.  After  various 
modifications  more  or  less  considerable,  it  appears  still  to  subsist  among  the  vulgar  dialects 
spoken  throughout  a  great  part  of  Spain,  France,  Switzerland,  and  some  districts  of  Italy. 
The  chief  of  those  dialects,  according  to  M.  Champollion  Figeac,  are  the  following,  classed 
with  reference  to  those  four  regions : — In  Spain,  Sardinia,  and  the  Balearic  Isles,  the  Catalan, 
the  Valencian,  the  Majorcan.  In  France,  the  Languedocian,  the  Provencal,  the  Dauphinois, 
the  Lyonnais,  the  Auvergnat,  the  Limousin,  and  the  Gascon.  In  Switzerland,  the  Romanic, 
or  Celto-Romanic,  (frequently  called  Romance,  Khurwelsh,  and  Rhaetish,)  the  Valaisan  in 
the  Valais.  In  the  states  of  the  king  of  Sardinia  are  spoken  the  Savoisian  ;  and  the  Vaudois 
in  the  vales  of  Lucerne,  Pcrosa,  and  part  of  Piedmont.  To  these  might  be  added  the 
jargon  called  lingua  Franca,  in  which  Catalan,  Limousin,  Sicilian,  and  Arabic  are  the  princi- 
pal ingredients.  The  Romance  literature  is  also  called  that  of  the  Troubadours.  From  the 
mixture  of  this  language  with  the  different  Germanic,  Slavonic,  and  other  idioms,  were 
formed,  in  the  tenth  century,  the  following  languages : — 

The  Italian,  spoken  by  the  Italians  in  almost  all  Italy,  in  the  isles  geographically  connected 
with  that  peninsula,  and  in  various  Alpine  territories ;  also  frequent  in  Dalmatia  and  the  isle 
of  Tino ;  very  common  at  Constantinople,  and  in  several  mercantile  towns  of  the  Ottoman 
empire.  The  written  language,  which  is  nowhere  generally  spoken,  is  common  with  all 
vveil-educated  Italians,  and  differs  considerably  fi-om  the  vulgar  tongue,  which  is  subdivided 
into  a  great  number  of  dialects.  The  principal  of  these  are,  the  Piedmontese  and  Genoese; 
the  Milanese,  or  I^ombard  proper ;  the  Low  Lombard  ;  the  Bolognese,  the  Bergamase ;  the 
Venetian,  the  Friulian,  the  Tyrolean,  the  vulgar  Tuscan;  the  Roman;  the  Sabine  and 
Abruzzan ;  tlie  Calabrian  and  Apulian ;  the  Tarentine ;  the  Neapolitan ;  the  Sicilian,  and 
the  Sardinian. 

The  French  language,  spoken  by  the  French  almost  tliroughout  the  north  of  France ;  by 
the  Walloons  and  Flemings  in  various  Netherlandish  provinces;  by  the  Swiss,  in  several  of 
their  cantons ;  by  the  people  of  Jersey  and  Guernsey ;  also  in  some  parts  of  the  Austrian 
and  Russian  empires,  and  of  the  Prussian  monarchy  ;  by  the  French  colonists  in  Asia,  Africa, 
and  America.  The  following  are  the  principal  dialects : — the  Picard,  the  Flemish,  the  Nor- 
man, the  Walloon  or  Rounchi,  the  vulgar  French,  the  Breton  French,  the  Cham.penois,  the 
Lorraine,  the  Burgundian,  the  Franche-Comte,  the  Nenfchatelain,  the  Orleannois,  the 
Angevin,  and  the  Manceau.  To  these  might,  perhaps,  be  added  the  jargon  spoken  by  the 
negroes  and  Creoles  m  the  French  West  Indies. 

The  Spanish  or  Castilian  language,  spoken  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  greater  part  of  Spain, 
and,  with  some  variation  and  admixture,  by  their  descendants  in  Oceania,  Africa,  and  America ; 
also  by  the  numerous  Spanish  Jews  established  in  the  Ottoman  empire,  and  in  other  states 
of  Europe,  and  of  North  Africa ;  in  the  isle  of  Trinidad  belonging  to  the  crown  of  Great 
Britain ;  in  some  parts  of  Florida  and  Louisiana ;  and  in  the  eastern  part  of  Hispaniola  or 
St.  Domingo.  This  language  is  also  common  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  towns  of  Spain 
where  the  Basque  and  Romance  languages  are  spoken.  The  written  and  polished  language 
is  almost  identical  in  its  grammatical  forms  with  the  Romance  and  the  Portuguese ;  and 
differs  little  from  the  Italian ;  if  is  very  rich  and  liarmonious,  notwithstanding  some  guttural 
and  aspirate  sounds  taken  from  the  Arabic,  from  which  it  has  borrowed  many  words.  It  is 
singular  to  remark,  that  the  German  is  cliaracterised  by  similar  gutturals  or  aspirates.  The 
reigns  of  tlie  emperor  Charles  V.  and  of  his  son  Philip  II.  were  the  golden  age  of  Spanish 


308  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  la 

literature ;  after  which  it  fell  into  decay,  but  partially  revived  under  the  Bourbon  kings 
Philip  V.  and  Charles  III.  Of  the  dialects,  which  differ  little  from  each  other,  the  following 
are  the  principal :  —  the  dialect  of  Toledo ;  that  of  Leon  and  the  Asturias ;  the  Andalusian ; 
the  Murcian;  the  Galician,  or  Gallecfo;  and  the  Transatlantic,  spoken  in  America;  where, 
next  to  tlie  English,  the  Spanisli  language  is  spoken  by  the  greatest  number  of  inhabitants. 

The  Portuguese  language,  sjwken  by  the  Portuguese  in  Portugal  and  the  Azores,  and, 
with  some  dilferences,  by  the  Portuguese  Jews  settled  in  Hamburg,  Amsterdam,  the  Tyrol, 
and  other  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa ;  also  by  the  descendants  of  the  Portuguese  in 
their  Asiatic,  African,  Oceanic,  and  American  colonies.  The  Portuguese  is  as  ricli  and 
concise  as  its  sister  languages ;  it  has  borrowed  some  words  from  the  Arabic  and  the  French ; 
to  the  French  it  seems  indebted  for  the  soil  sound  of  g,  and  for  the  nasal  syllables ;  it  is 
sonorous,  soft,  and  unimpeded  by  the  aspirates  and  gutturals  of  the  Spanish ;  but  the  fre- 
quency of  hiatus,  and  of  the  modern  nasal  ao,  equisonant  with  the  French  am  or  an,  injure 
the  harmony  of  the  language.  Its  origin,  like  that  of  the  Spanish,  is  dated  in  tlie  eleventh 
century,  and  it  had  attained  its  maturity  in  the  sixteenth.  The  Portuguese  literature, 
which  Camoens  illustrated  with  one  of  the  finest  epics  in  existence,  is  as  varied  and  rich  as 
the  Spanish,  though  less  known.  It  revived  in  the  memorable  reign  of  Joseph.  The 
language  maybe  said  to  exhibit  no  differences  of  dialect;  there  are  only  varieties :  those 
which  differ  most  from  the  written  language  are,  the  Minho,  Algarve,  and  Azores  varieties 
in  Europe;  the  Brazilian  in  America;  tliose  of  Congo  and  Mozambique  in  Africa;  and  of 
Goa  and  Macao  in  Asia.  Some,  however,  regard  as  a  dialect  of  the  Portuguese,  the  jargon 
called  lingua  geral,  spoken  along  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  Africa,  also  along  the  coasts  of 
Ceylon  and  the  Indian  peninsula.  In  Africa,  as  well  as  in  Asia,  it  presents  the  phenomenon 
offered  by  tlie  lingua  Franca  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  attests  the  power  formerly  held 
by  the  Portuguese  in  those  regions. 

The  Valac  or  Wallachian,  spoken  by  the  Rumanje  or  Roumouni.  better  known  as  Valacs, 
a  people  apparently  descended  from  the  ancient  Roman  colonists  settled  in  Dacia  and  Thrace, 
and  the  Slavonic  and  other  nations  dwelling  there.  Its  literature  is  very  meagre.  Among 
its  numerous  dialects  the  more  remarkable  are  the  Roumounic  or  Valac  proper,  spoken  in 
Wallachia,  Moldavia,  and  Bessarabia;  the  Hungarian  Valac,  the  Macedo- Valac,  and  tlie 
Kutzo- Valac,  spoken  in  various  sub-dialects,  in  several  parts  of  European  Turkey,  south  of 
the  Danube. 

SUBSECT.   4. 

The  family  of  the  Germanic  languages  next  claims  our  notice.  Without  entering  into 
the  history  of  the  Germanic  nations,  which  rivals  in  importance  tliat  of  the  Grseco- Latin,  we 
may  class  these  different  idioms,  according  to  M.  Malte-Brun's  theory,  in  four  branches ; 
the  Teutonic,  the  Saxon  or  Cimbric,  the  Scandinavian  or  Normanno-Gothic,  and  the  Anglo- 
Britannic. 

The  Teutonic  branch,  which  comprises  the  idioms  of  the  various  ancient  nations  and 
tribes  recognised  as  German  by  the  Roman  historians  and  writers ;  as  the  Bastamse,  the 
Suevi,  the  Marcomanni,  the  Hermonduri,  and  the  Franci,  presents  the  following  idioms : — 

The  ancient  high  German  {alt  hoch  Deutsch),  formerly  spoken  in  different  dialects 
throughout  South  Germany,  Switzerland,  Alsace,  Hesse,  Thuringia,  Wetteravia,  and  a 
great  part  of  the  countries  once  subjected  to  the  Franks.  It  has  been  extinct  for  several 
centuries:  its  three  principal  dialects  were,  tlie  Francic,  and  the  Alemannic,  which  are  of 
contemporary  origin,  and  contain  the  most  ancient  productions  of  that  language,  and  the 
Middle  High  German,  which  succeeded  them.  The  Francic  or  Tudesc  was  tlie  language 
of  the  Franks :  it  was  spoken  at  the  court  of  the  Merovingian  and  Carlovingian  sovereigns, 
until  Charles  the  Bold ;  after  whose  reign  it  gave  way  to  the  old  French  in  France,  but 
continued  to  be  the  court  language  in  Germany  until  the  times  of  the  Hohenstaufen.  The 
Middle  High  German  is  the  language  in  which  were  composed  the  numerous  works  of  the 
Suabian,  Bavarian,  Austrian,  and  Swiss  writers,  and  several  other  authors  in  Middle  and  Lower 
Germany,  from  the  eleventh  to  the  fifteenth  centuries.  Its  finest  productions  are  dated  in 
the  period  of  the  Hohenstaufen,  from  1136  to  1254,  called  also  the  Minnesdnger,  the 
trouveurs  and  troubadours  of  Germany.  The  Nibelungen-lied,  the  finest  epic  in  this  lan- 
guage, is  supposed  by  Winter  to  have  been  composed  in  1290,  by  Conrad  of  VViirtzburg. 

The  German,  called  also  ncu  hoch  Dentsch,  in  which  distinction  must  be  made  between 
the  written  and  the  spoken  language.  The  latter  is  divided  into  a  great  lumiber  of  very 
different  dialects,  subdivided  into  several  sub-dialects  and  varieties.  The  written  language 
is  nowhere  spoken  by  the  people ;  it  was  formed  at  the  period  when  Luther,  rejecting  the 
Middle  High  and  the  Middle  Low  German,  adopted  in  preference  the  dialect  of  Misnia  or 
Meissen,  which  iiad  begun  to  be  written  much  later.  This  Misnian  dialect,  ably  employed 
by  tliat  great  man  and  his  numerous  followers,  soon  became,  as  the  language  of  books  and 
of  good  society,  common  to  all  well-educated  Germans,  and  also  ranked  as  the  learned  lan- 
guage of  the  north  and  great  part  of  the  east  of  Europe.  The  literature  of  Germany,  in 
regard  to  the  quality  of  its  productions,  rivals  those  of  Freuice  and  England,  and  suroassea 


Book  I.  EUROPE.  309 

them  in  abundance.  The  German  is  the  richest  in  words  of  any  language  in  Europe ;  and 
this  distinction  it  owes  to  the  great  number  of  its  monosyllabic  roots,  with  which  it  creates 
new  te'rms  nd  infinitum,  by  derivation  and  composition.  Its  principal  dialects  are,  the  Swiss; 
the  Rhenish ;  the  Danubian,  with  its  four  sub-dialects,  the  Bavarian,  the  Tyrolean,  Austrian, 
and  Bohemo-Himgaro-Silesian ;  and  the  Franconian,  or  Mittel-Deutsch.  To  these,  on  the 
authority  of  Adelung,  we  may  add  two  others,  remarkable  for  the  strange  admixture  of  words 
totally  foreign;  these  are,  the  German  Jewish;  and  tlie  Rothwelsh,  spoken  by  the  Jenish 
or  Jauner,  who  are  generally  reported  to  be  thieves  and  vagabonds.  It  contains  a  multitude 
of  terms  and  expressions  quite  different  from  Gennan. 

The  Saxon,  or  Cimbric,  which  comprises  the  idioms  anciently  spoken  by  the  Cimbri ;  also 
by  the  Angli,  who,  with  the  Jutes  and  Saxons,  afterwards  made  so  great  a  figure  in  northern 
history ;  the  Bructeri  and  Chauci,  the  Menapi,  the  Tungri,  the  Batavi,  the  Frisones,  and 
other  nations  of  less  note,  the  ancient  Saxons,  and  probably  the  Longobardi.  This  branch 
includes  the  four  following  idioms : — 

The  ancient  low  German  (jult  niedcr  Deulsch),  called  also  the  ancient  Saxon,  after  the 
people  who  spoke  it.  This  language,  now  extinct,  was  current  throughout  Lower  Germany 
and  the  Netherlands,  except  in  the  countries  occupied  by  the  Frisones  and  the  Angli.  About 
the  commencement  of  the  seventeenth  century  it  wholly  ceased  to  be  written.  Its  principal 
dialects  are,  the  Saxon  proper,  or  idiom  of  Lower  Saxony ;  the  Eastern  Saxon,  spoken  in 
various  sub-dialects  in  Prussia,  and  the  WestphuUan,  or  Western  Saxon. 

The  Frisic,  formerly  spoken  along  the  coast,  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Elbe,  by  the  Frisones, 
and  their  allies  the  Chauci,  the  ancestors  of  the  present  Frisians,  who  are  now  far  from 
numerous,  and  speak  a  language  very  different  from  the  ancient  Frisic,  being  mixed  with 
other  idioms.  Its  three  principal  dialects  are,  the  Batavian  Frisic,  the  Westphalian  Frisic, 
and  the  North  Frisic,  or  Cimbric. 

The  Netherlandish,  or  modern  Batavian,  has  two  principal  dialects,  the  Flemish,  and  the 
Holkndish,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called  in  this  country,  the  Dutch.  The  Flemish  is  spoken 
in  the  southern  provinces  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  excepting  those  where  Ger- 
man and  French  are  spoken.  It  was  the  written  and  oral  language  of  the  seventeen  pro- 
vinces once  subject  to  the  Counts  of  Burgundy.  After  their  extinction,  and  under  the 
Spanish  lule,  the  Flemish  idiom  gradually  gave  way  in  the  north  to  the  Dutch,  in  the  south 
to  the  French  language.  The  Dutch  is  spoken  in  difl^erent  varieties  in  the  seven  provinces 
of  the  North,  and  in  some  bordering  districts  of  the  South :  with  certain  changes  and 
admixtures  it  is  also  spoken,  or  at  least  understood,  in  the  various  settlements  founded  by 
the  Dutch  in  Africa,  Oceania,  and  America,  and  in  several  places  in  Ceylon,  India,  and  the 
peninsula  of  Malacca;  in  South  Africa;  at  the  Cape  of  Hope;  and  on  the  American  con- 
tinent in  Guiana.  Some  descendants  of  Dutch  settlers  also  in  the  United  States  retain  their 
native  language.  It  was  only  in  the  sixteenth  century  that  this  vulgar  idiom  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Holland,  in  some  degree  polished  and  improved,  became  the  national  language  of 
the  Dutch.     It  is  a  mixture  of  ancient  Francic,  Frisic,  and  low  German. 

The  Scandinavian,  or  Normanno-Gothic,  comprises  the  idioms  formerly  spoken  by  the 
Jutes,  the  Goths  or  Gutae,  and  other  less  considerable  nations  of  pure  Gothic  race.  There 
are  five  difl^erent  idioms  in  this  branch : — 

The  Moeso-Gothic,  formerly  spoken  by  the  Goths  established  in  Mcesia.  According  to 
Grimm,  this  is  the  richest  of  the  Germanic  languages  in  grammatical  forms :  it  has  not  less 
than  fifteen  declensions,  with  120  cases,  and  sixteen  conjugations.  The  Mceso-Gothic  has 
been  dead  many  centuries.  Its  most  ancient  productions  are,  the  famous  Codex  Argenteus 
of  Upsal ;  and  other  fragments  of  the  translation  of  the  Bible,  made  between  the  years  360 
and  380,  by  Bishop  Ulphilas.  The  Mceso-Goths  appear  to  have  been  the  first  to  embrace 
Christianity  of  all  those  nations  who  overthrew  the  Roman  empire. 

Tlie  Normannic,  called  by  Grimm  the  AU-Nordisch.  It  is  the  language  of  the  Edda,  of 
the  Voluspa,  and  other  poems  of  uncertain  date,  and  was  generally  spoken  throughout  Scan- 
dinavia in  the  eighth,  ninth,  and  tentli  centuries. 

The  Norwegian,  ancient  Norwegian,  Norroena  tunga,  not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
modern  Norwegian  or  Norsk,  which  is  only  a  dialect  of  the  Danish.  Its  principal  dialects 
are,  the  Icelandic,  the  Norwegian  proper,  the  Dalska,  or  Western  Dalecarlian,  tlie  Jamt- 
landish,  and  the  Norse,  spoken  in  the  Shetland  Isles. 

The  Swedish  (Svenski'),  spoken  by  the  Swedes  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  Swed- 
ish monarchy;  also  in  the  principal  towns  of  Finland  and  the  isle  of  Runoe,  in  the  Russian 
empire.  It  has  two  principal  dialects,  the  Swedish,  and  the  modern  Gothic,  subdivided  into 
several  sub-dialects  and  varieties. 

The  Danish,  spoken  by  the  Danes  in  Denmark,  and  in  their  Asiatic,  African,  and  Ame- 
rican settlements;  also  by  the  higher  classes  in  the  Feroe  Isles,  and  in  Iceland.  It  has  tv.'o 
principal  dialects,  each  having  several  sub-dialects  and  varieties :  the  Danish  proper,  which 
includes  the  insular  Danish,  the  ancient  sub-dialect  of  Bornholm,  the  modern  Norwegian, 
and  the  idiom  of  Scania.  The  Jutlandish,  or  modern  Jutic,  including  the  Normanno-Jutic, 
the  Dano- Jutic,  and  the  Anglo- Jutic. 


310  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

The  Anglo-Britannic  (not  to  be  confounded  with  the  British,  which  is  Welsh),  comprises 
only  two  idioms. 

The  A uj^lo-Saxon,  formed  by  a  mixture  of  the  idioms  spoken  by  the  Angli,  the  Saxons, 
and  tlie  Jutes,  who,  invited  by  the  Britons  against  the  Picts,  finally  took  possession  of  the 
country,  vvliere  their  language  was  successively  preserved  in  three  dialects,  until  tlie  eighth 
century.  During  tlie  invasions  and  teni[X)rary  ascendency  of  the  Danes,  it  was  so  modified 
as  to  become  Dano-Saxon,  or  rather  this  may  be  called  a  dialect  of  the  Anglo-Saxon.  For 
several  centuries  this  language  has  been  totally  dead. 

The  English,  spoken  in  England,  in  the  east  and  south-east  of  Scotland,  in  part  of  Ireland 
and  of  Wales ;  in  the  Shetland  Isles,  in  the  isles  of  Jersey  and  Guernsey,  in  tiie  British 
colonies  of  Asia,  Oceania,  Africa,  and  America.  It  is  the  national  language  of  the  United 
States  of  America.  It  is  also  cultivated  and  spoken  by  a  great  number  of  persons  of  difier- 
ent  nations  in  all  parts  of  the  world  on  account  of  its  literary,  political,  and  commercial 
importance  :  the  two  latter  considerations  render  it  very  current  in  the  kingdom  of  Hanover, 
in  the  Ionian  Isles  and  Malta,  in  Portugal  and  Brazil,  and  in  the  republic  of  Hayti.  The 
English  language  is  a  mixture  of  the  Anglo-Sa.\on  and  the  Neustrian  French  or  Franco- 
Norman,  with  some  Celtic  words,  and  a  few  of  ancient  British  origin.  It  has  unported 
largely  from  the  Greek  and  Latin,  as  knowledge  and  culture  advanced  in  the  nation.  If  the 
number  of  words  in  the  language  be  taken  at  thirty-eight  thousand,  those  of  Sa.xon  or  north- 
ern origin  will  be  found  limited  to  about  eight  thousand,  the  rest  being  principally  Greek 
and  Latin  derivatives.  Copious  and  energetic,  the  English  language  is  the  simplest  and 
most  monosyllabic  of  all  European  idioms ;  and  it  is  that  also  of  which  the  pronunciation 
differs  most  from  the  orthography.  It  did  not  become  the  language  of  the  state  until  the 
reign  of  Edward  III.,  since  which  time  it  has  rapidly  unproved.  Towards  the  commence- 
ment of  the  seventeenth  century  may  be  dated  its  regular  developement,  and  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  eighteenth  it  took  its  fi.xed  and  invariable  form.  The  English  language  occupies 
one  of  the  most  eminent  places  in  European  literature ;  it  is  comparable  with  any  of  tliem 
in  elegance,  and  perhaps,  surpasses  them  all  in  energy.  It  is  no  less  graceful  than  concise ; 
its  poetry  is  at  once  manly  and  harmonious ;  and,  like  that  of  the  cognate  languages  of  the 
north,  is  admirably  adapted  to  depict  the  sublimities  of  nature  and  pourtray  the  stronger  pas- 
sions: as  the  language  of  political  and  parliamentary  eloquence,  it  is  without  a  rival.  Of 
the  number  of  its  dialects  it  might  be  difficult  to  speak  with  precision:  foreign  philologers 
distinguish  four  as  the  principal: — the  English  proper;  the  Northumbrian  English,  called 
also  Dano-English  from  the  great  number  of  Danisli  words  retained  in  it,  and  spoken  in 
various  sub-dialects  in  Yorkshire,  Lancashire,  Cumberland,  and  Westmoreland :  the  Scottish 
or  Anglo-Scandinavian,  including  the  Lowland  Scottish,  with  the  Border  language ;  and 
lastly  the  Ultra- European  English,  prevalent  in  the  English  colonies  and  in  the  United 
States.  It  has  been  observed  that  the  English  language  is  spoken  by  tire  greatest  number 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  New  ^Vorld. 

SUBSECT.    5. 

The  family  of  the  Slavonic  languages  is  widely  difHised.  From  the  neighbourhood  of 
Udina  in  Italy,  from  Sillian  in  the  Tyrol,  and  from  the  centre  of  Gennany  to  the  remotest 
extremities  of  Europe  and  of  Asia,  and  even  to  the  north-west  coast  of  America,  are  nations 
of  Slavonic  origin  to  be  found ;  the  tract  of  country  over  which  they  hold  sway  amounting 
to  about  a  sixth  part  of  the  habitable  surface  of  the  globe.  These  nations  exhibit  almost  all 
the  varieties  of  the  human  race,  both  physical  and  moral,  if  not  from  the  most  exalted,  at 
least  to  the  most  degraded. 

The  Slavonic  languages,  so  far  as  is  at  present  known,  may  be  regarded  as  forming 
three  branches : — 1.  The  Russo-Ulyrian.  2.  The  Bohemo-Polish.  3.  The  Wendo-Lithu- 
anian. 

(1.)  The  Russo-Illyrian  is  so  called  from  its  chief  people,  the  Russians,  and  from  the 
general  appellation  Illyrian  given  to  most  of  the  nations  who  speak  Servian  or  Create.  The 
languages  comprised  in  this  branch  are  : — 

The  Slavonic,  Servian,  Serbe,  or  Illyrian,  called  also  by  some  authors  Rutena,  spoken  in 
different  dialects  by  the  more  southern  Slavi,  generally  denominated  Illyrians.  They  dwell 
in  the  Austrian  and  Ottoman  empires,  excepting  a  small  number,  settled  as  colonists  in  south 
Russia.  The  dialects  differing  most  from  each  other,  and  from  the  ancient  Slavonic,  are 
the  Servian  or  Serblin,  with  various  sub-dialects ;  the  Italiano-Slavonic,  spoken  on  the 
coast  of  Dalmatia ;  the  Uskoke,  spoken  by  the  wandering  tribes  in  Servia,  Bosnia,  Dalmatia, 
Croatia,  Maritime  Hungary,  and  Carniola.  It  is  mixed  with  many  Turkish  words.  Lastly, 
the  Bulgarian,  spoken  in  Bulfjaria,  in  the  Ottoman  empire. 

The  Russian,  Ruski,  or  modern  Russian,  spoken  throughout  the  Russian  empire  by  the 
Russians,  who  are  the  ruling  nation ;  also  spoken  in  a  great  part  of  Gallicia  and  part  of  Hun- 
gary in  the  Austrian  empire.  Since  the  reign  of  the  Czar  Peter,  when  the  Slavvenski  was 
abandoned  for  the  Ruski,  it  became  the  language  of  literature  and  of  business  throughou*' 
Russia.     It  has  the  following  dialects,  which  differ  little  from  each  other,  the  Valiki-Ruski 


Book  I.  EUROPE.  311 

or  Russian  of  Great  Russia;  the  Malo-RusJd,  or  Russian  of  Little  Russia;  the  Suzdalian  ; 
the  Olonetzian,  and  the  Rusniac. 

The  Create,  spoken  by  the  Creates  or  Khorbates,  who  delight  to  call  it  the  Illyrian. 

The  Wende  or  Winde,  spoken  by  several  Slavonic  nations  subject  to  the  Austrian 
empire,  and  known  by  different  names  in  the  countries  they  inhabit.  In  the  Wende 
appear  to  be  distinguished  three  principal  dialects,  the  Carniolan,  the  Carinthian,  and  the 
Styrian. 

(2.)  The  BoHEMO-POLisH,  named  from  its  two  principal  nations,  the  Bohemians  and  the 
Poles.  The  languages  belonging  to  this  branch  are  the  Bohemian  or  Chckhc,  including  the 
Bohemian  proper,  and  certain  idioms,  bearing  the  character  of  principal  dialects,  and  spoken 
in  the  Austrian  empire. 

The  Bohemian  proper,  or  Cheklie,  is  spoken  in  several  very  different  sub-dialects  by  the 
Chekhes  or  Czecks,  better  known  by  the  appellation  of  Bohemians.  The  dialect  of  Prague 
is  the  most  elegant  and  pure.  The  others  are  the  Slotvac,  the  Hannac,  the  Straniac,  the 
Passekarsk,  the  Sallashac,  and  the  Szotac. 

The  Polish  is  spoken  by  the  Poles,  called  in  the  middle  ages,  Lechen  or  Liachy.  They 
form  more  than  three-fourths  of  the  population  of  the  present  Russian  kingdom  of  Poland, 
almost  the  whole  population  of  the  province  of  Cracow,  and  of  the  western  part  of  Gallicia, 
in  the  empire  of  Austria.  They  also  form  three-fourths  of  the  population  of  the  grand 
duchy  of  Posen,  two-thirds  of  that  of  West-Prussia,  and  part  of  that  of  Silesia.  The  Polish 
is  also  the  national  language  of  the  nobility  and  part  of  the  commonalty  in  all  the  countries 
formerly  belonging  to  the  kingdom  of  Poland,  and  is  spoken  by  thousands  of  colonists  in 
Russia.  Its  principal  dialects  are  those  of  Great  Poland,  of  Little  Poland,  of  West  Prussia, 
of  Mazovia,  of  Polish  Silesia,  of  the  Geralys  or  highlanders,  belonging  to  part  of  the  Carpa- 
thians in  Gallicia.  The  preference  given  in  Poland  to  the  Latm,  long  retarded  tlie  progress 
of  this  national  language. 

The  Serbe  or  Sorabe,  spoken  until  the  fourteenth  century  by  the  Serbes,  or  Sserske.  It 
has  two  dialects ;  the  Upper  Lusatian,  and  the  Lower  Lusatian. 

(3.)  The  Wendo- Lithuanian,  called  also  the  Germano- Slavonic.  This  branch  comprises 
the  following  idioms  : — 

The  Wend,  spoken  until  the  fourteenth  century  in  different  dialects  throughout  the 
north  of  Germany,  fi-om  Holstein  to  Pomerania,  by  various  nations,  as  the  Wagrians,  the 
Polabes,  the  Wilzians,  the  Obotrites,  the  Rngians,  and  the  Pomeranians.  Since  the 
fourteenth  century  it  has  been  extinct,  with  the  exception  of  the  Linnnish,  improperly 
called  the  Polabish  dialect,  which  subsisted  in  some  districts,  until  the  latter  half  of  the 
eighteenth. 

The  Prucze  or  ancient  Prussian,  formerly  spoken  in  eleven  very  different  dialects,  by  the 
tribes  forming  the  powerful  nation  of  the  Pruczi,  dwellmg  between  the  Vistula  and  the  Pre- 
gel.     It  is  almost  entirely  extinct. 

The  Lithuanian  or  Littauish,  formerly  spoken  by  those  powerful  nations  the  Lithuanians 
and  Kriwitschi,  and  now  current  only  among  the  common  people ;  as  the  higher  classes 
speak  Polish,  with  Russian  or  German,  according  to  their  different  countries.  Its  principal 
dialects  have  been  thus  classed  : — The  Litkuanian  proper,  the  Samogitian,  the  Kriwitsh, 
and  the  Prtisso-Lithuanian. 

The  Lette,  Lettwa,  Lettonian,  or  Lettish,  spoken  by  the  Letts  or  Lettons.  forming  the 
bulk  of  the  population  in  the  government  of  Mitta,  a  large  part  of  that  of  Riga,  a  small  por- 
tion of  that  of  Witepsk  in  Russia,  and  of  the  province  of  East  Prussia.  It  has  five  principal 
dialects,  subdivided  into  a  multitude  of  very  different  sub-dialects.  The  former,  according 
to  Mr.  Watson,  are,  the  Lette  proper ;  the  Semgallian  or  Sengallish  ;  the  Letto-Livonian 
or  Lieflandish ;  the  Seelian,  spoken  by  the  Seeles  in  Courland :  the  We7ide  by  the  Wendes, 
in  the  north-east  of  that  duchy,  particularly  in  the  neighbourhood  of"  Windau.  This  language 
abounds  with  German  phrases  and  expressions. 

The  Slavonic  nations  employ  five  different  alphabets : — 1.  The  Cyrilian,  invented  by  St. 
Cyril  in  86.5,  called  also  the  Servian  or  Ruthenian.  2.  The  GlagoUtic,  Slavonic,  Kritko- 
witza,  or  Divinica,  called  also  that  of  St.  Jerome.  3.  The  Prussian  alphabet  of  the  Czar 
Peter,  which  is  the  Cyrilian  modified  by  that  emperor  :  it  has  thirty-five  letters,  and  is  in 
use  throughout  the  Russian  empire.  4.  The  Sorabes,  Bohemians,  and  Slavo-Silesians  use 
the  German  alphabet  or  character.  5.  The  other  Slavonic  nations,  as  the  Poles,  Lithua- 
nians, Lettes  and  Wendes,  use  the  Latin  or  Roman  letters.  To  these  five  alphabets  may 
be  added  the  Runic  Wend,  the  Greek  alphabet,  adopted,  according  to  Karamsin,  by  those 
Slavi  who,  in  the  eighth  century,  settled  in  Peloponnesus ;  and  lastly,  the  Bulgarian,  imi 
tated  from  the  Glagolitic,  and  used  by  the  Bulgarians. 

SUBSECT.    6. 

The  family  of  the  Uralian  languages,  also  called  the  Finnish  or  Chudic,  completes  the 
ethnographic  division  of  Europe. 

From  the  north-west  coast  of  Norway  to  the  long  chain  of  the  Urals,  and  beyond  tliose 


312  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  IH. 

mountains  to  near  the  Yenisei  in  the  centre  of  Siberia,  in  another  direction  from  the  Leitha 
to  the  Seret,  and  from  tlie  Carpathians  to  tiie  Danube,  nations  of  Uralian  race  live  among 
otiier  nations,  and  retain  the  manners,  habits,  and  language  of  their  forefathers.  In  marking 
the  gradations  among  the  people  composing  tliis  family,  we  may  consider  the  Hungarians 
and  tlie  Ostiaks  as  e.\hibiting  the  two  e.xtrones  in  a  moral  as  well  as  physical  respect,  not- 
withstanding the  great  affinity  of  their  respective  languages. 

The  Uralian  family  includes  four  branches,  according  to  Klaproth;  but  some  languages 
not  included  in  them  may  be  separately  considered  as  a  fifth. 

The  Finnish,  or  Germanised  Finnisli  branch,  includes  the  four  following  languages : — 

(1.)  The  Finnish  proper,  or  Sumenkieli,  spoken  by  tiie  Suomi,  better  known  as  the  Fins 
or  Finlanders.  Its  principal  dialects  are,  the  Finlandish,  the  Tawastian,  the  Carelian  or 
Kyriala,  the  Olonetzian,  and  tlie  VVatailaiset. 

The  Esthonian  spoken  by  the  Esthonians  or  Esthen,  whose  ancestors  were  formidable 
pirates,  and  who  now  form  the  most  numerous  part  of  the  population  of  the  government  ot 
Reval,  and  of  the  circles  of  Pernau  and  Dorpat  in  that  of  Riga.  Its  two  principal  dialects 
are  that  of  Reval  and  tliat  of  Dorpat. 

The  Lapponian,  spoken  by  the  Sames,  better  known  as  the  Lappons  or  Laplanders,  inha- 
biting the  northern  extremity  of  Europe,  partly  under  the  monarchy  of  the  Swedes,  and 
partly  under  tlie  Russian  empire.  This  language,  which  is  said  to  have  more  affinity  with 
the  Hungarian  than  with  the  Finnish,  has  a  great  number  of  very  diffi?rent  dialects,  which 
have  been  classed  under  the  Lappo-Norweffian,  the  Lnppo-Swedish  (western  and  eastern), 
the  Lappo-Russ,  spoken  in  the  circle  of  Kola,  in  the  government  of  Archangel.  Through 
the  beneficent  care  of  the  Swedish  govenmient,  at  the  close  of  the  last  and  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century,  the  Laplanders  have  been  reclaimed  from  idolatry,  and  have  begun 
to  enjoy  the  blessings  of  Christianity  and  civilization. 

The  Livonian,  spoken  formerly  by  the  Lives  or  Liven,  who  gradually  abandoned  this 
idiom  for  the  Lettish,  in  consequence  of  which  it  is  become  nearly  extinct. 

(2.)  The  Wolgaic  branch  includes  the  languages  spoken  along  the  Wolga  and  its  tributa- 
ries. They  have  a  strong  admi.xture  of  Turkisli,  and  may  rank  under  two  classes,  the  Che- 
remisse  and  the  Morduine,  including  as  dialects  the  Mokshau  and  the  Ersan. 

(3.)  The  Permian  branch  includes  two  languages,  the  Permian  proper,  spoken  by  the 
Komi  or  Permians,  and  the  Syrenes  or  Syranes ;  and  tlie  Wotieque,  spoken  by  the  Udi  or 
Wotiaks  scattered  among  the  governments  of  Wiatka,  Oremburg,  and  Kasan.  They  are  all 
Christians,  and  the  most  industrious  people  of  Uralian  race  in  the  Russian  empire,  except 
the  Fins  and  perhaps  the  Estlionians. 

(4.)  The  Hungarian  branch  includes  the  following  languages: — 

The  Hungarian  or  IVIagyar,  spoken  by  the  Magyars  or  Hungarians.  They  form  about  a 
third  of  the  population  of  Hungary,  and  almost  a  fourth  of  that  of  Transylvania ;  several 
thousands  also  of  tliis  people  are  settled  in  the  Bukowine  in  Gallicia,  and  about  forty  tJiou- 
sand  in  Moldavia,  under  the  Turkish  sway.  The  Hungarian,  according  to  Czaplovicz,  has 
four  principal  dialects: — 1.  The  Paloczen.  2.  The  dialect  of  the  ]\tagyars  beyond  the 
Danube.  3.  That  of  the  Magyars  of  the  Theiss ;  and  4.  That  of  the  Szekler,  living  in 
Transylvania,  in  the  Bukowine,  and  in  Moldavia.  The  Hungarian  language  is  very  harmo- 
nious; and  is  mixed  with  many  foreign  words,  especially  Slavonic,  German,  and  Latin. 

The  Wogoule,  spoken  by  the  Mansi  or  Manskum,  more  known  as  the  Woguls,  and  called 
Wogoulitshe  by  the  Russians.  They  are  almost  all  Christians,  and  live  principally  as 
hunters  and  fisliermen,  scattered  over  the  government  of  Saratow,  in  the  high  valleys  of  the 
Ural,  in  that  of  Perm,  and  in  that  of  Tobolsk,  between  Kourjan  and  Beresow.  Klaproth 
distinguishes  in  it  four  dialects,  that  of  Chiasow,  those  of  Werchoturia,  and  Cherdin,  and 
that  of  Beresow  in  the  government  of  Tobolsk. 

The  Ostiak,  or  Obi-Ostiak,  which  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Yenisei  family.  The 
As-jachs  or  Ostiaks  of  the  Obi,  who  speak  this  language,  are  mostly  Ciiristians;  some  are 
still  idolaters.  The  principal  dialects  are  those  of  Beresow,  Lwnpokol,  Wass-i-gun,  and 
Narym.  Under  the  branch  still  uncertain  are  ranked  the  Hunniac,  the  Awar,  the  BulgO' 
Han,  and  the  Chazar. 

CHAPTER  II. 

ENGL.AND. 

The  British  islands,  placed  nearly  in  the  north-western  angle  of  Europe,  command  pecu- 
liar advantages,  no  less  for  natural  strength  in  war,  than  as  an  emporium  of  commerce  in 
peace  :  on  the  southern  side,  they  are  almost  in  contact  with  Franco,  Holland,  and  Germany, 
for  a^es  the  most  enlightened  and  flourishing  countries  of  the  civilized  world ;  on  the  east, 
a  wide  expanse  of  sea  separates  them  from  the  bleak  region  of  Scandinavia;  on  the  west, 
they  overlook  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  whose  limit  in  another  hemisphere  is  the  coast  of  Ameri- 
ca; while,  in  the  extreme  north  they  may  be  almost  said  to  face  the  unexplored  expanse  of 
the  Polar  Sea.     Exclusive  of  the  northern  insular  appendages,  they  may  be  considered  as 


Fig.  103. 


MAP  OF  THE  BRITISH  ISLES. 


313 


Vol.  I. 


314 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


situated  between  the  fiftieth  and  fifty-ninth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  between  the 
second  degree  of  east  and  the  tenth  of  west  longitude.  They  are  geographically  divided 
into  two  islands  of  unequal  magnitude,  Great  Brittiin  and  Ireland :  Britain,  again,  is  divided 
into  two  unequal  parts :  England,  which,  including  Wales,  contains  57,960  square  miles ; 
and  Scotland,  which  contains  30,500.  The  three,  though  united  into  one  kingdom,  respec- 
tively exhibit  peculiarities  which  characterise  them  as  distinct  countries.  It  will,  therefore, 
be  requisite  to  describe  each  separately,  commeaicing  with  England,  tlie  seat  of  empire  and 
legislation.  The  chapter  which  treats  of  England  will  afford  the  proper  place  for  many 
details,  particularly  of  a  political  nature,  which  are  alike  applicable  to  the  two  sister 
countries. 


References  lo  the  Map  of  the  British  Islands. 


E.VGLAND 

.Alnwick 

R  .thbury 

Morpeth 

Rlytiie 

Newcastle 

He.xliaoi 

Billiiigham 

Carlisle 

Cockermouth 

K^remont 

Ravenglasa 

UlverstoQ 

Kendal 

Keswick 

Penrith 

.\pplebF 

Alilslone 

f)arlington 

nurhain 

Sunderland 

Stockton 

Siokesley 

Ciiishurough 

Wintliy 

Pickering 

Thirsk 

Norih  Allerton 

Ilawes 

Ripon 

Kendal 

I.iMicasler 

Gavslang 

P.iulton 

Bradford 

Skipton 

Knaresborough 

Leeds 

York 

New  Malton 

Biliiiigton 

Starborouirh 

Great  Driffield 

Hcirnsea 

lledon 

KiiigsloD  on  Hull 

Harton 

Orimsby 

Ravcndale 

Sallfleet 

Thedlelhorpe 

Boston 

Altbrd 

Horncastle 

Lincoln 

Gainsborough 

Ashby 

Dincaster 

ShetSeld 

Pontefract 

Manchester 

Preston 

Liverpool 

Chester 

Newcastle 

No«j>ort 

Stafford 

Burton 

Deri)y 

Aslibourn 

Cliesterfield 

Mansfield 

."Vlfroton 

Nottingham 

Melton  Mowbray 

Oranthann 

Newark 

Slealord 

Spalding 

Lvnn  Regis 

Wells 

Cromer 

Yarmouth 

Beccles 

Harlcston 

Norwich 

Reepbam 


East  Deieham 

Diss 

Thetford 

Ely 
March 

Peterborough 
Oiindle 
Stamford 
Harborough 
Leicester 
Coventry 
Tam  worth 
Lichfield 
Birmingham 
Bridgenorth 
Shrewsbury 
Plyiilimmon 
Ludlow 
Teiibury 
Leominster 
Bromford 
Tewkesbury 
Worcester 
Alceslei 
Warwick 
Evesham 
Towcestcr 
Northampton 
Wellingborough 
Thrapston 
IIunting<luu 
Bedfi.rd 
Cambridge 
Mildenhall 
Bury  St.  Ed 

muiid's 
Framlineham 
Aldborough 
Ipswich 
Sudbury 
Harwich 
Colchester 
Cosgeshall 
Royston 
Bishop's  Stort- 

ford 
Hertford 
St.  Albans 
.Aylesbury 
Winslow 
B  ickingham 
Woodstock 
Burford 
Gloucester 
Hereford 
Ross 
Col  ford 
Bristol 
Melksham 
Malmesbury 
Cirencester 
Swindon 
Hungerford 
Kennet 
Abingdon 
Oxford 
Wallingford 
Thame 
Wind.«or 
Uxbridge 
Kingston 
Croydon 
Greenwich 
London 
("helmsford 
Maldon 
Maidstone 
Canterbury 
Margate 
Ramsgate 
Dover 
Rye 

Hastings 
Seaford 
Battle 

East  Grinstead 
Reigate 


172.  Horsham 

2.5.  St.  David's 

68.  North  Berwick 

51.  Roscommon 

173.  Brishton 

26.  Pembroke 

69.  Dunbar 

52.  Leitriin 

174.  Arundel 

27.  Caermarthen 

70.  Berwick 

53.  Longford 

175.  Pulborough 

28.  Cwyrgiyg 

71.  Kelsoe 

54.  Moynalty 

176.  Guildford 

29.  Brecon 

72.  .ledlMirgh 

73.  Hawick 

55.  CarrickmacrosB 

177.  Godalming 

30.  Mnnmouth 

.56.  Dunleer 

178.  Petworlh 

31.  Uske 

74.  Ashkirk 

57.  Drogheda 

179.  Chichester 

:«.  Chepstow 

75.  Bigg  ir 

58.  Balbriggan 

180.  Portsmouth 

33.  Newport 

76.  Moffat 

59.  Dublin 

ISI.Si.ulhampton 

34.  Cardiff 

77.  Samiubar 

60.  Screen 

182.  Whitchurch 

35.  Landaff 

78.  Lanark 

61.  Trim 

183.  Aiidover 

36.  l^laiitrissent 

79.  Kilmarnock 

62.  Maynoolh 

184.  Salisbury 

37.  Swansea 

80.  Ayr 

63.  Naas 

185.  Lymington 

81.  Girvan 

64.  Tullamore 

186.  Poole 

Rivers. 

82.  Ballinlrae 

65.  .Mullingar 

187.  Shaftesbury 

a  Towey 

83.  Stranraer 

66.  Athlone 

188.  Bath 

b  Tiovy 

84.  Port  Patrick 

67.  Eyrecourt 

189.  Uxbridge 

c  Dee 

8.5.  Wigton 

68.  Ballyforan 

190.  Wells 

80.  Kircudbright 

69.  Newton  Bellew 

191.  Glastonbury 

SCOTLAND 

87.  New  Galloway 

70.  Loughrea 

192.  Ilcheslur 

1.  Durness 

88.  Momhive 

71.  Ornmore 

193.  Taunton 

2.  Timgue 

89.  Dumfries 

72.  Ougntera 

194.  Porlock 

3.  Reay 

90.  Langholm 

73.  Galway 

195.  Sourh  Barn- 

4. Thurso 

91.  Annan 

74.  Gort 

staple 

5.  Wick 

/5.  Innistymon 

196   Bideford 

6.  Dunbeath 

Rivers. 

76.  KilruBh 

197.  Torrington 

7.  Helmsdale 

a  Spey 

77.  Clare 

198.  Launcesioa 

8.  Dornoch 

b  Don 

78.  Ennis 

199.  Bodmin 

9.  Tain 

c  Deo 

79.  Limerick 

200.  St.  A^nea 

10.  Portinleik 

d  Tay 

80.  Portumn 

201.  Penzance 

11.  Ullapool 

e  Clyde 

81.  Nenagh 

202.  Falmouth 

12.  Poolew 

f  Ken 

82.  Kill.iloe 

2(13.  Tregony 

13.  Torridon 

g  Nith 
h  Annan 

83.  Thurles 

204.  Tavistock 

14.  Loch  Carron 

8-1.  Roscrea 

20.1.  Plymouth 

15.  Dintrwall 

i   Tweed 

85.  Durrow 

21)6.  Modbury 

16.  Beauly 

8t>.  Ath 

207.  Dartmouth 

17.  Inverness 

IRELAND. 

87.  Kildare 

208.  Ashburton 

18.  Granlown 

1.  Belfast 

88.  Carlow 

209.  Chumleigh 

19.  Nairn 

2.  Antrim 

89.  Tullow 

210.  Tiverton 

20.  Elgin 

3.  Larne 

90.  Baltinslass 

211.  Exeter 

21.  Inveraven 

4.  Glenarm 

91.  Blessington 

212.  Sidmouth 

22.  Culten 

5.  Ballycastle 

92.  Togher 

213.  Honiton 

23.  Banff 

6.  Ballymoney 

93.  Wicklow 

214.  Lyme  Regis 

24.  Huntley 

7.  Coleraine 

94.  Gorey 

215.  Dorchester 

25.  Turreff 

8.  Tubbermore 

95.  P.allycanoe 

216.  Weymouth 

26.  Fiasersburgh 

9.  Strabane 

96.  Enniscorthy 

27.  Peterhead 

10.  Londonderry 

97.  Wexford 

Rivers. 

28.  Newburgh 

11.  White  Castle 

98.  Fethard 

a  Tyne 

S29.  Aberdeen 

12.  Raphoe 

99.  Waterford 

b  Tees 

30.  Stonehaven 

13.  Lifford 

100.  Thomas  Town 

c  Dervvent 

31.  Bervie 

14.  Letterkenny 

101.  Kilkenny 

d  Swile 

32.  Tulbich 

15.  Kiliybegs 

102.  CariickonSuiro 

e   Wharfe 

33.  Braemar 

16.  Donegal 

103.  Clonmel 

f  Aire 

34.  Fort  Augustus 

17.  Ballybofy 

104.  Ballyporcen 

g  Don 
h  Trent 

35.  Gleneig 

18.  Oinagh 

105.  Tipperary 

36.  Arasaig 

19.  Pomeroy 

106.  Killmallock 

i    Ouse 

.37.  Anpin 

20.  Clogher 

107.  Askeylon 

i    Thames 

.■».  Fort  William 

21.  Dungannon 

108.  Ballylongford 

k   Avon 

39.  Perth 

22.  Armagh 

109.  Tralee 

1   Severn 

40.  Dunkeld 

2:1.  Lurgah 

no.  Castle  Ford 

mDce 

41.  Blair  Athol 

24.  Donaghadee 

111.  Killainey 

42.  Brechin 

25.  PortatVrry 

112.  Kenmare 

WALES. 

43.  Montrose 

26.  Dowiipatrick 

113.  Oaslletown 

1.  Flint 

44.  Forfir 

27.  Sl-evoy 

114.  Bantry 

2.  St.  Asaph 

4.5.  Arbroath 

28.  Newry 

115.  Castletown 

3.  Denbigh 

46.  Dundee 

29.  Donrl:,lk 

116.  Kinsale 

4.  Aberconway 

47.  St.  Andrews 

30.  Moiiaghan 

117.  Cork 

5.  Bangor 

48.  Anstruther 

31.  Cavan 

118.  Killady 

6.  Beaumaris 

49.  Kinross 

.32  Callahill 

119.  Tiichgeela 

7.  Holyhead 

50.  Invcrkeithing 

33.  Rnniskillen 

120.  Mallow 

8.  ("  lernarvon 

51.  Clackmannan 

34.  Churchill 

121.  Ralhcormuck 

9.  Llan  Hainrn 

52.  Mulhill 

35.  Sligo 

122.   <ild<ireiy 

10.  St.  Mary-8 

53.  Stirling 

36.  Drumeirn 

123.  Lismore 

11.  Harlech 

54.  Inverary 

37.  Ballyinore 

121.  YoUghall 

12.  Bala 

55.  Oban 

.'18.  Clooney 

12.5.  Duiigarvan 

13.  Cor  wen 

.5l<.  Dumbarton 

39.  Rallina 

126.  Tramore 

14.  Montgomery 

,  57.  Greenock 

40.  Killala 

15.  Dinasmowd 

58.  Paisley 

41.  B  .lyaiass 

Rivers. 

16.  Towyn 

59.  Irvine 

42.  riaggan 

a  Ban       _    ^ 

17.  Aberystwith 

60.  Hamilton 

4.'1.  Newport 

b  Carlingford 

18.  Rhainder 

61.  Glasirow 

44.  Westport 

c  Rovne 

19.  Bault 

62.  Falkirk 

45.  Kunior 

d  Barrow 

20.  Tregarron 

63.  Linlithgow 

4r..  Balliniobe 

e  N.oe 

21.  Llanbear 

64.  Whiiliurn 

47.  Castle  Barr 

f  Soire 

22.  Cardigan 

65.  Peebles 

48.  Kilcolman 

g  Blackwatei 

23.  Newport 

66.  Edinburgh 

49.  Tuam 

h  Shannon 

24.  Fiscard 

67.  Haddington 

SO.  ElphiR 

i   Suck. 

Book  1. 


ENGLAND. 


315 


Sect.  I. — General  Outline  and  Aspect. 

Eng-land  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  English  Channel,  interposed  between  its  coast 
and  that  of  France ;  on  the  east  by  the  German  Sea,  on  the  north  by  Scotland,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  the  Tweed,  the  Cheviot  hills,  and  the  Frith  of  Sol  way ;  on  the  west  by  the 
Irish  Sea  and  St.  George's  Channel :  tlie  promontory  of  the  Land's-End,  forming  its  south- 
western extremitj',  faces  the  vast  expanse  of  the  Atlantic. 

The  greatest  dimension  of  England  is  from  south  to  north,  between  the  Lizard  Point, 
49°  58'  N.,  and  Berwick  on  Tweed,  55°  45'  N. ;  four  hundred  miles  in  length.  The  points 
of  extreme  breadth  are  the  Land's-End  (fig.  104.),  in  5°  41'  W.,  and  LowestofFe,  in  1°44'  E., 

forming  a  space  of  about  280  miles.  There 
is  no  point,  however,  where  a  line  of  this 
extent  can  be  carried  across  the  island,  and 
the  northern  part  does  not  on  an  average 
exceed  one  hundred  miles  in  breadth. 

The  surface  of  England  is  of  a  diversifi- 
ed character ;  the  eastern  districts  are  in 
general  level,  and  there  are  several  direc- 
tions in  which  hundreds  of  miles  may  be 
travelled  without  seeing  a  hill.  Along  the 
western  side  of  the  island  are  large  tracts, 
not  only  hilly,  but  sometimes  rising  even  to 
mountain  grandeur.  Such  are  the  counties 
of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland,  the  bleak  ridge  of  Ingleborough,  extending  like  a  spine 
through  the  north  of  England:  of  the  same  character  are  Derbyshire,  the  whole  principality 
of  Wales,  and  a  great  part  of  Devon  and  Cornwall.  These  tracts  exhibit  all  the  varieties  of 
mountain  scenery:  in  Cumberland,  encircling  little  plains  filled  with  beautiful  lakes;  in 
Wales,  enclosing  narrow  valleys  through  which  the  rapid  mountain  stream  dashes;  inDer- 


Land's-End. 


References  to  the  Map  of  England. — North  Fart 


NORTH  SERIES. 

1.  Berwick 

2.  Me  drum 

3.  Bellord 

4.  N.  Chnrl'on 

5.  Alnwick 

0.  A\'hiliineh:im 

7.  r-w:,yf,.rd 

8.  K.lMl..n 

9.  Riithbiiry 
10.  Warkw.irlh 
]!.  Morpeih 

12.  blythe 

13.  CliCuin 

14.  Stannrdriiliam 

15.  Kirk  Harle 
Ifi.  HarliiiKion 

17.  Bpl'ineham 

18.  BuiiHrshaugh 

19.  Shillburn 

20.  Kennel 

21.  BewcM=tle 

22.  Lfinstnwn 

23.  Biainpuiii 

24.  flali'.vhistle 
2.5.  Simoiiburn 
2tj.  Hexham 

27.  Hicklcv 

28.  Newcastle 

29.  XiirihSliieidB 

30.  Tynemnuth 

31.  Snuih  Shields 

32.  Sunderland 

33.  Shotlo.i 

34.  Durham 

a5.  Chesier-le-Sireet 
3*).  Lanchesier 

37.  Wolsingham 

38.  Sianhope 

39.  Acion 

40.  Aldstone 

41.  Cr...«ii!ill 

42.  Kirk  O.^wald 
i'i.  I.asunby 

44.  Hutiim 

45.  Carlisle 
4f).  OrKin 

47.  Wigton 

48.  Abb'-yliolme 

49.  MarypDrt 

50.  Workiniiton 

51.  Cockerriiouth 

52.  Iroby 

53.  Keswick 
.54.  Malierdale 
5.5.  Penrith 
.56.  Clifton 

57.  Appleby 
53.  Milburii 

59.  Bronah 

60.  Slackbolm 


Middleton 
Eeglcston 
Barnard  Castle 
S  aindrop 
West  ,\uckland 
Bishop  Auck- 
land 
Sedeefield 
Hartlepool 
Seaton  Carow 
Guisbrough 
Wbiiby 
Siokesley 
Raunton 
Yarm 
Darlingtun 
Crolt 
Rokehy 
Biiwes 
Reelh 

Kirkby  Stephen 
Orton 
Mardale 
.•Ambleside 
Snath  waite 
Whitehaven 
Eareniont 
Ravenslass 
Whitbeck 
Ulverston 
Hawkshead 
Kendal 
Fa  went  t 
Millthorpe 
Sedbergh 
Hawes 
.Askrissr 
Mifldleham 
Richnmnd 
Catierick 
Bedale 
Bnrneston 
Thirsk 

North  .\llerton 
Helmsley 
Kirby  Moorside 
Snainton 
Cloughton 
Scarborough 
Filey 

Hunmanby 
Brrdliniilon 
Kilham 
nriffield 
S'edmero 
Winlriniiham 
.\ew  Mallon 
Oarraby 
Stillenham 
('i),\wi)ld 
Eosingwold 


121.  Aldboroueh 

122.  Knaresborough 
12.3.  Ripon 

124.  Masham 

125.  Whernside 

126.  Grassinston 

127.  Arncliffe 
128  Settle 

129.  Imileton 

130.  Kirkby  Lons- 

dale 

131.  Hornby 
l.H.  Lanca.ster 

133.  Garsiang 

134.  Slaidburn 

135.  Clitheroe 

136.  Colne 
i:i7.  Paythorne 
138.  Skipion 
130.  Thurcross 
HO.  Otley 

141.  llarewood 

142.  Ripley 

143.  VVelhorby 

144.  Tadcaster 

145.  Cawood 

146.  York 

147.  Pncklineton 

148.  .Middleton 

149.  Market  AVeigh- 

lon 

150.  Beverley 

151.  Brandsburton 

152.  Hornsea 

1.53.  Aldborough 

1.54.  Hedon 
155.  Pattrington 

SOUTH    SERIES. 

1.  Poulton 

2.  Blackpool 

3.  Kirkham 

4.  Preston 

5.  Chorley 

6.  Blackburn 

7.  Burnley 

8.  Halifax 

9.  Keiehley 

10.  Bradford 

11.  llcwsbury 

12.  Wakefield 

13.  Leeds 

14.  Pontefract 
1.5.  Snailh 

16.  Selby 

17.  Howdcn 

15.  Burton 

19.  South  Covo 

20.  Hull 
2).  Barton 


22.  Grimsby 

23.  Ravendale 

24.  Caistor 

25.  Glanford  Bridge 

26.  Kirton 

27.  Brumby 

28.  Crowle 

29.  Thorne 

30.  Doncaster 

31.  Budsworth 

32.  Barnesley 

33.  Penistone 

34.  Huddersfield 
3.5.  Mellham 

36.  Asliion-under- 

Line 

37.  Manchester 

38.  Rochdale 

39.  Bury 

40.  Bolton 

41.  I.eish 

42.  Wi»an 

43.  Ormskirk 

44.  Foimby 

45.  Liverpool 

46.  Prescot 

47.  Newton     • 

48.  Warrington 

49.  Knulsford 

50.  Altrinsham 

51.  Stockport 

52.  Disley 

53.  Chapel  in  the 

Frilh 

54.  Tideswel! 
5.5.  Ca.«Heton 

56.  Sheffield 

57.  Dronfield 

58.  Roiherham 

59.  Worksop 
CO.  Klyth 
ei.R.nford 

62.  Gain-iboroHsh 

63.  Willouiihton 

64.  Wragby 

65.  Market  Rasen 

66.  Louth 

67.  Salifleet 

68.  Hutlon 

69.  A 1  ford 

70.  Borgh 

71.  Wainfleet 

72.  Spilfby 

73.  Hornca.stle 

74.  Tattershall 

75.  Dunston 

76.  Navenby 

77.  Lincoln 

78.  Thorncy 

79.  Tuiford 


80.  Newark 

81.  Mansfield 
82    Bolsover 

83.  Chesterfield 

84.  Alfreton 

85.  Matlock 

86.  Wirkswoith 

87.  Winsier 

88.  Bu.xton 

89.  Lognor 

90.  Leeke 

91.  Horton 

92.  Macclesfield 

93.  CongletoD 

94.  Talk 

9.5.  Nantwich 

96.  Midrtlewich 

97.  Northwich 

98.  Tarporley 

99.  Chegler 

100.  Holt 

101.  Wrexham 

102.  Mold 

103.  Flint 

104.  Ruthin 

105.  Dnnbi  =  h 
lOtJ.  St.  A^aph 
107.  Aberi-'.^ey 
lO.-^.  Aberconway 
109.  Llanrwst 

110  Pen  I  re  Voelas 

1 11.  Tremadoc 

112.  Bansor 

113.  Beaumaris 

114.  Amlwch 

115.  Llanerchymedd 

116.  Holyhead 

117.  Caernarvon 

118.  Bwich  Mawr 

119.  Pwllheli 

120.  Crickieth 

121.  Harl.  ch 

122.  Arrennig 

123.  Llanuwch- 

L^wyn 

124.  Bala 

125.  Corven 

126.  Llangollen 

127.  Ellesmcre 

128.  Wem 

129.  Whitchurch 

130.  Malpns 

131.  Drnylon 

132.  Eccleshall 

133.  Stone 

134.  Newca.stle-un- 

der-Line 
13.5.  Burslem 

136.  Cheadle 

137.  Uttoxeler 


138.  Ashborne 

139.  Derby 

140.  Belper 

141.  Nottingham 

142.  Boitpsford 

143.  Grantham 

144.  Sleaford 

145.  Folkmgham 
146   Donnington 

147.  Boston 

148.  Burnham 

fllarket 

149.  Castle  Rising 
130.  Fakenham 

151.  New  Walsing- 

ham 

152.  Holt 

153.  Cromer 

154.  N.  Walsham 

ISLE  OF  MAN 

1.  Ramsey 

2.  Peel 

3.  Douglas 

4.  Castletown 

Rivers. 
a  Till 
b  Aln 
c  Coquet 
d  Wenebeck 
e  BIyth 
f  Tyne 
g  Wear 
h  Tees 
i    E.sk 
j    Rye 
k  Derwent 
1    Ouse 
m  Swale 
n  tfre 
o  Wharf 
p  Air 
q  Calder 
r   Don 
8  Rother 
t   Derwent 
u  Dove 
V  Trent 
w  Ankholra 
X  Wiiham 
y  Ccmway 
z  Clwyd 
a*  Dee 
b*  Weaver 
c*  Mersey 
d*  Ribble 
e*  Lune 
f *  Derwent 
g*  Eden 


316 


MAP  OF  ENGLAND— NORTH. 


Fio.  105 


Fig.  106. 


MAP  OF  ENGLAND— SOUTH. 


317 


27* 


318 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


pARxm 


byshire,  presenting  rocky  scenery  in  every  piclurcsque  and  fantastic  shape ;  while  in  Devon- 
shire low  broad  steeps  overshadow  wide  and  beautiful  vales. 

With  one  exception,  the  most  important  rivers  of  Engl^ind  traverse  the  breadth  of  the 
kingdom :  rising  among  the  western  hills,  and  flowing  toward  the  German  Ocean,  they  do 
not  atttiin  that  length  of  course  which  the  extent  of  its  territory  in  another  direction  would 
have  admitted.  Tliough  deficient,  however,  in  magnitude,  tiiey  are  numerous,  commodious, 
and  valuable ;  flowing  through  broad  vales  and  wide-spreading  plains. 

The  Thames,  though  not  the  longest,  deserves  to  be  ranked  as  the  first  of  British  rivers. 
It  originates  from  a  number  of  rivulets  on  the  borders  of  Wilts  and  Gloucestershire,  whicTi, 


References  to  the  Map  of  England. — South  Part. 


NORTH   SKRIES. 

1.  TallybDUl 

2.  Dolgelly 

3.  Dinasmowddy 

4.  Henilre 

5.  Llnnryllin 

6.  Pool 

7.  Llanfair 

8.  Shrt!wsbury 

9.  Oswestry 

10.  VVi;llmaton 

11.  Newport 
1-2.  tJtatl'ord 
n.  Can.iMck 
14.  Lichfield 

1.5.  .Abbot's  Bromley 

16.  Burton 

17.  Asliby  de  la 

Zouch 

18.  KedKworth 

19.  LoiiKhlinroush 

20.  Mount  Snrrel 

21.  Melton  Mowbray 
2i.  Oiikliaiii 

23.  Cerby 

24.  Bourn 
in.  Siamlbrd 

26.  Miiikel  Deeping 

27.  Crowland 

28.  Spalding 
2'J.  H  .Ibeach 
30.  Wisbench 
ai.  Islington 
S'i.  I.ynn  Reiris 
3:1.  Nnrborough 

34.  Litcham 

35.  Swaffham 

36.  E.isl  Deerham 

37.  F.iulsham 

38.  Aylshain 
SO.  .\orwich 

40.  Wroxham 

41.  Yarmouth 
ii   I.ovvpstoft 

43.  Beccles 

44.  Luddon 
4.'>.  BunL'ay 

46.  Harleston 

47.  New  Bucking- 

ham 
4?.  Wymnndham 
40.  Hin?ham 

50.  Walton 

51.  East  Harling 

52.  Thetford 
.')3.  Brandon 
54.  Methwold 
5.5.  Downham 

56.  Ely 

57.  March 

58.  Ramsey 
50.  Thnrney 

60.  Peterborough 

61.  iViirman  Cross 
6-2.  Oundle 

63.  Rorkiniibam 

64.  Uppingham 
6.1.  I/cici'ster 

66.  Market  Harbo- 

niugh 

67.  TiUiterworth 
6?.  Hinckley 

69.  Nuneaton 

70.  Atherstone 

71.  Tamwoith 

72.  Coleshill 

73.  Stitton  Coldfield 

74.  Walsall 

7.5.  Birmingham 

76.  Wolverhampton 

77.  BridL'enorth 

78.  Broseley 

79.  Much  Wenlock 

80.  Bishop's  Castle 

81.  Montgomery 

82.  Newtown 

83.  I.lanfair 

84.  Machynlleth 

65.  Towyn 


80.  Aberyslwith  170. 

87.  Aberllowyn  171. 

Hi.  Sputty  Ystwith  J72. 

89.  Llanidloes  173. 

90.  Rhayadergwy  174. 

91.  Llandeeley  175. 

92.  New  Radnor  176. 

93.  Knighton 

94.  Cluim  177. 

95.  Ludlow  178. 

96.  Cleobury  Mot-  179. 

timer  180. 

97.  Bewdley  181. 

98.  Kidderminster  182. 

99.  .*!iourbridge  183 

100.  tlarlesowen  184. 

101.  Bromsgrove  18.5. 

102.  Droitwich  186. 

103.  Henley  in  Ard«n  187. 

104.  Warwick  188. 

105.  Coventry  189. 

106.  Leamington  190. 

107.  Davenlry  191- 

108.  Rugby  192. 

109.  Rothwell  193. 

110.  Nnithampton  194. 

111.  Kettering  195. 

112.  Thrapston  190. 
113  Kimbolton  197. 

114.  Si.  Neot's  198. 

115.  Huntingdon  199. 
llfi.  Si.  Tves  200. 

117.  Willingbam  201. 

118.  Newmarket  302 

119.  Lillle  Barton  203. 

120.  Bury  St.  Ed- 

mund's  204. 

121.  Stow  Market 

122.  Uworth  205. 

123.  Di-s  206. 

124.  Eye  207. 
125   Delienham  208. 

126.  Winglield  209. 

127.  Framllnghara  210. 
128   Southwold  211. 

129.  Dunwich  212. 

130.  SMxmundbam  213. 

131.  Aldborough 

1.32.  Woodbridge  214. 

133.  Ipswich  21.5. 

134.  HadleiL'h  216. 

135.  Whatfield  217. 

136.  Bildeston  218. 

137.  Needham  219. 

138.  Lavenham 

139.  Sudbury  220. 

140.  Haverhill  221. 

141.  Linton  222. 

142.  Cambridge  223. 

143.  Caxtnn  224. 

144.  Rnyston  225. 

145.  Poiion  226. 

146.  Bedford  227. 

147.  Olney  22S. 

148.  Newport  Pag-  229. 

nel  230. 

149.  Fenny  Siialford  231. 
1.50.  Towcester  232. 
151.  Buckingham  233. 

1.52.  Brackley  234. 

1.53.  Bandbury  215. 

1.54.  Kineton  236. 
155.  Sbipston  upon  237. 

Siour  238. 

1.56.  Campden  239. 

157.  Siratford  on  240. 

Avon  241. 

1.58.  Alcesier  242. 

1.59.  Evesham  243. 
ItiO,  Worcester  244. 
Ifil.Pershore  245. 

162.  lIpKm  246. 

163.  Ledbury  247. 

164.  Bromyard  248. 

165.  Leominster  249. 
IfUi.  VVeobly  2.50. 
167.  Hereford  2.51. 
IRS.  Thruxton  252. 
169.  Hay 


Talgarth 

Llyswen 

Buillth 

Landulas 

Tregaron 

Llampcler 

New  Castle 
Enilyn 

Cardigan 

Newport 

St.  David's 

HaverlbrdWest 

Milford 

Pembroke 

Tenby 

Narbertb 

St.  Clear's 

Lanvernach 

Caermarthen 

Landebie 

Langadoe 

Landovory 

Trecastle 

Brecon 

Crickhowell 

Abergavenny 

Si.  Weonard's 

Ross 

Mitcbeldean 

Newcnt 

Gloucester 

Tewkesbury 

Chelienham 

Northleach 

Stow  in  the 
Wold 

Moreton  in  the 
Marsh 

Cbarbiiry 

Woodstock 

Dedington 

Bicesier 

Winslow 

Aylesbury 

Vvendover 

Ivinghoe 

Leighton  Buz- 
zard 

Luton 

Stevenage 

Baldock 

Hatfield  Bishop 

Hcrlford 

Bishop's  Slort- 
ford 

Dunmow 

Thaxted 

Braintree 

Coggeshall 

Halslead 

Colchester 

Harwich 

St.Osyth 

Bradwell 

Rorhford 

Maldon 

Chelmsford 

Ingatestime 

Horndon 

Romfi>rd 

Chipping  Ongar 

Epping 

P^ufield 

St.  Alban's 

Watford 

Berkhampstead 

Amersham 

Marliiw 

Wallingford 

Oxford 

Abinsidon 

Wantage 

Whitney 

Burford 

Lechlade 

Cirencester 

Malmesbury 

Wotion  under 
Edge 


233.  Minchinhamp- 
ton 

2.54.  Stroud 

2.55.  Berkeley 

2.56.  Blackney 

2.57.  Monmouth 

2.58.  Usk 

2.59.  Chepstow 

260.  Newport 

261.  Merthyr  Tydvil 

262.  Llantrissent 

263.  Llandaff 

264.  Cowbiidge 

265.  Pyle 

266.  Neath 

267.  Abernant 

268.  Pimlardylaia 
209.  Kidwelly 
270.  Penrice 

SOUTH  SERIES. 

1.  Thnrnbury 

2.  Chipping  Sod- 

bury 

3.  Bristol 

4.  Wriiigton 

5.  Peusford 

6.  Marshfield 

7.  Bradford 

8.  Chippenham 

9.  Caino 

10.  Wolton  Basset 

11.  Marlborough 

12.  Hungerford 

13.  Lambourne 

14.  E.  llsley 

15.  Reading 

16.  Wokingham 

17.  Maidenhead 

18.  Windsor 

19.  ITxbridge 

20.  Kinirsto 

21.  Ewell 

22.  Croydon 

23.  London 

24.  Woolwich 

25.  Gravesend 

26.  Rochester 

27.  Chatham 

28.  Sheerness 

29.  Faversham 

30.  Canterbury 

31.  Margate 

32.  Sandwich 

33.  Deal 

34.  Dover 

35.  Hvthe 

36.  Wye 

37.  Ashford 

38.  Smarden 
39   Lenham 

40.  Maidstone 

41.  VVrotbam 

42.  Tunbridge 

43.  Sevenoaks 

44.  Westerham 

45.  E.  Grinstead 

46.  Reigale 

47.  Dorliing 

48.  Ripley 

49.  Guildford 

50.  God  aiming 

51.  Alton 

52.  Oiliham 

53.  Basingstoke 
.54.  Newbury 

55.  Whitchurch 

56.  Andover 

57.  Ludgersball 

58.  Amesbury 
59  Stonebenge 

60.  Devizes 

61.  Trowbridge 

62.  Westbury 

63.  Bath 

64.  Bruton 

65.  Shepton  Mallet 

66.  Glastoobury 


Wells 

Axbndge 

Blackford 

Bridgewater 

Whatchet 

Minehead 

Port  lock 

Combe  Martin 

llfracombe 

Barnsiaple 

Appl'-dore 

Bidcford 

Hartlaiid 

Torrington 

South  Molton 

IJulvenon 

Wiveliscombe 

VVelllnglon 

Taunton 

Lonaport 

Soinerton 

llcliosier 

Milborn  Port 

CasHe  Cary 

Wincaunton 

Shaftesbury 

Mere 

Warminster 

llindon 

Willon 

Salisbury 

Downton 

Romsey 

Siockbridge 

Winchester 

Bramdean 

Petersfield 

Midhurst 

Petworth 

Haslemere 

Hno-ham 

Cuckfield 

T'ck  field 

Tunbridge 
Wells 

Wadhurst 

Goudhurst 

Cranhrooke 

Appledore 

New  Romney 

Lvdd 

Rye 

Wincbelsea 

Hastings 

Bullle 

Hailsham 

E.  Bouine 

Seaford 

Lewes 

Brighton 

N.  Shorcham 

Sieyning 

Worthing 

Arundel 

Chichester 

Havant 

Farebam 

Southampton 

Newtown 

Newport 

Yarmouth 

Lymington 

Christchurch 

Kingwood 

Poole 

Wimborn  Min- 
ster 

Blandford 

Beer  Regis 

Wareham 

Corii-  Castle 

Melcombe  Re- 
gis 

Weymouth 

Dorchester 

Cerne  Abbas 

Bridport 

Lyme  Begis 


152.  Axminsler 

153.  Chard 
1.54.  Honiton 
155.  Colvton 
1.56.  Sidmouth 

157.  ExiiKJUth 

158.  Silverton 

159.  Collumpton 

160.  Cred lion 

161.  Chumleigh 

162.  Croi  kernwcll 

163.  Oakhampton 

164.  Halherleigh 

165.  Sheepwash 

166.  Holsworthy 

167.  Stralton 
Vv'.  Jacobstow 
1B9.  Camelford 

170.  Launceston 

171.  Callingion 

172.  Tavistock 

173.  Stanford 

Spiney 

174.  Moreton  Hamp- 

den 

175.  Exeier 

176.  Chudleigh 

177.  Newton  Bushel 

178.  Ashburton 

179.  Totness 

180.  Darimouth 

181.  Kingsbridge 

182.  Modbury 

183.  Piympion  Eari 

184.  Plymouth 
18.5.  Saltash 

186.  Sr.  Germans 

187.  Liskeard 

188.  Looe 

189.  Fowey 

190.  Lostwithiel 

191.  Bodmin 

192.  St.  Minver 

193.  Padsiow 

194.  Si.  Michael 

195.  Grampound 
196  Tregony 

197.  Truro 

198.  Redruth  , 

199.  Penryn 

200.  Helslon 
201    Marazion 
202.  Si.  Ives 
2()J.  Penzance 

Rivers. 
a  Welland 
b  Nen 

c  Old  Bedford 
d  Old  Ouse 
e  Ouse 
f  Wenson 
g  Coin 
h  Lea 
i   Thames 
j  Charwell 
k  Kennet 
1    Wey 
m  Mole 
n  Mcdwa 
o  Siour 
p  Bother 
q  Arun 
r  Avon 
8  Exe 
t  Tamer 
u  Taw 
V  Perrot 
w  Ax6 
X  Avon 
y  Severn 
z  Teme 
a*  Wye 
b*  Taaf 
c*  Towey 
d*  Teifi 
e*  Ystwilh 
f  •  Dovcy 


X    Book  I.  ENGLAND.  319 

uniting  at  Cricklade,  form  a  stream  which  is  about  nine  feet  broad  in  summer,  and  is  called 
the  Thame.  Near  Oxford  it  receives  the  Charwell  and  the  Isis,  assuming'  on  its  junction 
with  the  latter  river  the  compound  name  of  Tamesis,  which  has  been  abbreviated  into  Thames. 
After  a  course  almost  soutliward  to  Reading,  it  winds  northward  through  the  wooded  vale  of 
Henley  and  Maidenhead,  and  thence  by  tlie  castellated  heights  of  Windsor.  Its  coarse  to 
London  is  by  Chertsey,  Hampton,  Twickenham,  and  Richmond,  among  the  mag-nificent 
woods  and  palaces  of  this  paradise  of  England.  Near  Teddington  its  current  is  slightly 
acted  upon  by  the  extreme  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide,  which  rises  higher  in  this  than  in  any 
other  river  of  Europe.  It  divides  the  capital  into  two  unequal  parts,  having  on  its  northern 
bank  the  cities  of  London  and  Westminster,  and  on  its  southern  the  borough  of  Southwark. 
Below  London  Bridge  it  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  large  burthen  ;  its  ample  channel,  and  the 
spacious  docks  connected  with  it,  are  there  constantly  filled  with  forests  of  masts,  and  seem 
to  contain,  as  it  were,  the  wealth  of  the  world.  It  winds  its  way  to  the  ocean  through  a 
country  presenting  few  objects  of  interest,  except  the  vast  naval  establishments  situated  op 
the  south  bank  of  the  river.  Woolwich  claims  particular  attention,  not  only  on  account  of 
the  royal  dockyard,  and  the  national  depot  of  artillery,  but  for  its  military  academy,  which 
ranks  as  the  first  in  the  empire.  The  estuary  of  the  Med  way,  opening  into  the  river  fi-om 
Kent,  affords  commodious  sites  for  the  naval  stations  of  Chatham  and  Sheerness.  The  entire 
course  of  the  Thames  is  about  220  miles. 

The  Trent,  with  its  tributary,  the  northern  Ouse,  traverses  the  whole  midland  territory  of 
England,  and  several  of  its  principal  manufacturing  districts,  to  which  it  affords  a  communi- 
cation with  the  eastern,  and  by  canals  with  the  western,  ocean.  It  rises  among  the  low 
Staffordshire  hills,  and  at  Burton,  it  becomes  navigable  for  vessels  of  moderate  size.  Re- 
ceiving the  Dove  and  Derwent,  which,  after  dashing  through  the  rocky  recesses  of  Derby- 
shire, have  already  subsided  into  peaceful  streams,  it  passes  Nottingham,  and  at  Gainsborough 
becomes  navigable  for  steam-boats,  and  other  vessels  of  larger  burthen.  After  a  farther 
course  of  about  thirty  miles,  it  flows  into  the  Humber,  already  rendered  a  broad  estuary  by 
the  Ouse,  which  has  collected  the  principal  streams  of  Yorkshire.  The  Ouse,  formed  by 
the  confluence  of  the  Aire  and  the  Swale  from  tlie  uplands  of  the  North  Riding,  is  subse- 
quently augmented  by  the  Wharfe.  The  Aire,  with  its  tributaries  the  Calder  and  Don,  ena- 
ble it  to  communicate  with  all  the  great  manufacturing  towns  of  the  West  Riding,  and  the 
confluence  of  the  Derwent  from  the  East  Riding  renders  it  equal  in  magnitude  to  the  Thames. 
The  Ouse,  with  its  branches,  forms  one  of  the  most  useful  and  least  beautiful  of  English 
rivers.  It  winds  a  sluggish  course  through  manufacturing  districts  and  rich  arable  -fields 
v/ithout  any  diversity  of  scenery.  The  Humber,  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Trent  and 
Ouse,  resembles  an  arm  of  the  sea ;  and  its  trade  contributes  mainly  to  the  commercial 
prosperity  of  Hull. 

The  Severn  is  the  only  great  stream  which  runs  from  north  to  south  for  a  considerable  part 
of  its  course.  Rising  in  Wales,  near  the  foot  of  Plinlimmon,  it  flows  through  the  vales  of 
Montgomery ;  and,  after  winding  round  Shrewsbury,  directs  its  course  to  the  southward, 
through  some  of  the  richest  and  most  beautiful  plains  of  England,  passing  by  the  cities  of 
Worcester,  Tewkesbury,  and  Gloucester.  In  commercial  importance  it  also  ranks  high, 
since  it  flows  through  Colebrook  Dale,  and  other  principal  seats  of  the  iron  trade ;  while  the 
tracts  on  its  lower  course  have  for  ages  been  distinguished  for  the  manufacture  of  fine  wool- 
lens. Its  navigation  is  not  free  from  obstructions,  but  much  has  been  done. to  obviate  these 
disadvantages,  and  to  connect  the  Severn  by  canals  with  the  other  great  rivers.  In  approach- 
ing Bristol,  it  receives  the  Wye,  which,  rising  in  Wales,  flows  through  scenery  that  renders 
it  the  most  picturesque  of  English  rivers.  The  Severn  then  expands  into  the  estuary  of  the 
Bristol  Channel,  the  seat  of  a  commerce  once  second  only  to  that  of  the  metropolis,  but  now 
surpassed  by  that  of  Liverpool. 

The  other  rivers  of  England  are  small ;  the  Eden,  the  beautiful  river  of  Cumberland, 
forms  the  Solway;  the  Mersey  of  Lancashire,  with  its  tributary  the  Irwell,  is  important,  ibr 
the  mass  of  commodities  which  it  conveys  from  the  great  manufacturing  districts  to  Liver- 
pool ;  the  southern  Ouse,  combines  with  the  Witham  of  Lincolnshire  in  forming  that  broad, 
shallow,  marshy  estuary  called  the  Wash,  through  which  is  exported  a  considerable  quantity 
of  grain  from  the  agricultural  districts;  the  Tyne  and  the  Tees  in  the  north  of  England  are 
the  channels  of  extensive  trade ;  the  Tyne,  in  particular,  which  carries  down  the  product 
of  the  vast  coal  mines  of  Newcastle. 

The  lakes  of  England  occur  principally  in  tlie  counties  of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland, 
which  are  denominated  the  country  of  the  lakes.  These,  of  which  Windermere,  the  largest, 
is  only  twelve  miles  long  and  one  broad,  have  been  raised  to  distinction  by  the  taste  of  the 
age  for  picturesqae  beauty,  rather  than  as  geographical  features  of  the  country.  Their 
number,  which  is  considerable,  entitles  tbem  to  notice ;  and  a  description  of  them  will  accom- 
pany that  of  the  districts  to  which  they  belong. 

Sect.  II. — Natural  Geography. 
This  subject  will  be  treated  under  the  heads  of  Geology,  Botany,  and  Zoojogy. 


320  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  TIL 

SuBSECT.  1. —  Geology  of  England. 

While  in  Scotland  the  prevailing  formations  belong  to  the  primitive  and  transition  classes, 
in  England  the  deposits  that  most  abound  are  the  secondary,  tertiary,  and  alluvial.  Hence 
it  is  that  Scotland  appears  lofty  and  riijgcd,  when  contrasted  with  the  hilly,  flat,  and  low 
land  of  England.  To  enable  our  readers  to  form  a  general  conception  of  the  geognostical 
structure  of  England,  we  shall  consider  the  mineral  formations  in  the  following  order; — I. 
Primitive  and  Transition.    II.  Secondary.    III.  Tertiary.    IV.  Allt'.viul. 

I.  Primitive  and  Transition.  These  rocks  are  principally  confined  to  the  more  moun 
tainous  parts  of  England,  and  appear  most  abundantly,  in  Cumberland  and  some  neighbouring 
counties ;  in  Wales  ;  and  in  Cornwall  and  Devon. 

(1.;  Cumberland  district.  This  district  is  bounded  to  the  west  and  the  south  by  the  Irish 
Sea  and  Alorecombe  Bay ;  towards  the  north  it  descends  into  the  plain  of  the  new  red  sand- 
stone, within  the  basin  of  the  Eden ;  and  on  the  east  it  is  bounded  by  the  central  carbonifer- 
ous chain  of  the  north.  Within  these  limits  there  are  two  sets  of  rocks,  viz.  Plutonian  and 
Neptunian ;  the  more  central  parts  being  Plutonian,  and  the  others  Neptunian.  The  order 
in  which  they  occur,  is  as  follows: — 

1.  Granite  and  Syenite.  They  form  the  geognostical  axis  of  all  this  region,  and  extend 
from  the  centre  of  the  Skiddaw  range  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Egremont.  There  is  a  fine 
display  of  the  granite  in  the  bed  of  the  Calden,  where  it  is  intersected  by  veins  of  quartz, 
and  contains,  besides  other  minerals,  molybdena,  tungsten,  wolfram,  and  phosphate  of  lime. 

2.  A  series  of  crystalline  slaty  deposits,  forming  the  centre  of  the  Skiddaw  region,  extend- 
ing-across  Cromac  lake,  and  by  the  foot  of  Ennerdale,  as  far  as  Denthill,  is  composed  of 
gneiss,  mica  slate,  hornblende  slate,  and  chiastolite  slate.  In  some  parts  of  Skiddaw  and 
Saddleback  the  curious  mineral  named  chiastolite  occurs :  veins  of  quartz  and  galena  occur 
in  Thornthwaite,  Newlands,  Loweswater,  and  other  places;  a  copper-ryine  was  formerly 
worked  in  Newlands.     The  salt  springs  of  Borrowdale  issue  from  these  rocks. 

.3.  Deposit  of  clay  slate. 

4.  An  enormous  formation  of  a  green  felspathose  slate,  intimately  associated  with  porphyry, 
like  that  of  Snowdonia  in  Wales,  and  the  Needle's  Eye  in  Scotland.  The  famous  graphite 
or  black-lead  mine  of  Borrowdale  is  situated  in  the  upper  end  of  the  valley  of  that  name, 
where  the  graphite  occurs  in  irregular  veins  associated  with  calc  spar,  brown  spar,  and 
quartz.  The  graphite  is  m  nests  in  these  veins,  and  the  veins  are  contained  in  a  Plutonian 
rock,  viz.  felspar  porphyry,  which  is  in  some  places  amygdaloidal.  Some  nests  of  graphite 
have  afforded  3000/.  worth  of  that  mineral. 

5.  Grey  wacke,  with  subordinate  beds  of  limestone  enclosing  organic  remains.  A  gryphsea 
and  turritella  occur  near  to  Kirby-Lonsdale ;  a  pecten,  plagiostoma,  trigonia,  and  patella 
near  to  Keswick.  On  the  north  side  of  .the  geognostical  a.xis  the  Neptunian  formations  are 
repeated,  with  the  exception  of  the  greywacke  series,  which  is  probably  buried  under  the 
old  red  sandstone  and  mountain  limestone ;  and  on  this  northern  side,  notwithstanding  its 
less  extensive  developement,  there  is  a  group  of  mountains,  almost  entirely  composed  of 
diallage  rock,  and  other  minerals;  of  which,  it  is  said,  no  trace  occurs  in  the  south.  These 
occupy  the  place  of  the  green  felspar  slate  and  porphyry  series  of  No.  3.  of  Whales,  after- 
wards to  be  noticed ;  and  seem  to  be  in  the  precise  place  of  the  serpentine  of  the  Lizard  in 
Cornwall.  Further,  there  is  on  the  west  side  of  Cumberland  another  formation  of  granite 
and  syenite,  which  underlies,  traverses,  and  overlies  the  clay  slate,  No.  3.,  and  is  considered 
the  great  centre  of  elevation  of  the  region.  It  never  overlies,  it  is  said,  the  mica  slate, 
chiastolite  slate,  &c. ;  but  is  probably  connected  with  veins  of  syenite,  and  other  detached 
masses  of  crystalline  rock,  which  do  not  belong  to  the  ordinary  rocks  of  superposition.  A 
range  of  transition  limestone  extending  from  Mellam  in  Cumberland  to  the  neighbourhood 
of  VVasdale  Head  in  Westmoreland,  nearly  across  the  whole  region  we  are  now  describing, 
is  finally  cut  off  by  a  protruding  mass  of  granite,  newer  than  the  limestone. 

(2.)  Wales,  including  the  Isle  of  Anglesea.  The  Neptunian  and  Plutonian  rocks  in  this 
extensive  district  are  arranged  as  follows : — 1st,  Granite  rising  among  the  clay  slate  strata  in 
the  Isle  of  Anglesea.  2dly,  A  group  of  slaty  rocks  consisting  of  mica  slate,  chlorite  slate,  and 
quartz  rock.  These  appear  upheaved  by  the  subjacent  granite.  They  occur  in  the  Isle  of 
Anglesea.  In  this  island  are  the  great  Mona  marble  and  Paris  copper  mines,  in  which  the 
ore  is  common  copper  pyrites.  The  Mona  marble,  a  beautiful  compound  of  marble  and  ser- 
pentine, occurs  among  these  rocks.  3dly,  A  great  group  containing  a  very  large  proportion 
of  felspathose  rocks  and  porphyries.  Of  these  the  district  of  Snowdonia  is  probably  the 
lowest  portion.  Some  of  the  slates  of  the  Snowdon  range  contain  organic  remains,  princi- 
pally of  shells,  some  of  which  appear  referable  to  the  genus  Producta.  4thly,  A  vast 
deposit  of  clay  slate.  5thly,  Greywacke,  which  forms  the  uppermost  or  newest  member  of 
the  great  series  of  deposits.  Connected  with  these  series  are  great  beds  of  limestone. 
Fossil  organic  remains  are  met  with  in  this  series,  and  much  more  abundantly  than  in  the 
deeper-seated  slates.  Corah  of  various  kinds,  crinoid  animal  shells,  and  Crustacea  occur 
among  these  roclcs,  in  a  fossil  state.     Of  fsh,  the  remains  of  bones,  teeth,  and  the  defensive 


Book  I.  ENGLAND.  321 

fin-bones  named  ichthyodoruKtes,  are  met  with.  In  the  lists  of  organic  remains  of  these  slates 
we  find  extinct  genera,  and  genera  that  still  exist:  and,  judging  from  the  nature  of  the 
remains,  we  infer  that  some  of  the  animals  were  inhabitants  of  deep,  others  of  shallow,  seas. 
The  organic  remains  in  greywacke  rocks  are  rare,  and  form  a  very  small  proportion  to  tlie 
extent  of  the  rock. 

_  (3.)  Cornwall  and  Devon.  In  this  district  of  England  the  rocks  of  the  primitive  class 
are  arranged  in  the  following  order : — 1st,  Granite.  There  are  four  great  projecting  masses 
of  granite  rising  through  the  bounding  slaty  strata :  they  send  arms  or  veins  among  the 
Neptunian  strata,  and  have  upraised  and  variously  modified  them.  The  granite  is  traversed 
by  contemporaneous  veins  of  granite,  and  also  encloses  contemporaneous  masses  and  veins 
of  a  compound  of  quartz  and  schorl,  named  schorl-rock.  It  is  also  traversed  by  veins  of 
porpliyry,  called  elvan.  2dly,  Resting  upon,  or  adjacent  to,  the  granite  there  is  a  vast  deposit 
of  clay  slate,  named,  in  the  county,  killas.  It  abounds  in  ores,  hence  is  sometimes  named 
metalliferous  slate.  Where  in  the  vicinity  of  granite,  there  is  interposed  gneiss  or  mica 
slate,  or  both ;  and  in  many  parts  it  contains  subordinate  beds  of  greenstone,  felspathose 
slate,  &c.  3dly,  Apparently  above  the  preceding  slates  there  occurs,  in  two  places,  a  form- 
ation of  serpentine,  which,  in  tlie  Lizard,  contains  diallage  rock,  talc  slate,  hornblende 
slate,  and  mica  slate,  and  appears  to  occur  below  the  greywacke.  4thly,  Greywacke.  This, 
which  appears  to  form  a  great  mass,  is  the  uppermost  and  newest  member  of  the  stratified 
series.     It  contains  considerable  beds  of  limestone,  including  various  organic  remains. 

Alines  in  Cornwall  and  Devon.  Cornwall  and  Devonshire  present  three  principal  mining 
districts.  The  part  of  Cornwall  situated  in  the  vicinity  and  to  the  southward  of  Truro,  the 
neighbourhood  of  St.  Austle,  and  the  neighbourhood  of  Tavistock.  The  first  of  these  dis- 
tricts is  the  most  important  of  the  three,  from  the  number  and  richness  of  its  mines,  in  which 
copper,  tin,  and  lead  are  obtained.  The  ores  of  copper,  which  are  principally  copper  pyrites 
and  gray  copper,  form  regular  veins,  having  a  direction  nearly  from  E.  to  W.  in  the  rock 
named  killas ;  and  sometimes  in  the  granite  wliich  projects  amongst  the  slaty  strata.  The 
tin  occurs  principally  in  veins,  which,  like  the  preceding,  traverse  the  killas  and  granite. 
They  have  also,  very  often,  a  direction  nearly  from  E.  to  W. ;  they  have  a  different  inclina- 
tion from  tliat  of  the  copper  veins,  which  intersect  and  interrupt  them,  and  which  are, 
consequently,  newer.  The  tin  also  occurs  in  contemporaneous  masses  and  veins,  and  dis- 
seminated through  the  granite.  Some  veins  aflx)rd,  at  the  same  time,  copper  and  tin ;  but 
most  of  them  produce  only  one  of  these  metals  in  any  quantity.  There  are  also  in  Cornwall 
cross  veins,  that  intersect  the  veins  both  of  copper  and  tin  ;  these  contain  argentiferous  galena, 
native  silver,  and  ores  of  silver.  Near  to  Tavistock  there  are  veins  of  copper,  tin,  and  lead. 
Mines  of  antimony  occur  at  Huel  Boys  in  Devonshire,  and  at  Saltash  in  Cornwall.  The  tin 
and  copper  ores  of  Cornwall  are  accompanied  with  arsenical  pyrites,  which  is  turned  to  profit 
by  manufacturing  oxide  of  arsenic  from  it. 

II.  Secondary  Rocks.  The  rocks  of  this  class  form  the  largest  portion  of  the  surface  of 
England,  and  the  districts  composed  of  them  are  generally  flat  or  hilly ;  never  assuming 
the  mountainous  chaiacter,  unless  where  the  old  red  sandstone  or  mountain  limestone  appears. 
We  shall  now  describe  the  different  formations  in  the  order  in  whicli  they  occur,  beginning 
with  the  deeper-seated  or  oldest  (the  old  red  sandstone),  and  finishing  our  view  with  an 
account  of  the  newest,  or  chalk. 

(1.)  Old  red  sandstone.  This  sandstone,  which  is  distinguished  from  those  newer  in  the 
series  by  its  greater  hardness  and  red  colour,  occurs  in  greatest  abundance  in  Herefordshire 
and  Brecknockshire.  Smaller  portions  cccur  in  the  Cumberland  district,  the  Isle  of  Man 
and  the  Isle  of  Anglesea. 

(2.)  Mountain  limestone,  metalliferous  limestone,  or  carboniferous  limestone.  This  rock 
is  generally  grey  coloured ;  sometimes,  however,  it  exhibits  various  tints  when  it  is  worked 
as  an  inferior  kind  of  marble.  Its  fracture  is  compact,  lustre  glimmering,  and  opaque  or 
translucent  on  the  edges.  Its  structure  is  sometimes  oolitic,  as  is  the  case  in  the  vicinity  of 
Bristol.  Veins  of  calcareous  spar  frequently  traverse  it,  and  occasionally  contribute  to  the 
beauty  of  the  varieties  used  as  marble.  Sometimes  remains  of  the  encrinus  are  so  abundant 
in  it,  that  it  is  named  encrinal  limestone.  Its  name  carboniferous  is  from  its  sometimes 
occurring  along  with  coal,  as  that  of  metalliferous  from  its,  in  some  districts,  abounding  in 
oi'es.  It  abounds  in  organic  remains  of  various  genera  of  corals,  radiaria,  and  shells  ;  also 
some  genera  of  Crustacea  and  fishes.  These  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  fossils  of  the 
transition  limestone  in  the  greywacke  districts.  Derbyshire,  Northumberland,  and  Cumber- 
land afford  fine  displays  of  this  formation. 

Mines  in  mountain  limestone.  The  mountain  limestone  forms  several  mountainous  dis- 
tricts in  England  and  Wales ;  in  which  there  are  three  districts  rich  in  lead  mines.  The 
first  of  these  comprehends  the  upper  parts  of  the  valleys  of  the  Tyne,  the  Wear,  and  the 
Tees,  in  the  counties  of  Cuml)erland,  Durham,  and  York.  Its  principal  mines  are  situated 
near  Aklston  IMoor  in  Cumberland.  The  veins  of  sulphuret  of  lead  or  galena,  which  form 
the  principal  object  of  the  works,  traverse  alternately  beds  of  limestone  and  sandstone.  They 
are  remarkable,  from  the  circumstance  that  they  suddenly  become  thiimer  and  poorer  on 

Vol,  L  2Q, 


322  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

passing  from  the  limestone  into  the  sandstone ;  an  arrang-ement  probably  connected  with 
some  electro-magnetic  action.  There  is  also  a  copper  mine  S.  W.  of  Aldston  Moor.  The 
ore  is  common  yellow  copper  pyrites,  which  is  associated  with  galena  in  a  vein  of  great 
extent,  and  which  does  not  seem  to  belong  to  the  same  formation  as  the  other  veins  in  tliis 
county.  The  iron  mines  of  Ulverston  are  in  this  district.  The  ore  is  red  licmatite,  whicli 
traverses  the  limestone  in  the  form  of  veins ;  some  of  which  are  said  to  be  30  yards  wide. 
Near  Whiteliaven  great  masses  of  reniform  hematite  alternate  witli  red  beds  of  mountain 
limestone.  The  second  metalliferous  district  is  situated  in  the  northern  part  of  Derbyshire, 
and  the  contiguous  parts  of  the  neighbouring  counties.  The  districts  called  Peak  and  Kings- 
field  are  the  richest  in  ore.  Tlie  blende,  associated  with  the  lead,  is  worked  as  an  ore,  and 
zinc  is  obtained  from  it.  A  vein  of  copper  pyrites  occurs  at  Ecton  in  Staffordshire,  on  the 
borders  of  Derbyshire.  The  Derbyshire  veins  liave  been  long  famous  on  account  of  the 
beautiful  minerals  they  produce,  especially  ^^wor  spars,  and  also  from  the  interruption  which 
the  metalliferous  veins  experience  on  meeting  with  trap  rocks,  called  loadstone,  which  occurs 
alternately  with  the  limestone.  The  third  metalliferous  district  is  situated  in  Flintshire 
and  Denbighshire,  which  form  the  N.  E.  part  of  Wales.  It  is  the  most  productive  ne.xt  to 
Aldston  Moor.  Besides  lead,  it  furnishes  also  calamine  or  true  ore  of  zinc.  The  mines  are 
situated  partly  in  the  mountain  limestone,  partly  in  various  rocks  of  older  formation.  To 
the  S.  W.  of  this  district  there  are  also  lead  mines  in  Shropshire :  like  the  preceding,  they 
occur  partly  in  mountain  limestone  and  partly  in  older  rocks.  They  yield  a  great  annual 
return  of  lead.  Some  mines  of  galena  and  of  calamine  are  mentioned  as  occurring  in  the 
Mendip  hills  to  the  south  of  Bristol ;  but  they  appear  to  be  now  abandoned.  Many  beautiful 
and  interesting  minerals  are  met  with  in  these  mines.  Of  the  vein  stones,  quartz,  in  Corn- 
wall, is  the  most  abundant;  while  it  is  fluor  spar  and  calcareous  spar  in  Derbysl lire ;  in 
Yorksiiire  heavy  spar  or  sulphate  of  barytes;  and  in  Cumberland,  heavy  spar  and  fluor  spar. 
(3.)  Coal  formation.  This,  which  is  the  most  important  of  the  secondary  deposits,  follows 
in  the  regular  succession  the  mountain  limestone,  on  which  it  therefore  rests.  Tlie  lower 
beds  of  this  deposit  sometimes  alternate  with  the  upper  strata  of  the  mountain  limestone. 
The  rocks  of  which  it  is  composed  are  shale,  sandst07ie,  clay  ironstone,  indurated  clay,  and 
coal,  alternating  in  various  ways  with  each  other.  The  shale,  sandstones,  ironstones,  and 
clays  contain  numerous  fossil  remains  of  extinct  species  of  plants,  rarely  of  animals,  tlie 
animal  remains  occurring  principally  in  the  limestone.  No  country  of  the  same  size  in  the 
world  aflferds  so  much  coal  as  England,  and  nowhere  has  its  natural  and  economical  history 
been  so  well  examined  as  in  this  island.  Messrs.  Conybeare  and  Phillips  arrange  the  different 
coal  districts  in  the  following  manner : — 

1.  Coal  district  north  of  the  Trent,  or  grand  Penine  chain. — 1.  Northumberland  and 
Durham.  2.  North  of  Yorkshire.  3.  South  York,  Nottingham,  and  Derby.  4.  South  of 
Derby.  5.  North  Stafford.  6.  South  Lancashire.  7.  North  Lancashire.  8.  Cumberland 
and  Whitehaven.     9.  Foot  of  Crossfell. 

2.  Central  coal  district. — 1.  Ashby  de  la  Zouch.  2.  Warwickshire.  3.  South  Stafford 
or  Dudley.     4.  Indications  near  the  Lickey  hill,  &c. 

3.  Western  coal  district,  divided  into,  1.  North  Western  or  North  Welsh. — 1.  Isle  of 
Anglesea.     2.  Flintshire. 

4.  Middle  western  or  Shropshire. — 1.  Plain  of  Shrewsbury.  2.  Colebrook-dale.  3.  The 
Clee  hills  and  South  Shropshire.     4.  Near  the  Abberley  hill. 

5.  South  Western. — 1.  South  Wales.  2.  Forest  of  Dean.  3.  South  Gloucester  and 
Somerset. 

These  different  districts  are  accurately  described  in  Conybeare  and  Phillips's  Geology  of 
England  and  Wales. 

Changes  of  the  coal  f  elds  from  the  British  Channel  to  the  Tweed.  The  great  coal  fields 
in  England  experience  a  great  chanjje  of  structure  in  their  range  from  the  Bristol  Channel 
to  the  valley  of  the  Tweed:  these  changes  we  shall  now  enumerate,  using  the  view  given 
by  Sedgwick.  In  the  various  coal  basins  on  the  Bristol  Channel,  the  limestone  strata  are 
developed  only  in  the  lower,  and  the  coal  beds  in  the  upper,  part  of  the  series ;  and  the 
two  members  are  separated  by  nearly  unproductive  deposits  of  millstone-grit  and  shale. 
The  arrannfpment  in  Derbyshire  is  nearly  the  same;  there,  however,  the  millstone-grit  is 
more  varied,  and  is  of  very  great  thickness,  and  subordinate  to  the  great  deposit  of  shale, 
and,  here  and  there,  very  thick  masses  of  a  peculiar  argillaceous  sandstone,  disposed  in  a 
tabular  manner.  On  the  re-appearance  of  the  carboniferous  limestone,  at  the  base  of  the 
Yorkshire  chain,  we  still  find  the  same  general  analogies  of  structure ;  enormous  deposits 
of  limestone  form  the  lowest  part,  and  the  coal  fields  the  highest  part  of  the  whole  series; 
and,  as  in  the  former  instances,  we  also  find  the  millstone-grit  occupying  an  intermediate 
position.  The  millstone-grit,  however,  becomes  a  very  complex  deposit,  with  several 
subordinate  beds  of  coal ;  and  is  separated  from  the  great  inferior  calcareous  group  (the  scat 
limestone),  not  merely  by  the  great  shale  and  shale-limestone,  as  in  Derbyshire,  hut  by  a 
still  more  complex  deposit,  in  some  places  not  less  than  1000  feet  thick ;  in  which  five 
groups  of  limestone  strata  alternate  with  great  masses  of  sandstone  and  shale,  abound  in 


Book  I.  ENGLAND.  323 

impressions  of  coal  plants,  and  three  or  four  thin  beds  of  good  coal  extensively  worked  for 
domestic  use. 

In  the  range  of  the  carboniferous  chain  from  Stainmoor,  through  the  ridge  of  Crossfell  to 
the  confines  of  Northumberland,  we  have  a  repetition  of  the  same  general  phenomena.  On 
its  eastern  flanks,  and  superior  to  all  its  component  groups,  is  the  coal  field  of  Durham. 
Under  the  coal  field,  we  have,  in  a  regular  descending  order,  the  millstone-grit,  the  alterna- 
tions of  limestone  and  coal  measures  nearly  identical  with  those  of  the  Yorkshire  chain, 
and  at  the  base  of  all  is  the  great  scar  limestone.  The  scar  limestone  begins,  however,  to 
be  subdivided  by  thick  masses  of  sandstone  and  carbonaceous  shale,  of  which  we  had  hardly 
a  trace  in  Yorkshire ;  and  gradually  passes  into  a  complex  deposit,  not  distinguishable  from 
the  next  superior  division  of  the  series.  Along  with  this  gradual  change  is  a  great  devel- 
opement  of  the  inferior  coal  beds  alternating  with  the  limestone  ;  some  of  which  on  the 
north-eastern  skirts  of  Cumberland,  are  three  or  four  feet  in  thickness,  and  are  now  worked 
for  domestic  use. 

The  alternating  beds  of  sandstone  and  shale  expand  more  and  more  as  we  advance 
towards  the  nortli,  at  the  expense  of  all  the  calcareous  groups,  which  gradually  thin  off  and 
cease  to  produce  any  impress  on  the  features  of  the  country.  And  thus  it  is,  that  the  lowest 
portion  of  the  whole  carboniferous  system,  from  Bewcastle  Forest,  along  the  skirts  of  the 
Cheviot  Hills,  to  the  valley  of  the  Tweed,  has  hardly  a  single  feature  in  common  with  the 
inferior  part  of  the  Yorkshire  chain ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  has  almost  all  the  most  ordinary 
external  characters  of  a  coal  formation.  Corresponding  to  this  change,  is  also  a  gradual 
thickening  of  carbonaceous  matter  in  some  of  the  lower  groups.  Many  coal  works  have 
been  opened  upon  this  line  ;  and  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Tweed  (almost  on  a  parallel 
with  the  great  scar  limestone')  is  a  coal  field,  with  five  or  six  good'  seams,  some  of  which  are 
pretty  extensively  worked.  The  beds  of  sandstone,  shale,  and  limestone,  forming  the  base 
in  the  carboniferous  system  in  the  basin  of  the  Tweed,  are  often  deeply  tinged  with  oxide  of 
iron ;  and  have  been  compared  sometimes  with  the  new,  sometimes  with  the  old,  red  sand- 
stone:  to  the  new  red  sandstone  they  have  no  relations;  "  and  I  would  rather  compare 
them,"  says  Sedgwick,  "  especially  as  the  old  red  sandstone  of  the  north  of  England  seldom 
exist  but  as  a  conglomerate,  and  is  seen  in  that  form  on  the  flanks  of  the  Cheviot  Hills,  with 
the  red  beds  of  mountain  limestone  and  sandstone,  which,  both  in  Cumberland  and  Lan- 
cashire, sometimes  form  the  base  of  the  whole  carboniferous  series." 

These  coal  fields  are  traversed  and  variously  deranged  by  great  faults ;  interesting 
descriptions  of  which,  particularly  those  in  the  northern  fields,  have  been  published  by 
Messrs.  Phillips  and  Sedgwick. 

The  coal  strata,  or  metals  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  are  in  some  parts  of  England 
afitcted  bv  Plutonian  trap  rocks,  but  in  a  very  inferior  degree  to  what  takes  place  in  Scot- 
land. The  principal  trap  rock  is  greenstone,  which  appears  in  the  form  o?  overlt/ing  mdisses, 
as  at  Clee  Hill  and  at  Dudley ;  in  the  form  of  intersecting  tabular  masses  or  dikes  (veins), 
as  in  Northumberland  and  Durham.  Sometimes  the  trap  mass  has  been  forced  between  the 
strata,  when  it  lias  the  character  of  a  bed,  or  these  bed-like  masses  may  be  some  of  the  rocks 
of  the  coal  formation  softened  and  recrystallised  in  situ  by  heat  from  below.  The  great 
whin  sill  of  Nortliumberland,  and  the  toadstone  beds  of  Derbyshire,  are  examples  of  these 
trap  beds.  The  strata  near  the  trap  frequently  appear  changed,  the  clays  hardened,  the 
limestone  rendered  crystalline  and  magnesian,  the  coal  charred,  and  the  sandstone  hardened, 
&:c. ;  and  these  strata  are  either  moved  fi-om  their  original  position,  or  are  unchanged. 

Although  rather  foreign  to  our  subject,  we  may,  as  an  illustration  of  the  importance  of 
the  coal  formation  to  England,  mention  the  quantity  of  iron  manufactured,  and  of  coal  con- 
sumed, in  the  carboniferous  district  of  Wales.  The  quantity  of  iron,  according  to  Mr. 
Forster,  annually  manufactured  in  Wales,  has  been  calculated  at  270,000  tons.  Of  this 
quantity  a  proportion  of  about  three-fourths  is  made  into  bars,  and  one-fourth  sold  as  pigs  and 
castings.  Tlie  quantity  of  coal  required  for  its  manufacture  on  tlie  average  of  the  whole, 
including  that  used  by  engines,  workmen,  &c.  will  be  about  S^j  tons  for  each  ton  of  iron ; 
the  annual  consumption  of  coal  by  the  ironworks  will,  therefore,  be  about  1,500,000  tons. 
The  quantity  used  in  the  smelting  of  copper  ore  imported  into  Wales  from  Cornwall,  in 
the  manufacture  of  tin-plate,  forging  of  iron  for  various  purposes,  and  for  domestic  uses, 
may  be  calculated  at  350,000,  which  makes  altogether  the  annual  consumption  in  Wales, 
1,850,000  tons. 

(4.)  Magnesian  limestone  formation.  The  upper  part  of  the  coal  formation  has  some- 
times a  red  colour  with  an  arenaceous  and  conglomerated  character.  Above  or  resting  upon 
it  we  have  the  magnesian  limestone  deposit.  This  deposit  extends  through  Yorkshire  and 
Durham.  Its  lower  part  is  said  to  be  separated  from  the  coal  formation  by  a  deposit  of  sand 
and  sandstone,  with  occasional  red  marl  and  gypsum.  The  magnesian  limestone  itself  con- 
sists in  its  lower  part  of  a  bituminous  marl  slate,  abounding  in  fossil  fishes  of  the  genus 
Pal(BotJirissiim ;  the  middle  and  upper  parts  being  a  yellowish  small  granular  or  glimmer- 
ing magnesian  limestone.     The  organic  character  of  this  limestone  approaches  nearly  to 


324  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III 

that  of  the  mountain  limestone  already  described.     It  contains  Productce,  which,  however 
do  not  occur  higher  in  the  series ;  also  Spiriferce,  a  tribe  found  as  high  as  the  oolite. 

(5.)  Variegated  or  new  red  sandstone,  with  the  red  variegated  marl  deposit.  As  the 
shell  limestone  is  wanting  in  England,  the  variegated  sandstone  and  tlic  red  and  variegated 
marls  come  together,  and  may  here,  therefore,  be  viewed  as  one  formation.  Thoy  rest 
immediately  upon  the  magnesian  limestone,  but  of  the  two  sets  the  marl  appears  in  general 
to  be  the  uppermost  or  newest.  The  sandstone  is  of  a  looser  texture  tlian  that  of  the  old 
red  sandstone  deposit,  has  a  red  or  variegated  colour,  and  the  strata  are  generally  horizontal. 
The  marls  are  red  or  variegated  in  colour.  In  tliesc  sandstones  and  marls,  beds  and  great 
masses  or  nodules  of  gypsum  occur,  as  in  Derbyshire,  Statfordshirc,  &.c.  All  the  salt  mines 
in  England  are  situated  in  this  deposit.  At  Northwicli  there  is  an  extensive  deposit  of  solid 
rock  salt,  forming  two  beds,  together  not  less  than  60  feet  in  thickness.  These  beds  are 
supposed  to  form  large  insulated  masses  of  this  mineral,  extending  in  length  about  a  mile 
and  a  half,  and  in  breadth  about  1300  yards.  The  salt  works  at  Droitwich  in  Worcester- 
shire are  also  in  this  red  marl  deposit.  Iron-sand  and  iserine  are  said  to  occur  in  this  sand- 
stone on  the  banks  of  the  Mersey  opposite  Liverpool ;  and  in  other  places  sulphurct  of  cop- 
per, gray  oxide  of  cobalt,  and  black  oxide  of  manganese  occur  in  the  sandstone  or  its  marls. 
It  forms  the  surface  of  vast  tracts  extending  with  little  interruption  from  the  nortliern  bank 
of  the  Tees  in  Durham  to  the  soutliern  coast  of  Devonshire.  We  find  a  tract  in  the  great 
plain  in  the  centre  of  England  of  about  80  miles  in  length  and  sixty  in  breadth,  principally 
covered  with  this  deposit ;  several  ishnnJs  of  the  older  rocks,  however,  rising,  in  various 
places,  through  it.  These  are,  1st,  the  syenite,  greenstone,  and  slate  district  of  Cliarnwood 
forest  in  Leicestershire;  2dly,  the  coal  district  surrounding  Asliby  de  la  Zouch  in  the  same 
county;  connected  with  wliicli  are  several  patches  of  the  carboniferous  magnesian  lime- 
stone, and  a  patch  of  millstone-grit  at  Stanton-bridge  on  the  Trent;  3dly,  the  coal-field  of 
Warwickshire ;  4thly,  the  coal-field  in  the  south  of  Staflbrdshire,  with  the  transition  lime- 
stone on  whicli  it  rests;  Sthly,  tJie  lower  and  northern  range  of  the  Lickey  hill,  near  Broms- 
grove  in  Worcestershn-e,  whicli  exhibits  strata,  probably  of  transition  quartz  rock.  Some 
traj}  rocks  occur  in  this  formation  at  Upton  Pyne,  a  village  five  miles  north  of  Exeter,  and 
at  other  points  near  that  town. 

(6.)  Lias  and  oolite  formation.  This  great  formation  occupies  a  zone  having  nearly  30 
miles  in  average  breadth,  extending  across  the  island  from  Yorkshire  on  the  north-east,  to 
Devonshire  on  the  south-west.  It  is  eminently  remarkable  on  account  of  the  number  and 
variety  of  fossil  organic  remains  which  it  contains,  and  its  wide  distribution  not  only  in 
England,  but  also  in  many  other  parts  of  the  world.  In  this  formation,  at  Stoncsfield,  the 
first  or  earliest  remains  of  mammiferous  animals  were  found.  Crocodiles  and  many  vast 
and  strangely  organised  reptiles  occur  in  this  deposit,  with  a  vast  variety  of  shells,  many 
radiaria,  and  also  corals.  Fishes  are  also.met  with  in  a  fossil  state,  but  by  no  means  so  fre- 
quently as  reptiles.  Fossil  plants  of  various  tribes  also  occur,  and  thus  add  to  the  organic 
variety  of  this  remarkable  formation :  they  belong  to  the  Alga,  Equisetacece,  Filices,  Cy- 
cadece,  Conifero',  and  Lilia.  Beds  of  coal,  generally  of  an  indifferent  quality,  occur  in 
different  parts  of  the  country  in  this  deposit. 

(7.)  Wealden  clay  and  Purheck  stone.  This  formation,  which  lies  immediately  upon 
the  oolite,  consists  of  limestones,  sands,  and  clays  abounding  in  fossil  organic  remains, 
principally  of  terrestrial  and  fresh-water  plants  and  animals,  marine  species  being  rare.  In 
the  lower  part  of  this  formation,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Weymouth,  there  is  a  bed  of  black 
earth,  called  the  dirt  bed,  containing,  in  a  silicified  state,  long  prostrate  trunks  of  coniferous 
trees,  and  stems  of  Cycadenidece.  These  trunks  lie  partly  sunk  into  the  deep  black  earth, 
like  fallen  trees  on  the  surface  of  a  peat  bog,  and  partly  covered  by  the  incumbent  Purheck 
limestone.  Many  trunks  of  trees  also  remain  erect,  with  their  roots  attached  to  the  black 
soil  in  which  they  grew,  and  their  upper  part  in  the  limestone ;  and  show  that  the  surface  of 
the  subjacent  Portland  stone  was  for  some  time  dry  land,  and  covered  with  a  forest ;  and 
probably  in  a  climate  such  as  admits  the  growth  of  the  modern  Zamia  and  Cycas,  remains 
of  these  genera  being  found  here.  This  forest  has  been  submerged ;  first,  beneath  the  fresh 
waters  of  a  lake  or  estuary,  in  which  were  deposited  the  Purbeck  beds,  and  sands  and  clays 
of  the  Wealden  formation  (amounting  together  to  nearly  1000  feet),  and  subsequently 
beneath  tlie  salt  water  of  an  ocean  of  sufficient  depth  to  accumulate  all  the  great  marine 
formations  of  green  sand  and  clialk  that  rest  upon  it. 

(8.)  Chalk  formation  with  green  sand.  This  great  deposit  consists  principally  of  chalk, 
wntli  less  extensive  subjacent  beds  of  green  sand  and  tuffaceous  chalk.  It  stretches,  with 
little  interruption,  from  Flarnborough  Head  on  the  coast  of  Yorkshire,  to  near  Sidmouth  on 
the  coast  of  Devonshire ;  forming  a  range  of  hills  often  of  some  hundred  feet  high,  and  of 
which  the  most  precipitous  face  is  generally  on  the  north-west  side.  From  this  long  range 
several  ranges  shoot  toward  the  east  and  south-east.  Chalk  does  not  often  bear  the  charac- 
ter of  a  level  or  flat  country ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  is  subject  to  perpetual  undulation  of  sur- 
face, the  hills  being  remarkable  for  their  smooth  rounded  outline,  and  the  deep  hollows  and 
indentations  on  their  sides. 


Book  I.  ENGLAND.  325 

The  upper  part  of  this  formation,  through  a  great  part  of  England,  is  characterised  by 
the  presence  of  common  gun-flint,  arranged  in  thin  beds  or  in  variously-shaped  masses,  dis- 
posed more  or  less  in  parallel  lines.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  formation  the  flints  become 
less  and  less  abundant,  and  at  length  entirely  disappear.  This  arrangement,  however,  is  not 
always  to  be  observed,  for  in  some  places  the  lower  chalk  abounds  in  flints.  In  the  chalk 
formation,  the  upper  and  middle  parts  are  of  chalk,  while  the  lower  and  under  are  of  sands, 
sandstones,  and  clays.  The  upper  part  may  be  considered  an  original  deposit,  the  matter 
derived  from  tlie  interior  of  the  earth;  the  lower  of  a  mechanical  and  alluvial  nature. 
Chalk  abounds  in  fossil  remains  of  animals,  and  also  contains  fossilised  plants.  Corals  in  great 
variety,  radiated  animals,  particularly  echinites,  are  in  vast  numbers ;  shells  of  all  the  grand 
divisions  and  in  great  variety  add  to  the  zoological  interest  of  the  formation,  which  is  further 
heightened  by  the  fossil  crabs,  fishes,  and  reptiles,  occasionally  met  with  in  it.  The  plants 
are  Conferv<B,  Fuci,  Zostercc,  Cycadece,  with  dicotyledonous  wood  perforated  by  some 
boring  animal.  The  formation,  as  it  occurs  in  England,  appears  to  have  been  variously 
elevated  and  depressed  at  diflerent  times  by  some  subterranean  actions ;  but,  as  far  as  we 
know,  it  does  not  anywhere  occur  in  contact  with  trap  or  other  Plutonian  rocks. 

III.  Tertiary  rocks.  Hitherto,  in  England,  these  deposits  have  been  found  only  in  what 
are  called  the  London  basin  and  the  Isle  of  Wight  basin ;  two  spaces  conjectured  formerly 
to  have  had  the  basin  shape,  but  nuw  more  or  less  filled  witli  tertiary  rocks;  an  opinion, 
however,  which  the  late  observations  of  Professor  Buckland  have  shown  to  be  less  plausible 
than  has  been  generally  believed.  TJie  boundary  of  the  first  of  these  supposed  basins  may 
be  stated,  generally,  as  a  line  running  from  the  inner  edge  of  tlie  chalk,  south  of  Flam- 
borough  Head,  in  Yorkshire,  nearly  south,  till  it  crosses  the  Wash,  then  south-west  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  valley  of  the  river  Kennet,  near  Hungerford,  in  Wiltshire  ;  and  thence 
trending  south-east  to  the  south  of  the  Thames,  and  the  north-west  angle  of  the  Isle  of 
Thanet:  in  all  tliese  directions  the  boundary  line  is  formed  by  the  chalk  hills;  on  the  east 
side,  the  boundary  is  the  coast  of  the  German  Ocean.  The  boundaries  of  the  Isle  of  Wight 
basin  may  be  stated  as  follows : — on  the  north,  a  few  miles  south  of  Winchester ;  on  the 
south,  a  little  north  of  Carisbrook  in  the  Isle  of  Wight;  on  the  east,  Brighton;  and  on  the 
west,  Dorchester.  It  is  everywhere  circumscribed  by  chalk  hills,  excepting  where  broken 
in  by  the  channel  between  the  Isle  of  Wight  and  the  main  land.  The  different  members 
of  the  tertiary  series  met  with  in  England,  are  named  Plastic  clay,  London  clay,  Bagshot 
sands,  the  Freshwater  formations  of  the  Isle  of  Wiglit,  and  tlie  Crag. — Plastic  clay.  This 
deposit  consists  of  a  plastic  clay  with  gravel  beds,  alternating  with  beds  of  sand  (sometimes 
in  a  state  of  sandstone)  and  clay.  Its  organic  remains  are  principally  marine  shells,  with 
layers  of  lignite  or  brown  coal. — London  clay.  This  is  a  bluish  or  blackish  clay,  sometimes 
60  much  impregnated  witli  carbonate  of  lime  as  to  form  a  kind  of  compact  marl.  Layers  or 
nodules  of  septaria  (a  calcareous  concretion)  frequently  occur  in  it.  It  is  the  great  clayey 
deposit  on  which  London  is  built.  It  has  been  bored  to  a  depth  of  700  feet,  without  reach- 
ing its  bottom.  The  highest  point  it  attains  is  the  summit  of  High  Beach  in  Essex,  being 
759  feet  above  the  sea.  It  abounds  in  fossil  organic  remains  from  the  animal  as  well  as 
from  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Crocodiles,  turtles,  fishes,  and  crabs  have  been  observed ;  but 
vhese  are  few  in  number  compared  with  the  host  of  fossil  shells.  These  shells  are  ofl;en 
very  beautifully  preserved,  frequently  retaining  the  appearance  of  recent  species.  There  are 
very  few  genera  of  recent  shells  which  liave  not  some  representative  in  this  formation,  but 
the  specific  character  is  usually  diflerent;  on  the  other  hand,  but  few  of  the  extinct  genera, 
so  frequent  in  the  older  formations,  occur  in  this.  The  Isle  of  Sheppey,  formed  of  London 
clay,  affords  a  vast  variety  of  fossil  fruits  and  seeds,  very  few  of  which  agree  with  any 
known  seed-vessels ;  many  of  them  are  conjectured  to  belong  to  tropical  plants,  some  to  the 
cocoa-nut  and  spice  tribes.  Fragments  of  wood  pierced  by  a  shell  animal,  resembling  the 
Teredo  navalis,  are  met  with ;  a  fact  which  shows  that  the  wood  may  have  floated  about  in 
the  sea. — Bagshot  saiids.  These  rest  upon  the  London  clay ;  tliey  consist  of  sand,  with 
greenish-coloured  clay,  variously  coloured  marls,  containing  grains  of  green  sf^nd,  and  fossil 
trochi  and  pectinites. — Freshwater  formations  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  and  Hampshire.  The 
Freshwater  strata  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  are  divided  into  two  deposits  by  a  rock  characterised 
by  the  presence  of  marme  remains,  and  named  the  iipper  marine  formation,  from  being  a 
supposed  equivalent  to  the  sands  which  intervene  between  the  two  freshwater  deposits  of 
Paris.  The  loioer  freshwater  deposit  of  Binstead,  near  Ryde,  consists  of  a  limestone  formed 
of  fragments  of  freshwater  shells,  white  shell  marl,  siliceous  limestone,  and  sand.  One 
tooth  of  an  Anaplotherium  and  two  teeth  of  a  Palaotherium  have  been  found  in  the  lower 
marly  beds  of  the  quarries  at  Binstead.  In  the  same  quarries  several  rolled  fragments  of 
pachydermatous  animals,  and  the  jaw  of  an  animal  allied  to  the  musk-deer  tribe.  In  Colwell 
Bay  the  upper  part  of  tliis  deposit  contains  a  mixture  of  freshwater  and  marine  shells. — The 
upper  marine  formation.  This  deposit  of  calcareous  beds  abounds  with  freshwater  shells 
In  the  lower  part,  but  in  tlie  upper  pirt  we  find  marine  shells ;  hence  it  is  conjectured  to 
ha.ve  been  formed  in  an  estuary. —  Upper  freshwater  formation.  This  consists  principally 
of  yellowish  white  marls.     The  organic  remains  are  either  freshwater  or  land.     The  gco- 

VoL.  I.  ^28 


326  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

logical  history  of  the  tertiary  deposits  in  England  has  not  yet  been  placed  in  direct  con- 
nexion with  that  of  similar  deposits  on  the  conthient  of  Europe.  No  trap  or  granite  rocks 
have  hitherto  been  met  with  in  England  in  any  way  connected  with  the  tertiary  strata. 

IV.  Alluvial  rocks.  Nearly  the  whole  of  England  is  more  or  less  covered  with  alluvium, 
or  debris  of  previously  existing  rocks:  thus  it  occurs  on  mountain  ridges,  and  on  the  sides 
and  bottoms  of  valleys;  it  is  spread  over  plains,  fills  up,  wholly  or  partially,  fissures  in  rocks, 
and  caves,  and  caverns,  and  forms  beaches  and  other  accumulations  of  greater  or  lesser 
extent  on  the  sea  coast.  It  varies  in  age,  from  the  oldest  called  diluvium,  which  stands  in 
immediate  connexion  with  the  crag  or  upper  tertiary  deposit,  to  the  newest,  those  forming 
at  present  through  the  agency  of  the  atmosphere,  springs,  lakes,  rivers,  and  the  waves  and 
currents  of  the  ocean.  It  encloses  numerous  remains  of  plants  and  animals,  either  more  or 
less  mineralized,  or  simply  bleached :  those  of  the  oldest  deposits  appear  to  be  of  animals, 
and  sometimes  of  plants,  which  are  apparently  extinct ;  while  the  newer  enclose  remains 
only  of  living  animal  and  vegetable  species.  Although  our  limits  do  not  allow  us  to  enter 
into  details  on  this  very  important  and  curious  department  of  geology,  we  may  remark,  that 
the  characters  and  modes  of  distribution  of  these  alluvia  are,  in  many  instances,  intimately 
connected  with  risings  and  depressions  of  the  land ;  and  consequently  with  apparent  sinking 
and  rising  of  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  and  the  violent  agitations  sometimes  induced  in  the 
great  mass  of  the  ocean,  and  also  in  lakes,  by  changes  in  the  level  of  the  solid  parts  of  the 
globe. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Botany. 

The  botany  of  the  different  parts  of  the  British  empire  is  so  similar,  that  we  propose  to 
treat  under  one  head  that  of  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  their  adjacent  islands. 

Extending  through  eleven  degrees  of  latitude.  Great  Britain  includes  a  considerable  vari- 
ety of  climate,  but  everywhere,  more  or  less  tempered  by  the  surroundmg  ocean ;  so  that, 
in  no  part  of  the  island, "except  on  the  mountains,  or  high  table-lands,  can  the  temperature 
be  compared  to  similar  latitudes,  upon  the  European,  much  less  upon  the  American  conti- 
nent. Yet,  from  its  proximity  to  the  former,  the  vegetation  is,  with  few  exceptions,  similar 
to  that  of  the  adjacent  districts  of  Europe.  Although  in  consequence  of  the  unfavourable 
summers,  the  frequent  obscurity  of  the  sun,  the  damp  and  foggy  atmosphere,  it  is  not  pos- 
sible, without  artificial  heat  and  protection,  to  bring  many  of  the  fruits  of  more  favoured 
climates  to  perfection ;  yet  the  mildness  of  the  winter  renders  it  easy  to  introduce  and  to 
naturalise  plants  of  much  more  southern  latitudes:  so  that  the  gardens,  parks,  shrubberies, 
and  even  forests,  are  adorned  with  the  most  varied  vegetation,  producing:  the  most  beautiful 
flowers,  or  the  most  valued  timbers. 

On  the  extreme  southern  coast  of  England  and  Ireland,  the  native  vegetables  of  the 
warmer  temperate  zone  are  successfully  grown  in  the  open  air,  and  come  to  considerable 
perfection.  In  the  south  of  Devonshire,  the  orange  and  lemon  trees  are  loaded  with  fruit 
of  the  finest  kind,  trained,  indeed,  to  a  wall,  but  without  protection,  or  only  provided  with  it 
during  a  very  short  portion  of  the  winter  months;  the  Lemon-scented  Vervain  (Lippia 
citriodora,  formerly  called  Verbena  triphylla,  becomes  quite  a  tree,  without  any  artificial 
protection ;  the  American  Agave,  the  creeping  Cereus,  the  Prickly  Pear,  myrtles  from  the 
south  of  Europe ;  the  Tea,  Camellias  and  other  Chinese  and  Japanese  plants,  thrive  well  in 
the  open  air,  as  well  as  the  Magnolias,  and  many  other  trees,  from  the  southern  states  of 
North  America,  whose  native  latitudes  lie  many  degrees  nearer  to  the  tropics. 

The  only  two  floras  of  Great  Britain,  which  are  so  complete  as  to  demand  particular  atten- 
tion, are  Sir  J.  E.  Smith's  English  Flora,  and  Gray's  Arrangement  of  British  Plants;  the 
former  classed  according  to  the  Linneean  system,  extending,  however,  only  to  the  end  of  the 
class  Polygamia,  and  the  first  order  of  the  class  Cryptogamia  Filices.  Gray's  Flora  includes 
the  whole  of  the  British  vegetables,  arranged  according  to  the  natural  method,  and  is  the 
only  one  that  approaches,  however  deficient  it  may  still  be,  to  any  thing  like  a  catalogue  of 
our  present  state  of  knowledge  of  the  Cryptogamia.  Among  the  Phsenogamous  plants, 
however,  Mr.  Gray  has  included  a  great  number  that  are  only  known  in  a  state  of  cultiva- 
tion, as  has  been  done  by  De  Candolle,  in  his  Flore  Franqaise,  and  many  other  continental 
botanists.  We  have,  therefore,  deemed  it  convenient  thus  to  give  a  list  of  the  plants, 
according  to  each  of  these  authors ;  and  the  increased  number  in  the  columns  of  species, 
according  to  INIr.  Gray,  will  be  thus  easily  accounted  for. 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


327 


A  List  of  the  Number  of  Species  of  British  Plants,  arranged  according  to  the  Classes  and  principal  Families  to 
which  they  belong ;  exhibiting  the  relative  proportion  which  these  latter  bear  to  the  whole  of  the  respective 
Classes.* 


Names  of  the  Natural 
Families. 


Fungi . 


Lichenes 

Hepaticffi,  by  Hooker. . 

Musci,  by  Hooker 

Filices 

ACOTYLEDONES  

Graniineie 

CyperaceiB 

Juncese  and  Restiaceae 

Glumaceae 

OrchidecE 

Monocotyledones  caeteriE  . 

MONOCOTYLEDONES    . 

Conifers 

Amentace.'E 

Euphorbiaceffi 

Scrophul.  and  Orobanches 
LabiatiE  and  Verbence. 

Boraginete 

Ericineffi  and  Pyroles. 

Campanulacete 

Composits 

RubiaceEB 

UmbelliferiB 

Rosacece 

Leguminosae 

Malvaceae 

Caryophylleae 

CriiciferjE 

Ranunculaceae 

Dicotyledones  caeterae  . 

DiCOTYLEDONES 


m 


at  bj) 

'3  s 


121 
92 
32 


90 
290 

58 


245 

37 
73 


355 


4 

78 

16 

52 

56 

23 

22 

14 
137 

21 

64 

81 

66 
6 

59 

71 

36 
342 

-  11148 


£0  6 


16tV 
26 

17 
47 
6^ 
40f 

41 

376 
19| 
94 
28^ 
26^ 
1  to  654 
67 

1071 
11 
7li 
23l 

18:^ 

22I 

250^ 
25^ 
2U 
41! 

u 


C  K  S 


800 
400 
400 

97 
290 

58 


170 
91 
33 


2045 


294 
33 

89 

7 
72 
16 
55 
69 
23 
22 
15 

144 
19 
69 
81 
69 
6 
60 
73 
42 

378 


416 


1220 


lto2 

4 

4 

161 

"Ji  0 

28i 
4 
s 

9? 
18 
49  i 

5; 
491 

"1  0 

234 

22- 
1021 

29;^ 

23i 
lto7i; 
74^ 
109 

lU 

86 
232 
20i 
23t 
272? 
27— 
22? 
39 

U 


£0 


S;Z  i 


lto2 

4 

4 

16i 

27^0 
4 

11 

17* 

48-1 
5? 
45 

4 

305 
21 

98 

291 

25} 

lto68' 

70: 

108i- 

lU 

78? 
23^ 
19j 
23} 
26U 
26 /fl 
21t'o 
40? 


A  List  of  the  Species  of 
Scottish  Plaiits.f 


Species. 


974 
465 
260 

73 
264 

48 


2084 


188 
19 
53 

3 
56 

7 
37 
39 
18 
18 

9 
105 
16 
44 
52 
43 

5 

45 

56 

25 

245 


260 


16  & 


ItoU 

14t 

41 
221 


823 


5J 
4^ 


lto29| 

28i 


10^ 

242 
20| 
25 

24 
19'- 


It  must  be  remarked,  that  in  Cyperacece,  Juncecs,  Salix,  Saxifraga,  Rosa,  Rubns,  and 
some  others,  the  species  are  not  formed  on  the  same  rules  as  in  Smith's  English  Flora ; 
and  therefore,  before  drawing  a  parallel  between  these  orders  in  Scotland,  and  in  the  whole 
of  Britain,  a  considerable  number  of  species  ought  to  be  added.  To  make  this  comparison, 
then,  about  twenty  species  may  be  added  to  the  Monocotyledones,  and  about  fifty  (say  forty- 
seven),  to  the  Dicotyledonous  plants,  making  these  two,  280  and  870 ;  whence  the  Monoco- 
tyledones of  Scotland  are  to  the  whole  of  those  in  the  British  dominions  as  one  to  one  and  a 
quarter,  or  as  four  to  five ;  and  the  Dicotyledones  as  eight  to  eleven. 

Ireland  possesses  a  flora  which  partakes  of  the  nature  of  those  of  England  and  Scotland. 
A  list  of  the  phaenogamous  plants  has  been  recently  published  by  Mr.  J.  T.  Mackay,  of  the 
Dublin  College  Botanic  Garden.  It  exhibits  a  much  poorer  vegetation  than  its  sister  island, 
including  only  934  species ;  of  which  there  are,  41  Filices ;  211  Monocotyledones,  and  682 
Dicotyledones.  So  that  the  proportion  of  Filices  to  Phaenogamous  plants  is  as  1  to21j; 
Monocotyledones  to  Phaenogamous  plants,  1  to  4| ;  Dicotyledones  to  Phfenogamous  plants, 
1  to  1't.  The  proportion  of  Irish  Monocotyledones  to  British  Monocotyledones  (according 
to  the  species  of  Smith)  is  as  1  to  1||,  or  as  3  to  5 :  of  Irish  Dicotyledones,  1  to  1^,  or  as  3  to  5. 

*  Drawn  up  by  G.  A.  W.  Arnott,  Esq.  of  Edinburgh. 

fThe  proportions  in  the  Crvptosaniia  will  be  found  probably  much  more  correct  for  Scotland  than  fhose  given 
in  the  British  table  are  for  the  whole  of  Britain  ;  owing  to  the  researches  made  in  that  tribe  liy  Dr.  Greville,  and 
Captain  Caruiichael  ;  particularly  by  the  lattor  in  the  Fungi  and  Alsffi  ;  the  discoveries  of  that  eentleman  alone 
in  those  two  groups,  in  one  small  ilistrict  (Ap|riii)  in  the  west  highlands  of  Scotland,  amount  to  more  species  than 
were  previously  described  as  inhabiting  the  whole  of  the  British  dominions. 


328 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  ITI. 


Few,  indeed,  of  the  species  of  plfints  now  enumerated  as  natives  of  England,  Scotland, 
and  Ireland,  and  the  adjacent  islets,  can  be  considered  as  exclusively  belonginfr  to  these 
countries.  For  tliough  there  are  many  whicli  are  not  reierred  to  as  species  in  the  works  of 
other  authors,  yet  they  are,  for  tlie  most  part,  among-  such  families  as  are  not  well  under- 
stood, and  about  which  there  will  always  exist  a  difference  of  opinion  ;  as  among  the  Grasses, 
Willows,  Brambles,  &c. 

I\Iany  plants  reach  their  northern  limits  in  the  south  of  England  and  Ireland.  We  must 
particularly  mention  the  Strawberry  Tree  {Arbutus  Unedo,  fig.  107.),  which  forms  so 
charming  a  feature  in  that  most  beautiful  of  all  scenery,  the  Lake  of  Killarney.  Some  have, 
indeed,  supposed  that  it  was  introduced  into  Ireland  by  the  monks  of  Mucruss  Abbey,  at 


Strawberry  Tree. 


Cornish  Heath. 


Cihaled  Heath. 


some  very  remote  period.  Its  appearance  is,  however,  altogether  that  of  an  aboriginal  native, 
coming  to  a  great  size,*  perfecting  its  bright  scarlet  berries,  which  are  disseminated  over  the 
rocks  and  islands  in  every  direction.  The  Erica  vagans,  or  Cornish  Heath  {fig.  108.  a),  is 
found  nowhere  in  Britain  except  Cornwall ;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  newly-disco- 
vered E.  ciliaris  {h),  and  the  following,  of  great  beauty  or  rarity :  Lobelia  Dortmanna, 
Phi/teuma  orbicularis  and  P.  .spicata,  Sibthorpia  europcca  and  Isnardia  palustris,  are  quite 
southern  plants  in  the  British  dominions. 

The  Water-Soldier  {Stratiotes  aloides)  ;  the  Water  Violet  {Hottonia  paliistris)  ;  the  small 
Maidenhair  Grass  {Briza  minor)  ;  the  Sweet  Violet  (  Viola  odorata)  ;  several  Mulleins ;  the 
I*nmTose-])eer[ess  {Narcissus  poeticus  and  bifiorus);  the  common  Snake's  Head  {Fritillaria 
meleagris);  the  Agrostis  setacea,  tlie  Star  of  Bethlehem  {Ornithogalum  pyrenaicum);  the 
two  species  of  Squill  {Scilla  autumnalis  and  bifoVut)  ;  the  Mountain  Spiderwort  {Antheri- 
cum  serotinvin) ;  the  Solomon's  Seal  {Convallaria  polygonuhini) ;  and  Sweet  Sedge  {Acorus 
Calamus);  the  YeWow-wort  {Chlor  a  perfioli  a  ta);  the  Mezereum  {Daphne  Mezereum)\  the 
Flowering  Rush  {Butomus  umbellatus)  ;  the  Yellow  Marsh  Saxifrage  {Saxifraga  Hirc/ulus) ; 
though  on  the  Continent  a  very  arctic  plant,  the  Clove  Pink  {Dianthus  caryophylh(s) ;  and 
D.  prolifer;  several  Catchflys  {Silene);  Euphorbias,  Cistuses,  Anemones,  the  Traveller's 
Joy  {Clematis  Vitulba)  ;  the  Ground  Pine  {Ajuga  (^liavio'pitys)  ;  the  Wood-Sage  {Tejicrium 
Scorodonia)  ;  the  crested  and  field  Cow-wheat  {Melampyrum  cristatuyn  and  arvense) ;  some 
Orobanches,  the  Vella  annua,  Draba  aizoides,  and  [beris  amara,  some  Fumitories  {Fumaria 
snlida,  lutea,  ami  parvifiora') ;  the  yellow  and  crimson  Yetchlings  {Latlujrus  Aphaca  and 
Nissolia) ;  the  Vicia  hybrida,  la-vigata,  and  bithynica,  Hippocrepis  comosa ;  Orchis  Morio,t 
pyramidalis,  ustulata,  fusca,  militaris,  tephrosanthos,  hircina ;  Aceras  anthropophora,  Hor- 
minium  monorcliis;  all  the  species  of  Oplirys,  Epipactis  rubra,  Malaxis  Loeselii;  the  beau- 
tiful and  rare  Lady's  Slipper  {Cypripedium  Calceolus)  ;  tiie  Birthvvort  {Aristnlochia  Clema- 
titis);  the  Roman  Nettle  {Urtica  pilulifera);  the  Xanthium  strumarium  and  Amaranthus 
Blitum ;  tlie  Spanish  Chestnut  Tree  (Y'^y/o-its  castanca);  and  Misseltoe  {Viscum  album); 
the  Sea  Buckthorn  {Hippophae  rhamnoidps)  ;  and  White  Poplar  {Populus  canescens)  :  these 
are  some  among  the  most  striking  of  the  British  plants,  which  do  not  reach  the  middle  of 
the  kingdom,  and  tail  below  the  south  of  Scotland. 

The  most  interesting  of  the  Scottish  plants  are,  principally,  such  whose  types  are  -found 
on  the  continent  of  Europe,  in  high  northern  latitudes,  or  in  the  extreme  arctic  regions  of 
both  Asia  and  America;  such  as  Veronica  fi-uticulosa,  saxatilis,  and  alpina,  several  alpine 
grasse.s,  and  other  glumaceous  plants ;  such  as  Phleum  alpinum  and  Alopecurus  alpinus, 
Eriophorum  alpinum  ;  Juncus  castaneus,  arcticus,  and  biglumis ;  and  Luzula  arctica,  Primula 
scotica  {fig.  109.  a),  the  Myosotis  alpestris  (r7),  Azalea  procumbens,  Gentiana  nivalis  (c) 
Sibbaldia  procumbens,  Convallaria  verticillata,  Epilobium  alpinum,  Arbutus  alpina.  Pyrola 
uniflora  {b),  Saxifraga  nivalis  and  rivularis,  Stellaria  scapigera  (the  latter  is  exclusively 


*  Mr.  Mackay  mpasurod  a  trunk  of  this  fine  evergreen  tree  on  Rough  Island,  nearly  opposite  O'Siillivan's  Cas- 
cade, which,  in  1805,  was  fix  feet  in  girth,  at  a  foot  from  the  ground. 

t  On  the  authority  of  Liahtfoot,  indeed,  this  plant,  so  abundantly  found  in  England,  is  given  as  a  native  <5f 
Scotland ;  but  no  living  botanist,  that  I  am  aware  of,  lias  ever  seen  it  there. 


Book  T. 


ENGLAND. 


329 


British),  Arenaria  rubella  and  fastiffiata.  the  Cherleria  sedoides,  Lychnis  Viscaria  and  alpina, 
SpcriTula  saginoides,  Potentilla  opaca,  Nuphar  Kalmiana,  Ranunculus  alpestris,  Ajuga  pyra- 
inidaTis,  Cardamine  bellidiflora,  Orobus  niger,  Astragalus  uralensis  and  campestris,  Erigeron 

r    Ai...      "       .  A.  no 


a,  Scottish  Primrose.  b,  Rock  Scorpion  Grass.  a,  Trifid-Leaved  Cinquefoil. 

c,  Single-Flowered  Water-Green,     rf,  Small  Alpine  Gentian.  6,  Jointed  Pipewort. 

alpinum,  Corallorhiza  innata,  AchillEea  tomentosa,  Goodyera  repens ;  the  most  alpine  Caricea 
and  Salices,  and  the  Dwarf  Birch  {Bctula  nana). 

There  are  two  plants  which  deserve  particular  notice,  as  natives  of  Great  Britain,  and 
found  nowhere  else  in  Europe;  but  these  are  again  met  with  in  North  America;  the  one  is 
Potentilla  tridentata  (^fiq;  110.  «)  abundant  in  arctic  America  and  upon  the  Rocky  and  White 
Mountains,  the  other  t!ie  Eriocaulon  septangulare  (Jig.  110.  b).  This  latter  genus  is  mostly 
tropical,  or  a  native  of  the  warm  temperate  zones  in  America,  the  East  Indies,  and  Australia. 
The  only  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  the  Eriocaulon  pellucidum  of  Michaux,  and  the  plant  in 
question ;  the  tbrmer  being  found  in  North  America  as  high  as  Canada ;  and,  upon  exami- 
nation, the  two  species  prove  identical.  In  these  instances,  the  Eriocaulon  and  tlie  Poten- 
tilla seem  to  have  overcome  many  obstacles  in  their  migration,  and  to  have  reached  their 
eastern  boundary.  The  Eriocaulon  is  confined  to  a  few  lakes  in  the  Hebrides,  where  we 
have  been  surprised  in  the  month  of  September  at  the  high  temperature  of  the  water,  which 
fTcbably  never  freezes ;  and  in  some  spots  in  the  south  and  west  of  Ireland :  the  Potentilla 
is  only  found  on  one  hill  in  Angusshire. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  genus  Pedicularis,  which  is  so  numerous  in  species,  in 
the  eastern  and  soutliern  parts  of  Europe,  almost  wholly  disappears  in  Britain ;  for,  notwith- 
standing the  vast  numbers  of  it  which  are  found  in  Siberia,  the  South  of  Russia,  Switzer- 
land, extending  even  to  the  Pyrenees,  and  Germany,  Great  Britain  possesses  but  two, 
wliich  are  equally  abundant  upon  the  Continent;  and  although  almost  wholly  an  alpine 
genus,  the  British  mountains  possess  not  one  really  alpine  species.  It  would  appear  that  the 
climate  is  peculiarly  unsuited  to  their  nurture:  for  in  North  America,  in  the  same  and  espe- 
cially in  still  higher  northern  latitudes,  they  again  become  abundant. 

Ireland  exhibits  a  few  striking  peculiarities  in  some  of  its  vegetable  productions.  Besides 
the  Strawberry  tree  (Arbutus  unedo)  already  mentioned,  it  can  boast  of  Pinguicula  grandi- 
Aora.  (Jiff.  111.  a),  a  beautiful  flower,  native  of  France  and  the  Pyrenees;  Menziesia  poli- 


Mm 


Vol.  I. 


a,  Lar2efloweri;d  Butterwort. 
d,  Naked-itallicd  Vellow  Pi-ppr. 


b,  Irish  Menziesia. 

c.  Marsh  Ledum. 

28* 


c,  Kidney- leaved  Saxifrage 


2R 


330 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  IlL 


0,  True  Maiden-Hair.        \ 
b.  Short-styled  Brisile-Fcrn. 


folia  (6),  a  species  belonging  tx)  the  latter  country  and  to  Spain,  and  found  in  a  wild  state  in 
no  other  parts  of  the  world ;  it  is,  too,  a  most  lovely  one :  also  St.  Patrick's  Cabbage  {Saxi- 
fran-a  umbrosa)  and  the  London  Pride  (.S\  Gemn,  c)  and  their  varieties,  which  are  scarcely 
known  to  exist  but  in  Switzerland  and  the  Pyrenees ;  Arenaria  ciliata,  a  native  of  the 
mountains  on  the  continent  of  Europe :  and  to  these  rarities  have  lately  been  added  by  Pro- 
fessor Giesecke,  the  Yellow  Poppy  {Papaver  nudicaule,  d),  and  the  Ledum  palustre  (r,) 
both  of  them  peculiarly  arctic  productions,  and  plentiful  on  the  northern  extremity  of  Ame- 
rica and  Greenland ;  and  with  these  we  must  be  permitted  to  number,  though  Cryptogamic 

plants,  the  Trichomanes  brevisetum  (Jig.  112.  b),  which 
scarcely  grows  anywhere  else  in  the  world  but  in  Ma- 
deira and  in  Yorkshire  (if  it  be  not  now  extinct  in  the 
latter  habitat),  the  Adiantum  Capillus  Veneris  (a),  whose 
only  locality  in  the  British  dominions  is  the  west  of  Ire- 
land, and  one  spot  in  Wales,  but  which  is  frequent  in 
the  south  of  Europe,  and  even  in  tlie  tropical  parts  of 
America;  and  two  mosses,  Hookeria  latevirens,  and 
Daltonia  splanchnoides,  entirely  peculiar  to  Ireland. 

That  country  also  possesses  three  remarkable  vege- 
table productions,  now  pretty  generally  distributed  in 
gardens  and  siirubberies  throughout  the  kingdom,  and 
universally  known  by  the  names  of  the  Irish  Broom, 
Irish  Furze,  and  Irish  Yew.  The  former  we  believe  to 
be  the  Spartium  patens  of  Linneeus,  a  Spanish  species, 
with  very  hairy  pods;  and  it  is,  probably,  not  wild  in 
that  country.  The  Irish  Furze  has  an  appearance  very 
different  from  that  of  the  European  or  Dwarf  Furzes 
(Ulex  europcEus  and  nanus),  having  very  erect  short  branches,  and  closely  placed  spines; 
60  that  the  whole  plant  has  a  remarkably  dense  and  compact  liabit,  appearing  almost  as  if 

it  were  kept  close  clipped  with  shears.  It  blossoms  rarely, 
but  we  liave  seen  both  flowers  and  seed-vessels,  which  do 
not  differ  in  any  material  point  from  those  of  Ulex  nanus. 
In  some  gardens  it  is  called  U.  europaeus  var.  strictus ;  but 
Mr.  Mackay  considers  it  to  be  quite  a  distinct  species,  and 
lie  has  called  it,  in  his  "  Catalogue  of  the  Indigenous  Plants 
of  Ireland,"  Ulex  strictus.  Still,  the  only  stations  for  this 
plant  are  in  the  Marquess  of  Londonderry's  park  and  shrub- 
beries, at  Mount  Stewart,  county  of  Down,  where  there  are 
sonie  very  large  bushes ;  but  whence  it  came,  no  one  can 
tell.  This  would,  however,  be  a  very  valuable  plant  to  the 
agriculturist ;  for,  it  has  been  planted  (it  increases  readily 
by  cuttings)  in  dry  hilly  pastures  in  the  north  of  Scotland, 
and  in  the  early  spring  throws  up  an  abundant  crop  of  suc- 
culent shoots,  which  are  greedily  eaten  by  sheep,  when  there 
is  little  or  no  grass  to  support  them. 

The  third  Irish  botanical  curiosity  is  the  Irish  Yew  (./??"• 
113),  Florence-Court  Yew,  as  it  is  called  in  that  country, 
from  its  being  first  discovered  at  Florence  Court,  the  seat  of 
Lord  Enniskillen.  Mr.  Mackay  does  not  consider  it  to  be 
wild ;  but  Mr.  Hervey,  in  the  Agriciilturul  .Magazine  for 
October,  1828,  says,  that  it  is  an  undoubted  native,  and  plen- 
tiful in  the  neighbourhood  of  Antrim,  whore  there  are  trees 
at  least  a  century  old.  It  is  distinguished  by  its  upright 
branches,  which  give  the  whole  plant  somewhat  the  habit  of 
a  Cypress ;  by  the  leaves  growing,  not  in  a  distichous  man- 
ner, but  from  all  sides  of  the  stem  :  the  drupe  or  berry,  too, 
is  of  a  different  form  from  that  of  the  common  Yew. 
The  trees  that  are  aboriginal  natives  of  Britain  are  the  Oak  (two  species);  the  Elm  (five 
species);  the  Beech,  the  Ash,  the  Maple,  Sycamore,  Hornbeam,  Lime  (three  species);  the 
Spanish  Chestnut  (!)  ;  the  Alder,  Birch,  Poplar  (lour  species)  ;  and  the  Scotch  Fir;  to  which 
may  be  added  the  Mountain  Ash,  which  in  some  parts  of  Scotland  attains  to  a  great  size. 
Of  these,  then,  the  Oak,  the  Beech,  Birch,  and  Scotch  Fir,  live  in  society,  forming  vast 
forests,  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  other  trees.  The  finest  forests  of  Oak  and  Beech  are 
to  be  seen  in  the  southern  parts  of  England ;  the  latter  flourishing,  in  an  extraordinary 
degree,  in  the  chalk  and  deep  clay  soils  of  Sussex  and  some  of  the  neighbouring  counties. 
In  Scotland,  the  oak,  though  there  may  be  some  exceptions,  generally  forms  copse  woods, 
and  is  mostly  confined  to  the  valleys.     Its  northern  limit  is  scarcely  \\  ithin  the  British  dorni- 


Irisli  Ys 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


331 


mi^.^"^^ 


Scotch  Fir. 


nions.  It  extends  to  lat  60°,  on  the  continent  in  Russia,  and  64°  in  Norway;  and  if  in  Scot- 
land oaks  are  not  found  in  the  extreme  north,  it  is  rather  owing  to  want  of  shelter  and  of 
suitable  soil,  than  to  any  other  circumstance. 

The  Pine,  (_Pinus  Sylvestris,Jig.  114.)  constitutes  noble  forests  among  the  mountainous 

districts  of  North  Britain,  filling  the  valleys, 
and  ascending,  probably,  to  the  heiglit  of  2500 
feet  upon  the  hills,  among  the  northern  Gram- 
pians, and  exhibiting  individual  specimens  of 
great  size  and  beauty. 

Of  the  fruit  trees  which  are  successfully  cul- 
tivated in  the  open  air,  the  number  is  limited. 
In  the  south,  exclusively,  or,  perhaps,  as  far  as 
the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  under  favourable 
circumstances,  the  Vine,  the  Fig,  the  Quince, 
the  Mulberry,  Chestnut,  Walnut,  and  Medlar 
may  be  advantageously  planted.  The  Apple, 
Pear,  the  Plum  of  various  kinds,  the  Peach, 
Nectarine,  and  Apricot ;  all,  according  to  soil, 
exposure,  and  other  local  circumstances,  ripen 
their  fruit  in  the  open  air,  if  afforded  the  protec- 
tion of  a  wall,  as  high  north  as  Inverness,  and 
some  of  the  most  hardy  ones  much  higher ;  but 
the  want  of  sun  must  ever  be  a  hindrance  to  the 
thorough  perfecting  of  good  fruit  in  the  north  of  Scotland. 

Of  the  various  kinds  of  Corn,  which  are  used  as  food  for  man  or  cattle,  Wheat,  Barley, 
Bere,  Bigg,  Oats,  and  Rye  are  the  universal  crops;  and  these  all  succeed  in  situations 
not  too  much  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  as  far  to  the  northward  as  Inverness, 
beyond  which  the  wheat  becomes  a  very  uncertain  crop ;  and  even  considerably  south  of 
Inverness,  to  the  north  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  in  lat.  56°,  the  cultivation  of  wheat  is 
almost  wholly  confined  to  the  eastern  side  of  the-  country,  the  west  being  the  district  for 
pasture. 

In  regard  to  the  height  at  which  certain  plants  will  grow  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the 
southern  and  midland  parts  of  Great  Britain  do  not  contain  mountains  upon  a  sufficiently 
lofty  scale  to  render  their  investigation  particularly  interesting.  The  northern  parts  of 
England  possess  mountains  of  upwards  of  3000  feet ;  and  as  Winch's  "  Essay  on  the  Geo- 
graphical distribution  of  Plants  throughout  the  Counties  of  Northumberland,  Cumberland,  and 
Durham,"  of  which  the  lat.  55°  may  be  considered  the  medium,  embraces  a  very  great  pro- 
tion  of  this  very  country,  which,  from  its  situation,  may,  in  point  of  climate,  be  considered  as 
intermediate  between  the  more  northern  and  southern  floras  of  Great  Britain,  we  select 
from  his  work  what  concerns  the  more  valuable  and  more  striking  vegetable  productions. 

The  Oak,  in  lat.  55°,  attains  a  krge  size  in  the  valleys  ;  it  ascends  the  hills,  but  gradu- 
ally becomes  of  stunted  growth  in  Weardale  and  Teesdale,  to  tlie  elevation  of  1600  and 
1700  feet. 

The  Common  Elm  ( TJlmus  Campeslris)  is  not  indigenous  north  of  the  Tees ;  its  place 
being  taken  by  the  Wych  Elm  (U.  montana),  which  skirts  the  mountains  at  a  height  of 
2000  feet. 

The  Beech  and  Aspen  flourisli  beautifully  in  the  low  sheltered  spots,  but  do  not  climb 
the  hills  to  equal  heights  with  the  oak.  The  Wiiite  and  Black  Poplars  {Populus  alba 
and  nigra)  are  doubtful  natives  of  the  north  of  England,  as  of  Scotland  ;  though  the  White 
Poplar  is  remarkable  for  withstanding  the  north-easterly  winds,  which  are  so  destructive  to 
vegetation  in  the  counties  of  Nortliumberland  and  Durham.  The  Lime,  {Tilia  Europcea), 
the  Cliestnut  {Castanea  vesca),  and  the  Hornbeam  {Carpinus  Betulns),  stand  in  the  same 
predicament. 

Holly  trees  are  among  the  chief  ornaments  of  the  woods  in  Durham,  Northumberland, 
and  Cumberland,  as  is  the  Yew  {Taxus  Baccata).  The  Birch  {Betula  alha)  is  not  found 
on  the  mountauis  at  a  greater  elevation  than  the  Sycamore  (Acer  Pseuilo-platanus),  which 
in  the  subalpine  regions  seems  to  be  as  vigorous,  and  to  attain  as  great  a  size  as  it  does 
near  the  sea-coast.  The  Mountain  Ash  {Pyriis  aucuparia)  is  found  on  the  hills ;  the  White 
Beam  {Pijrus  Aria)  may  be  traced  from  the  High-Force  of  the  river  Tees  to  the  coast ; 
the  Alder  {Alnus  gliitinosa)  and  the  Guelder  Rose  {^Viburnum  Opulus)  accompany  the 
streams ;  and  the  Hazel,  Black  Cherry  {Prnnus  C'erasits),  Bird  Cherry  {Prumis  Padits), 
the  Spindle-tree  {Euonymus  europcpus),  the  Raspberry  {Rubus  idtEiis),  and  the  common 
Elder,  {Sa?nbiiciis  nigra),  are  found  in  all  the  woods  from  the  sea-shore  to  those  situated  on 
an  elevation  of  1600  feet :  but  the  common  Maple  {Acer  campestris)  occurs  only  in  the 
hedges,  in  some  parts  of  the  flat  country.    • 

The  Ash  tree  (Fraxinus  excelsior),  tlie  White  Thorn  (Mespilus  Oxyacantha),  the  Crab 
tree,  or  Wild  Apple  (Pyrus  Mains),  and  Black  Thorn  (Prunus  spinosa),  abound  throughout 


332  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Pakt  HI. 

the  district  in  question.  The  BuUace  {Prunusinsitilid)  is  rare  :  and  tlie  Phim-tree  (Prunns 
dcmestica),  Pear  (Pyrus  communis).  Red  currant  {Ribes  rubrum),  the  Berberry  {Berberis 
vulgaris),  and  Gooseberry  (Ribes  Grossularia),  tliough  of  frequent  occurrence,  appear  not 
to  be  original  natives  of  the  soil.  But  the  Rock  Cuxrviwi  {Ribes  prlrccinn),  tlie  Acid  I\Ioun- 
tain  Currant  {Ribes  spicatum),  Alpine  Currant  (Ribes  alpinum).  Black  Currant  {Ribes  ni- 
grum), and  Privet  {Ligustrum  vulgare),  are  indigenous,  and  not  unfrequent. 

The  Furze  {Ulex  europams,)  attains  to  an  elevation  of  2000  feet  in  sequestered  spots, 
accompanied  by  the  Bramble.  Juniper  may  be  traced  from  the  coai?t  to  the  height  of  15(X) 
feet.  The  Cloudberry  (Rubus  Chamccmorus),  the  Bearberry  (Arii/^i/s  Vva  Ursi),  and  Sand 
Willow  {Salix  arenaria),  attain  the  same  elevation;  while  the  Dwarf  Willow  {Salix  her- 
bncea),  but  without  its  usual  attendant  the  Reticulated  Willow  {S.  reticulata),  reaches 
to  the  tops  of  the  loftiest  mountains,  upwards  of  3000  feet  above  the  level  of  tlie  sea. 

Coarse  Grasses,  Sedges,  and  Rushes  too  often  cover  the  wet  moors  with  a  scanty  and 
almost  useless  vegetation.  To  the  agriculturist  the  different  Heaths  are  scarcely  more 
acceptable ;  but  they  are  unquestionably  among  the  most  beautiful  of  the  native  plants,  and 
their  abundance  and  the  vast  extent  of  ground  which  they  clothe,  give  a  peculiar  character 
to  very  many  parts  of  Great  Britain,  especially  in  the  North.  In  tlie  districts  in  question, 
the  common  Heather  {Calluna  vulgaris),  the  Fir-leaved  Heath  {Erica  Cinerca),  and  the 
Cross-leaved  Heath  {Erica  Tetralix),  the  latter,  however,  less  fragrant,  and  preferring  moist 
situations,  flourish  in  various  situations,  from  1000  to  3000  feet  above  the  level  of  tiie  sea, 
but  never  in  calcareous  soil,  which  circumstance  occasions  tlie  striking  difference  between 
the  heaths  of  Durham  and  Northumberland,  and  the  Yorkshire  Wolds  as  they  are  called, 
where  the  substratum  is  chalk. 

The  most  considerable  elevation  to  which  the  cultivation  of  wheat  extends  in  the  north 
of  England  does  not  exceed  1000  feet  above  tlie  level  of  the  sea.  Oats  grow  at  nearly 
double  that  height;  but  in  unfavourable  years  the  slieaves  may  often  be  seen  standing  among 
the  snow,  which  not  uncommonly  covers  the  tops  of  the  mountiiins  in  October,  and  is  never 
later  in  falling  than  the  middle  of  November.  The  limits  of  Barley  and  Rye  are  between 
those  of  wheat  and  oats ;  but  Bigg,  a  more  hardy  kind  of  grain  than  either  of  the  former,  is 
no  longer  cultivated.  Turnips,  tliough  of  small  size,  and  Potatoes,  grow  at  the  same  height 
as  Oats.  On  the  soil  of  the  moors  being  ploughed  for  the  first  time,  and  lime  applied.  White 
Clover  ( Trifolium  repens)  comes  up  in  abundance. 

ScBSECT.  3. — Zoology  of  Great  Britain. 
The  Zoology  of  the  United  Empire  might  be  treated  of  under  the  three  kingdoms  of  which 
it  is  composed,  were  our  materials  sufficiently  ample  to  mark  the  peculiarities  of  each.  But 
although  every  year  witnesses  an  accession  of  new  species  to  the  British  fauna,  no  attempt  hes 
yet  been  made  to  generalise  these  discoveries,  with  reference  to  the  geographic  range  of  groups 
or  species.  The  zoology  of  Ireland  has  been  sadly  neglected,  and  we  are  still  without  a 
Fauna  Scotica.  We  must  therefore  consider  the  natural  history  of  Britain  in  the  aggregate ; 
noticing  such  species  as  more  particularly  belong  to  the  northern  and  the  southern  extre- 
mities. 

Of  Quadrupeds,  the  most  recent  catalogue  contains  sixty  living  species,  including  the 
w'hale  tribe;  besides  those  which  progressive  civilisation,  and  the  effects  of  tlie  chase,  have 
now  extirpated  from  the  islands.  Nine  species  of  Bats  have  been  detected,  four  of  which 
have  as  yet  been  found  only  in  the  southern  and  western  counties:  two  belong  to  the  division 
of  horse-shoe  bats,  so  named,  from  their  nostrils  being  furnished  with  a  complicated  membrane, 
like  a  horse-shoe ;  an  appendage  which  is  probably  intended  to  act  as  a  sucker  to  assist  the 
animal  in  retaining  its  prey.  The  Vesperlilio  murinus,  or  common  bat,  has  been  so  far 
tamed  as  to  take  flies  out  of  its  master's  hand,  carefully  throwing  aside  the  wings.  The 
woods  and  heaths  still  shelter  the  Hedgehog  {^fig.  115.),  a  harmless  and  a  most  useful  animal 
in  destroying  snails,  slugs,  and  worms ;  but  persecuted  by  the 
vulgar  for  a  long  list  of  imaginary  and  nonsensical  properties. 
These  prejudices  have  been  extended  to  the  Mole,  whose  little 
hillocks  form  the  best  top-dressing,  as  a  sensible  farmer  once 
assured  us,  to  poor  lands,  that  can  possibly  be  given :  their  soft 
fur  has  long  been  mixed  with  that  of  the  Beaver,  in  the  making 
of  hats.  Allied  to  tb.e  Mole,  in  general  conformation,  are  the 
Shrew  Mice,  of  which  two  species  are  natives,  the  common  and 
tlie  Water  Shrew  {Sorex  araneus  and  fodiens):  both  these 
Hedgehog.  appear  to  be  widely  distributed.     Of  true  Mice  there  are  three 

distinct  sorts :  the  Common  or  House  Mouse,  the  Field  IMouse,  and  the  Harvest  Mouse ;  the 
latter  bein<r  as  destructive  to  the  farmer  as  the  flrst  is  to  the  housewife.  The  Brown  and 
the  Black  Rat  infest  dwellings,  and  are  equally  injurious:  the  latter  is  known,  by  the  tail 
being  longer  than  the  body ;  whereas,  in  the  Brown  Rat,  both  these  parts  arc  equal.  The 
pretty  little  Dormouse  {Myoxus  avellanarius),  like  the  Squirrel  and  Jerboa,  eats  its  food  in 
an  erect  attitude,  sitting  on  its  haunches,  and  usinrr  its  forefeet  as  hands.     The  Water  Rat 


Book  I.  ENGLAND,  33S 

lind  Short-tailed  Mouse  of  Pennant  (now  placed  in  the  genus  Arvicold)  occur  in  England  : 
Dut  the  former  is  stated  not  to  have  been  found  in  tlie  northern  islands ;  the  latter  is  a  most 
destructive  little  animal  in  gardens,  where  it  grubs  up  seeds,  particularly  peas,  just  after 
they  have  begun  to  germinate.  A  few  years  back,  the  short-tailed  mouse  suddenly  appeared 
in  immense  numbers  in  the  New  Forest,  and  notwithstanding  every  artifice  employed  to 
stop  their  ravages,  they  destroyed  many  thousands  of  young  trees,  and  devastated  whole 
aci"es  of  young  plantations. 

The  Badger  is  a  nocturnal  feeder,  sleeping  in  its  hole  during  the  day,  yet,  when  attacked, 
is  remarkably  quick  in  its  motions,  and  successful  in  its  defence.  If  undisturbed,  it  is  harm- 
less and  inoffensive,  chiefly  subsisting  upon  vegetables,  although  it  will  likewise  devour  frogs 
and  slugs.  The  Oiler  has  become  much  less  frequent  than  formerly ;  it  was  once  considered 
as  a  beast  of  chase,  as  old  game-books  mention  otter  hounds  particularly  trained  for  hunting 
this  animal.  It  feeds  entirely  upon  fish,  whicli  it  dives  after  with  great  celerity  ;  and,  unless 
pressed  by  extreme  hunger,  invariably  leaves  the  tail  extremity  untouched.  The  legs  are 
very  short ;  and  the  toes  being  connected  together  by  a  membrane,  gives  to  the  animal  the 
power  of  swimming  very  rapidly. 

The  rapacious  or  carnivorous  quadrupeds  of  Britain  are  very  few,  and  from  their  small 
size  too  hisignificant  to  inflict  much  personal  injury  upon  man.  The  Bear  and  the  Wolf 
have  long  been  extinct  in  Britam,  and  the  Fox  might  have  shared  tlie  same  fate,  had  it  not 
been  preserved  as  a  beast  of  tlie  cliase  since  the  extirpation  of  more  formidable  game. 
Pennant  mentions  three  varieties  of  this  animal  found  in  Wales  and  other  mountainous  parts 
of  Britain :  —  1.  The  Milgri,  or  Greyhound  Fox,  is  the  largest,  tallest,  and  boldest,  and  is 
distinguished  by  a  white  tag  or  tip  to  tlie  tail.  2.  The  Mastiff"  Fox,  which  is  less,  but  more 
strongly  built.  3.  The  Curgi,  or  Cur  Fox,  of  a  still  smaller  size,  and  having  the  tip  of  the 
tail  black.  (Brit.  Zool.  i.  87.)  Tlie  varieties  do  not  appear,  however,  to  have  fallen  under 
the  actual  observation  of  subsequent  naturalists. 

Tlic  Ferret  tribe  comprehends  the  Polecat,  Weasel,  Stoat  or  Ermine,  the  Common  Marten, 
and  the  Pine  Marten. 

The  Polecat  {Putorius  vulgaris  Cuv.),  called  also  the  Fitchet,  Fitchew,  or  Foumart, 
measures,  witli  the  tail,  about  twenty-three  inches.  Its  fetid  smell  is  proverbial.  Althougli 
included  in  the  list  of  British  quadrupeds,  it  appears,  according  to  Strabo,  to  have  been 
imported  from  the  north  of  Africa.  Like  all  its  congeners,  its  habits  are  sanguinary ;  for  it 
will  destroy  and  suck  the  blood  of  many  victims,  before  it  attempts  to  carry  off  their  bodies. 
The  well-known  Ferret  is  considered  only  a  variety  of  this  species.  The  Weasel  is  much 
smaller,  and  altliougli  repulsive  from  its  odour,  is  yet  an  elegant-shaped  animal.  It  feeds  on 
mice  and  small  birds,  but  will  occasionally  attack  animals  of  a  much  larger  size.  Few 
persons  suspect  that  the  skins  they  see  nailed  against  farm  out-houses  frequently  belong  to 
an  animal  whose  fur,  in  anotlier  state,  forms  a  most  elegant  and  expensive  ornament  to 
female  dress.  This  animal,  despised  in  one  state,  and  valued  in  anotlier,  is  the  Stoat 
(Jig.  116.),  the  pest  of  the  fanner,  and  the  destroyer  of  his  poultry.  In  the  temperate  and 
116  117 


Sloat.  Pine  Marlen. 

southern  parts  of  Europe,  its  fur  is  yellowish-brown  above,  and  pale  yellow  beneath ;  yet 
so  soon  as  its  geographic  range  enters  on  the  more  northern  countries,  as  Russia,  Norway, 
and  Siberia,  these  colours  vanish,  leaving  the  fur  of  a  pure  white  in  every  part  but  tlie  tail, 
which  is  tipped  with  deep  black ;  and  in  this  state  the  skin  is  called  erniine.  In  Scotland 
the  animal,  during  winter,  is  frequently  found  in  an  intermediate  stage  of  summer  and  win- 
ter clothing.  Although  small,  it  will  attack  large  rats,  and  has  been  known  to  pursue  a 
yoimg  hare  by  the  scent. 

The  Common  or  Beech  INIarten  (M.  Fagornm  Ray)  seems  to  prefer  dwelKng  near  habita- 
tions, choosing  the  shelter  of  out-houses  and  farm-buildings,  as  convenient  retreats  for  carry- 
ing on  its  depredations  among  poultry,  of  which  it  is  a  great  devourer;  it  also  breeds 
occasionally  in  the  hollows  of  trees. 

The  Pine  Marten  (3f.  AlnelimiRay,  fig.  117.)  is  rather  larger,  and  is  further  distinguished 
from  the  last  in  having  the  throat  and  breast  yellow,  instead  of  white.  It  is  wild  and  solitary; 
shurming  mankind ;  and  only  dwells  in  thick  woods  and  torests,  principally  those  composed 
of  pines.  It  climbs  with  great  facility ;  preys  upon  birds  and  their  eggs,  and  also  upon 
squirrels;  the  female  generally  making  use  of  the  nest  of  one  of  her  victims  tor  the  rearing 


334  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

of  her  o\\Ti  3'oung'.     The  skin  of  this  is  much  more  prized  tlian  that  of  the  common  INIarten, 
and  appears  to  have  been  formerly,  at  least  in  Scotland,  a  lucrative  article  of  commerce. 

The  Wild  Cat  closes  our  list  of  these  small  but  ferocious  inditrenous  animals.  Its  manners 
are  similar  to  those  of  the  lynx,  and  Mr.  Pennant  justly  calls  it  the  British  tiger.  In  its 
savage  state  it  appears  to  be  much  larger  tlian  tlie  ordinary  domestic  cat ;  and  the  teeth  and 
claws,  for  the  size  of  the  animal,  are  tremondou.s.  It  is  still  found,  although  rarely,  in  the 
mountainous  and  woody  parts  of  Great  Britain.  Formerly  they  appear  to  have  been  much 
more  numerous,  and  to  have  been  considered  a  beast  of  chase.  The  best  authorities  agree 
in  considering  this  species,  common  to  tlie  forests  of  Europe,  as  the  origin  of  our  domestic 
breed,  the  usual  varieties  of  which  are  well  known.  Another,  which  seems  peculiar  to 
Cornwall,  is  without  any  visible  tail,  and  is  stated  to  be  an  hereditary  variety.  (CmO.  ii.  489.) 
To  enumerate  the  varieties  of  the  Dog  now  domesticated  in  Britain  would  be  tedious, 
particularly  after  the  luminous  manner  in  which  this  subject  has  been  treated  by  Pennant 
{Brit.  Zool.  i.  70.).  Britain  has  been  famous  for  her  dogs  from  remote  antiquity.  The  British 
mastiffs  were  held  in  such  estimation  by  the  Romans,  that  their  emperors  appointed  an  officer 
in  the  island,  with  tlie  name  of  Procurator  Cynegii,  whose  business  was  to  transmit  thence 
such  as  would  prove  equal  to  the  ferocious  combats  of  the  amphitheatre.  Strabo  also  men- 
tions that  the  mastiffs  of  Britain  were  in  great  repute,  being  trained  for  war,  and  used  by 
the  Gauls  in  their  battles. 

The  Bloodhound,  during  the  troubled  periods  of  English  history,  was  in  high  estimation, 
and  much  used  to  track  the  footsteps  of  robbers  and  marauders;  but  the  breed  is  now  extinct. 
A  remarkable  variety  of  tlie  Greyhound,  more  peculiar  to  Ireland  (hence  called  the  Irish 
Greyhound  or  Wolf  Dog),  is  nearly  lost,  a  few  couples  alone  having  been  preserved  in  one 
of  the  parks  in  that  island.  The  Terrier  is  the  best  house  guard ;  while  the  Shepherd,  the 
Water,  and  the  Newfoundland  dogs  are  probably  the  most  sagacious. 

Of  ruminating  animals  now  existing  in  a  state  of  nature,  there  are  but  three ;  the  Stag  or 
Red  Deer,  the  Fallow  Deer,  and  the  Roebuck.  It  would  appear,  however,  that  the  first  two 
are  not  indigenous  to  tliese  islands.  Mr.  Pennant  writes — "We  have  two  varieties  of  fallow 
deer,  which  are  said  to  be  of  foreign  origin :  these  were  introduced  by  King  James  I.  out  of 
Norway,  which  he  visited  for  his  intended  bride,  Anne  of  Denmark.  He  first  brought  some 
into  Scotland,  and  from  thence  transported  them  to  his  chases  of  Enfield  and  Epping,  to  be 
near  his  palace  of  Theobald's."  The  only  memorial  of  this  palace  is  probably  preserved  in 
the  name  of  Theobald's  Road.  M.  Cuvier,  indeed,  expresses  a  doubt  whether  the  stag  was 
originally  European ;  but  Major  Hamilton  Smith,  with  much  better  reason,  considers  the 
Fallow  Deer  {Cervus  Dama)  as  indigenous  to  Europe ;  adding,  that  it  is  still  found  wild 
from  Sweden  to  Gibraltar,  and  from  Ireland  to  Constantinople.  The  Stag  (Cervits  Elaphus) 
seems  to  be  unquestioned  as  an  indigenous  species ;  and  although  the  wild  breed  is  yearly 
diminishing  in  numbers,  it  is  still  found  in  Gloucestershire,  the  north-west  part  of  Devon, 
and  in  some  of  the  remote  districts  of  Scotland.  Pennant,  by  some  imaccountable  mistake, 
has  placed  the  Stag  and  the  Fallow  Deer  as  varieties  of  one  species. 

The  Roebuck  (Cervvs  capreolus  Ham.  Smith)  is  much  less  than  the  two  preceding,  and 
is,  indeed,  the  smallest  of  European  deer.  It  is  remarkably  graceful  and  active,  habitually 
preferring  the  sides  of  elevated  woods  or  forests.  As  he  leaves  a  strong  scent,  nature  has 
given  him  peculiar  sagacity  to  perplex  his  pursuers:  he  begins,  after  a  forward  dash,  bv 
doubling  over  his  track,  to  mislead  the  hounds,  and  then  by  some  great  bounds  he  springs 
forward  to  a  cover,  where  he  lies  down  to  let  the  chase  pass.  The  roebuck  is  now  become 
very  scarce  in  Britain,  and  was  equally  so  in  Scotland,  but  we  are  told  it  has  re-appeared  of 
late  years  in  Fifeshire,  in  consequence  of  the  increased  plantations.    {Brit.  An.  p.  26.) 

The  Ox  is  the  only  remaining  animal  of  this  order  which  claims  a  place  among  the 
indigenous  quadrupeds.  We  have  before  observed,  that  in  remote  ages,  a  gigantic  race  of 
oxen  was  numerous  throughout  Europe ;  and  that,  although  now  extinct,  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  the  colossal  species  mentioned  by  Csesar,  as  existing  in  his  time,  was  of  this 
race,  now  only  known  by  its  fossil  bones.  These  remains  lie  scattered  through  the  vvhole 
of  temperate  Europe,  in  the  same  strata  with  the  lost  species  of  Elephant;  but  that  the  race 
was  preserved  to  a  much  later  period  is  proved  by  similar  bones  occurring  in  more  recent 
formations,  as  in  peat  mosses,  drained  lakes,  marshes,  and  beds  of  sand.  The  wild  races, 
of  inferior  size,  belonging  to  this  species,  may  probably,  as  Major  Smith  observes,  even  now 
exist  in  Asia.  However  this  may  be,  it  appears  certain  that  the  real  Urus  was  found  wild 
in  the  Vosges  mountains,  and  in  the  forests  of  Ardennes  and  Germany ;  while  its  existence 
in  England  is  incontestably  proved  by  Fitz-Stephen,  who  speaks  of  the  Uri  silvestres,Winc\\ 
in  his  time  (that  is,  about  1150)  infested  the  great  forests — round  London ! 

The  only  existing  breed  of  wild  oxen  now  known,  is  the  white  Urus,  or  Urus  scoticus  of 
Ham.  Smith.  Its  skull  agrees  with  the  fossil  breed  in  being  "  square  from  the  orbits  to 
the  occipit-.il  crest,  somewhat  hollow  at  the  forehead,  and  the  horns  showing  a  peculiar  rise 
from  their  root,  at  the  side  of  the  above  crest,  upwards,  and  then  bending  outwards,  tiien 
ibrward  and  inward  :  no  domestic  race  shows  this  turn."     The  true  Urus  was  further  dis- 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


335 


Wild  Scottish  Ox. 


tinguished  by  a  mane,  which  is  still  observed  about  two  inches  long,  in  old  bulls  of  the  Scot- 
tish race  {Jig.  118.)-  When  this  breed  was  exterminated 
from  the  open  forests  is  not  known ;  but  it  was  confined 
to  parks  long  before  the  Reformation.  The  colour  is  en- 
tirely white,  witli  the  muzzle  wholly  black.  Their  man- 
ners are  singular :  upon  perceiving  a  stranger,  they  gallop 
wildly  in  a  circle  round  him,  stop  and  gaze,  toss  their 
heads,  and  show  signs  of  defiance ;  this  is  repeated  seve- 
ral times,  each  circle  being  made  smaller,  till  they  ap- 
proach sufficiently  near  to  make  an  effective  charge.  The 
cows  conceal  their  young  eight  or  ten  days :  and  when 
one  of  the  herd  is  wounded  or  enfeebled,  the  others  gore 
it  to  death.  The  breed  is  still  preserved  at  Chill  ingham 
Castle,  near  Berwick-upon-Tweed,  Wollaston  in  Notting- 
ham, Gisbume   in  Craven,  Limehall  in  Cheshire,  and  at  Chartley  in  Staffordshire. 

The  domestic  Ox  (Bos  Taurus),  considered  by  some  as  a  variety,  and  by  others  as  a  dis- 
tinct species  from  the  last,  is  supposed  by  Hamilton  Smith  to  have  been  first  domesticated 
by  the  Caucasian  nations  of  western  Asia.  It  is  stated  to  have  fourteen  ribs,  whereas  those" 
of  the  B.  Urus  are  but  twelve ;  a  distinction  sufficiently  important  to  sanction  the  belief  of 
a  specific  difference.  Whether  or  not  this  parent  of  our  domestic  races  ever  existed  in  these 
islands  in  a  state  of  nature,  is  very  doubtful.  The  various  breeds  for  which  Britain  has  long 
been  justly  celebrated  will  be  noticed  under  the  head  of  domestic  animals. 

The  marine  and  cetaceous  mammalia  are  few,  and  are  not  very  generally  dispersed.  Two 
species  of  seal  have  been  noticed  by  Pennant.  The  Piked  Whales  {Balmnoptera  musculus 
and  bonps),  the  Razor-back  Whale,  and  several  others  of  the  great  northern  cetacea,  wander 
near  the  Hebrides  and  Orkney  islands,  and  occasionally  visit  the  shores  of  Northumberland 
and  Yorkshire.  The  Porpoise  and  the  Grampus  have  a  wider  range,  and  large  shoals  roam 
unmolested  near  all  the  coasts. 

Exterminated  native  animals.  In  every  country  the  increase  of  civilization  and  agricul- 
ture is  marked  by  the  progressive  diminution  and  final  extirpation  of  the  larger  quadrupeds, 
particularly  of  such  as  are  injurious  to  man.  Among  those  which  history  clearly  informs  us 
were  once  living  in  Britain,  the  most  remarkable  are  the  Bear,  the  Wolf,  the  Beaver,  and 
the  wild  Boar.  To  the  writings  of  Pennant  and  Hamilton  Smith  we  are  indebted  for  the 
following  notes  on  these  lost  inhabitants  of  our  forests. 

It  appears  that  Bears,  in  the  time  of  Plutarch,  were  transported  from  Britain  to  Rome, 
where  they  were  much  admired.  They  appear  to  have  been  extinct  in  Britain  long  before 
Queen  Elizabeth's  time. 

Wolves.  It  seems  to  have  been  a  vulgar  error  that  the  wolf  was  extirpated  in  Britain 
by  the  salutary  edicts  of  King  Edgar,  who  accepted  their  tongues  and  heads  as  tribute,  or  as 
a  commutation  for  certain  crimes :  for  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  these  animals  had  again 
increased  to  such  a  degree,  that  officers  were  appointed  to  promote  their  destruction,  and 
lands  were  held  by  hunting  and  destroying  them.  Wolves  infested  Ireland  many  centuries 
after  their  extinction  in  England ;  some  having  been  killed  so  late  as  1710.  In  Scotland, 
the  last  on  record  was  destroyed  in  1680. 

The  Beaver  was  still  an  inhabitant  of  the  Welsh  rivers  in  1188,  as  is  attested,  according 
to  Pennant,  by  Giraldus  Cambrensis ;  but  even  at  that  remote  period  they  must  have  con- 
siderably diminished,  as  the  historian  only  mentions  their  being  found  on  the  river  Teivi. 
Local  names  of  other  waters  in  the  principality  attest  their  existence  in  other  places.  Fossil 
remains  of  this  species  are  stated  to  have  been  found  in  beds  of  marl,  under  peat  moss  in 
Berkshire ;  and  similar  bones  have  occurred  in  Perthshire  and  Berwicksliire. 
-  The  Wild  Boar,  from  which  have  sprung  the  domestic  breeds  of  swine,  must  be  reckoned 
among  indigenous  quadrupeds,  although  now  extinct  in  Britain.  William  tlie  Conqueror 
punished  those  who  killed  the  Wild  Boar,  the  Stag  and  the  Roebuck,  by  the  loss  of  their 
eyes.  Fitz-Stephen  affirms  that  the  vast  forest,  which  in  his  time  stood  on  the  north  side  of 
London,  was  the  retreat  of  Stags,  Fallow  Deer,  Wild  Boars  and  Bulls.  At  a  more  recent 
period,  Charles  the  First. turned  out  Wild  Boars  in  the  New  Forest ;  but  they  were  destroyed 
during  the  civil  wars. 

Fossil  qiiadritpeds.  The  splendid  discoveries  that  have  resulted  from  the  investigations 
of  Buckland,  Mantell,  Conybeare,  and  other  eminent  geologists,  liave  opened  a  field  of  re- 
search, wliich  in  Britain  had  long  been  overlooked  or  neglected.  Without  entering  into  the 
question  whether  tliese  fossil  remains  belong  to  animals  which  did  or  did  not  at  some  period 
iiiliabit  the  spots  wherein  their  bones  have  been  found,  it  is  sufficient  to  confine  ourselves  to 
simple  facts.  The  remains  of  the  cave  bear  of  Dr.  Buckland  occur  in  several  caverns,  and 
are  suff.cient  to  prove  the  living  animal  must  have  equalled  a  horse  in  size.  The  Kirkdale 
and  Plymouth  caves  abound  with  the  bones  of  an  extinct  hysena,  somewhat  resembling  in 
its  osteology  that  now  existing  in  South  Africa ;  witli  these  have  been  found  the  bones  of  a 
tiger,  which  must  have  been  as  large  as  the  Bengal  species.     The  tuslcs,  teeth,  and  other 


336  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

fragments  of  an  extinct  species  of  elephant,  totally  different  from  those  now  in  existence, 
119  have  been  detected  in  marl  clay,  &c.  joined  witli  those  of  two 

|j^A  /^^9)      othergiganticquadriipeds,  a  rhinoceros  and  hippopotamus;  wliile 

^      lyw         /y-''/      the  jaw  of  a  marsupial  iuiimal,  unknown  among  the  existing 
.A      /  /_,  ■     '-^y\  race  of  beings,  has  been  found  in  the  Stonesfield  slate  quarries 

^^^^-^^"-i-sc^^^^^f'^     '  Domestic  quadrujieds.     No  nation,  perhaps,  has  been  more 

Jaw  of  Marsupial  Animal.  solicitous  to  improve  their  originally  poor  breeds  of  domesti- 

cated quadrupeds  than  the  Britisii ;  and  hence  their  present  superiority  over  most  of  those 
on  the  Continent.  Under  this  head  we  commence  with  the  ruminating  animals,  as  the  ox, 
the  sheep,  and  the  goat,  so  essential  in  supplying  food  and  clothing  to  man ;  while  the  horse, 
the  ass,  and  the  dog  assist  him  in  his  labour,  or  protect  his  property. 

The  principal  breeds  of  oxen  more  peculiar  to  Great  Britain  have  been  arranged  by  Major 
Hamilton  Smith  under  nine  divisions.  Of  these,  three  belong  to  England,  three  to  Scotland, 
two  to  Wales,  and  one  to  Guernsey. 

The  long-horned  or  Lancaster  breed  {fig-  120.),  as  the  name  implies,  is  remarkable  for 

long  horns;  they  have  firm  thick  hides,  long  close  hair, 
^^  large  hoofs,  and  give  in  proportion  less  milk,  but  more 

cream.  They  are  of  various  colours,  but  are  in  general 
finched,  that  is,  with  a  white  streak  above  the  spine, 
and  a  white  spot  inside  the  houghs.  The  improved 
Leicester  is  a  slight  variety,  originally  bred  near  Co- 
ventry. 

The  short-horned  breed  includes  those  that  are  named 

the   Holderness,  Teeswater,  Yorksliire,  Durliam,  and 

Nortlmmberland.     This  has  been  the  most  improved, 

The  long-horned  Ox.  producing  usually  twouty-four  quarts  of  milk  per  day, 

and  tliree  firkins  of  butter  per  season.     Their  colour  varies,  but  is  generally  red  and  white 

mixed ;  called  by  the  graziers  fleeked. 

The  middle-horned  includes  the  Devon,  Hereford,  and  Sussex  breeds:  they  are  active, 
hardy,  and  much  esteemed  for  draught :  but  although  they  fatten  early,  do  not  milk  so  well 
as  the  last.  The  pure  Devons  are  of  a  liigh  red  colour,  without  spots,  a  light  dun  ring 
round  the  eye,  fine  in  bone,  clear  neck,  thin  faced,  and  the  tail  set  on  high :  the  north  Devon 
is  most  esteemed  for  eating.  The  Sussex  and  Hereford  are  larger,  the  ox  weigliing  from  60 
to  100  stone. 

The  Scottish  breeds  may  be  arranged  under  the  Polled,  the  Highland,  and  the  Fifeshire. 
The  Polled  Galloway  is  the  most  esteemed :  it  is  straight  in  the  back,  the  hair  soft,  the 
colour  black  or  dark  brindled,  and  tiie  size  not  large.  They  travel  well,  and  reach  the 
London  markets  without  deterioration.  The  Suffolk  Dun  is  a  variety  of  this  race.  The 
Highland  race  includes  several  varieties,  tlie  most  valuable  ones  being  the  West  Highland, 
Argyle,  or  Skye,  and  the  Kyloe  from  the  Hebrides.  The  Norlarids  is  another  variety,  with 
coarse  liides,  long  legs,  and  of  a  narrow  make.  The  Orkney  or  Shetland  are  very  diminu- 
tive :  an  ox  weighing  about  60  lbs.  a  quarter,  and  a  cow  40  lbs.  Tlieir  colours  are  various, 
and  their  shapes  bad;  but  they  give  an  abundance  of  excellent  milk,  and  fatten  rapidly. 
The  Fifesliire  appears  an  improved  breed  of  the  Highlands,  crossed  with  the  Cambridge- 
shire;  tliey  are  black,  spotted  with  gray;  the  horns  small,  white,  and  very  erect:  a  variety 
occurs  in  Aberdeenshire. 

The  Welsh  liave  two  breeds :  the  first  is  large,  dark  brown,  with  some  white ;  the  legs 
long  and  slender ;  the  horns  white,  and  turned  upwards :  these,  next  to  the  Devon,  are  the 
best  in  yoke,  and  are  a  cross  of  the  long-horned :  the  second  is  lower,  well  formed,  black 
with  little  wliite,  and  are  good  milker.'^.  The  Alderney  or  Guernsey  race  is  proverbially 
small :  their  colour  is  mostly  yellow  or  liglit  red ;  marked  with  white  about  the  face  and 
limbs,  and  witli  crumpled  horns.  The  true  breed  is  known  by  being  yellow  within  the  ears, 
and  at  the  root  of  tlie  tail  and  its  lull. 

Respecting  draught  Oxen,  we  cannot  refrain  from  here  inserting  an  excellent  and  judi- 
cious remark  of  Pennant.  "  It  is  now,"  observes  tliis  sensible  writer,  "  generally  allowed, 
that,  in  many  cases,  oxen  are  more  profitable  in  the  draught  than  horses:  their  food,  harness, 
and  shoes  being  cheaper ;  and  should  they  be  lamed  or  grow  old,  an  old  working  beast  will 
be  as  good  meat,  and  flitten  as  well,  as  a  yuung  one."  {Brit.  Zool.  i.  28.) 

The  Sheep  is  scarcely  inferior  in  utility  to  the  ox :  and  the  breeds  now  cultivated  in 
Britain,  taking  all  their  qualities  into  consideration,  are  perhaps  the  most  valuable  in  the 
world.  It  is  a  curious  fact,  that  the  famed  Merino  sheep  of  Spain  originated  from  the  Eng- 
lish breed,  sent  to  that  country  by  Edward  IV.  as  a  present  to  King  John  of  Arragon.  {Bak. 
Chron.  p.  206.)  Major  H.  Smith  estimates  the  present  annual  value  of  wool  shorn  in  Eng 
land,  at  five  millions  sterling. 

The  British  sheep,  according  to  Mr.  Culley,  may  be  arranged  under  fourteen  different 
breeds,  and  some  others  might  also  be  enumerated.     These  may  be  classed  under  two  prin- 


BuOK  I. 


ENGLAND. 


337 


cipal  divisions ;  those  derived  from  the  ancient  race  being  furnished  with  horns,  while  the 
others  in  general  have  none. 

Of  the  horned  breeds,  the  most  ancient  is  the  black-faced  {fig.  121.),  still  met  with  in 
some  heathy  parts  of  Yorkshire,  and  the  adjacent  northern  counties :  the  wool  is  coarse  and 
shaggy.  The  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  sheep,  also,  have  the  horns  large  and  spiral,  with  the  face 
black,  but  the  wool  is  short  and  fine :  they  have  a  voracious  appetite,  and  a  restless  dispo- 
sition. In  the  Dorset  the  face  is  no  longer  black,  but  both  sexes  are  usually  horned.  This 
breed  is  rc-markable  for  producing  lambs  at  almost  every  season,  and  is  therefore  liighly  valu- 
able for  supplying  the  London  markets  with  house  lamb.  The  Wiltshire  is  a  much  larger 
variety,  having  no  wool  on  the  belly.  The  Hertfordshire  is  a  fine  productive  variety,  with 
short  tails.  The  Exmoor  comes  from  Devonshire :  it  is  small,  the  wool  long,  and  the  face  and 
legs  white.  Scotland  furnishes  three  breeds  of  horned  sheep ;  the  Dun-faced,  the  Shetland, 
and  the  Hebridean. 


The  Black-Faced  Slieep. 


The  Hereford  Sheep. 


The  hornless  race  may  be  divided  into  nine  breeds.  The  Lincoln  has  long  wool  and  a 
vvliite  face :  in  the  Teesvvater  the  wool  is  shorter  and  lighter,  and  the  legs  longer.  The 
Dishley,  or  new  Leicester,  is  distinguished  by  a  clean  head,  and  the  excellency  of  its  flesh. 
The  Devonshire  Nots,  like  the  three  preceding,  are  long-woolled  ;  they  have  white  faces  and 
legs,  thick  necks,  short  legs,  and  large  bones.  The  short-woolled  hornless  breeds  are  the 
following : — The  Hereford  (Jig.  122.)  have  very  fine  wool,  which  grows  close  to  their  eyes, 
the  legs  and  face  being  white  :  the  store  sheep  of  this  country  are  called  CoUings  or  Rylands. 
The  South  Down,  principally  cultivated  on  the  chalky  downs  of  Sussex,  have  the  face  and 
legs  gray,  and  are  highly  esteemed  for  the  table.  The  Cheviot  have  the  head  bare  and  clean, 
and  are  sometimes  spotted  witli  gray  or  dun ;  the  fleece  is  very  short  and  fine.  The  H  ird- 
wicke  is  peculiar  to  the  rocky  districts  of  Cumberland,  and  is  speckled  on  the  face  and  legs. 
The  Goat,  which  in  some  parts  of  Italy  supplies  the  only  milk  and  butter  known  to  the 
inhabitants,  is  of  little  utility  in  a  country  abounding  in  sheep  and  oxen.  But  to  the  Welsh 
mountaineers  it  is  a  valuable  animal :  the  suet  will  make  excellent  candles ;  the  meat  ia 
little  inferior  to  venison,  and  those  who  have  habitually  feasted  upon  mountain  kid,  know 
how  superior  its  flavour  is  to  lamb. 

The  Horses  of  Britain,  improved  as  they  have  been  by  the  most  sedulous  care,  next  to 
tlie  Arabian,  are  the  finest  in  the  world.  The  British  breeds,  originally  but  ill  adapted  for 
the  saddle,  have  progressively  improved;  and  the  crossing  of  the  indigenous  kind  with  those 
of  other  countries  has  produced  four  principal  classes  of  horses, — the  Racer,  the  Hunter,  the 
Roadster,  and  the  Dray  Horse ;  to  these  may  be  added  the  Poney,  one  of  th§  original  breeds. 
The  Ornitliology  of  Great  Britain,  after  the  general  observations  already  made  on  that  of 
Europe,  will  be  here  but  briefly  dwelt  upon.  The  native  birds  may  be  arranged  under  three 
natural  divisions: — 1.  the  rapacious;  2.  the  perching;  and  3.  the  walking,  running  and 
swimming  orders. 

The  rapacious  birds,  as  in  all  other  countries,  are  the  smallest  in  number,  but  the  most 
formidable  in  strength.    Among  these  the  Golden  Eagle  (Aquila  chrysa'etos,  fig.  123.)  is  the 
123  largest  known  in  the  British  islands:  this  noble  bird 

weighs  twelve  pounds,-  and  is  still  found  among  the 
highest  of  the  Welsh  and  Cumberland  mountains ;  it  is 
said  also  to  breed  in  Orkney.  The  Erne  or  Sea  Eagle 
is  somewhat  smaller,  and  is  principally  confined  to  the 
maritime  rocks  of  Wales  and  North  Britain.  The  Fal- 
con tribe  is  more  numerous  in  species ;  but  the  destruc- 
tion to  which  they  are  doomed  by  game  preservers  has 
long  been  diminishing  their  numbers :  some  species  are 
°  ^"    ''^  ^'  almost  extirpated,  and  nearly  all  are  now  become  rare. 

The  Osprey  {Pandion  HaUcEtus),  or  Fishing  Eagle,  is  now  seldom  met  with.  The  two 
species  of  Henharrie  (CVVc7/s  cyaneus  and  cinf.ruscens)  were  first  discriminated  by  Montagu. 
The  Owls  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Continent,  but  the  great  Snowy  Owl  has  only  of  late 
years  been  detected  in  the  north  of  Scotland  as  a  native  bird.  The  Eagle  or  great  horned 
Owl  is  of  the  same  size ;  the  former  hunting  by  day,  the  latter  by  night.  The  Barn  oi 
White  Owl  is  known  to  every  farmer,  and  appears  to  be  distributed  over  the  whole  habi 
table  globe. 
Vol.  I.  29  8  S 


338 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


124 


The  toothed-bill  or  perching  birds  (Dentirostres  S\v.)  are  tliose  ftirnished  with  a  notch  to 
their  bill,  by  which  their  food  is  held  firm  before  it  is  swallowed.  Some  are  formed  to  climb, 
others  to  hop  on  the  ground,  and  a  few  catch  their  food  (like  the  swallows)  upon  the  wing. 
They  are  united  to  the  rapacious  order  by  the  shrikes  or  butcher-birds,  so  called  from  their 
singular  custom  of  impaling  insects  and  small  birds  upon  the  thorns  round  their  nests.  Three 
species  of  these  birds  are  known  in  Britain.  The  melody  of  the  Blackbird  and  Song-tlirush 
need  not  be  eulogised;  and  during  spring  and  summer  the  woods  and  hedges  are  enlivened 
by  numbers  of  warblers,  or  small  insectivorous  birds,  which  visit  them  in  the  breeding  season : 
among  which  the  Nightingale  is  most  conspicuous.  Large  flocks  of  Finches,  and  similar 
hard-billed  birds,  feast,  in  winter,  upon  the  red  berries  of  the  black  and  white  thorn ;  while 
Crows,  Starlings,  and  Fieldfares  devour  prodigious  quantities  of  slugs,  worms,  and  other 
animals  noxious  to  the  farmer.  The  Woodpeckers,  Creepers,  and  Titmice  prey  only  upon 
those  insects  prejudicial  to  trees ;  the  Swallows,  during  summer,  join  with  the  warblers  in 
keeping  within  due  bounds  the  myriads  of  insects,  which  would  otherwise  increase  to  an 
alarming  extent. 

The  entire-billed  birds  (Curtipedes  Sw.)  are  those  which  have  no  notch,  at  the  end  of  their 
bill,  and  never  seek  their  food  among  trees :  they  are  united  to  the  former  by  the  Pigeons, 
and  comprise  the  gallinaceous,  M'ading,  and  swimming  tribes.  Among  the  first  Britain  pos- 
sesses the  Partridge,  Grouse,  and  Quail,  but  more  particularly  the  Great  Bustard,  the  largest 
of  the  European  gallinacea:  its  weight  is  about  25  lbs.,  and  its  flesh  excellent.  To  enume- 
rate the  wading  and  swimming  birds  would  far  exceed  our  limits :  they  visit  the  coasts  prin- 
cipally in  winter,  and  depart  in  spring. 

The  exterminated  birds  are  very  few ;  for  although  some,  as  the  Egret  (Jig.  124.)  and  the 
Crane,  are  no  longer  common  in  Britain,  3'et  individuals  are  some- 
times met  with,  showing  that  man  and  not  nature  has  scared  them 
from  their  hereditary  range.  Perhaps  the  only  extirpated  species 
is  the  cock  of  the  wood,  or  capercaillie  grouse  (  Tetrao  Urogallus  L.), 
a  noble  bird  of  game,  weighing  near  thirteen  pounds;  once  com- 
mon in  the  fir  forests  of  Scotland,  but  which  has  not  been  seen,  it 
is  said,  since  1760. 

Of  domesticated  birds  the  Pheasant  originally  came  from  Asia 
Minor;  the  Guinea  Hen  from  Africa;  the  Peacock  and  Fowl  from 
India;  and  the  Turkey  from  America. 

The  fishes,  both  marine  and  freshwater,  are  numerous:  most  are 
edible,  and  many  highly  esteemed.  Whale,  and  other  cetacea,  are 
mostly  confined  to  the  northern  shores:  but  those  of  the  west  are 
famous  for  the  herring  and  pilchard  fisheries.  The  John  Doree  is 
as  remarkable  for  its  grotesque  form  as  for  its  exquisite  flavour. 
The  Turbot,  Cod,  Sole,  «fcc.  are  well  known.  The  chief  river  fish 
are  the  Salmon,  Trout,  and  Char;  and  these  are  principally  fur- 
nished by  the  northern  counties.  The  salmon  fisheries  are  higlily  important,  and  have  long 
engaged  the  attention  of  the  legislature :  the  eggs  of  one  fish  will  often  exceed  15,000. 
The  Char  is  confined  to  the  lakes  of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland ;  those  of  Windermere 
are  the  best,  and  when  potted  become  a  great  delicacy.  The  Herring  and  Sprat  supply  the 
poor,  during  winter,  with  a  wholesome  dish ;  while  the  citizens  of  London  consider  another 
species,  called  the  White  Bait,  as  possessing  a  peculiarly  fine  flavour.  The  Anchovy  is  not 
unknown  in  some  of  our  estuaries ;  and  even  the  Flying-fish  has  occasionally  wandered  to 
the  Welsh  coast. 

The  reptiles  of  Britain,  known  in  a  living  state,  are  very  few.     Besides  the  Warty  Efl 
CLacerta  palustris  Lin.,  Jig.  125.)  there  are  two  other  water  lizards,  and  probably  as  many 
125  126 


Egret. 


Warly  Eft.  Common  Viper. 

species  inhabiting  the  land.  Of  the  Frog  and  Toad  two  sorts  of  each  occur.  The  snakes 
and  the  blind-worm  are  harmless ;  the  Common  Viper  (Jig.  126.)  bring  the  only  venomous 
reptile :  yet  this  species  varies  so  much  bi  its  colours,  that  naturalists  have  described  it  under 
several  names.  The  Great  or  Gigantic  Frog  of  Pennant  is  only  a  variety  of  the  common 
toad. 

Extinct  reptiles.  The  researches  of  geologists  have  brought  to  light  the  remains  of  such 
gigantic  and  extraordinary  reptiles,  that,  but  for  such  uidubitable  proofs,  their  existence 
mfght  be  thought  fabulous.  At  the  head  of  these  we  may  place  the  Megalosavrus,  resem 
bling  both  a  lizard  and  a  crocodile,  whose  probable  length  was  near  40  feet !     The  Ichthyo 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


339 


saitrus,  uniting  the  characters  of  a  lizard  with  the  snout  of  a  dolphin,  the  teeth  of  a  croco- 
dile, the  fins  of  a  turtle,  and  the  vertebrse  of  a  fish,  is  scarcely  less  wonderful.  The  Plesio- 
saurus  is  still  more  extraordinary  ;  for  with  the  fins  of  a  turtle,  it  had  the  head  of  a  lizard,  and 
a  long  neck,  formed  like  the  body  of  a  serpent.  Lastly,  the  remains  of  several  distinct 
species  of  crocodiles  have  been  discovered  in  similar  strata.  All  these  attest  the  existence, 
at  some  unknown  period,  of  a  stupendous  race  of  aquatic  monsters,  which  have  long  been 
swept  away  fi"om  the  existing  animal  creation. 

Among  the  radiated  animals,  vast  shoals  of  transparent  Medusa  wander  about  the  coast 
during  summer,  and  are  frequently  by  a  sudden  change  of  wind  cast  up  on  the  beach  in 
great  numbers.  But  the  deep  recesses  of  the  ocean  frequently  give  to  the  nets  of  the 
fisherman  animals  still  more  singular.  The  Black  Line  Worm,  or  Sea  Long  Worm  (Lin- 
naus  longissimus  Sow.,  Jig.  127.),  whose  mouth  is  hardly  a  quarter  of  an  inch  wide,  is  said, 
by  tlie  fishermen,  to  measure  twelve  fathoms  in  length :  it  is  soft,  and  so  fragile,  that  the 
entire  animal  seems  not  yet  to  have  been  procured. 

128 
127 


Black  line  Worm. 


May-blossom  Coral. 


Ellis  was  the  first  to  make  known  the  true  nature  of  those  plant-like  productions  generally 
termed  corallines.  Of  Corals,  the  British  seas  afford  few  native  species ;  the  largest  and 
most  elegant  is  the  May-blossom  coral  (Caryophyllia  ramea),  (Jig.  128.),  common  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  occasionally  found  upon  the  Cornish  coast :  it  is  cinnamon-coloured ;  and 
retains,  for  many  years,  a  slight  scent,  like  that  of  hawthorn. 

The  Conchology  of  Britain,  in  the  number  and  interest  of  its  species,  compensates  for  its 
deficiency  in  large  or  richly  coloured  objects.  The  beautiful  varieties  of  Pecten  opercu- 
laris  are,  nevertheless,  frequently  variegated  with  the  most  lovely  tints  of  yellow,  orange, 
pink,  and  deep  red ;  they  also  afford  a  nutritious  food  to  the  lower  classes.  The  most  cele- 
Ijrated  edible  shell-fish  is  tlie  oyster,  well  known  and  highly  prized  by  the  luxurious  Romans ; 
and  every  one  is  acquainted  with  the  superior  excellency  of  those  from  Colchester  and 
Milton.  Fluviatile  shells,  in  a  country  so  humid  and  watered  as  Britain,  are  more  abundant 
than  towards  the  south  of  Europe.  Most  of  the  rivers  produce  Unio  pictorum  (Jig.  129.  a), 
and  Unio  ovatus  (6)  :  Cyclas  cornea  (d)  is  generally  found  in  the  same  situations.  The  ponds 
and  stagnant  waters  are  frequently  covered  with  Lymneus  palustris  (e),  ovatus  (g),  and 
Planorbis  corneus  (Z) ;  while  the  large  Duck-mussel  (Anodon  anatinus)  (c)  burrows  in  the 

129  ^ 


130 


Unio  Margaritifera. 


Fluviatile  Shells. 

muddy  bottom,  A  little  fragile  shell,  Succinea  amphibia  (/),  crawls  upon  rushes  and  aquatic 
plants ;  and  Physa  fontinalis  (K),  Ancylus  lacustris  (i),  and  Planorbis  vortex  {U)  prefer  clear 
shady  streams  and  ditches  overhung  with  wood. 

Native  pearls  were  reckoned  by  the  Romans  among  the  productions  of  Britain.  They 
are  the  produce  of  a  fluviatile  bivalve  shell,  the  Unio  margaritifera,  {Jig.  130.),  still  com- 
mon in  many  of  the  northern  counties ;  but  it  was  on  the  banks  of  the  Welsh  rivers  that  the 
British  pearl  fishery  was  chiefly  carried  on. 


340 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


Insects.  Considering  the  nature  of  the  climate,  it  may  excite  surprise,  that  more  than 
10,000  different  species  have  actually  been  found  to  inhabit  Britain.  Yet  the  bee  may  bo 
reckoned  the  only  insect  whose  services  are  immediately  and  obviously  beneficial  to  man 
Among  the  butterflies,  are  many  of  great  beauty ;  while  Eurymus  Europome,  or  the  Clouded 
Sulphur  i^g.  131.),  IS  considered  one  of  the  rarest  British  insects. 


132 


\^.€^. 


Clouded  Sulpliur 


Red  Grouse. 


Scotland.  The  zoology  of  Scotland  exhibits  many  arctic  animals  as  common  inhabitants, 
which  are  only  known  as  rare  visitants  to  the  western  shores  of  England ;  in  other  respects, 
it  does  not  materially  differ  from  that  of  South  Britain.  The  northern  islands  give  shelter 
to  innumerable  wild  fowl,  and  to  many  peculiar  land  birds,  as  the  Ptarmigan  and  the  Golden 
Eagle.  The  great  horned  or  Eagle  Owl,  is  found  to  breed  in  Orkney.  The  Highlands  are 
famous  for  an  abundance  of  Grouse,  the  red  species  (Lagopiis  scoticus,  Jig.  132.)  being  the 
only  bird  peculiar  to  Great  Britain. 

The  domestic  animals  are  of  a  small  size ;  in  other  respects,  they  are  highly  valuable. 
The  polled  or  hornless  cattle,  with  the  Highland  and  the  Fifeshire,  have  already  been  noticed. 
The  Kyloe  breed  are  so  named,  because  in  their  progress  to  the  south  from  tlie  Hebrides, 
they  cross  the  kyloes  or  ferries  in  the  main  land  and  Western  Islands.  {Ham.  Smith.') 
The  same  writer  considers  that  the  sheep  of  this  kingdom  spring  from  three  principal  breeds : 
the  first  is  generally  named  dun-faced  sheep ;  they  are  a  small,  horned  race,  said  to  have 
been  originally  imported  from  Denmark  or  Norway,  and  are  still  found,  with  slight  varia- 
tions, in  the  North  of  Scotland  and  the  isles.  In  Kincardineshire,  this  breed  is  known  by 
its  yellow  face  and  legs,  and  by  the  dishevelled  texture  of  its  fleece,  which  is  in  part  coarse, 
and  in  part  remarkably  fine  wool ;  its  flesh  also  is  delicate  and  higlily  flavoured.  The  Sliet- 
land  breed  carry  a  very  fine  wool,  in  three  different  successions  yearly,  two  of  which  resem- 
ble long  hair  more  than  wool,  and  are  called  Fors  and  Scudda.  The  wool  is  of  various 
colours.  The  Hebridian  sheep  is  the  smallest  animal  of  its  kind  ;  its  horns  are  usually  short 
and  straight,  the  face  and  legs  white,  the  tail  very  short,  and  the  wool  of  different  colours. 

The  Highland  Ponies  and  Shetland  Ponies  (Jig.  133.),  notwithstanding  their  diminutive 
eize,  are  greatly  esteemed  for  their  activity  and  strength. 

133  134 


Highland  Pony. 


Scottish  Greyhound. 


Among  the  numerous  breeds  of  dogs,  there  appear  to  be  three  more  particularly  found  in 
Scotland :  the  true  Shepherd's  Dog,  or  Colly,  is  still  preserved,  unmixed,  in  many  of  the 
sheep  districts :  the  Shetland  Hound,  approaches  in  character  to  the  Greenland  Dog ;  while 
the  Scottish  Greyliound  {fig.  134.),  common  in  the  Highlands,  is  possessed  of  great  sagacity, 
strength,  and  swiftness. 

The  Zoology  of  Ireland  has  been  much  neglected ;  nor  are  we  prepared  to  show  what 
peculiarities  belong  to  its  natural  history.  The  Irish  Wolf  Dog,  called  also  the  Irish  Grey- 
hound, has  generally  been  thought  peculiar  to  this  island  ;  but  others  consider  it  the  same 
breed  as  the  French  matin  {Canis  laniarius  L.)  It  is  a  noble  animal,  standing  near  four 
feet  in  height,  and  seems  to  have  been  mainly  instrumental  in  clearing  the  country  of  the 
numerous  wolves  wliich  once  over-ran  it.  The  cattle  and  sheep  are  inferior  to  those  of 
Britain.  Yet  Ireland  exports  vast  quantities  of  salted  provisions,  besides  the  supplies  fiir- 
nished  to  the  navy  and  shipping  interests.  The  remains  of  the  Fossil  Elk  {fig.  135.)  are  of 
frequent  occurrence  in  beds  of  shell  marl,  beneath  peat.  Its  antlers  measure  from  the 
extreme  tip  of  each,  no  less  than  ten  feet  ten  inches,  and  from  the  tip  of  tlie  right  horn  tc 


UOOK  I. 


ENGLAND. 


341 


its  root,  five  feet  two  inches.  Remains  of  the  same  animal  have  been  also  found  in  England, 
and  a  very  perfect  specimen  in  the  Isle  of  Man.  The  Irish  shores  furnish  the  conchologist 
with  several  native  shells,  seldom  seen  on  the  British  coasts,  particularly  the  Isocardia  cor, 
or  Heart  Cockle  (^Jig.  136.). 


135 


136 


Foesil  Elk. 

Heart  Cockle. 

Sect.  III. — Historical  Geography. 

Britain  was  originally  peopled  from  Gaul,  by  inliabitants  of  the  Celtic  race.  For  a  long 
time  it  appears  to  have  been  noticed  only  as  a  country  supplying  tin ;  a  rare  and  useful  metal, 
not  then  found  in  any  other  part  of  Europe,  or  in  Western  Asia.  To  obtain  this  valuable 
mineral,  the  coasts  of  Britain  were  at  an  early  period  sought  by  the  ships  of  various  mer- 
cantile states,  especially  the  Carthaginians  ;  and  the  tin  of  Tarshish,  mentioned  by  Ezekiel, 
was  doubtless  brought  from  the  mines  of  Cornwall. 

Britain  was  invaded  by  the  Romans,  about  fifty-five  years  before  the  Christian  era.  Of 
the  thirty  tribes  of  barbarians  among  whom  the  country  was  then  divided,  the  most  consid- 
erable were  the  Belga;  in  tlie  west,  the  Brigantes  in  the  north,  the  Silures  in  South  Wales, 
the  Iceni  in  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  and  the  Cantii,  who  occupied  Kent  and  part  of  Middlesex. 
The  latter  had  made  some  progress  in  agriculture  and  the  arts  of  civilized  life  ;  but  the 
other  inhabitants  derived  their  subsistence  from  flocks  and  herds,  clothed  themselves  in  skins, 
and  painted  their  bodies.  The  precarious  autliority  of  tlie  chiefs  derived  support  from  the 
influence  exercised  by  the  Druids,  in  one  of  the  most  terrible  forms  of  superstition  that  ever 
enslaved  the  iiuman  mind.  Besides  the  ordinary  implements  of  war,  tliey  had  armed  chariots, 
wliich  they  managed  with  surprising  dexterity;  and  tliey  were  united  in  a  species  of  politi- 
cal confederacy,  of  which  Cassivelaunus  was  the  head.  They  could  not,  however  prevent 
the  landing  of  Julius  Cajsar,  but  that  conqueror  was  prevented  by  more  urgent  affairs  from 
prosecuting  an  enterprise  of  whicli  the  difficulties  were  not  likely  to  be  compensated  by  its 
glory.  In  the  reign  of  Claudius  the  hardiiiood  of  Caractacus,  and  the  heroic  desperation  of 
Boadicea,  failed  of  exciting  an  effectual  resistnnce  to  the  disciplined  legions  of  Rome,  whose 
victorious  progress  was  continued  during  the  reign  of  Nero.  In  that  of  Domitian,  the  Ro- 
man dominion  was  extended  by  the  wisdom  and  valour  of  Agricola,  who  defeated  the  Cale- 
donians under  Galgacus,  at  the  foot  of  the  Grampians  ;  and  the  only  part  of  the  island  which 
remained  unsubdued  was  the  region  which  lies  north  of  that  natural  rampart. 

The  Britons  now  subjected  to  the  Roman  empire  were  compelled  to  cultivate  the  habits 
and  arts  of  peace :  but  when  that  empire,  weakened,  distracted,  and  verging  to  its  decline, 
was  compelled  to  withdraw  its  protection  from  its  distant  provinces,  the  Scots  and  Picts, 
emerging  from  their  mountain  fastnesses,  then  broke  in,  and  committed  dreadful  devastations 
among  their  unwarlike  neighbours.  The  Romans  had  recourse  to  the  expedient  of  frontier 
walls ;  first,  one  between  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  called  the  Wall  of  Antonine,  and  afterwards 
a  similar  rampart  between  the  Tyne  and  Solway,  called  the  Wall  of  Severus.  About  the 
middle  of  the  fiflh  century,  the  Roman  forces  were  finally  withdrawn,  and  the  Britons 
were  lefl  to  depend  entirely  on  their  own  resources. 

The  Saxons  were  called  in  as  allies,  about  forty  years  afler  the  dissolution  of  the  Roman 
government.  These  hardy  adventurers,  originating  from  the  north  of  Germany,  and  occupy- 
ing the  line  of  coast  from  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine  to  .Jutland,  had  long  infested  by  their 
piracies  the  neighbouring  parts  of  Britain  and  Gaul.  They  eagerly  accepted  an  invitation 
to  a  country  so  superior  to  their  own.  In  the  year  450,  1600  men  under  Hengist  and  Horsa, 
arrived  in  Britain,  and  obtained  an  easy  victory  over  the  Scots  and  Picts.  The  success  of 
the  two  brothers  attracted  numerous  bands  of  their  countrymen;  and  in  the  course  of  a  cen 
lury,  colonies  arrived  from  the  mouths  of  the  Elbe,  the  Weser,  and  the  Rhine,  chiefly 
composed  of  three  valiant  tribes,  the  Jiifcs,  the  Old  Saxons,  and  the  Angles.  From  allies, 
they  became  formidable  enemies  to  the  Britons ;  whom,  afler  a  long  and  sanguinary  struggle 
of  one  hundred  and  fifly  years,  they  compelled  to  retire  into  Wales  and  Cornwall. 

Thus  was  established  the  Heptarchy,  or  Seven  Saxon  Kingdoms  in  Britain:  viz.  1.  Kent; 
2.  Sussex,  including  Surrey;  3.  EastEnglas,  including  Norfolk,  Sufiblk,  the  Isle  of  Ely,  and 
Cambridgeshire;  4.  Wessox,  including  all  the  southern  counties  from  Berkshire  to  Cornwall ; 
5.  Northumberland,  including  all  the  northern  counties  of  England,  and  the  southern  coun- 
ties of  Scotland  to  the  Frith  of  Forth ;  6.  Essex,  including  Essex,  l\Iiddlesex,  and  i/art  of 

29* 


342  DESCRIPTR^  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  HI. 

Hertfordshire;  7.  Mercryc,  or  Mercia,  the  largest  division,  including  the  midland  districts 

of  England  to  the  confines  of  Wales. 

About  the  year  8(K)  these  small  states  were  united  into  one  kingdom,  under  the  name  of 
England,  by  Egbert,  king  of  Wessex.  Tlie  Anglo-Saxon  dynasty  derived  its  chief  lustre 
from  x\lfred,  one  of  the  wisest  and  most  virtuous  monarchs  that  have  appeared  in  any  age  or 
country.  He  delivered  his  country  from  the  thraldom  of  the  Danes;  but  in  the  course  of 
the  ensuing  century,  however,  they  regained  the  ascendency;  and  in  1017,  Canute,  kmg 
of  Denmark  and  Norway,  added  England  to  his  dominions.  It  was  held  successively  by  his 
sons,  Harold  and  Hardicanute;  but  on  the  death  of  the  latter,  it  was  restored  to  the  Saxon 
dynasty,  and  Edward  the  Confessor  ascended  the  throne. 

The  conquest  by  William  of  Normandy,  in  1066,  overthrew  for  a  time  the  liberties  of  the 
people  of  England.  Claiming  the  crown  by  virtue  of  a  pretended  grant  from  Edward  the 
Confessor,  and  acquiring  it  by  victory  over  Harold  II.,  himself  an  usurper,  to  the  prejudice 
of  Edgar  Atheling,  the  rightftil  heir,  he  maintained  by  tyranny  a  dominion  gained  by  fraud 
and  violence.  One  of  the  consequences  of  the  acquisition  of  the  English  crown  by  \Villiam 
was  to  convey  to  the  kings  his  successors  certain  claims  on  the  French  territory,  which  led 
to  long,  expensive,  and  sanguinary  wars. 

Henry  the  Second,  surnamed  Plantagenet,  son  of  Geoffry  of  Anjou,  who  married  Matilda, 
daughter  of  Henry  I.,  in  the  right  of  his  father,  was  master  of  Anjou  and  Touraine;  in  that 
of  his  mother,  of  Normandy  and  Maine;  in  that  of  his  wife,  of  Guienne,  Poitou,  Saintonge, 
Auvergne,  Perigord,  Angoumois,  and  the  Limousin.  To  these  states  he  afterwards  annexed 
that  of  Bretagne.  The  possession  of  provinces  composing  above  one-third  of  the  French 
monarchy,  and  superior  in  opulence  to  the  rest  of  the  territory,  rendered  this  vassal  more 
powerful  than  his  liege  lord,  and  contributed  to  provoke  that  rivalry  which  for  ages  existed 
between  England  and  France.  Henry  the  Second  acquired  the  sovereignty  of  Ireland ; 
Edward  the  First  annexed  Wales  to  his  dominions,  and  for  a  time  subjugated  Scotland. 
The  contending  claims  of  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster  for  the  crown  of  England,  after 
a  civil  war  of  nearly  sixty  years,  were  adjusted  by  the  marriage  of  Henry  the  Seventh  with 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  the  Fourth.  Among  the  memorable  events  that  occurred 
under  the  Plantagenets,  may  be  noticed  the  signature  of  Magna  Charta,  extorted  by  the 
barons  from  King  John ;  the  rise  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  the  reign  of  Henry  the  Third  ; 
and  the  reformation  of  the  church,  commenced  by  John  Wickliffe,  in  1369. 

The  reign  of  Henry  the  Seventh  was  signalized  by  the  overthrow  of  the  feudal  sway,  and 
by  the  introduction  of  the  modern  system  of  polity.  The  emancipation  of  the  kingdom  from 
papal  dominion  was  effected  by  his  successor.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  the  most  strenuous 
exertions  were  made  to  strengthen  the  maritime  power  of  England,  and  extend  her  com- 
mercial intercourse.  The  result  of  these  measures  was  to  raise  the  nation  to  a  very  pros- 
perous and  flourishing  condition,  and  to  overturn  the  lawless  domination  of  the  nobles, 
substituting  for  it,  however,  an  authority  almost  absolute  on  the  part  of  the  sovereign. 

The  union  of  the  two  crowns  on  the  accession  of  James  the  Sixth  of  Scotland  to  the  throne 
of  England,  terminated  those  animosities  which  had  proved  alike  injurious  to  both  countries. 
The  despotic  conduct  of  Charles  the  First  led  to  a  struggle  in  which  he  lost  both  his  crown 
and  his  life.  In  the  interregnum  which  ensued  under  the  Commonwealth,  the  vigilant, 
energetic,  end  decisive  policy  of  Oliver  Cromwell  exercised  a  commanding  influence  over 
every  cabinet  in  Europe.  Charles  the  Second  suffered  England  to  lose  the  ascendency 
vyhich  she  had  attained,  and  the  infatuated  conduct  of  James  the  Second  led  to  the  revolu- 
tion of  168S,  from  which  epoch  to  the  present  time,  the  industry,  commerce,  and  wealth  of 
Great  Britain,  rapidly  rose  to  a  height  unparalleled  in  any  other  nation,  ancient  or  modem ; 
but  her  political  power  sustained  various  fluctuations.  She  acquired  in  the  East  and  in  the 
West  two  empires,  each  far  more  extensive  than  her  own  territory.  That  in  the  East  she 
retains  and  is  continually  extending ;  that  in  the  West,  having  become  independent,  is  her  . 
rival  in  commerce,  and  manifests  a  disposition  to  dispute,^  at  no  distant  period,  her  maritime 
supremacy.  Among  the  memorable  transactions  and  events  of  this  period  may  be  ranked 
the  union  with  Scotland  in  1707 ;  that  with  Ireland  in  1801  ;  the  Scottish  rebellions  in  1715 
and  1745 ;  the  Irish  rebellion  in  1798 ;  and  a  series  of  wars  with  France,  occurring  at 
intervals  rarely  exceeding  eight  or  ten  years.  The  contests  arising  from  the  French 
revolution  were  distinguished  by  the  most  brilliant  naval  achievements,  and  afterwards  by 
successes  which  raised  the  military  glory  of  England  to  a  level  with  her  maritime  renown, 
rendering  her  influence  paramount  among  the  states  of  Europe. 

Sect.  IV. — Political  Geography. 
The  constitution  of  Great  Britain  centres  in  the  laws  by  which  the  country  is  governed, 
and  in  the  union  of  powers  by  which  the  laws  are  made  and  the  government  is  administered. 
The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  the  Parliament,  consisting  of  the  King,  an  hereditary 
^sovereign ;  the  Lords,  an  hereditary  aristocracy ;  and  the  House  of  Commons,  consisting  of 
members  chosen  by  the  people  from  among  themselves,  and  therefore  said  to  represent  the 
commons  of  the  realm.     The  executive  power  is  entrusted  to  the  king. 


Book  I.  ENGLAND.  343 

Of  the  three  estates  of  tlie  realm  thus  composing  the  legislature,  the  King  is  the  highest : 
he  is  the  head  or  chief  of  the  parliament:  and  except  in  extreme  cases,  a  parliament  cannot 
be  held  unless  convoked  by  him,  nor  can  it  except  by  him  be  dissolved  or  prorogued.  His 
assent  is  requisite  to  give  the  force  of  law  to  any  measure  proposed  by  either  of  the  two 
houses,  and  agreed  upon  by  them.  Propositions  of  laws,  or  bills  as  they  are  technically 
called,  may  be  brought  forward  in  either  house ;  all  money  bills  must  take  their  origin  in  the 
House  of  Commons ;  but  only  in  one  instance  can  the  king  initiate  an  act  of  parliament,  and 
that  is,  an  act  of  grace,  for  the  pardon  of  persons  after  a  rebellion,  or  for  the  release  of  ii:isol- 
vent  debtors. 

The  King  is  not  supposed  to  hold  his  throne  by  divine  right,  or  in  virtue  of  any  indefea- 
sible hereditary  claim.  The  nation,  by  its  supreme  council,  has  dictated  certain  rules  of 
exclusion  with  regard  to  the  succession,  of  which  the  most  important  is,  that  the  sovereign 
shall  maintain  the  Protestant  reformftd  religion,  and,  either  at  his  coronation  or  on  the  first 
day  of  the  first  parliament,  shall  repeat  and  subscribe  the  declaration  against  popery.  On 
the  death  or  demise  of  the  king,  his  heir  becomes  instantly  invested  with  the  kingly  office 
and  regal  power. 

By  a  constitutional  fiction  accordant  with  the  feudal  policy,  all  lands  are  held  mediately  or 
immediately  from  the  crown.  Thus  the  king  is  entitled  to  all  lands  left  by  the  subsiding  of 
the  sea ;  and  estates  may  revert  to  him  by  escheat,  from  the  commission  of  crime  by  their 
possessors.  He  is  sovereign  in  till  seas  and  great  rivers ;  he  alone  has  a  prerogative  to  erect 
beacons  and  lighthouses;  he  is  entitled  to  all  royal  mines  of  gold  and  silver,  and  is  entrusted 
with  the  coinage.  All  persons  born  in  his  dominions  are  his  subjects,  and  owe  to  him  an 
allegiance  which  they  can  neither  renounce  nor  transfer  to  any  foreign  prince.  He  is  su- 
preme head  of  the  church  within  his  dominions ;  and  as  patron  paramount  of  all  the  benefices 
m  England,  he  has  a  right  to  present  to  all  dignities  and  benefices  of  the  advowson  of  arch- 
bishoprics and  bishoprics  during  the  vacancy  of  their  respective  sees.  He  is  the  fountain  of 
justice,  and  has  an  undoubted  prerogative  in  creating  officers  of  state,  ministers,  judges,  and 
other  functionaries.  To  him,  as  parens  patrice,  belongs  the  care  of  all  who  are  unable  to 
take  care  of  themselves ;  he  has  an  original  right  to  superintend  the  disposal  of  charities ; 
and  in  all  such  cases  the  application  is  to  the  Court  of  Chancery.  He  has,  in  certain  cases, 
the  high  prerogative  of  pardoning,  and  likewise  that  of  issuing  special  proclamations  for  the 
prevention  of  oflences.  The  power  of  making  war  or  peace  is  lodged  singly  in  the  king.  He 
is  held  to  be  incapable  of  doing  wrong,  and  if  an  unlawful  act  be  done,  the  minister  instru- 
mental in  that  act  is  alone  obnoxious  to  punishment.  By  virtue  of  his  prerogative  the  king 
may  make  grants  and  letters  patent,  conferring  various  rights  and  privileges.  Lastly,  the 
king  cannot  be  attainted,  and  is  never  a  minor ;  though  when  the  crown  has  devolved  to  a 
very  young  heir,  it  has  been  thought  prudent  to  appoint  a  regent,  or  council  of  regency. 
The  same  expedient  has  been  adopted  when,  by  reason  of  grievous  illness,  the  exercise  of 
the  royal  functions  has  been  interrupted. 

All  supplies  granted  by  parliament  are  given  to  the  king ;  but  of  these  the  largest  pro- 
portion belongs  to  the  public  or  its  creditors ;  that  which  pertains  to  the  king  in  his  distinct 
capacity,  called  the  Civil  List,  is  the  provision  for  the  support  of  tlie  honour  and  dignity  of 
the  crown.  On  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  William  IV.,  the  civil  list  was  entirely 
new-modelled,  being  limited  to  the  personal  expenses  of  the  sovereign,  and  the  maintenance 
of  his  state ;  while  the  branches  of  administration  hitherto  defrayed  out  of  it  were  charged 
upon  the  Consolidated  Fund.  The  sum  of  510,000Z.  was  granted,  under  the  following 
heads : — 

Privy  purse.  King's,     -----------------  £60,000 

Queen's, 50,000 

Maintenance  of  royal  establishment,  ------------    171,000 

Salaries  in  the  departments  of  Chamberlain,  Steward,  Master  of  the  horse, 

home  secret  service,  &c.  ---------------    154,000 

Pensions, 75,000 

£510,000 
Thus  the  royal  prerogative  is  counterbalanced  by  the  control  which  the  representatives 
of  the  people  in  parliament  exercise  over  the  public  purse.  The  king  has  the  prerogative 
of  commanding  arnnes  and  equipping  fleets;  but  without  the  concurrence  of  his  parliament 
he  cannot  maintain  them.  He  can  confer  appointments  to  offices ;  but  without  his  parlia- 
ment he  cannot  pay  the  salaries.  He  can  declare  wa^;  but  without  the  aid  of  parliament 
he  cannot  carry  it  on.  He  has  the  exclusive  right  of  assembling  parliaments;  but  by  law 
he  must  assemble  a  parliament  every  three  years.  Though  head  of  the  church,  he  cannot 
alter  the  established  religion,  or  call  individuals  to  account  for  their  religious  opinions.  He 
cannot  create  any  new  office  inconsistent  with  the  constitution  or  prejudicial  to  the  subject. 
He  has  the  privilege  of  coining  money  ;  but  he  cannot  alter  the  standard.  He  has  the  power 
of  pardoning  offenders;  but  he  cannot  exempt  them  from  making  compensation  to  the  injured 
parties.     Even  with  the  military  power  he  is  not  absolute,  since  it  is  declared  in  tlie  Bill  of 


344  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Paet  IU. 

Rights  that  a  standing  army  without  the  consent  of  parliament  is  illegal.  The  king  himself 
cannot  be  arraigned ;  but  it"  any  abuse  of  power  be  committed,  those  who  were  either  the 
advisers  or  the  instruments  of  the  measure  may  be  impeached  and  tried  before  the  House  of 
Lords;  in  which  case  it  is  of  no  avail  to  plead  the  king's  command,  or  to  produce  his  pardon. 
A  dissolution  of  parliament  does  not  abate  an  impeacliment,  neither  can  the  royal  autliority 
interpose  to  stay  or  suspend  its  course.  Other  restraints  on  the  prerogative  exist  in  the 
uncontrolled  freedom  of  speech  in  parliament,  secured  by  the  Bill  of  Rights,  and  in  the  im- 
portant provisions  by  which,  durmg  the  reign  of  George  III.,  the  independence  of  the  judges 
was  established. 

The  House  of  Lords  is  composed  of  tlie  lords  spiritual  and  temporal  of  England ;  sixteen 
temporal  peers  of  Scotland ;  one  archbishop,  three  bishops,  and  twenty-eight  temporal  peers 
of  Ireland.  The  roll  of  the  lords  spiritual  and  temporal  forming  the  House  of  Peers,  in  the 
session  of  1833,  exhibits  426  lords,  including  the  Catholic  peers  of  England.  They  are  thus 
distinguished : — 

Roval  dukes 4  |  Earls 109  |  Peers  of  Scotland 16 

Archbishops.. 3  I  Viscounts 18  1  oflrtland 28 

Dukes  with  English  titles 2J     Bishops 27  

Marquesses 19  |  Barons 161  |  Total 426 

The  Lords  Spiritual  are,  for  England,  two  archbishops  and  twenty-four  bishops ;  and  for 
Ireland,  one  archbishop  and  three  bisliops ;  the  English  hold  theh  seats  for  life,  the  Irish  by 
rotation.  The  archbishops  rank  above  all  dukes  except  the  prmcesof  the  blood;  the  bishops 
next  below  viscounts. 

The  Lords  Temporal  are  not  limited  in  number,  it  being  the  prerogative  of  the  king  to 
raise  to  the  peerage  any  of  his  subjects  whom  he  thinks  deserving.  They  consist  of  dukes, 
marquesses,  earls,  viscounts,  and  barons.  The  sixteen  peers  of  Scotland  are,  by  the  articles 
of  union,  elected  by  the  peers  of  that  country  from  among  themselves :  the  election  is 
renewed  for  every  parliament.  The  Peers  of  Ireland  are,  as  established  by  the  act  of  union, 
four  lords  spiritual  sitting  by  rotation  of  sessions,  and  twenty-eight  lords  temporal  elected  for 
life  by  the  peers  of  Ireland.  As  a  supreme  court  of  judicature,  the  House  of  Lords  exercises 
jurisdiction  in  civil  causes  upon  appeals  or  writs  of  error  from  the  inferior  courts ;  and  in 
criminal  questions,  when  brought  before  them,  by  presentment  of  the  House  of  Commons,  in 
the  form  of  an  impeachment. 

All  members  of  parliament  have  the  privilege  for  themselves  and  their  menial  servants  of 
being  freed  from  arrests  or  imprisonment  for  debt  or  trespass ;  but  not  from  arrests  for  treason, 
felony,  or  breach  of  the  peace.  The  peers  have  other  privileges  peculiar  to  themselves.  In 
all  cases  of  treason,  felony,  or  misprision  of  felony,  a  nobleman  is  tried  by  his  peers;  but  in 
misdemeanours,  lie  is  tried  like  a  commoner.  In  judicial  proceedings,  a  peer  gives  his  ver- 
dict not  upon  oath,  but  upon  liis  honour;  he  answers  also  to  bills  in  chancery  upon  his  honour; 
but  when  examined  as  a  witness  in  the  inferior  courts  or  in  the  high  court  of  parliament, 
either  in  civil  or  criminal  cases,  he  must  be  sworn.  Slander  against  a  peer  subjects  the 
offender  to  very  lieavy  punishment,  being  branded  by  the  law  with  the  term  scandalum  mag- 
natuin.  Every  peer,  by  license  from  the  king,  may  make  a  proxy  to  vote  for  him  in  liis 
absence,  a  privilege  wliicli  cannot  be  held  by  a  member  of  the  lower  house.  All  bills  which 
may  a.Tect  the  rights  of  the  peerage,  are,  by  the  custom  of  parliament,  to  originate  in  the 
House  of  Peers,  and  to  suffer  no  changes  or  amendments  in  the  lower  house. 

The  House  of  Commons,  as  a  distinct  branch  of  the  legislature,  is  the  peculiar  boast  of 
the  British  constitution.  In  the  earliest  times  of  which  any  record  exists  in  English  history, 
there  appear  to  have  been  assemblies  of  the  nation,  convoked  to  deliberate  on  occasions  of 
great  emergency ;  but  it  was  not  until  (A.  D.  1266)  after  the  overthrow  of  Simon  Montfort, 
earl  of  Leicester,  that  the  people  were  regularly  summoned  by  the  king  to  send  represent- 
atives to  the  great  council  of  the  nation.  Tlie  crown,  little  appreliensive  of  the  formidable 
character  which  the  House  of  Commons  was  afterwards  to  assume,  favoured  all  the  steps  of 
its  early  progress,  hoping  by  those  means  to  counterpoise  the  overbearing  sway  of  the  great 
barons,  and  at  the  same  time  to  obtain  supplies  of  money  from  the  growing  wealth  of  the 
people.  The  decline  of  the  feudal  system  had  for  some  time  favoured  such  a  course  of  policy. 
Baronies  escheated  by  forfeiture  or  for  want  of  issue  had  been  subdivided ;  hence  arose  a 
class  of  men  called  minor  barons,  holding  by  kniglit's  service ;  and  these  being  too  numerous 
and  too  poor  to  be  all  called  to  parliament,  and  to  rank  with  the  greater  barons,  were  allowed 
to  sit  by  representatives.  Of  these  knights,  each  shire  was  summoned  to  send  two;  writs 
to  that  effect  being  addressed  to  the  sheriffs  of  the  several  counties.  The  Cinque  Ports 
probably  about  the  same  period  sent  their  barons,  and  the  cities  and  boroughs  their  burgesses. 
In  early  times  these  representatives  appear  to  have  considered  attendance  in  parliament  as 
a  hardship  ratlier  than  an  advantage.  It  was  expensive,  and,  from  the  imperfect  police  then 
established,  often  insecure ;  and  the  summons,  being  always  the  prelude  to  a  demand  for 
money,  was  by  no  means  welcome.  With  the  granting  of  supplies,  however,  was  neces- 
sarily combimxl  the  right  of  petition,  of  stating  grievances,  and  demanding  guarantees ;  and 
these  could  not,  by  a  sovereign  pressed  by  various  exigencies,  be  always  denied. 


Book  I.  ENGLAND.  345 

The  election  of  the  Commons  never  rested  on  any  principle  of  universal  or  even  general 
suffrage,  excepting  perhaps  that  of  knights  for  eacli  shire.  As  the  kings,  however,  could 
only  attain  their  objects  by  assembling  the  most  powerful  and  influential  of  the  people,  they 
endeavoured  to  make  an  equal  distribution  of  the  right  of  election,  so  far,  at  least,  as  related 
to  property  and  influence,  at  the  time  when  such  a  measure  was  adapted  to  countervail  the 
preponderance  of  the  barons.  In  after-times,  when  seats  in  parliament  came  to  be  appre- 
ciated as  conferring  a  desirable  privilege,  and  as  constitutmg  a  powerful  check  on  the  pre- 
rogative of  the  monarch,  it  would  have  been  irregular  to  have  allowed  to  the 'king  an  arbi- 
trary selection ;  and  all  parties  adhered  to  the  rights  conferred  on  them  by  early  gift  or  long 
usaoe.  This  permanence  of  the  elective  franchise,  amidst  the  local  changes  that  ensued  in 
the  course  of  ages,  gave  rise  to  some  very  striking  anomalies.  Manchester,  Leeds,  and 
several  other  towns,  which  within  the  last  century  have  become  the  commercial  capitals  of 
the  kino^dom,  did  not  send  a  single  representative ;  while  places  once  important,  but  now 
dwindled  into  insignificance,  returned  each  two  members.  Cornwall,  at  a  period  when  the 
rest  of  the  kingdom  was  poor  and  rude,  enjoyed  an  abundant  source  of  opulence  in  its  tin 
mines,  and  retained  a  number  of  chartered  boroughs,  beyond  all  proportion  greater  than  those 
of  any  other  county.  Tlie  places  holding  the  right  of  election  were  in  many  instances  so 
small,  that  what  is  called  tiie  patronage  of  them  was  easily  acquired ;  and  that  patronage  of 
course  involved  the  advantage  of  nominating  one  or  both  candidates  for  the  representation. 
These  were  called  close  boroughs,  or,  more  reproachfully,  rotten  boroughs.  Another  anomaly 
consisted  in  a  number  of  what  were  called  treasury  boroughs,  the  nomination  of  which  rested 
with  the  administration.  With  the  view  of  remedying  these  defects,  the  Reform  Bill  was 
passed,  in  1832,  after  long  discussion  and  opposition.  By  this  bill  fifty-six  of  the  smallest 
boroughs  were  entirely  disfranchised,  and  thirty  were  reduced  from  two  members  to  one, 
while  Weymouth  and  JMelcombe  Regis  were  reduced  from  four  to  two ;  a  reduction  was  thus 
made  of  144  members.  In  the  room  of  these,  twenty-two  large  places, — Manchester,  Bir- 
mingham, Leeds,  Sheffield,  Greenwich,  Sunderland,  Devon  port,  Wolverhampton,  Bolton, 
Blackburn,  Bradford,  Brigliton,  Halifax,  Macclesfield,  Oldham,  Stockport,  Stoke-upon-Trent, 
Stroud,  and  four  districts  of  the  metropolis,  viz.  Marylebone,  Finsbury,  Tower  Hamlets, 
and  Lambeth, — received  each  the  right  of  electing  two  members ;  while'  twenty  smaller 
towns, — Ashton-under-Line,  Bury,  Chatham,  Cheltenham,  Dudley,  Frome,  Gateshead,  Hud- 
dersfield,  Kidderminster,  Kendal,  Rochdale,  Salford,  Soutli  Shields,  Tynemouth,  Wakefield, 
Walsall,  Warrington,  Whitby,  Wliitehaven,  and  Merthyr  Tydvil, — acquired  the  right  of 
nominating  one  member  each.  At  the  same  time  twenty-seven  counties  acquired  the  power 
of  sending  eacli  two  additional  members,  and  seven  that  of  sending  one  additional  member. 

The  representation  of  Great  Britain  now  stands  as  follows : — 

English  members  lor  counties 143 

universities 4 

cities  and  boroughs 324 

471 

Welsh  members  for  counties '.. ..     15 

cities  and  boroughs 14 

29 

Scotch  members  for  counties 30 

cities  and  boroughs 23 

53 

Irish    members    for   counties 64 

university 2 

cities  and  boroughs 39 

105 

Maldng  in  all 658 

The  qualifications  requisite  for  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons,  in  respect  to  pro- 
perty, are  tliese : — A  person  to  be  eligible  as  a  member  for  a  county  must  have  a  freehold  or 
copyhold,  or  must  have  been  mortgagee  in  possession  at  least  seven  years,  of  a  clear  estate 
of  the  value  of  600^.  per  annum ;  and  to  be  eligible  for  a  city,  borough,  or  other  place, 
except  the  universities,  of  the  value  of  liOOl.  per  annum.  The  person  so  qualified  is  also  to 
bo  of  mature  age,  and  must  take  the  oatlis  imposed  as  indispensable  to  a  member  of  the 
legislature.  Among  the  persons  who  cannot  sit  in  the  House  of  Commons  are  judges,  cler- 
gymen, persons  holding  certain  offices  under  the  crown,  and  persons  having  pensions  under 
tlie  crown  during  pleasure  or  for  any  term  of  years;  sheriffs  of  counties,  and  mayors  and 
bailifls  of  boroughs,  are  ineligible  in  their  respective  jurisdictions;  but  a  sheriff  of  one 
county  is  eligible  as  knigiit  for  another. 

The  qualifications  required  in  electors  differ,  as  they  relate  to  counties  or  to  boroughs.  In 
the  election  of  county  members  every  member  must  have  a  freehold  of  the  clear  yearly 
vahie  of  forty  shillings,  over  and  above  all  rents  and  charges  payable  out  of  and  in  respect 
of  the  same,  and  must  have  been  in  the  actual  possession  of  it  for  twelve  calendar  months, 
unless  it  came  to  him  within  that  time  by  descent,  marriage  settlement,  devise,  or  promotion 
to  a  benefice  in  the  church,  or  to  an  office.     To  these  freeholders  the  new  bUl  has  added  all 

Vol.  1.  2T 


346  '  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Paiit  HI. 

persons  holding  property  to  the  amount  of  ten  pounds  on  copyhold,  or  on  lease  of  not  less 
than  sixty  years ;  and  also  those  occupying  lands  or  tenements  for  any  period,  at  a  rent  of 
not  less  than  50Z.  per  annum. 

The  qualifications  of  electors  for  cities  and  boroughs  were,  previous  to  the  present  act, 
extremely  various.  The  right  of  voting  in  different  places  resided  variously  in  the  free- 
holders, tlie  corporations,  the  burgage  tenants,  and  sometimes  in  the  whole  body  of  resident 
householders.  The  new  act,  however,  admits  only  the  simple  qualification  of  occupying  a 
house  rated  at  not  less  than  101.  per  annum.  Those,  however,  who  were  freemen  under  tlie 
former  system  are  still  entitled  to  vote,  althougli  not  possessed  of  the  101.  qualification, 
provided  they  reside  within  the  borough. 

The  mode  of  proceeding  to  an  election  for  a  county  and  for  a  borough  is  nearly  the  same. 
On  a  dissolution  of  parliament,  writs,  pursuant  to  a  warrant  fi-om  the  king,  are  issued  under 
the  great  seal,  addressed  to  the  sheriffs  of  counties,  directing  them  to  summon  the  people  to 
elect  two  knights  for  eacli  county,  and  one  or  two  burgesses  for  each  borougli.  To  supply  a 
vacancy  while  parliament  is  sitting,  the  warrant  for  the  writ  proceeds  from  tlie  House  of 
Commons.  A  certain  day  after,  tiie  date  or  teste  of  the  writ  is  fixed  for  the  election  to  com- 
mence ;  and  on  that  day  the  candidate  or  candidates  are  put  in  nomination,  at  the  place 
appointed,  in  the  presence  of  the  returning  officer.  In  a  county  election,  the  sheriff  or 
the  under-sheriff  is  the  returning  officer ;  in  a  city  or  borough,  the  mayor  or  bailiff.  If  there 
he  rival  candidates  put  in  nomination,  the  returning  officer  calls  on  the  voters  for  a  decision 
by  a  show  of  the  hands,  after  which  the  friend  of  any  candidate,  if  dissatisfied,  may  demand 
a  poll.  The  poll  was  formerly  taken  at  only  one  place,  and  might  last  for  fifteen  days ;  but 
under  the  new  act,  the  cities  and  counties  are  divided  into  districts,  wuth  separate  booths,  or 
polling-places,  appropriated  to  each.  The  poll  is  allowed  to  continue  only  for  two  days, 
which  must  be  successive,  and  it  must  close  at  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  the  second 
day.  Poll  clerks  attend,  to  record  the  names  of  the  voters,  and  their  accuracy  is  watched 
by  inspectors  nommated  on  each  side.  The  returning  officer  who  presides  must,  if  required, 
oblige  the  candidates  to  swear  to  their  qualifications.  At  the  close  of  the  election,  or 
on  the  following  day,  the  returning  officer  declares  the  names  of  the  persons  who  have  the 
majority  of  votes ;  and,  unless  a  scrutiny  be  demanded,  he  forthwith  makes  his  return. 

The  duration  of  a  Parliament  has,  for  more  than  a  century,  been  extended  to  the  term  of 
seven  years,  from  that  of  tliree,  to  which  it  was  formerly  limited.  The  king,  however,  has 
the  power  of  dissolving  parliament  at  any  time;  he  can  also  prorogue  it  at  any  time  and  for 
any  period ;  and,  as  such  prorogation  concludes  the  session,  it  puts  an  end  to  all  bills  or  other 
proceedings  depending  in  either  house,  which  must  in  the  next  session  be  again  instituted, 
as  if  they  had  never  been  begun.  Either  house,  or  both  houses,  may  adjourn  of  their  own 
accord,  and,  at  their  meeting  again,  may  take  up  the  bills  and  other  proceedings  in  the  state 
of  advancement  in  which  they  were  left.  A  session  of  parliament  usually  commences  in 
January  or  February,  and  continues  until  June  or  July. 

At  the  commencement  of  every  session  committees  of  the  whole  house  are  appointed ;  one 
called  the  Committee  of  Supply,  to  consider  the  amount  required  by  the  crown  for  the  ser- 
vice of  the  army,  navy,  ordnance,  and  other  departments ;  and  the  other  the  Committee  of 
Ways  and  Means,  to  devise  modes  of  raising,  by  taxes  or  loans,  the  sums  which  the  house 
have  granted.  In  this  committee  of  w'ays  and  means,  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  in 
an  exposition  technically  called  the  Budget,  demonstrates  to  the  house  in  detail  that  the 
sums  voted  are  sufficient  to  justify  the  committee  in  imposing  such  taxes,  or  sanctioning 
such  loans,  as  are  then  recommended.  When  the  two  committees  are  closed,  the  House  of 
Commons  pass  a  bill  in  which  the  grants  made  in  the  committee  of  ways  and  means  are 
recapitulated,  and  directed  to  be  applied  to  the  services  voted  by  the  committee  of  supply, 
specifying  the  particular  sums  granted  for  each  service. 

Parliament  have  the  sole  right  of  making,  altermg,  and  amendmg  all  the  laws  of  the 
kingdom,  and  by  their  authority  alone  can  taxes  be  imposed  or  levied.  An  annual  vote  of 
the  House  of  Commons  is  requisite  to  maintain  the  land  and  sea  forces  at  the  degree  of 
strength  which  is  every  year  fixed  and  determined  upon.  By  these  and  other  privileges, 
the  annual  meeting  of  parliament  is  secured  without  any  express  stipulation  to  that  effect. 
By  withholding  these  annual  votes  they  may  testify  their  disapprobation  of  the  measures  of 
government,  and  even  compel  it  to  change  its  ministers;  indeed,  the  principle  has  now 
become  indisputable,  that  the  minister  who  cannot  rely  on  a  majority  of  votes  in  parliament 
is  disabled  from  conducting  the  affairs  of  the  nation. 

The  Privy  Council  is  composed  of  persons,  appointed  by  the  king,  who  are  bound  by  oath 
to  advise  their  sovereign  to  the  best  of  their  judgment  with  all  the  fidelity  and  secrecy  which 
their  station  prescribes.  The  kmg  with  the  advice  of  his  privy  council  publishes  proclama- 
tions binding  on  the  subject;  but  they  are  to  be  consonant  to,  and  in  execution  of,  the  laws 
of  the  land.  The  power  of  the  council  is,  to  inquire  into  all  offences  against  the  govern- 
ment, and  to  commit  the  oflenders  to  safe  custody  for  trial  in  some  of  the  courts  of  law ;  but 
persons  so  committed  are  entiyed  to  their  habeas  corpus  as  much  as  if  they  had  been  com- 
mitted by  an  ordinary  justice  of  the  peace.    The  privy  council  is  a  court  of  appeal  m  plant- 


Book  I.  ENGLAND.  347 

ation  and  admiralty  causes,  which  arise  out  of  the  jurisdiction  of  the  kingdom,  as  also  in 
cases  of  idiotcy  and  lunacy.  When  questions  arise  between  two  colonies  respecting  the 
extent  of  their  charter,  "  the  king  in  council"  exercises  original  jurisdiction  in  them,  on  the 
principles  of  feodal  sovereignty ;  he  also  determines,  on  the  same  principle,  the  validity  of 
claims  to  an  island  or  province  founded  upon  grant  from  the  king  or  his  ancestors.  But  from 
all  the  dominions  of  the  crown  excepting  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  an  appellate  jurisdiction, 
in  the  last  resort,  is  vested  in  the  privy  council.  The  judicial  authority  is  exercised  in  a 
committee  of  the  whole  privy  council,  who  hear  allegations  and  proofs,  and  make  their 
report  to  his  majesty  in  council,  by  whom  judgment  is  finally  given.  The  dissolution  of  the 
privy  council  depends  on  the  pleasure  of  the  king,  who  may  at  his  own  discretion  discharge 
any  member,  or  the  whole  of  them,  and  appoint  another  council.  It  continues  six  months 
after  the  demise  of  the  crown,  unless  sooner  determined  by  the  successor.  Any  natural- 
born  subject  of  England  is  capable  of  being  a  member  of  the  privy  council,  taking  the  proper 
oaths  for  security  of  the  government  and  test  for  the  security  of  the  church.  A  privy  coun- 
sellor, if  he  be  only  a  private  gentleman,  is  styled  right  honourable,  and  takes  precedence 
of  all  knights,  baronets,  and  the  younger  sons  of  all  barons  and  viscounts. 

A  cabinet  council  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  recognised  by  the  constitution,  but  by  usage 
it  is  regarded  as  a  body  selected  by  the  sovereign  to  conduct  the  business  of  the  state ;  and 
the  members  composing  it  are  held  to  be  the  responsible  advisers  of  the  crown.  The  cabinet 
council  usually  consists  of  those  ministers  of  state  who  exercise  the  most  important  functions 
of  the  executive  authority;  their  number  and  selection  depend  only  on  the  king's  pleasure; 
and  each  member  receives  a  summons  for  every  attendance.  Though  this  body,  as  consti- 
tuting what  is  essentially  the  government,  be  composed  principally  of  officers  of  state ;  yet 
a  privy  counsellor  selected  by  the  king  as  a  member  of  his  cabuiet  council,  may  hold  his  seat 
as  such,  without  accepting  any  particular  office.  The  officers  of  state  are  those  enumerated 
in  the  following  lists : — 

Officers  of  State  forming  the  Cabinet. 

First  Lord  of  the  Treasury.  Secretary  of  State  for  Colonies  and  War. 

Lord  Chancellor.  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer. 

Lord  Privy  Seal.  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty. 

President  of  the  Council.  Master-general  of  the  Ordnance. 

Secretary  of  State  for  the  Home  Department.  President  of  the  Board  of  Control. 

Secretary  of  State  for  the  Foreign  Department.  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster. 

Officers  of  State  not  of  the  Cabinet. 

Lord  Chamberlain,  Vice-President  of  the  Board  of  Trade. 

Lord  Steward.  Postma.=ter-General. 

Master  of  the  Horse.  Lieutenant-General  of  the  Ordnance. 

Secretary  at  War.  First  Commissioner  of  the  Land  Revenue. 

Treasurer  of  the  Navy.  Attorney-General. 

President  of  the  Board  of  Trade.  Solicitor-General. 
Paymaster  of  the  Forces. 

Ireland. 

Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland.  Vice-Treasurer. 

Lord  Chancellor.  Attorney-General. 

Commander  of  the  Forces.  Solicitor  General. 
Chief  Secretary. 

That  officer  of  state  who  holds  the  appointment  of  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  is  by 
eminence  tlie  minister.  In  the  event  of  a  change  of  ministry,  the  person  who  is  directed 
by  the  king  to  form  another,  receives  an  implied  offer  of  that  high  office,  and  is  generally 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  administration.  The  first  lord  of  the  treasury,  that  is,  the  first  of 
the  five  lords  commissioners  for  executing  the  office  of  lord  high  treasurer,  possesses  most 
of  the  powers  formerly  held  by  the  lord  high  treasurer,  and  is  sometimes,  though  not  in- 
variably, chancellor  and  under  treasurer  of  the  exchequer.  The  revenue  applicable  to  the 
general  purposes  of  the  state  is,  with  a  trifling  exception,  derived  entirely  from  taxes.  In 
the  course  of  the  last  century  it  increased  to  an  amount  unparalleled  in  the  history  of  any 
other  country ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  wars  in  whicli  Great  Britain  was  engaged  with 
little  intermission  until  the  year  1815,  it  did  not  keep  pace  with  the  expenditure,  and  an 
enormous  debt  was  gradually  contracted,  the  interest  on  which  occasioned  a  correspondent 
increase  of  taxation. 

Since  1817,  a  deduction  has  been  made  of  about  sixty  millions  from  the  principal  of  the 
debt,  and  about  Jive  millions  from  the  annual  charge  on  its  account.  This  diminution  has 
been  principally  effected  by  taking  advantage  of  the  fall  in  the  rate  of  interest  since  the 
peace,  and  offering  to  pay  off  the  holders  of  different  stocks,  unless  they  consented  to  accept 
a  reduced  payment. 

The  system  of  funding  by  which  the  debt  has  been  rendered  national,  rests  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  assigning  for  the  amount  of  a  loan,  an  equivalent  amount  of  nominal  capital,  bearing 
interest  charged  on  tlie  national  revenue  in  half-yearly  payments  called  dividends,  or  of 
terminable  annuities  also  payable  half-yearly.  Annuities  granted  for  an  indefinite  period 
are  called  redeemable  debt,  being  redeemable  at  the  option  of  government  when  at  par ; 
those  granted  for  a  limited  period  are  called  irredeeynable  debt ;  they  exist  only  for  a  certain 
number  of  years,  and  a  portion  of  the  capital  is  annually  absorbed  in  the  interest.     The 


348 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


funds  are  respectively  designated  according  to  the  rate  per  cent,  they  bear;  and  tlie  share 
which  a.  public  creditor  holds  in  any  of  them,  bemg  transferable  by  sale  under  the  name  of 
stock,  they  constitute  a  kind  of  circulating  capital. 

The  rate  of  interest  granted  on  certam  portions  of  the  national  debt,  though  nominally 
lower  than  that  of  five  per  cent,  allowed  by  law,  has  been  rendered  advantageous  to  the 
lender  by  being  charged  on  a  larger  amount  of  nominal  capital  tlian  the  sum  borrowed. 
Loans  have  been  made  in  funds  at  four  and  five  per  cent.,  but  the  greater  part  has  bcoii 
made  in  a  fund  bearing  three  per  cent,  interest  on  the  nominal  capital,  and  commonly  called 
the  three  per  cent,  consolidated  annuities.  The  prices  of  these  and  other  annuities  consti- 
tuting the  redeemable  debt  are  rated  according  to  the  money  value  of  one  lumdred  pounds 
on  such  stock ;  terminable  annuities  according  to  the  number  of  years'  purchase  which  they 
are  supposed  to  be  wortli. 

Particular  ta.xes  were,  at  an  early  period  of  the  funding  system,  appropriated  to  defray 
the  interest  of  different  descriptions  of  debt;  but  in  the  year  1786,  the  whole  were  collected 
into  one  fund,  called  the  Consolidated  Fund.  The  particular  branches  of  revenue  included 
in  it  were  the  customs  (with  the  exception  of  a  certain  amount  applicable  to  other  public 
services),  the  excise,  the  stamps,  the  land  and  assessed  taxes,  and  the  post-office.  To  this 
fund  are  applicable  moneys  arising  from  other  resources,  specified  in  tlie  annual  accounts. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  progress  of  the  national  debt,  from  the  Revolution  to 
the  present  time: — 


f                                        .       ,. — 

Principal. 

Interest. 

Debts  at  the  Revolution  in  1889 

£ 
004,203 

1.5,730,430 

£ 
39,855 

1,271,037 

Excess  of  debt  contracted  during  the  reign  of  William  III.  above  debt 

Debt  at  the  accession  of  dueen  Anne  in  1702 

16,394,702 

1,310,942 

Debt  at  the  accession  of  George  I.  in  1714 

54,145,363 

3,351,358 

Debt  at  the  accession  of  George  II.  in  17127 

52,092,233 

2,217,551 

Debt  at  the  peace  of  Paris  in  1763 

138,865,430 

4,852,051 

Debt  at  the  commencement  of  the  American  war  in  1775 

l-28,.583,635 

4,471,571 

249,851,628 

9,451,772 

Debt  at  the  commencement  of  the  French  war  in  1793 

239,^.50,148 
608,932,329 

9,208,495 
24,645,971 

Total  funded  and  unfunded  debt,  5fh  January,  1817,  when  the  English  and 
Irish  Exchequers  were  consolidated 

848,282,477 

33,854,466 

A  sinking  fund  for  the  gradual  reduction  of  the  debt  had  been  formed  by  Sir  Robert  Wal- 
pole  in  1716,  but  had  been  so  fVequently  encroached  upon,  that  in  the  course  of  half  a  cen- 
tury, it  had  not  extinguished  above  fifteen  millions.  Its  revival  formed  part  of  the  financial 
arrangements  of  Pitt  in  1786.  Out  of  the  aggregate  of  the  taxes  applicable  to  the  consoli- 
dated fund,  government  then  pledged  itself,  that  one  million  annually  should  be  paid  to  the 
commissioners  for  the  reduction  of  the  national  debt.  To  this  annual  million  were  added  the 
amount  of  government  annuities  as  they  successively  expired,  and  the  interest  of  such  stock 
as  was  annually  redeemed.  In  1792,  Pitt  obtained  an  act  of  parliament,  declaring,  that 
besides  a  provision  for  the  interest  of  any  loan  that  might  be  tlienceforward  contracted,  taxes 
should  be  imposed  for  a  sinking  fund  of  one  per  cent,  on  the  capital  stock  created  by  it, 
which  sliould  be  exclusively  employed  in  the  liquidation  of  such  particular  loan;  and  tliat  no 
relief  should  be  afforded  to  the  public  from  the  taxes  which  constituted  the  one  per  cent, 
sinking  fund,  until  a  sum  of  capital  stock,  equal  in  amount  to  that  created  by  the  loan,  had 
been  purchased  by  it.  Tliat  being  accomplished,  both  the  interest  and  the  sinking  fimd  were 
to  be  applicable  to  the  public  service.  It  was  calculated  that,  under  the  most  unfavourable 
circumstances,  each  loan  v,-ould  be  redeemed  in  forty-five  years  from  the  period  when Jt  was 
contracted.  Tlie  provisions  in  tliis  act,  and  in  the  former  act  of  1786,  were  altered  by  sub- 
sequent enactments ;  but,  by  an  act  passed  in  1813,  tliose  alterations  were  rescinded ;  and 
it  was  provided  first,  tliat,  as  a  sum  equal  to  the  debt  of  1786,  and  bearing  an  interest  nearly 
equal  to  the  interest  of  that  debt,  was  then  vested  in  the  hands  of  the  commissioners,  the 
debt  of  1786  should  be  declared  discharged  as  soon  as  the  interest  of  the  debt  redeemed 
sliould  become  fully  equal  to  that  debt ;  the  sums  appropriated  to  its  interest  and  sinking 
fund  applied  to  the  charge  of  future  loans,  and  no  new  taxes  imposed  for  interest  and  sinking 
fund  of  those  loans,  till  the  same  sliould  amount  to  a  sum  equal  to  the  interest  of  that  con- 
sidered as  released.  Secondly,  that,  instead  of  applying  the  one  per  cent,  sinking  fund  on 
each  loan  to  the  separate  discliarge  of  that  loan,  the  whole  funds  of  that  kind  united  should 


Book  I.  ENGLAND.  349 

be  applied  to  the  discharge  of  the  first  contracted  loan,  and  successively  to  the  redemption 
of  all  the  loans  contracted  since  1792 ;  the  whole  sinking  fund  created  in  1786,  or  subse- 
quently, being  continued  for  the  redemption  of  all  debts  then  existing  or  to  be  created.  The 
system  established  by  this  act  continued  until  March,  1823,  when  an  act  of  parliament  was 
passed,  directing  tiiat  on  the  5th  of  April  of  tliat  year,  all  payments  out  of  the  consolidated 
fund  to  the  commissioners  for  the  reduction  of  the  national  debt  should  cease,  all  stock  in 
their  names  be  cancelled,  and  that  in  future  the  annual  sum  of  five  millions  shall  be  payable 
quarterly  to  the  commissioners,  and  set  apart  for  the  reduction  of  the  debt,  not  to  be  infringed 
upon  until  the  accumulation  of  this  sum  shall  amount  to  one  hundredth  part  of  the  debt  then 
existing:  at  present,  however,  the  sinking  fund  is  declared  to  be  the  excess  of  income  over 
expenditure,  whatever  that  may  be.     In  1830  it  amounted  to  2,792,707Z.  14s.  Old. 

On  the  consolidated  fund  are  likewise  charged  the  annuities  for  forty-five  years,  created 
in  the  year  1622,  for  the  purpose  of  apportioning  the  burden  occasioned  by  the  military  and 
naval  pensions  and  civil  superannuations  (collectively  called  the  Dead  Weiffht),  amounting 
to  5,000,000?.,  into  equal  annual  payments.  The  original  intention  was  to  contract  with 
parties  who  might  be  willing  to  engage  to  pay  into  the  exchequer  within  forty-five  years  the 
sum  wanted,  for  a  fixed  amount  of  annuity  for  forty-five  years ;  but  no  capitalists  being  found 
to  accept  these  terms,  it  was  agreed,  instead  of  assigning  the  fixed  annuities  to  any  corporate 
body,  or  to  private  individuals,  that  they  should  be  vested,  namely,  2,800,000Z.  terminable  at 
the  end  of  fbrty-five  years,  and  charged  upon  the  consolidated  fund,  in  trustees  ap]X)inted  by 
parliament;  payable  at  the  exchequer  half  yearly  (viz.  October  10.  and  April  5.),  and  to 
cease  in  April,  1867.  In  March,  1823,  a  portion  was  sold  to  the  Bank  of  England  by  the 
trustees,  on  condition  that  the  bank  should  undertake  the  payments  to  be  made  in  pursuance 
of  the  act,  from  the  5th  of  January,  1823,  to  the  5th  of  January,  1868,  upon  the  transfer  to 
tlie  bank  of  an  annuity  of  585,740Z.,  to  commence  fi-om  the  5th  of  April,  and  to  continue  for 
the  term  of  forty-five  years.  The  total  amount  of  payments  undertaken  to  be  made  by  the 
bank  in  consideration  of  the  said  annuity  is  13,089,419Z. 

Besides  tlio  funded  debt,  there  is  generally  a  considerable  amount  in  exchequer  bills, 
navy  bills,  and  ordnance  bills,  denominated  the  unfunded  or  floating  debt.  Exchequer  bills 
are  issued  in  consequence  of  acts  of  parliament,  for  obtaining  part  of  the  money  required  for 
public  service.  They  are  sometimes  granted  on  the  credit  of  supplies  for  the  current  year, 
and  the  produce  of  the  annual  taxes  is  in  this  way  often  anticipated.  Sometimes  they  are 
charged  on  the  supplies  of  the  following  year ;  and  in  time  of  war,  a  large  sum  to  be  tluis 
raised  is  generally  authorised  by  a  vote  of  credit  previous  to  the  rising  of  parliament.  New 
excliequer  bills  are  often  issued  in  discharge  of  former  ones;  and  it  has  fi-equently  been  found 
necessary  to  fund  them,  by  gianting  capital  in  some  of  tlie  stocks  on  certain  terms,  to  such 
holders  as  are  willing  to  accept  them.  Exchequer  bills  are  issued  for  lOOZ.,  500Z.,  lOOOZ., 
and  upwards,  but  none  for  less  than  lOOZ. ;  and  they  bear  interest  at  two-pence  a.  day  for 
every  lOOZ.  After  being  in  circulation  they  are  received  in  payment  of  taxes  or  other  debts 
due  to  government,  and  sometimes  they  are  paid  off  pursuant  to  previous  notice  by  advertise- 
ment. The  daily  transactions  between  the  bank  and  the  exchequer  are  chiefly  carried  on 
by  bills  of  lOOOZ.  each,  wliich  are  deposited  by  the  bank  in  the  exchequer,  to  the  amount  of 
the  sums  received  by  them  on  account  of  government;  they  remain  in  the  exchequer  as 
pledges  or  securities,  of  course  bearing  interest  until  the  advances  on  which  the  bank  first 
received  them  are  paid  off.* 

Number  of  persons  deriving  incomes  from  the  funds.  It  appears  from  the  regular 
returns,  that  in  1830  (and  the  number  has  not  sensibly  varied  since),  274,823  dividend 
warrants  were  issued  to  persons  deriving  incomes  from  the  ftmds.  The  number  of  persons 
dependent  upon  the  funds  for  support  is,  however,  much  greater  than  appears  upon  the  face 
of  this  account:  for  the  dividends  upon  the  funded  property  belonging  to  public  establish- 
ments, are  paid  upon  single  warrants,  as  if  they  were  due  to  so  many  private  individuals. 

The  customs  and  excise  form  the  two  main  branches  in  the  collection  of  the  revenue;  the 
former  relating  to  goods  imported,  the  latter  to  those  produced  and  manufactured  within  the 
country.  Among  the  accommodations  to  trade,  established  by  Mr.  Pitt,  is  the  bonding 
system,  by  which  the  goods  of  merchants  are  warehoused  under  the  joint  custody  of  the 
proprietor  and  of  government ;  payment  of  duty  not  being  demanded  until  a  sale  is  effected. 
This  has  been  also  extended  to  British  spirits. 

The  navy  is  the  force  on  which  Great  Britain  mainly  relies  for  maintaining  her  owTi 
independence  and  her  ascendency  over  foreign  nations.  By  it  she  has  acquired  the  sover- 
eignty of  the  seas,  and  the  advantages,  which  that  sovereignty  confers,  of  securing  her  pos- 
sessions in  the  most  distant  quarters  of  the  globe,  of  protecting  her  commerce,  and  sustaining 
the  exertions  of  her  armies  during  war.  During  the  most  active  period  of  the  last  maritime 
war,  the  number  of  seamen  in  employment  amounted  to  140,000 ;  and  there  were  in  com- 
mission 160  sail  of  the  line  and  150  frigates,  with  30,000  marines.     The  estimate  for  1831 

*Soe  Statistical  Tables,  at  fiiil  of  Chap.  IV. 

Vol.  I.  30 


350  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

comprehended  22,000  seamen  and  10,000  marines.  The  pay  of  these  men  amounts  to 
1,081,0(K)/. ;  their  subsistence,  to  603,000Z. ;  which,  with  the  cost  of  stores,  and  allowance 
for  wear  and  tear,  raised  the  regular  cuprent  expense  to  nearly  2,0O0,000Z.  The  building 
and  repair  of  vessels,  the  charges  of  tlie  dock-yards,  pay  of  officers  connected  with  the  navy, 
and  a  variety  of  other  items,  amounted  to  about  an  equal  sum.  These  charges,  with 
1,688,000/.  in  half  pay  and  pensions,  made  up  the  sura  of  4,657,000/.  as  the  entire  navy 
estimate  for  the  year  1831. 

The  military  force  of  the  nation,  at  the  close  of  the  French  wars,  amounted  to  200,000 
regular  troops,  exclusive  of  about  100,000  embodied  militia,  a  large  amount  of  local  militia 
and  volunteers,  to  which  might  also  be  added  a  number  of  regiments  employed  in  the  terri- 
tories of  the  East  India  Company,  and  in  its  pay.  After  the  peace  of  1815  a  rapid  reduction 
of  the  military  establislmicnt  was  effected.  The  militia  were  disembodied;  the  regular  force 
was  reduced,  and  in  1835  the  estimates  were  for  81,271  men,  independent  of  19,720  employed 
in  India,  and  paid  out  of  the  land  revenue  of  that  country.  The  charge  for  these  forces  was 
5,784,808/. ;  but  about  half  of  this  sum  consisted  of  half-pay,  retired  allowances,  pensions, 
and  other  charges  consequent  on  the  former  immense  establisbment. 

The  laws  of  England,  established  during  ten  centuries  of  legislation,  constitute  the  most 
extensive  system  of  jurisprudence  ever  constructed.  The  municipal  law  is  divided  into  two 
kinds,  the  unwritten  or  comrnon  law ;  and  the  written  or  statute  law.  The  common  law 
derives  its  force  from  immemorial  usage;  and  its  evidences  exist  in  the  records  of  the  seve- 
ral courts  of  justice,  as  well  as  in  books  of  reports  and  judicial  decisions.  It  includes  not 
only  the  system  by  which  the  ordinary  courts  of  justice  are  guided  and  directed ;  but  certain 
portions  of  the  ancient  civil  and  canon  laws  which  are  used  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  tlie 
military  courts,  the  court  of  admiralty,  and  the  courts  of  the  two  universities:  The  written 
laws  are  those  made  by  the  king,  lords,  and  commons,  in  parliament  assembled ;  they  are 
judicially  called  Statutes,  and  are  either  declaratory  of  the  common  law,  or  remedial  of 
some  of  its  defects.  The  statutes  are  also  distinguished  as  either  general  or  special,  public 
or  private. 

The  high  court  of  parliament,  independently  of  its  legislative  functions,  is  the  supreme 
court  of  judicature  in  the  kingdom.  The  House  of  Lords  exercise  jurisdiction  in  civil 
causes,  upon  appeals  or  writs  of  error  from  the  inferior  courts,  and  in  criminal  questions, 
when  brought  before  them  by  presentment  of  the  House  of  Commons,  in  the  form  of  an 
impeachment. 

The  high  Court  of  Chancery,  in  which  presides  the  Lord  High  Chancellor,  has  two  dis- 
tinct tribunals :  the  one  ordinary,  being  a  court  of  common  law ;  the  other  extraordinary, 
being  a  court  of  equity.  From  the  ordinary  or  legal  court  issue  all  original  writs  that  pass 
the  great  seal,  all  commissions  of  charitable  uses ;  as  also  of  bankruptcy,  idiotcy,  and  lunacy  ; 
for  such  writs  it  is  always  open  to  the  subject.  In  the  extraordinary  court,  or  court  of  equity, 
the  chancellor  exercises  a  most  extensive  jurisdiction,  determining  causes  beyond  the  reach 
of  the  ordinary  tribunals,  and  others  in  which  reason  and  justice  require  that  the  rigorous 
application  of  the  rules  of  common  law  should  be  mitigated.  These  decisions  emanate  from 
the  judgment  of  the  lord  chancellor  alone.  An  assistant  judge,  called  Vice-chancellor  of 
England,  has  power  to  hear  and  determine  all  causes  depending  in  the  court ;  all  his  decrees 
are  valid  and  effectual,  subject,  however,  to  reversal  by  the  lord  chancellor,  and  not  to  be 
enrolled  until  signed  by  him ;  nor  are  they  to  discharge,  reverse,  or  alter  any  decree  of  the 
lord  chancellor  or  of  the  Master  of  the  Rolls.  The  Master  of  the  Rolls,  who  ranks  next  to 
him  in  dignity,  and  holds  his  office  for  life,  acts  in  a  judicial  capacity  as  assistant  to  the  lord 
chancellor,  and  also  hears  and  determines  causes  on  certain  appointed  days ;  but  his  orders 
and  decrees  cannot  be  enrolled  until  signed  by  the  lord  chancellor,  who  has  the  power  to 
discharge  or  alter  them.  The  masters  in  chancery  are  twelve  in  number,  including  the 
Master  of  the  Rolls,  who  is  their  cliief,  and  also  including  tlie  Accountant-General.  They 
are  assistants  and  associates  of  the  lord  chancellor  and  the  master  of  the  rolls,  and  sit  with 
them  in  court  by  turns,  two  at  a  time.  In  1826  the  property  of  suitors  in  chancery  amounted 
to  more  than  40,000,000/.  The  masters  make  up  their  accounts  with  the  Accountant- 
general,  and  pay  into  the  Bank  of  England  all  moneys  remaining  in  their  hands,  to  be  placed 
to  his  account.  He  merely  keeps  the  account  with  the  bank,  the  governor  and  company 
being  answerable  for  such  moneys. 

Tlie  Court  of  King's  Bench  is  the  supreme  court  of  common  law  in  the  kingdom,  and 
takes  cognisance  both  of  criminal  and  civil  causes :  the  former  in  what  is  called  the  crown 
side  or  crown  office;  the  latter  in  the  plea  side  of  the  court.  It  is  also'a  court  of  appeal, 
into  which  may  be  removed,  by  writ  of  error,  determinations  of  all  the  courts  of  record  in 
England.     The  court  consists  of  a  chief  justice,  and  three  puisne  judges. 

The  Court  of  Common  Pleas  takes  cognisance  of  all  civil  actions  depending  between  sub- 
ject and  subject.  Many  questions,  however,  may,  by  legal  contrivances,  be  brought  into 
this  or  into  tlie  Court  of  King's  Bench  at  the  option  of  the  parties.  The  Couxt  of  Common 
Pleas  consists  of  a  chief  justice,  and  three  puisne  judges. 


Book  I.  ENGLAND.  351 

The  Court  of  Exchequer  has  jurisdiction  both  in  law  and  equity.  In  it  are  tried  all  ques- 
tions relating  to  the  revenue,  and,  by  fictions  of  law,  various  civil  actions  and  personal  suits. 
The  judges  are  four;  a  chief  baron  and  three  puisne  barons. 

Trial  by  jury,  an  institution  coeval  with  the  origin  of  the  constitution,  and  justly  valued 
by  the  people  as  the  bulwark  of  their  liberties,  is  employed  in  all  cases  between  the  crown 
and  the  subject,  in  all  criminal  cases,  and  in  all  tliose  for  which  damages  are  awarded.  The 
jury  in  England  consists  of  twelve  persons,  whose  verdict  must  be  delivered  by  their  fore- 
man as  unanimous,  or,  in  the  technical  phrase,  as  agreed  upon. 

Courts  of  Assize  and  Nisi  Prius  are  auxiliaries  to  the  superior  courts  at  Westminster  for 
the  trial  of  causes  in  every  county  in  England,  twice  a  year  in  most  counties,  once  a  year 
in  others.  The  coimties  are  comprised  in  six  circuits :  1st,  the  Home  Circuit ;  2d,  the  Mid- 
land ;  3d,  the  Norfolk ;  4th,  the  Oxford ;  5th,  the  Northern ;  and  6th,  the  Western  Circuit. 
These  circuits  are  supplied  by  the  twelve  judges,  two  being  appointed  to  each.  In  these 
courts,  the  senior  or  superior  judge  generally  sits  on  the  crown  side  for  the  trial  of  criminals, 
and  the  junior  or  inferior  judge  on  the  7iisi  prius  side,  for  the  decision  of  cases  of  property. 

A  Court  of  General  Quarter  Sessions  of  the  Peace,  held  in  every  county  once  in  every 
quarter  of  a  year  is  the  most  important  of  the  minor  tribunals.  Its  jurisdiction  extends  to 
all  felonies  and  trespasses ;  but  capital  felonies  are  usually  remitted  to  tlie  assizes.  The 
sheriffs  tourn  is  also  a  court  of  record,  held  twice  a  year  at  some  place  within  the  county. 
The  court -leet  or  view  of  frank-pledge  is  a  court  of  record  held  once  a  year,  within  a  par- 
ticular hundred,  lordship,  or  manor,  before  the  steward  of  the  leet.  It  is  the  King's  court 
granted  by  charter  to  the  lords  of  those  hundreds  or  manors.  In  aid  of  these,  and  other 
institutions  tending  to  the  maintenance  of  order  and  tranquillity  throughout  the  country, 
subordinate  magistrates  are  appointed  in  each  county,  under  the  name  of  justices  of  the 
peace.  They  hold  special  commissions  from  the  king,  and  are  empowered  to  suppress  riots 
and  affrays,  to  take  securities  for  the  peace,  and  to  commit  felons  and  mferior  criminals. 
Their  jurisdiction  is  enforced  by  constables  and  other  subordinate  officers. 

Sect.  V. — Productive  Industry. 

The  productive  industry  of  England,  at  this  moment,  far  surpasses  that  of  any  other 
country,  either  ancient  or  modern.  Her  fabrics  clothe  the  most  distant  nations ;  her  vessels 
traverse  alike  the  polar  and  equatorial  seas.  The  downfall  of  the  feudal  power ;  the  civil 
and  social  advantages  which  the  people  acquired  under  the  last  Henries  ;  and,  above  all,  the 
spirit  of  enterprise  diffiised  among  them  under  Elizabeth,  gave  a  great  impulse  to  commerce 
and  industry.  It  was  not,  however,  till  the  era  of  the  Revolution,  that  the  nation  entered 
upon  that  grand  career  of  prosperity,  in  which  she  has  ever  since  proceeded  with  accele- 
rated activity. 

Agriculture,  as  the  greatest  and  most  essential  source  of  human  wealth  and  comfort,  must 
always  claim  pre-eminence  over  the  other  branches  of  human  industry.  For  two  or  three 
centuries  the  English  tenantry  have  been  an  independent  and  substantial  race.  Such  had 
been  the  progress  of  agriculture,  that,  even  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  England  had 
become  a  regular  grain-exporting  country.  Still,  fifty  years  ago,  the  practice  of  this 
important  art  was  comparatively  cumbrous,  costly,  and  unproductive.  Since  that  time, 
nobles  and  statesmen  have  vied  with  each  other  in  their  zeal  for  the  promotion  of  agricul- 
ture. Prizes,  exhibitions,  and  other  institutions  calculated  to  excite  a  spirit  of  improvement, 
have  been  established  on  a  great  scale.  Even  royal  patronage  was  extended  to  this  most 
usefiil  of  arts',  and  a  board  was  formed  under  public  auspices  for  its  promotion.  An  exti'aor- 
dinary  impulse  was  also  given  by  the  scarcity  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century ;  when 
the  continental  ports  were  closed,  and  grain  rose  to  an  unprecedented  price,  from  which  it 
has  since  been  reduced,  indeed,  but  not  to  its  former  rate.  The  old  routine  system  was, 
after  that  crisis,  broken  up,  and  every  exertion  made  to  augment  the  products  of  the  soil. 
Commons  were  enclosed,  marshes  drained,  grasses  of  the  most  useful  species  cultivated,  and 
every  process  that  multiplied  experiments  had  proved  to  be  advantageous,  introduced.  Par- 
y  ticular  attention  was  bestowed  in  improving  the  breed  of  cattle  and  sheep ;  and  for  the 
accomplishment  of  this  purpose,  the  best  species  were  imported  from  abroad.  At  the  same 
time,  economical  farming  was  greatly  studied ;  the  disproportionate  number  of  horses  and 
oxen  was  reduced ;  and  machinery,  particularly  the  threshing-machine,  came  into  general 
use.  Thus  a  great  augmentation  took  place  in  the  produce  of  the  soil ;  still  greater  in  the 
profit  of  the  farmers,  and  much  the  greatest  in  the  rent  of  the  landlord,  which,  in  many 
instances,  was  more  than  tripled.  The  reduced  prices,  however,  which  have  ultimately 
been  the  result  of  this  augmented  production,  have,  at  last,  rendered  it  difficult  to  support 
the  great  advance  in  this  last  particular. 

The  natural  fertility  of  England  is  not  equal  to  that  of  the  countries  in  the  south  of 
Europe.  Her  pastures,  however,  are  richer ;  and  her  soil  is  capable  of  yielding  all  the 
valuable  kinds  of  grain  in  abundance,  and  of  good,  if  not  superior  quality.  Tliese  natural 
advantages,  improved  by  her  extraordinary  industry,  raise  tlie  agricultural  products  of  Eng- 
land to  a  much  greater  amount  than  those  of  any  other  country  m  Europe. 


352  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  HI. 

The  surface  of  England  is  thirty-seven  millions  of  acres.  About  half  a  million  is  occu- 
pied by  roads;  and  if  we  also  make  allowance  for  waters,  natural  and  artificial,  &c.,  we  may 
probably  have  to  deduct  two  millions  from  the  part  which  forms  the  proper  subject  of  agri- 
culture. Of  this,  half  is  under  the  plough,  and  half  devoted  to  pasturage;  upwards  of  three 
millions  are  in  wheat;  about  three  millions  in  oats  and  beans,  and  between  two  and  three 
millions  in  barley.  About  300,000  cwt.  of  hops,  of  the  value  of  £  200,000,  and  4,400,000 
gallons  of  cider,  are  annually  produced. 

The  manufactures  of  Britain,  still  more  than  even  the  immense  products  of  her  agricul- 
ture, have  astonished  the  world,  and  raised  her  to  a  decided  superiority  over  all  other  nations. 
This  distinction  she  lias  attained,  not  so  much  by  their  extreme  fineness ;  for,  as  to  this 
particular,  France  excels  not  only  in  silks  and  cambrics,  but  even  in  woollens ;  and  British 
porcelain  does  not  equal  that  of  Dresden.  But  she  stands  unrivalled  in-  the  immensity  of 
useful  and  valuable  products,  calculated  for  the  consumption  of  the  great  body  of  mankind ; 
and  above  all  in  the  stupendous  exertions  made  in  contriving  and  constructing  the  macliinery 
by  which  they  are  produced. 

The  woollen  manufacture  is  the  old  staple  of  the  country.  As  soon  as  England  began  to 
exercise  any  kind  of  industry,  her  first  aim  was  to  manufacture  her  own  wools,  instead  of 
leaving  this  operation  in  the  hands  of  the  Flemings.  The  fabric  began  in  Kent  and  Sus- 
sex; but  soon  spread,  and  fixed  itself  in  the  interior  districts;  that  of  coarse  woollens  in  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  and  that  of  the  finer  cloths  in  Gloucestershire  and  Wiltshire.  In 
ISOO,  the  total  value  of  the  fabrics  was  20,000,000Z.,  of  which  not  much  less  than  half  was 
exported.  In  the  course  of  the  century  it  has  continued  increasing,  though  not  with  the 
same  rapidity  as  some  other  fabrics.  The  quantity  exported  has  not,  however,  been  aug- 
mented in  proportion.  In  1802,  it  exceeded  7,000,000/. ;  but  in  1832  was  only  5,240,0001 
This  manufacture,  however,  depending  chiefly  upon  home  consumption,  is  less  liable  to  vicis- 
situde than  tliose  which  have  their  principal  market  in  foreign  countries. 

The  wool  is  partly  produced  in  Britain,  partly  drawn  fi-om  abroad.  English  wool  is 
divided  into  long  and  short.  The  former  was  long  considered  as  exclusively  adapted  to 
worsted  stuflTs ;  but  the  recent  improvements  in  machinery  have  enabled  the  manufacturer  to 
produce  these  stuffs  almost  equally  well  fi-om  shorter  wool.  The  short  wool  is  fitted  for 
cloth  and  hats ;  but  all  that  is  produced  in  England  is  of  secondary  fineness.  Efforts  were 
made,  about  the  close  of  the  last  century,  to  introduce  the  merino  breed  from  Spain,  and  not 
witliout  success ;  but  the  flesh  being  bad,  the  farmers  gave  it  up,  and,  devoting  themselves 
to  the  improvement  of  the  carcase,  have  allowed  the  wool  even  to  degenerate,  though  the 
increased  quantity  is  supposed  to  indemnify  them.  The  best  short  wool  is  that  of  Sussex 
(Southdown)  and  Norfolk;  the  best  long  wool  that  of  Lincoln.  The  number  of  short- wooUed 
sheep  throughout  England,  in  1828,  amounted  to  about  14,850,000,  that  of  long-woolled  tc 
4,150,000 ;  and  the  produce  was  264,000  packs  of  long,  and  120,000  packs  of  short  wool ; 
to  which  miglit  be  added  09,000  packs  of  lamb's  wool,  and  9000  for  Wales ;  making  in  all 
463,000.  The  defect  of  English  wool  renders  it  necessary  to  import  a  large  quantity  from 
abroad.  The  fleece  chiefly  valued  is  that  of  the  merino,  long  confined  to  Spain :  and  Spanish 
wool,  in  the  early  part  of  this  century,  was  introduced  to  the  extent  of  6,000,000  lbs.  annu- 
ally, but  in  1827  it  fell  short  of  4,000,000  lbs.,  and  in  1832  did  not  exceed  2,626,000  lbs.  It 
has  been  supplanted  by  the  wool  of  Saxony,  and  other  parts  of  northern  Germany,  where  the 
merino  breed  has  been  introduced  and  propagated  with  the  greatest  success.  The  importa- 
tion from  Germany,  which  in  1810  was  only  778,000  lbs.,  was  in  1830  so  high  as  26,073,000  lbs., 
though  in  1832  only  19,832,000  lbs. :  New  Holland  and  Van  Diemen's  Land  in  that  year 
furnished  2,377,000  lbs.  of  very  fine  wool ;  and  the  supply  is  increasing.  The  entire  im- 
port amounted  in  1830  and  1831  to  about  32,000,000  lbs. ;  "in  1832  to  only  28,140,000  lbs. 

The  annual  value  of  the  woollen  manufacture  appears  to  be  about  20,000,000Z.  sterling, 
and  the  persons  employed  between  400,000,  and  500,000.  There  were  exported,  in  1832, 
396,661  pieces  of  cloth ;  23,453  pieces  napped  coatings,  duffels,  &c. ;  40,984  pieces  of  ker- 
seymeres; 34,874  pieces  baize;  1,800,714  stuff's  or  worsted;  2,304,750  yards  flannels; 
1,681,840  yards  blanketing ;  690,042  yards  carpeting,  &c.  There  were  exported  also 
4,199,000  lbs.  of  Britisli  wool,  and  2,204,000  lbs.  woollen  yarn. 

The  cotton  manufacture  is  of  mucli  more  recent  introduction,  and  for  a  long  period  the 
progress  of  this  branch  of  industry  was  slow.  In  lt60,  the  value  of  the  fabric  was  only 
200,000/.  In  1767,  .Tames  Hargreaves,  a  common  Lancashire  weaver,  invented  the  spiiming 
jenny,  by  which  at  first  8,  and  finally  120  spindles  were  moved  by  a  single  spinner.  Har- 
greaves became  exposed  to  the  persecution  of  the  working  people  employed  in  this  operation  ; 
was  obliged  to  flee  to  Nottingham ;  and  died  in  poverty.  Richard  Arkwright,  a  barber  of 
Nottingham,  invented  the  water-twist,  or  "  perpetual  twist,"  spinning  fi-ame,  in  which  the 
whole  process  was  performed  by  the  machine,  and  the  workmen  had  only  to  supply  the  material 
and  watch  its  progress.  Samuel  Crompton,  in  1775,  produced  the  machine  called  the  mule, 
a  combination  of  the  two  preceding,  which  it  soon  superseded  both  in  tlie  finer  and  more 
valuable  articles. 

That  machinery  should  weave  as  well  as  spin,  was  necessary  to  consummate  the  triumph 


Book  I.  ENGLAND.  353 

of  art.  This  was  accomplished  hy  the  Rev.  Mr.  Cartwright,  a  clergyman  of  Kent,  who  in- 
vented a  machine  by  whicli  cloth  was  woven  ;  but  the  first  trial  was  unsuccessful  as  to  profit, 
and  an  impression  long  prevailed  that  cottons  could  be  woven  cheaper  by  the  hand.  Within 
tiie  last  few  years,  liowever,  tlie  system  of  power-loom  weaving  has  been  adopted  to  an  im- 
mense extent ;  it  is  estimated  that  there  are  in  Britain  80,000,  absorbing  10,000,000Z.  of  fixed 
and  .5,000,000^.  of  floating  capital,  employing  160,000  operatives,  and  working  up  124,800,000 
pounds  of  cotton. 

The  steam-engine,  the  moving  power,  the  greatest  of  all  these  discoveries,  remains  to  be 
mentioned.  Machines  moved  by  horses  and  water,  originally  employed  in  manufacturing 
and  other  processes,  were  cumbrous,  expensive,  and  oflen  unmanageable.  The  steam-engine, 
brought  to  perfection  by  Watt,  became  at  once  the  moving  power  of  all  this  machinery,  and 
the  principal  cause  to  whicli  its  vast  results  may  be  attributed. 

Tlie  cotton  wool  imported  into  Britain,  which  in  1781  little  exceeded  5,000,000  lbs.,  rose 
in  1809,  to  93,000,000;  m  1817,  to  126,000,000;  and  in  1832,  to  288,000,000.  The  finest 
is  that  called  Sea  Island,  a  name  given  to  what  is  grown  on  the  coast  of  Georgia  and  Caro- 
lina. The  bowed  Georgia,  produced  in  the  interior,  is  not  of  equal  value.  Next  to  the  Sea 
Island  ranlv  tlie  West  India  and  Brazil.  Of  the  quantity  imported  in  1831,  there  came 
from  the  United  States,  219,333,000  lbs. ;  from  Brazil,  31,695,000;  from  the  East  Indies, 
25,805,000 ;  from  tlie  West  Indies,  2,401,000 ;  and  from  Egypt,  7,714,000  lbs.  The  con- 
sumption of  printed  cottons  has  diminished  in  England,  silk  being  preferred  as  an  ornamental 
dress,  and  the  use  of  cotton,  printed  or  dyed  previously  to  weaving,  having  becoms  preva- 
lent. The  demand  abroad,  however,  is  still  extensive,  so  that  the  amount  of  pieces  printed 
is  about  4,500,000,  giving  employment  to  100,000  persons. 

The  produce  of  the  cotton  manufacture  is  34,000,000Z.  annually.  Of  this  18,000,000Z.  is 
paid  in  wages  to  800,000  persons  employed  in  its  different  branches ;  and  allowing  for  those 
who  are  dependent  upon  them,  and  for  the  subsidiary  employments,  it  affords  subsistence  to 
not  much  fewer  than  1,400,000  people.  The  value  of  cotton  manufactures  exported  in  1831 
was  13,282,000?.;  of  twist  and  yarn,  3,975,000/.  They  were  chiefly  of  the  following 
descriptions: — Calicoes,  cambric  muslins,  dimities,  &,c.,  299,597,000  yards;  lace,  gauze-net 
and  crape,  48,164,000  yards ;  cotton  and  linen,  mixed,  1,668,000  yards ;  velvets  and  vel- 
veteens, 404,000  yards ;  counterpanes  and  quilts,  number,  23,000 ;  hosiery,  shawls,  handker- 
chiefs, &c.,  538,000  dozen ;  tapes,  bobbins,  &c.,  99,000  dozen ;  thread,  1,105,000  lbs. ;  twist 
and  yarn,  48,098,000  lbs. 

The  working  in  metals  is  also  one  of  the  branches  in  which  England  has  attained  to  a 
most  decided  pre-eminence.  About  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  it  rose  to  the  rank 
of  a  staple  ;  and  within  the  last  half  century  it  has  greatly  increased  in  importance.  Shef- 
field, perhaps  the  original  seat  of  the  trade  in  England,  is  still  distinguished  for  the  most 
solid  and  useful  articles,  knives,  grates,  and  their  appendages,  agricultural  implements,  &c.; 
while  Birmingham  adds  to  these  utensils  a  variety  of  small  articles,  ornaments,  and  toys, 
which,  though  minute  in  detail,  amount  to  a  vast  value  in  the  aggregate.  Each  of  these 
two  great  cities  forms,  as  it  were,  the  centre  of  a  large  circle  of  population,  all  employed  in 
the  same  manner.  The  number  of  persons  employed  in  the  product  and  manufacture  of 
metals  is  estimated  at  350,000,  and  the  entire  produce  at  17,000,000?.  The  export  of  hard- 
ware and  cutlery  in  1831  amounted  to  16,799  tons,  value  1,620,000?.;  in  1832,  it  was  15,294 
tons ;  value,  1,433,000?. 

The  silk  manufacture  was  ot  late  origin  in  England ;  but  it  was  considerably  improved  by 
the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  which  drove  a  number  of  French  weavers  into  that 
country.  It  is  established  in  a  quarter  of  the  metropolis,  called  Spitalfields,  where  it  em- 
ploys about  25,000  men :  at  JNIacclesfield,  Manchester,  Coventry,  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
country,  the  number  occupied  in  it  may  amount  to  40,000.  The  entire  value  of  the  manu- 
facture was  estimated  some  3^ears  ago  at  4,000,000?. ;  and  may  now,  probably,  be  between 
5,000,000?.  and  6,000,000?.  Notwithstanding  the  removal  of  the  prohibitory  duties  on  the 
importation  of  foreign  silks,  the  British  manufacture  has  maintained  its  ground,  and  gone  on 
increasing.  The  importation  of  raw  and  thrown  silk  in  1832  was  4,224,000  lbs. :  of  which 
1,814,000  lbs.  were  from  the  East  Indies  and  China;  1,006,000  lbs.  from  France  ;  564,000  lbs. 
from  Italy ;  and  458,000  lbs.  from  Turkey.  The  exports  amounted  in  1832  to  525,000?., 
chiefly  to  North  America  and  the  West  Indies. 

In  the  manufacture  of  earthenware  and  porcelain,  England  has  of  late  made  vast  ad- 
vances, and  brought  its  various  products  to  a  high  degree  of  beauty  and  elegance.  Burslem 
in  Staflbrdshire  had,  for  centuries,  been  noted  for  its  fabrication  of  a  coarse  kind  of  ware ; 
but  it  was  reserved  for  Mr.  Wedgwood  to  carry  this  art  to  perfection  by  a  combination  of 
elegance  and  cheapness.  Fine  white  clay  from  the  south-western  counties,  and  ground  flint, 
are  the  chief  materials  of  this  celebrated  ware,  which  bears  the  name  of  its  inventor.  The 
white  ware  of  Derby  and  the  porcelain  of  Worcester,  though  on  a  smaller  scale,  are  still 
finer  productions.  The  latter  is  composed  of  a  mixture  of  13  different  materials,  and  each 
cup  passes  through  23  hands.     Earthenware  pavs  no  duty,  so  that  its  amount  cannot  be  offi- 

Vol.  I.  30*  2U 


A54  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

ciaUy  ascertained;  the  ejport,  however,  has  diminished  from  nearly  700,000/.  in  1815-16, 
to  only  490,000/.  in  1832. 

Hides  are  imported  from  all  quarters  of  the  world ;  the  entire  quantity  in  1824  was 
300,000  cwt.,  value  700,000/.  In  1830  only  22.5,000  cwt.  were  imported.  In  that.jear  the 
hides  tanned  or  otherwise  manufiictured  amounted  to  46,800,000  lbs.,  value  3,900,000/,;  and 
as  tlie  value  of  the  finished  article  is  supposed  to  be  three  times  that  of  the  material,  this 
value  will  amount  to  nearly  12,000,000/.  The  shoes  made  in  England  are  estimated  al 
6,800,000/.  and  the  whole  manufacture  employs  about  250,000  persons. 

Beer,  glass,  soap,  and  candles  are  branches  of  production  which  employ  a  large  capital 
and  numerous  workmen,  and  yield  a  yearly  amount  of  great  value.  In  London  the  quantity 
of  malt  liquor  annually  brewed  is  1,700,000  barrels,  of  which  38,000  are  exported.  This  is 
chiefly  porter,  a  liquor  peculiarly  appropriate  to  London,  and  for  which  she  is  famous  through- 
out the  world.  In  all  England,  there  were  brewed,  in  1829,  about  7,400,000  barrels,  of  the 
value  of  upwards  of  22,000,000/. ;  without  including  l,i500,000  barrels  of  table-beer.  Can- 
dles.— In  1829,  the  manufacture  amounted  to  110,000,000  lbs.,  which  would  make  a  value 
of  3,208,000  /.  Soap.  —  The  manufacture,  in  1829,  was  100,000,000  lbs.  which  would 
amount  to  3,175,000/. 

The  linen  manufacture  is  that  in  which  England  is  most  deficient;  for  though  she  is  sup- 
posed to  produce  the  value  of  1,000,000/.  a  year,  tiiis  does  not  supersede  the  necessity  of 
large  imports  from  Scotland  and  Ireland.  Of  late,  the  elegant  manufacture  of  lace  haa 
been  carried  to  great  perfection  by  means  of  bobbinet  frames.  By  this  manufacture  a  value 
of  160,000/.  in  silk  and  Sea  Island  cotton  is  wrought  into  lace,  estimated  at  1,890,000/.  and 
employing  208,000  persons.  Distilled  liquors  or  spirits,  too,  though  they  produce  a  revenue 
of  2,000,000/.,  are  neither  equal  in  quality  nor  amount  to  those  of  the  sister  countries  of 
Scotland  and  Ireland,  whose  produce,  if  it  had  not  been  excluded  by  national  jealousy,  would 
probably  by  this  time  have  driven  that  of  England  out  of  the  market.  The  quantity  distilled 
in  1831  and  1832  averaged  7,350,000  gallons. 

Mines  form  one  of  the  most  copious  sources  of  the  wealth  of  England.  The  usefiil  metals 
and  minerals,  those  which  afford  the  instruments  of  manufacture  and  are  subservient  to  the 
daily  purposes  of  life,  are  now  drawn  from  the  earth  more  copiously  there  than  in  any  other 
country.  Her  most  valuable  metals  are  iron,  copper,  and  tin ;  her  principal  minerals  are 
coal  and  salt. 

Iron,  the  material  of  so  important  a  class  of  manufacture,  abounds  in  England,  particularly 
in  Wales,  Staffordshire,  and  Derbyshire.  While  it  was  Supposed,  however,  that  the  blast 
fi^irnaces  could  be  composed  only  of  charcoal,  the  limited  supply  of  wood  depressed  the  pro- 
duce, and  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  the  iron  made  in  England  from  fitly  new  fur- 
naces did  not  exceed  17,000  tons.  It  was  then  found,  however,  that,  furnaces  filled  with 
coke  might  be  heated  to  the  same  degree  as  those  of  charcoal,  and  the  inexhaustible  supply 
of  coal  might  be  employed  in  bringing  the  iron  mines  into  value.  Hence,  the  increased 
production  has  been  astonishingly  rapid.  In  1796,  it  amounted  to  125,000  tons ;  in  1806,  to 
250,000  tons ;  in  1830,  it  was  680,000  tons,  worth  5,100,000/. ;  and  which  the  additional 
labour  of  forming  it  into  bar  iron  may  raise  to  6,300,000/.  The  export  amounted  in  1832  to 
about  150,000  tons,  worth  1,120,000/.  It  is  exported  chiefly  in  the  forms  of  bar  iron,  to  the 
amount  of  74,024  tons ;  bolt  and  rod  iron,  6938 ;  pig  iron,  17,566 ;  cast  iron,  12,495 ;  hoops, 
9417 ;  nails,  4347,  «fec. 

Copper,  also,  has  risen  to  importance  in  the  course  of  the  last  half  century.  It  is  found  chiefly 
in  Cornwall,  to  the  amount,  in  1832,  of  11,947  tons,  and  is  carried  thence  to  Swansea,  to  be 
smelted  with  the  coal  of  North  Wales,  which  itself  produced  1320  tons  of  copper.  The 
total  produce  is  14,449  tons,  which,  at  90/.  per  ton,  will  be  1,300,410/. 

Tin,  a  rare  and  peculiar  metal,  is  found  only  in  Cornwall  and  part  of  Devon.  So  early 
was  it  known,  that  we  find  the  British  Islands  first  recognized  by  its  name,  and  it  is  enu- 
merated among  the  articles  with  which  the  Carthaginians  supplied  the  markets  of  Tyre. 
As  Cornwall,  with  the  exception  of  the  Indian  island  of  Banca,  is  the  only  tract  known  to 
produce  tin  in  large  quantities,  there  is  a  considerable  export  to  most  countries  of  Europe, 
particularly  France  and  Italy.  The  annual  produce  of  the  mines  amounts  to  83,000  cwt. ; 
of  the  valiie  of  115,000/. 

Lead  is  found  ui  Cumberland,  Derbyshire,  and  Northumberland,  to  the  supposed  amount 
of  about  16,000  tons  annually  ;  which,  at  20/.  per  ton,  will  be  worth  320,000/.  In  1833,  the 
British  lead  exported  was  13,898  tons. 

Coal,  the  most  valuable  of  all  the  mineral  substances  from  which  Britain  derives  her  pros- 
perity, exists  in  almost  inexhaustible  quantities  in  the  counties  of  Northumberland,  Derby, 
and  Stafford,  and  ui  that  of  Glamorgan  in  South  Wales.  It  fuses  the  metals,  produces  the 
steam  which  sets  the  machinery  in  motion,  and  is,  indeed,  instrumental  in  bringing  almost 
every  substance  into  a  useful  and  merchantable  form.  By  superseding  also  the  neces- 
sity of  extensive  plantations  for  fuel,  it  enables  a  much  greater  proportion  of  the  soil  to  be 
devoted  to  cultivation.  The  Northumberland  and  Durham  field  has  been  estimated  at  732 
square  miles,  the  South  Wales  field  is  1200 ;  which,  allowing  for  the  average  depth,  will. 


Hook  I.  ENGLAND.  355 

it  is  calculated,  be  sufficient  to  supply  all  England  for  1700  or  2000  years.  At  all  events,  it 
seems  certain  that  she  is  secure  for  many  centuries  against  any  deficiency.  The  quantity 
shipped  from  Durham  and  Northumberland  is  stated  at  3,300,000  tons ;  and  the  whole  em- 
ployed asfuel,  and  in  the  manufactories  and  mines  throughout  England  (adding  700,000 
exported  to  Ireland),  at  not  less  than  15,500,000  tons.  The  mines  on  the  Tyne  employed 
8491  persons  underground,  and  3463  above ;  those  on  the  Wear,  about  three-fourth's  of  this 
number  :  the  conveyance  of  these  coastwise  employs  1400  vessels  and  15,000  men ;  while, 
in  London,  7500  whippers,  lighter-men,  factors,  agents,  &c.  are  engaged  in  landing  and 
distributing  it.  Taking  into  view  the  whole  of  Great  Britain,  Mr.  M'Culloch  considers  that 
the  coal  trade  will  give  occupation  to  not  less  than  160,000  persons.  In  1829,  the  total 
quantity  sliipped  was  6,224,125  tons ;  of  which,  5,014,132  were  sent  coastwise ;  840,246,  to 
Ireland  ;  128,893,  to  the  British  colonies :  356,419,  to  foreign  countries. 

Of  salt,  Britain  possesses  an  immense  supply.  The  finest  and  most  valuable  kind  is  the 
rock  salt,  drawn  from  mines  and  from  brine  springs  in  the  county  of  Chester.  The  salt  is 
refined  by  being  boiled  along  with  the  brine  of  the  springs,  and  is  then  called  white  salt. 
The  annual  produce  is  15,000,000  bushels,  of  which  about  10,000,000  are  exported,  chiefly 
to  North  America,  the  Netherlands,  and  Russia. 

The  commerce  of  Britain,  like  her  manufacturing  industry,  is  now  completely  without  a 
rival.  The  exports  of  Britain  consist  almost  wholly  of  her  manufactured  produce.  Cotton 
takes  the  precedence  of  all  others.  In  1830,  the  quantity  exported,  including  twist  and 
yarn,  was  valued  at  about  15,000,000?.  sterling ;  being  two-fitlhs  of  the  whole  exportation. 
They  are  sent  to  every  country,  but  most  especially  to  those  from  which  the  raw  material  is 
imported.  The  United  States  take  an  immense  quantity ;  the  West  Indies  and  Brazil  im- 
port largely ;  the  market  in  the  independent  states  of  South  America  is  daily  enlarging,  and 
they  make  their  way  in  increasing  quantities  even  into  the  East  Indies.  In  Europe,  Portu- 
gal and  Italy  are  extensive  markets ;  and  though  studiously  excluded  from  Spain,  large  con- 
signments are  sent  to  Gibraltar,  evidently  with  a  view  to  clandestine  introduction.  Germany 
takes  a  great  quantity  both  of  manufactured  goods,  and  of  yarn  and  twist  for  her  own  manu- 
factories. The  woollen  manufacture  has  a  different  and  less  extensive  range.  The  United 
States,  the  greatest  market,  take  three-eighths  of  the  whole ;  after  which  rank  the  East  In- 
dies, Russia,  Portugal,  and  Germany.  The  wrought  metals  find  a  great  variety  of  markets. 
Of  bar  iron,  7000  tons,  and  copper  50,000  tons,  go  to  the  East  Indies.  Ireland  takes  7000 
tons  of  bar,  700  of  cast,  and  2300  of  wrought  iron.  The  West  Indies  take  largely  both 
iron  and  copper.* 

Among  the  imports,  a  large  portion  consists  of  raw  materials,  brought  in  vast  quantities  to 
be  manufactured,  in  many  instances  for  the  use  of  the  regions  firom  which  they  come.  Under 
the  head  of  manufactures,  we  have  enumerated  the  principal  of  these  articles,  and  the 
countries  from  whence  imported.  They  are  chiefly  cotton,  wool,  silk,  and  hides ;  to  which 
may  be  added,  bark,  ashes,  and  barilla ;  cochineal,  indigo,  madder,  and  other  dyeing  stuffs. 
Although  grain  and  provisions  are  now  produced  in  sufficient  quantity  for  internal  consump- 
tion, there  is  much  v,fant  of  the  raw  produce  of  uncultivated  land.  Under  this  head  a  promi- 
nent rank  may  be  assigned  to  timber  and  naval  stores.  Fir  and  oak  timber,  and  staves,  are 
brought  chiefly  from  North  America;  masts,  deals,  and  deal  ends,  from  Norway  and  Russia; 
oak  plank  from  Prussia. 

The  import  trade  of  consumption  is,  after  all,  the  most  extensive :  it  consists  chiefly  in 
obtaining  from  southern  regions,  and  those  warmed  by  tropical  suns,  the  accommodations  and 
luxuries  which  cannot  be  matured  under  a  less  genial  sky.  Wine  would  have  been  intro- 
duced to  a  very  great  extent,  had  not  its  exclusion  been  made  a  prime  object  of  fiscal  regu- 
lation. Tliis,  however,  has  been  so  potently  applied,  that  the  use  of  wine  has  not  increased 
in  any  proportion  to  the  general  wealth  of  the  nation ;  and  it  has  been  forced  from  the  near- 
est and  best  wines  of  France,  to  the  less  palatable  produce  of  Spain  and  Portugal.  Brandy, 
also,  still  accounted  the  finest  of  spirituous  liquors,  forces  itself,  to  a  certain  extent,  into  the 
circle  of  imports.  But  the  saccharine  and  aromatic  products  of  the  tropical  plains  form  the 
basis  of  an  immense  commerce,  which  even  the  adherents  of  the  mercantile  system  cherish, 
under  the  idea  that  much  of  it  is  carried  on  with  English  colonies.  The  leading  articles  are 
sugar,  tea,  coffee,  tobacco,  and  spices.  Notwithstanding  the  immense  cotton  manufacture 
of  Britain,  the  piece  goods  of  India,  by  their  peculiar  excellence,  still  find  their  way  into 
the  country. 

The  shipping  by  which  so  extensive  a  trade  is  carried  on,  must  necessarily  be  very  exten- 
sive. In  1663  it  was  only  95,000  tons.  It  rose  in  1701  to  273,000 ;  in  1751,  to  609,000 ; 
in  1792,  to  1,186,000.  The  vessels  belonging  to  the  British  empire  at  the  end  of  1834,  were 
25,055,  of  2,716,000  tons,  and  navigated  by  168,061  men.  The  entries  and  clearances  for 
the  coasting  trade,  in  1832,  amounted  each  to  8,500,000  tons.  Besides  these,  in  the  same 
year,  4546  foreign  vessels,  comprising  639,979  tons,  and  navigated  by  35,399  men,  entered 
the  ports  of  Great  Britain.* 

♦See  Statistical  Tables,  at  end  of  Chap.  IV. 


356  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

The  fisheries  do  not  seem  to  have  been  so  much  cultivated  in  Britain,  as  the  hardy  enter- 
prise of  the  nation  might  have  led  us  to  expect.  The  wliale  fishery  was  considered  so  valu- 
able, botli  for  its  products,  and  as  a  nursery  for  seamen,  that,  till  1824,  a  bounty  was  granted 
in  proportion  to  tlie  tonnage  of  the  vessels  employed.  They  have  found  their  way  to  the 
antarctic  polar  sea,  in  search  of  an  oil  which,  though  not  superior  for  burning,  is  better 
adapted  to  the  purposes  of  manufacture,  than  that  drawn  from  the  arctic  regions.  This 
fishery,  within  the  last  twelve  years,  lias  considerably  diminished  both  in  amount  and  in  the 
value  of  its  products,  owing  to  the  use  of  gas,  the  greater  cheapness  of  rape-oil  for  manu- 
facture, and  also  to  a  larger  part  of  the  trade  being  engrossed  by  Scotland.  In  1829  there 
sailed  from  England  only  41  vessels,  of  13,766  tons  burden ;  which  brought  in  4912  tuns  of 
oil,  and  289  tons  of  whalebone.  The  following  year  was  still  more  deficient,  owing  to  tlie 
disasters  encountered  by  the  vessels  engaged  in  the  fishery. 

Of  the  fisheries  in  the  British  seas,  that  of  Herrings,  the  most  important,  belongs  almost 
entirely  to  Scotland.  Next  to  this  ranks  that  of  Pilchards,  on  the  coast  of  Cornwall  and 
part  of  Devon.  The  fish  is  found  there  in  such  immense  shoals,  that  it  forms  the  chief  food 
of  the  people  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and  is  also  largely  salted  for  exportation. 
The  value  annually  taken  is  reckoned  at  .50,000/.  or  60,000Z. 

The  interior  navigation  of  England  is  justly  regarded  as  one  of  the  prime  sources  of  her 
prosperity.  Till  the  middle  of  last  century,  the  making  of  canals  did  not  enter  into  the 
system  of  English  economy.  In  1755  was  formed  the  Sankey  canal,  a  line  of  twelve  miles, 
to  supply  Liverpool  with  coal  from  the  pits  at  St.  Helen's.  The  example  then  set  by  the 
Duke  of  Bridgewater  gave  a  general  impulse  to  the  nation.  Since  that  time,  upwards  of 
30,000,000Z.  sterling  have  been  expended  in  this  object.  Twenty-one  canals  Jiave  been  car- 
ried across  the  central  chain  of  hills,  by  processes  in  which  no  cost  has  been  spared ;  all  the- 
resources  of  art  and  genius  have  been  employed ;  every  obstacle,  however  formidable,  which 
nature  could  present,  has  been  vanquished.  By  locks,  and  by  inclined  planes,  the  vessels 
are  conveyed  up  and  down  the  most  rugged  steeps ;  they  are  even  carried  across  navigable 
rivers  by  bridges.  When  other  means  fail,  the  engineer  has  cut  through  the  heart  of  rocks 
and  hills  a  subterraneous  passage.  Of  these  tunnels,  as  they  are  called,  there  are  said  to  be 
forty-eight,  the  entire  length  of  which  is  at  least  forty  miles. 

The  Duke  of  Bridgewater  formed  the  plan  of  opening  a  communication  between  I\Ian- 
chester  and  his  extensive  coal-mines,  at  Worsley.  The  obstacles  were  so  great,  both  from 
nature  and  art,  that  the  attempt  must  have  proved  abortive,  had  he  not  been  seconded  by  the 
genius  of  Brindley,  who,  from  a  common  millwright,  raised  himself  to  be  the  first  engineer 
of  the  age.  The  canal  was  carried  through  vast  excavations,  made  partly  in  the  interior  of 
the  mine  itself;  it  was  led  by  aqueducts  over  a  succession  of  public  roads,  and  over  the  river 
Irwell  by  a  magnificent  bridge,  which  left  space  for  vessels  with  their  sails  spread  to  pass 
beneath.  By  deep  cuttings,  and  by  artificial  mounds,  in  some  places  supported  upon  piles, 
a  level  of  upwards  of  fifty  miles  was  completed.  The  Duke  expended,  in  this  undertaking, 
his  whole  fortune,  amounting  to  350,000Z. ;  and  its  failure  would  have  left  him  destitute : 
but,  as  it  immediately  enabled  him  to  reduce  the  price  of  coal  in  Manchester  to  one  half,  the 
trade  in  a  short  time  yielded  twenty  per  cent,  upon  his  outlay,  and  rapidly  produced  an 
immense  income. 

The  Grand  Trunk  Canal,  an  undertaking  on  a  still  greater  scale,  formed  under  the 
patronage  of  tlie  Marquess  of  Stafford,  by  a  course  of  ninety  miles  througli  Staffordshire, 
connects  the  Trent  with  the  Mersey,  Liverpool  with  Hull,  and  the  eastern  with  the  western 
coasts.  It  gave  animation  to  the  trade  of  all  the  districts  tlirough  whicli  it  passed,  particu- 
larly that  of  the  Potteries,  and  served  as  a  basis  for  various  canals  and  railways  branching 
from  it.  From  a  point  near  the  commencement  of  the  Grand  Trunk,  the  Ellesmere  canal 
has  branched  far  into  Wales,  and  conveys  to  Liverpool  the  mineral  and  agricultural  produce 
of  that  principality.  From  its  eastern  termination,  large  branches  have  been  extended  to 
Derby,  to  Nottingham,  to  Grantham,  and  other  considerable  towns. 

The  Leeds  and  Liverpool  Canal,  by  a  more  northerly  line  of  one  hundred  and  twenty 
miles,  connects  the  Mersey  with  the  Aire,  a  tributary  of  the  Ouse,  and  thus  enables  Liver- 
pool and  Hull  to  communicate  by  another  line  across  the  great  cloth-manufacturing  districts. 
An  important  branch  of  this  canal  is  carried  to  Lancaster,  and  on  to  Kendal. 

From  the  vicinity  of  London  the  Grand  Junction,  at  an  expense  of  two  millions,  was  car- 
ried by  a  line  of  ninety  miles  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Coventry.  Near  Daventry,  the  Grand 
Union  strikes  off",  and  joins  the  Grand  Trunk,  thus  securing  for  London  an  inland  communi- 
cation with  Liverpool',  and  with  all  the  great  manufacturing  cities  of  the  West.  A  great 
system  of  canals  was  formed  round  Birmingham,  of  whicli  one  result  was  to  connect  the 
Grand  Trunk  with  the  Severn,  and  thus  to  form  a  connexion  between  all  the  four  great 
rivers  of  England,  and  all  its  commercial  and  manufacturing  cities.  A  canal  had  already 
been  formed  from  Coventry  to  Oxford.  That  of  the  Thames  and  Severn  joined  these  two 
main  rivers  at  the  highest  navigable  point  of  the  former.  The  Gloucester  and  Berkeley  is 
a  lateral  canal  to  the  Severn,  by  means  of  which  Gloucester  is  connected  with  the  Bristol 
Channel  by  a  direct  line.     The  principal  canals  to  the  south  of  the  Thames  are  the  Kennet 


Book  I, 


ENGLAND. 


357 


and  Avon  canal,  and  the  Berks  and  Wilts  canal,  through  which  a  communication  is  formed 
from  the  Thames  near  Abingdon  to  tlie  cities  of  Bath  and  Bristol.  The  total  length  of  canals 
in  Great  Britain,  excluding  those  under  five  miles,  is  2581  miles. 

Railways  form  another  contrivance,  by  which  the  conveyance  of  goods  is  wonderfully 
facilitated,  by  causing  the  wheels  to  roll  over  a  smooth  surface  of  iron.  Railways  were  at 
first  used  only  on  a  small  scale,  chiefly  in  tlie  coal-mines  round  Newcastle,  for  conveying 
the  mineral  from  the  interior  to  the  surface,  and  thence  to  the  place  of  shipping;  and  it  is 
reckoned  tliat  round  that  city  there  is  an  extent  of  about  three  hundred  miles  of  these  rail- 
ways. They  were  gradually  employed  on  a  greater  scale,  particularly  in  Wales,  where  the 
county  of  Glamorgan  has  one  twenty-five  miles  long,  and  in  all  two  hundred  miles  of  rail- 
way; The  railway  between  Manchester  and  Liverpool  extends  thirty-one  miles,  and  is  car- 
ried over  sixty-three  bridges,  thirty  of  which  pass  over  tlie  turnpike  road,  and  ore  over  the 
river  Irwell.  The  entire  cost  was  about  820,000Z. ;  but  the  intercourse  has  been  so  exten- 
sive as  to  afford  an  ample  remuneration.  The  Cromford  and  High  Peak  railway  is  carried 
over  the  high  mountainous  district  of  Derbyshire,  connecting  tlie  two  canals  which  bear 
those  names.  Its  length  is  thirty-three  miles,  carried  over  fifty  bridges,  and  rising  to  a  level 
of  992  feet  above  the  Cromford  canal.     The  entire  expense  has  not  exceeded  180,000Z. 

The  common  high  roads  of  the  kingdom  are  also  an  object  of  high  importance  to  trade  and 
general  intercourse.  Half  a  century  ago  most  of  them  appear  to  have  been  in  a  miserable 
state,  but  they  are  now,  perhaps,  the  best  in  the  world,  chiefly  through  the  application  of  the 
turnpike  system,  under  which  they  are  made  and  repaired  by  tolls  levied  upon  the  travellers, 
and  administered  by  county  trustees.  There  are  a  few  cases  where  roads  are  to  be  carried 
through  poor  provinces,  or  form  grand  lines  of  national  communication,  in  which  government 
judges  it  expedient  to  assist,  or  even  to  undertake  the  entire  construction  of  them.  In  1823, 
the  turnpike  roads  extended  in  all  to  24,531  miles  in  length.  The  amount  of  tolls  was 
1,214,00UZ.,  burdened  with  a  debt  of  5,200,000?. 

Bridges,  in  a  country  intersected  by  numerous  and  often  broad  rivers,  necessarily  attracted 
a  great  share  of  attention ;  and  the  ingenuity  and  wealth  of  England  have  been  employed 
in  making  extensive  improvements  in  this  branch  of  architecture.  South wark  Bridge  is  the 
most  complete  of  any  yet  formed  of  iron.  This  species  of  bridge  has  the  advantage  of  being 
lighter,  and  of  requiring  much  fewer  arches  than  those  of  stone.     A  still  more  daring  form 

has  been  given  to  this  material  by 
bridges  of  suspension,  formed  by 
iron  chains  stretched  across,  and 
supported  by  fixed  points  on  each 
side.  This  construction,  on  a  cer- 
tain scale,  has  existed  in  China 
from  the  earliest  ages.  The  Ame- 
ricans were  the  first  to  adopt  it  of 
Menai  bridge.  any  western  nation.     The  greatest 

undertaking  of  this  kind  yet  executed  is  the  Menai  Bridge  {fig.  137.),  over  the  strait  which 
separates  Wales  from  Anglesea.  Arches  of  masonry  on  each  side,  at  the  distance  of  five 
hundred  and  sixty  feet,  are  united  by  a  bridge  of  suspension,  composed  of  iron  chains. 

Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State. 
The  population  of  England  in  former  times  was  imperfectly  known,  being  calculated  only 
from  very  vague  surveys  and  estimates.  In  1377  the  results  of  a  poll-tax  were  given  as 
2,300,000  ;  but  from  the  many  evasions  to  which  such  a  census  would  give  rise,  that  number 
was  probably  below  the  truth.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  during  the  alarm  of  a  menaced 
Spanish  invasion  in  1575,  a  pretty  careful  survey  was  made,  the  result  of  which  gave  4,500,000. 
At  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  the  increase  appeared  to  be  about  a  million.*  From  the  com- 
mencement of  the  present  century  decennial  enumerations  have  been  made,  of  which  the 
following  are  the  results: — 


Population, 
ISOl. 

per  cent. 

Population, 
ISU. 

per  cent. 

Population, 
1621. 

Increase 
percent. 

lopulation, 
IS31. 

8,331,434 
541, .546 

470,598 

13 

9,551, 8*^8 
611,788 
640,500 

17 

11,261,437 
717,438 
319,300 

16 
12 

13,098.338 
805.236 
277,017 

9.343,578 

27f 

10,604,170 

34J 

12,298,175 

28 

14,180,591 

*  Population  of  the  British  Empire  and  Colonies. 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 24,311,834 

Nnilli  American  Colonies 1,300,000 

West  India                 "           gOO.OOn 

African                      "           300.0(10 

Asiatic                       "           1,000,000 

Australian                 "           •. 9.5.000 

Bast  India  Company 123,000,000 


Total 150,806,834 

[Am.  Ed.] 


358  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

Proportion  of  deaths,  marriages,  <^c.  to  the  population. — Among  the  facts  that  attest  the 
improved  condition  of  the  people  of  England  since  1770,  the  extraordinary  diminution  in  the 
rate  of  mortality  is  one  of  the  least  equivocal.  In  1780,  llie  deaths  in  England  and  Wales 
amounted  to  about  1  in  40  of  the  population  ;  in  1790,  to  about  1  in  45;  in  1811,  to  1  in  52; 
and  at  an  average  of  the  five  years  ending  with  18:30,  1  in  54.  The  improvement  has  been 
particularly  conspicuous  in  the  great  towns  ;  and  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  more  comfortable 
situation  of  all  classes,  tlie  greater  attention  paid  to  cleanliness,  «Sz:c.  The  proportion  of 
marriages  to  the  population  has  recently  declined.  In  17G0,  there  was  1  marriage  for  every 
116  individuals ;  in  1780,  1  in  118.  During  the  five  years  ending  with  1810,  it  was  as  1 
to  122;  and  during  the  five  years  ending  with  1830,  it  was  as  1  to  129.  But  this  decrease 
is  to  be  ascribed  wholly  to  the  greater  prevalence  of  moral  restraint,  the  proportion  of  ille- 
gitimate births  not  having  iiKireased.  The  number  of  births  to  a  marriage  in  England  is 
about  4.     Consumption  is  the  most  fatal  disease. 

The  national  character  of  the  English  exhibits  some  very  bold  and  marked  features.  Of 
these  the  most  conspicuous  is  that  love  of  liberty  which  pervades  all  classes.  The  liberty 
for  which  the  English  have  successfully  contended,  includes  the  right  of  thinking,  saying, 
writing,  and  doing  most  things  whicli  opinion  may  dictate,  and  inclination  prompt.  The 
knowledge  that  the  highest  offices  and  dignities  in  the  state  are  accessible  to  all,  redoubles 
their  activity,  and  encourages  them  to  perseverance.  It  is  but  little  more  than  a  century 
since  they  began  to  be  distinguished  as  a  manufacturing  and  commercial  people,  yet  Ihey 
have  already  outstripped  other  European  nations  in  meclianical  ingenuity,  in  industry,  and  in 
mercantile  enterprise.  The  enormous  increase  of  capital,  and  the  substitution  of  macliinery 
for  human  labour  in  most  of  their  manufactures,  seem  likely  at  no  distant  period  to  produce  a 
total  change  in  tlie  condition  of  British  society.  Much  of  its  tone  is  given  by  the  landed 
gentry;  a  numerous  body,  whose  estates,  though  generally  considerable,  are  not  enormous: 
while,  on  the  Continent,  landed  property  is  usually  m  one  or  otiier  of  two  extremes ;  either 
divided  into  minute  portions,  or  partitioned  into  a  few  princely  domains.  The  English  gentry, 
unlike  their  continental  neighbours,  reside  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year  at  their  coun- 
try-seats ;  appearing  in  London  and  at  court  only  for  a  few  months  in  the  spring.  In  this 
class,  and  indeed  among  the  English  in  general,  an  uncontrolled  temper,  elevated  by  the 
feeling  of  independence,  often  impels  individuals  into  extremes  both  of  good  and  evil.  No- 
where exists  a  purer  spirit  of  patriotism ;  nowhere  break  forth  more  violent  excesses  of 
faction.  In  no  country  of  Europe,  perhaps,  are  there  so  many  men  who  act  steadily  upon 
principle ;  yet  in  none  exists,  at  the  same  time,  so  large  a  proportion  of  individuals  living  in 
habitual  and  open  violation  of  all  principle,  and  frequently  in  contempt  of  legal  ordinances. 
Domestic  life  is  cultivated  by  the  English  more  sedulously  than  by  any  of  the  continental 
nations ;  the  sanctity  of  marriage  is  more  carefully  guarded  ;  and  chastity  in  the  female  sex 
more  strictly  observed.  In  its  minor  features,  the  English  character  has  undergone  various 
changes.  The  vices  of  drinking  and  swearing,  once  so  prevalent,  are  happily  no  longer 
fashionable.  Horse-racing,  hunting,  and  rural  sports,  are  carried  to  excess  by  some  of  the 
country  gentlemen ;  and  the  more  barbarous  practice  of  boxing  still  has  cultivators.  Per- 
haps the  most  estimable  quality  of  the  Englisli  is  their  love  of  justice ;  the  source  of  all 
honourable  dealing  among  the  higher  classes,  and  of  what  is  emphatically  called  fair  play, 
in  the  transactions  of  humbler  life.  The  principle,  that  a  man's  word  should  be  his  bond,  is 
acted  upon  most  rigorously  where  the  greatest  interests  are  at  stake  ;  as  on  its  observance 
more  than  on  that  of  any  law  that  has  been  or  can  be  devised,  the  commercial  and  financial 
prosperity  of  the  country  depends.  The  English  are  the  most  provident  people  in  the  world. 
More  than  a  million  of  individuals  are  members  of  friendly  societies,  and  the  deposits  in 
savings  banks  exceed  13,000,000Z.  The  great  extension  of  life  insurance  afltjrds  another 
proof  of  this  laudable  disposition.  The  English  also  deserve  to  be  called  a  humane  people, 
zealous,  both  from  feeling  and  fi-om  principle,  for  the  promotion  of  every  thing  that  tends  to 
the  welfare  of  their  fellow-creatures.  Crime  in  England  has  undergone  a  considerable 
change.  Highway  robbery,  so  prevalent  towards  the  beginning  and  middle  of  last  century, 
is  now  nearly  unknown,  and  all  sorts  of  crimes  and  violence  have  been  materially  lessened. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  has  been  a  very  rapid  increase,  particularly  within  the  last  twenty 
years,  of  crimes  against  property.  A  material  change  has  recently  been  effected  in  the 
criminal  law  of  England,  by  the  abolition  of  an  immense  number  of  capital  punishments. 

Provision  for  the  Poor.  A  cnmpulsorj'  rate  has  been  levied  on  all  kinds  of  fixed  property,  for  the  support  of  all 
impotent,  poor,  and  unemployed  persons,  ever  since  the  reisfn  of  Elizabeth.  In  1700  the  rates  amounted  to  about 
1,000,000;.,  and,  notwitlistamiiiif;  the  increase  of  population  and  taxation  in  the  inttrval,  they  were  little  more 
than  2,0(K),000/.  at  the  close  of  the  .\merican  war.  In  ITlto  several  ill-considered  changes  were  made  in  the  mode 
of  graniine  relief,  and  tlie~  pernicious  practice  of  eking  out  wages  by  contributions  from  the  rates  was  then  also 
adopteil.  From  this  period,  down  to  the  termination  of  the  late  French  war,  the  progress  of  the  rates  was  very 
rapid,  fo  that  they  amounted  to  9,320,000/.  in  the  year  lrl7-18.  They  have  since  been  reduced,  but  they  still 
amounted  in  1831-32  to  8,50!l.000;.  The  abuses  arising  out  of  the  practice  of  paying  wages  out  of  rates  are  not 
inherent  in  the  system.  They  were  engrafted  upon  it  so  late  as  1795,  and  may,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  will,  be  en- 
tiiely  removed.  A  reform  of  this  sort  would  of  itself  take  nearly  a  third  part  from  the  rates.  [By  the  act  of  14th 
August,  1834,  which  provides  for  the  appointment  of  three  poor-law  commissioners,  with  power  to  make  rules  and 
regulations  for  the  management  of  the  poor  and  the  administration  of  the  poor  laws,  these  abuses  have  been 
rt-furuied.— Am.  Ed.] 


Book  T.  ENGLAND.  359 

The  Englisli  are,  in  general,  a  people  soberly  religious,  though  the  nation,  among  its  other 
excesses,  has  presented  striking  displays  of  infidelity  and  fanaticism.  The  Church  of  Eng- 
land was  established  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  when  the  reformation  was  completed 
whicli  had  been  begun  in  that  of  Henry  VIII.  It  is  an  integral  part  of  the  constitution,  hav- 
ing for  its  head  the  king,  who,  as  head  of  the  church,  nominates  to  vacant  bislioprics  and 
certain  other  preferments,  constitutes  or  restrains  ecclesiastical  jurisdictions,  inflicts  eccle- 
siastical censures,  and  decides  in  the  last  resort  in  all  ecclesiastical  causes,  an  appeal  lying 
ultimately  to  him  m  chancery,  from  the  sentence  of  every  ecclesiastical  judge.  In  respect 
to  its  church  government,  England  is  primarily  divided  into  two  provinces  or  archbishoprics, 
Canterbury  and  York.  Each  province  contains  various  dioceses  or  seats  of  suffragan  bishops, 
Canterbury  including  twenty-one,  and  York  three,  besides  the  bishopric  of  Sodor  and  Man, 
which  was  annexed  to  it  by  Henry  VIII.  Every  diocese  is  divided  into  archdeaconries, 
of  which  the  whole  number  amounts  to  sixty,  each  archdeaconry  into  rural  deaneries,  which 
are  the  circuits  of  the  archdeacon's  and  rural  dean's  jurisdiction ;  and  each  deanery  into 
parishes,  towns  or  villages,  townships,  and  hamlets.  The  principal  church  of  each  see  is 
appropriately  called  the  cathedral  church ;  it  is  possessed  by  a  spiritual  body  corporate,  called 
a  dean  and  chapter,  who  are  the  council  of  the  bishop,  but  derive  their  corporate  capacity 
from  the  crown.  Chapters  are  usually  composed  of  canons  and  prebendaries ;  the  mainte- 
nance or  stipend  of  a  canon  as  well  as  of  a  prebendary  being  a  prebend.  Prebendaries  are 
distinguished  into  simple  and  dignitary.  A  simple  prebendary  has  no  cure,  and  nothing  but 
his  revenue  for  his  support ;  a  dignified  prebendary  has  always  a  jurisdiction  annexed,  which 
is  gained  by  prescription.  The  archdeacon  has  authority  in  the  bishop's  absence  to  hold 
visitations,  and  under  the  bishop  to  examine  clerks  previous  to  ordination,  and  also  before 
institution  and  induction.  He  has  also  power  to  excommunicate,  to  impose  penances,  and 
to  reform  irregularities  and  abuses  among  the  clergy,  and  has  charge  of  the  parish  churches 
within  the  diocese.  Below  the  archdeacon  and  the  ecclesiastics  composing  the  chapter,  no 
member  of  the  Church  of  England  is  entitled  to  the  appellation  of  dignitary.  The  inferior 
orders  constitute  what  is  called  the  parochial  clergy.  The  principal  person  of  a  parochial 
church  is  entitled  either  rector  or  vicar,  that  title,  which  is  really  more  appropriate  and 
honourable,  having  become  corrupted  by  vulgar  misuse.  The  revenues  of  the  church  of 
England  are  very  extensive ;  and  considering  the  different  offices  and  gradations  of  its  mem- 
bers, very  variously  distributed.  The  rental  subject  to  tithe  has  been  stated,  in  returns  made 
to  parliament,  at  20,000,000Z.  Besides  the  tenth  of  this  amount,  that  is  to  say,  the  tithe, 
the  clergy  have  other  funds,  which  are  supposed  to  raise  their  entire  income  to  upwards  of 
3,00O,000Z.  The  Episcopal  revenues  are  of  various  amounts ;  that  of  the  see  of  Durham  is 
estimated  at  30,000Z.  per  annum,  and  is  usually  considered  the  largest.  The  lowest,  that  of 
Landaff,  falls  short  of  3000Z.  The  prebends  enjoyed  by  canons  and  prebendaries  are  some 
of  them  very  ample ;  those  which  exceed  1000?.  a  year  are  called  golden  prebends.  Those 
dignitaries  are  also  competent  to  hold  livings  as  rectors  and  vicars.  The  salaries  of  curates 
were  formerly  in  many  cases  extremely  small ;  but,  by  a  legislative  provision  and  by  funds 
allotted  out  of  the  public  revenue,  most  of  them  have  been  augmented  in  proportion  to  the 
value  of  the  benefice  and  its  population ;  801.  a  year  is  the  lowest  stipend,  and,  if  the  living 
be  worth  400Z.  per  annum,  the  bishop  may  allow  the  curate  of  such  living  lOOZ.  a  year, 
whatever  be  its  population. 

In  her  intellectual  character,  England  may  be  justly  considered  as  standing  proudly 
eminent.  Bacon,  Boyle,  Locke,  Newton,  Davy,  with  a  long  train  of  coadjutors,  have  dis- 
closed to  mankind  perhaps  a  greater  sum  of  important  truths  than  the  philosophers  of  any 
other  country.  Strong,  clear,  sound  sense  appears  to  be  the  quality  peculiarly  English ; 
and  her  reasoners  were  the  first  to  explode  those  scholastic  subtleties  which,  having  usurped 
the  name  of  philosophy,  so  long  reigned  in  the  schools.  It  was  their  merit  to  discover  and 
establish  true  philosophy,  and  apply  it  to  objects  of  real  interest  and  utility. 

In  works  of  imagination,  the  genius  of  the  English  is  bold,  original,  and  vigorous.  In  the 
drama,  Shakspeare  stands  unrivalled  among  ancient  and  modern  poets,  by  his  profound  and 
extensive  knowledge  of  mankind,  his  boundless  range  of  observation  throughout  all  nature, 
his  exquisite  play  of  fancy,  and  his  irresistible  power  in  every  province  of  thought  and  feel- 
ing, the  sublime  and  the  patlietic,  the  terrible  and  the  humorous.  In  epic  poetry,  Milton 
is  acknowledged  by  common  consent  to  stand  first  among  the  moderns.  Spenser  and  Dryden 
are  alike  eminent,  the  one  for  sweetness,  the  other  for  versatility ;  while  in  correctness  of 
taste,  and  the  polished  harmony  of  numbers.  Pope  has  no  rival  among  the  poets  of  any 
modern  nation. 

In  historical  writing,  England  has  many  illustrious  names,  among  which  that  of  Gibbon 
deserves  an  honourable  place.  In  oratory,  some  of  her  statesmen  have  acquired  great 
renown,  tliough  the  general  taste  both  in  the  senate  and  at  the  bar  seems  to  deliglit  rather 
m  plain  sense  and  in  cogency  of  argument,  than  in  those  elaborate,  ornate,  and  declamatory 
flights  by  which  the  great  speakers  of  antiquity  acted  on  the  imagination  and  passions  of 
their  hearers. 

The  institutions  for  public  education  in  England  are  extensive  and  splendidly  endowed. 


860  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Vart  III. 

The  two  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  are  not  only  the  wealthiest  but  the  most 
ancient  in  Europe.  They  enjoy  among  other  privileges  that  of  returning  each  two  members 
to  parliament,  and  of  holding  courts  for  the  decision  of  causes  in  which  members  of  tlieir 
own  body  are  interested.  They  were  of  ecclesiastic  origin ;  but  they  have  long  been  con- 
sidered as  lay  corporations.  Their  re&ources  have  been  augmented  by  the  munificence  of 
sovereigns,  and  of  opulent  individuals.  The  establishments  composing  them  are  distinguished 
into  colleges  and  halls;  the  latter  being  academical  houses  not  incorporated  or  endowed, 
tiiougii  they  have  had  considerable  benefactions,  which  are  dispensed  to  the  students  in  exhi- 
bitions limited  to  a  stated  period.  Oxford  has  nineteen  colleges  and  five  halls;  Cambridge 
has  thirteen  colleges  and  four  halls,  which  last,  however,  possess  the  same  privileges  as  the 
former.  Each  university  is  under  the  government  of  a  chancellor,  high  steward,  vice- 
chancellor,  and  other  officers ;  the  persons  who  preside  over  the  different  establishments  as 
masters,  wardens,  rectors,  principals,  or  provosts,  bear  the  general  denomination  of  heads  of 
colleges,  and  each  college  has  a  number  of  fellowships  to  which  large  emoluments  and  easy 
duties  are  attached.  They  possess  also  extensive  patronage  in  church  livings,  and  a  number 
of  exhibitions  or  scholarships.  These,  though  of  considerable  value,  are  not  supposed  ade- 
quate to  defray  the  expense  of  a  residence  at  a  university,  which,  at  the  lowest,  is  calcu- 
lated to  amount  to  1501.  a  year.  On  the  books  of  each  university  are  the  names  of  many 
members  who  have  long  ceased  to  reside ;  but,  exclusive  of  these,  the  number  actually  resi- 
dent at  Oxford  may  be  stated  at  3000,  and  those  at  Cambridge  amount  to  considerably  more. 
Students,  according  to  their  proficiency  in  learning,  are  entitled  to  the  degrees  of  bachelor 
and  master  of  arts,  bachelor  and  doctor  in  divinity,  and  bachelor  and  doctor  in  the  faculties 
of  physic  and  law.  The  time  required  by  the  statutes  to  be  occupied  in  study  before  each 
student  can  be  qualified  for  taking  those  degrees  is  three  years  for  a  bachelor,  and  about  four 
years  more  for  a  master  of  arts ;  seven  years  after  that  he  may  commence  bachelor  of  divinity, 
and  then  five  years  more  entitle  him  to  take  the  degree  of  doctor  in  divinity.  In  law,  a 
student  may  commence  bachelor  after  six  years',  and  in  physic  after  five  years'  standing. 
Only  one  year's  attendance  and  the  hearing  of  a  single  course  of  lectures  are  required  as 
preparatory  for  entering  into  holy  orders,  the  lowness  of  the  inferior  church  livings,  and  the 
expense  of  residence,  rendering  it  difficult  to  exact  more  from  the  greater  number  of  can- 
didates for  ordination.  The  qualifications  for  a  bishop  include  the  degree  of  doctor  in  divinity. 

The  mode  of  instruction  is  by  private  tutors,  who  teach  classical  literature  and  the 
mathematics,  the  latter  branch  of  study  being  particularly  cultivated  at  Cambridge.  The 
public  examinations  are  conducted  with  great  diligence,  and  excite  emulation.  The  lucra- 
tive fellowships  may  sometimes  tempt  their  possessors  to  indulge  in  luxurious  ease  ;  but  to 
those  who  are  seriously  disposed  to  study,  they  afford  facilities  for  research  hardly  attainable 
in  any  other  sphere. 

Two  educational  establishments,  the  London  University  and  King's  College  have  been 
recently  instituted  in  London. 

Of  the  public  schools  of  England,  the  most  distinguished  are  those  of  Westminster,  Eton, 
Winchester,  and  Harrow.  Although  originally  founded  as  charity-schools,  yet  being  now 
appropriated  to  the  education  of  boys  of  the  first  families,  the  habits  formed  in  them  are 
very  expensive.  Greek  and  Latin  are  almost  exclusively  taught  there  by  masters  eminently 
qualified;  and  Englishmen  of  education  generally  excel  in  the  knowledge  of  both  languages. 

For  boys  of  the  middle  rank,  and  those  destined  for  commercial  pursuits,  there  are  numer- 
ous private  academies. 

Colleges  for  the  particular  study  of  law  and  equity  have  long  been  established  in  the 
metropolis,  under  the  names  of  inns  of  court  and  inns  of  chancery.  The  principal  of  these 
are  the  Middle  and  Inner  Temple,  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  Gra;y's  Inn.  Before  any  person  can 
be  admitted  to  practise  as  an  advocate,  he  must  be  regularly  entered  in,  and  be  a  member 
of,  one  of  the  inns  of  court  for  five  years,  and  must  have  kept  his  commons  in  such  inn, 
twelve  terms.  In  favour  of  those  who  have  taken  a  degree  of  master  of  arts  or  bachelor  of 
laws  at  an  English  university,  tliree  years  are  sufficient  to  be  a  member  of  the  inn.  After 
complying  with  these  conditions,  and  paying  the  regular  fees,  the  student  may  be  called  to 
the  bar  without  having  been  required  to  make  any  public  demonstration  of  his  proficiency  or 
ability. 

Of  primary  schools  for  the  great  body  of  the  people,  tliere  formerly  existed  a  considerable 
number;  but  the  deficiency  of  them,  at  present,  is  greatly  to  be  deplored.  The  metropolis, 
indeed,  contains  several,  of  which  the  most  considerable  is  Christ-church  Hospital  or  the 
Blue-coat  School,  in  which  about  1100  children  are  maintained  and  educated.  The  number 
of  charitable  foundations  in  different  parts  of  the  country  amoimts  to  3,898,  yielding  an 
income  of  65,395?.  Of  these,  however,  many  give  also  board  and  lodging,  so  that  their 
advantages  can  extend  to  only  a  small  number  ;  others  have  been  neglected,  and  left  exposed 
to  those  abuses  to  which  old  establishments  are  generally  liable.  So  greatly  was  the  in- 
fluence of  these  institutions  on  the  great  body  of  the  lower  orders  diminished,  that  within 
the  last  30  years  the  larger  proportion  of  labouring  people  were  unable  to  read.     The  evils 


Book  I.  ENGLAND  861 

arising-  from  want  of  education  among  them  have,  at  length,  been  strongly  felt ;  and  very 
great  exertions  have  been  made,  chiefly  by  the  benevolence  of  private  individuals,  to  remedy 
the  defect. 

Of  the  scientific  institutions  of  England  the  foremost  is  "  the  Royal  Society  of  London 
for  improving  Natural  Knowledge."  In  its  infancy  it  owed  much  to  the  protection  of  Oliver 
Cromwell;  and  having  survived  the  Commonwealtli,  was  incorporated  by  royal  charter,  in 
1663.  The  Society  publish  an  annual  volume  under  the  name  of  Philosophical  Transac- 
tions. The  Society  of  x\ntiquaries  traces  its  origin  to  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  but 
was  not  incorporated  until  1821.  It  has  published  a  series  of  volumes  entitled  ArchcBologia. 
Several  private  societies  have  been  formed  for  the  cultivation  of  particular  branches  of 
knowledge,  by  the  union  of  individuals  distinguished  for  their  attainments  in  or  devotion  to 
those  branches.  Besides  these  and  other  institutions  in  the  metropolis,  most  of  the  great 
provincial  towns,  as  Manchester,  Bristol,  Derby,  Liverpool,  and  Newcastle,  have  formed 
literary  and  philosophical  societies,  which  have  made  some  important  contributions  to  science 
and  literature  in  their  Transactions. 

The  principal  public  libraries  have  owed  their  origin  to  the  spirit  and  enterprise  of  private 
individuals;  tlie  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford  was  the  bequest  of  Sir  Thomas  Bodley,  and 
was  enriched  by  successive  donations.  The  British  Museum  derived  its  first  treasures  from 
the  collections  of  Sir  Robert  Cotton  and  Sir  Hans  Sloane ;  but  has  acquired,  through  purchase 
by  parliament,  the  Harleian  and  Lansdowne  MSS.,  the  libraries  of  Major  Edwards  and  Dr. 
Barney,  and  several  valuable  collections  of  coins  and  minerals.  It  has  also  been  enriched 
by  the  entire  collection  of  George  III.,  presented  to  the  nation  by  his  successor.  With 
this  accession,  the  library,  which  previously  consisted  of  125,000  volumes,  has  been  aug- 
mented by  one-half  The  Museum-  is  also  very  rich  in  specimens  of  natural  history,  par- 
ticularly of  mineralogy. 

Institutions  of  a  highly  useful  character  have  sprung  from  the  general  desire  of  knowledge 
which  marks  the  present  age.  Their  object  is  to  communicate  knowledge  to  the  commer- 
cial classes,  as  well  as  to  persons  who  have  not  opportunities  for  a  regular  course  of  study ; 
and  the  chief  means  employed  for  this  purpose  are  a  library,  a  reading-room,  and  courses  of 
lectures.  Of  these  establishments  are  the  Royal  Institution,  the  London  Institution,  &c.; 
and  all  the  great  cities  and  towns  have  now  their  public  libraries. 

Of  the  Fine  Arts,  that  of  painting  has  been  greatly  neglected  in  England.  Portrait 
painting,  indeed,  always  met  with  encouragement;  yet  Vandyke,  the  leader  in  this  branch  of 
art,  was  a  foreigner.  It  was  only  toward  the  ckise  of  the  last  century  that  Reynolds  formed 
a  style  decidedly  English,  and  of  distinguished  excellence. 

The  Royal  Academy,  under  the  immediate  patronage  of  the  king,  consists  of  forty  artists, 
including  the  president,  while  a  number  of  others  are  attached  in  expectancy  as  associates. 
There  are  four  professors,  viz.  of  painting,  of  architecture,  of  anatomy,  and  of  perspective, 
v.iio  annually  read  public  lectures  on  the  subjects  of  their  several  departments.  To  the 
schools  of  this  academy  free  admission  is  given  to  all  students  properly  qualified  for  receiv- 
ing instruction,  and  there  is  an  annual  exhibftion  of  paintings,  sculpture,  and  architectural 
designs,  to  which  all  artists  may  send  their  works  for  admission,  if  approved  by  the  commit- 
tee appointed  to  judge  them.  The  splendid  collection  of  paintings  formed  by  the  regent 
duke  of  Orleans  was  imported  entire,  and  the  greater  part  of  it  now  embellishes  the  gallery 
of  the  Marquess  of  Stafford.  The  nobles  of  Italy,  also,  on  the  devastation  of  that  country 
were  obliged  to  strip  their  palaces  of  tiiese  valued  ornaments,  and  to  dispose  of  them  at 
low  rates  to  English  speculators.  From  those  sources  were  formed  the  Grosvenor,  the  An- 
gerstein,  and  many  other  private  collections.  On  the  death  of  Mr.  Angerstein,  in  1824,  hia 
collection  was  purchased  by  parliament,  and  made  the  basis  of  a  national  gallery,  which  has 
since  received  considerable  additions  both  by  purchase  and  bequest. 

In  the  other  departments  of  the  fine  arts,  music,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  the  English 
have  been  far  excelled  by  the  continental  nations ;  in  engraving,  they  have  produced  some 
distinguished  names. 

Tlie  publishing  and  selling  of  books  form  one  of  the  prmclpal  branches  of  her  productive 
industry.  Periodical  literature  has  a  very  extensive  circulation.  In  the  metropolis  nearly 
sixty  magazines  and  reviews  are  published,  of  which  the  montlily  value  has  been  estimated 
at  6000/.  Another  important  characteristic  of  the  national  spirit  may  be  remarked  in  the 
immense  circulation  of  newspapers,  notwithstanding  a  heavy  stamp-duty.  There  are  in 
London  eight  daily  morning  papers,  and  five  daily  evening  papers  ;  seven  papers  published 
thrice  a  week ;  and  upwards  of  forty  weekly  papers.  Of  the  latter  species  of  newspaper, 
every  provincial  city  has  two  or  three,  and  every  town  of  consequence  has  one.  The  num- 
ber of  stamps  issued  for  the  London  newspapers  in  1832  was  21,432,882.  The  produce  of 
the  duty  in  tliat  year  was  490,451?, 

Tiie  favourite  amusements  of  the  English  are  those  which  combine  the  advantages  of  air 
and  exercise.  The  stage,  though  eminently  rich  in  dramas,  and  supplied  with  actors  of  high 
talent,  is  not  the  habitual  resort  of  the  people.  In  former  times  hunting  was  almost  the 
Bole   business  of  life  among  the  English  squires ;  and  though  their  tastes  are  ilow  much 

Vol.  I.  31  2V 


362 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


varied,  this  original  pastime,  in  all  its  forms,  continues  to  be  eagerly  followed.  By  the 
nobility  and  gentry,  horse-racing  is  supported  with  equal  ardour,  and  no  country  rivals  Eng- 
land in  the  high  excellence  to  which  she  lias  brouglit  tlio  breed  of  animals  employed  in  this 
diversion.  The  races  of  Doncaster,  of  York,  and  above  all  of  Newmarket,  arc  attended  by  the 
most  distinguished  persons  in  the  country  for  rank  and  opulence ;  and  other  race-courses 
attract  great  multitudes  of  miscellaneous  spectators.  Among  the  common  people  boxing 
matches  present  a  similar  occasion  of  laying  wagers.  Bull-baiting  was  put  down  only  by 
statute.  Of  the  national  out-door  games,  those  of  cricket  and  tennis  deserve  especial  com- 
mendation, from  their  tendency  to  enliven  the  spirits  and  invigorate  the  frame. 

In  their  habits  and  modes  of  ordinary  life,  the  English  may  be  called  a  domestic  people, 
especially  when  compared  with  the  French.  In  common  with  other  northern  nations,  the 
English  retain  a  taste  for  fermented  or  distilled  liquors,  which,  however,  has  been  in  a 
great  measure  corrected  and  subdued  among  the  higher  and  middle  classes.  Beer  and  porter 
constitute  the  staple  drink  of  the  great  body  of  the  people ;  but  malt  spirit  of  a  cheap  and 
very  pernicious  kind  is  consumed  in  great  quantities  by  the  lowest  orders,  especially  in  the 
metropolis,  where  it  is  rapidly  accelerating  their  degeneracy.  Among  the  middle  classes 
the  wines  of  Spain,  Portugal  and  Madeira  are  in  general  use ;  but  the  cellars  of  the  rich 
are  stored  with  the  choicest  products  of  the  French  vineyards.  Convivial  excess,  so  long  the 
reproach  of  the  English,  has  become  comparatively  rare. 

Sect.  VII. — Local  Geography. 

England  and  Wales  are  divided  into  counties  or  shires.  Wales,  until  the  time  of  Ed- 
ward I.,  was  an  independent  principality,  but  is  now  an  appendent  territory,  of  very  inferior 
magnitude.  It  has  still,  however,  its  own  courts  of  judicature,  and  retains  some  national 
peculiarities.  The  number  of  counties  in  England  is  forty,  and  in  Wales  twelve ;  making  in 
all  fifty-two.  The  following  statistical  table,  gives  a  general  view  of  the  extent,  popula- 
tion, employment,  and  wealth  of  each  county : — 


• 

Income 

in  1814-15,  arising  from 

Counties. 

ti 

lO;.  and 
upwards. 

Rental 
of  Houses. 

tion, 
IS31. 

Land. 

Trade. 

Offices. 

§1 

Rites, 
1S30. 

Cities  and  Towns. 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

X 

Bedford 

Berks  

430 
744 

723 
3,713 

12,619 
83,572 

95,383 
145,289 

364,276 
719,889 

94,796 
299,703 

1,481 
3,217 

96,994 
129,533 

Bedford 

C  Reading 

<  Windsor 

(  Newbury  .... 

6,950 
15,595 
7,103 
5,959 

Bucks 

748 

1,894 

35,655 

146,529 

662,872 

222,981 

1,998 

158,483 

]  Buckingham  . 
1  Aylesbury  . . . 

3,610 
5,021 

Cambridge 

686 

2,645 

49,781 

143,955 

705,371 

239,687 

5,109 

115,163  J  ^7™':';"'^.::; 

20,917 
6,189 

Chester  (o)  . .  • 

1,017 

1,784 

92,854 

334,410 

1,114,927 

289,309 

4,207 

26,608 

TAA  ino'  (  Chester 

144,102|  1  Maccleslield  . 

21,363 
23,129 

Cornwall 

1,407 

2,852 

48,117 

302,440 

922,258 

230,112 

3,233 

77,986 

121,202 

j  Launceston.. 
\  Falmouth.  .. . 

2,231 
4,760 

Cumberland  . . 

1,497 

2,400 

42,040 

169,681 

737,438 

179,752 

3,447 

46,297 

58,850 

Carlisle 

(  Whitehaven  . 

20,006 
11,393 

Derby  (6) 

Devon 

Dorset.- 

1,077 

2,488 

1,129 

2,287 
12,397 

3,051 

45,633 
237,000 

57,868 

237,170 
494,168 

159,252 

883,370 
1,924,912 

726,263 

210,583 
754,444 

241,634 

2,908 
9,471 

4,002 

43,000 
32,800 

108,303 
250,713 

104,820 

Derby 

(  Exeter 

<  Ply  month 

(  Devon  port  . .. 
(  Wevniotith  .  . 

<  Poole 

(  Sherborne  ... 

23,627 
27,932 
40,651 
34,883 
7,655 
6,459 
4,075 

Durham  (c) . .  ■ 

1,040 

4,2G9 

69,471 

253,827 

885.580 

253,631 

3,771  J  52,300 

100,646 

(  Durham  

}  Sunderland  . . 

10,135 
17.000 

Essex  [d) 

Gloucester  (e). 

1,525 
1,122 

6,284 
9,080 

139,806 
251,974 

317,233 
386,904 

1,584,108 
1,315,723 

603,935 
367,243 

8,630 
2,897 

52,248 

320,541 
201,402 

(  Colchester  ....  ]G,1(J7 

<  Harw  ich 4,297 

(  Saffron  Walden   4,702 
(Gloucester  ....J  1,9.33 

;  Bristol 59,074 

)  Tewkesbury  . .     5.780 

Hereford 

Hertford 

Huntingdon  . . 

971 
602 
345 

1,794 

3,490 

945 

30,424 
70,299 
10,791 

110,976 
143,341 
53,149 

629,156 
583,657 
325,694 

61,851 

262,989 

68,401 

2,790 
4,319 
4,156 

70,000 
11. 5,0^2 
50,0112 

(  Cirencester  . . 

Hereford 

Hertford 

Huntinsdon  . 
[  Canterbury  . . 

5,420 
10,282 
5,247 
3,267 
13,649 

Kent(/) 

1,462 

16,129 

.347,110 

479,155 

1,687,442 

1,686,228 

19,342 

399,686 

)  Deptford   and 
\     Greenwich. 
'  Maidstone  . .. 

41,.348 
15,367 

(a)  Nantwich  -    -    4.886  1  (c)  Gateshead    -    15,177  I     Stockton  -    -    7,763  I  (e)  Cheltenham  22,942 

(b)  Chesterfield   -    5,775       Bishop  Wear-  South  Shields   9,074       Stroud    -    -     8,607 
Matlock-    -   -    3,262]        mouth              14.462 1  (d)  Chelmsford    5,435    (/)  Rochester     9,891 


Deal  -  -  7,268 
Margate  -  -  10.339 
Ramsgate   -     7.985 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


363 


TABLE — continued. 


Income 

r 
in  1814-15,  arising  from 

Houses, 
1Q(.  and 

Popula- 

Counties. 

^S 

of  Houses. 

tion, 
1&31. 

ns 

Rates, 
1830. 

Cities  and  Towns.          1 

Land, 

Trade. 

Offices. 

sg 

jE 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

(  Manchester. . 

182,812 

Lancashire  (o) 

],806 

28,406 

795,832 

1,336,854 

3,139,043 

2,292,079 

39,020 

413,529 

1  Liverpool 

■j  Lancaster  . . . 
(  Wigan 

165,175 
12,613 
20,774 

Leicester  (J) . . 

816 

3,357 

62,748 

197,003 

951,908 

319,607 

5,827 

152,594 

Leicester 

(  Lincoln  

39,306 
11,843 

Lincoln  

2,787 

4,026 

78,694 

317,244  2,096,611 

373,671 

6,550 

228,952 

<  Boston 

(  Stamford 

11,240 
5,837 

Middlesex 

297 

116,279 

5,143,340 

1,358,541  5,763,373 

15,255,245 

1,174,865 

779,125 

i  Part  of  London  and  1 

Monmouth  .  • . 

516 

1,688 

31,572 

98,130 

298,981 

102,571 

437 

9,200 

32,089 

Monmouth  . . 

4,910 

Norfolk  {c)  ... 

2,013 

5,333 

97,007 

390,054 

1,516,651 

523,010 

16,505 

338,867 

(  Norwich 

/  Yarmouth  . . . 

61,116 
21,115 

Northamp-     ) 
ton j 

965 

2,237 

40,327 

179,270 

947,578 

185,204 

1,421 

173,018 

Northampton 
Peterborough 

15,351 
5,553 

Nortlium-       ( 
berland  [d)  \ 

1,809 

6,140 

120,424 

222,912  1,291,412 

436.404 

5,763 

59,900 

88,035 

Newcastle  . . . 
Berwick 

42,260 
8,920 

Nottingham  . . 

774 

3,597 

71,396 

225,320 

751,626 

314,501 

2,073 

106,707 

Nottingham  . 

50,680 
9,557 

Oxford 

742 

3,628 

61,869 

151,726 

790,860 

312,809 

4,815 

151,235 

Oxford 

20,649 

Rutland 

200 

241 

4,621 

19,385 

138,216 

30,938 

799 

12,872 

1 

I  Shrewsbury. . 

23,492 

Salop 

1,403 

3,402 

63,091 

222,503 

1,083,701 

279,932 

4,861 

26,205 

99,665 

J  Wenlock  .... 
1  Bridgenorth  . 

'  Ludlow  

(  Bath 

<  Bridgewater  . 
(  Taunton  .... 

17,435 
5,298 
5,253 

38,063 

Somerset  (e)  . . 

1,549 

16,568 

512,909 

403,908 

2,308,723 

1,329,265 

13,827 

20,100  209,566 

7,897 

11,139 

Southamp-     ) 
ton j 

1,533 

9,362 

198,321 

314,313 

1,240,547 

923,713 

10,751 

8,700  239,122 

C  Southampton 
<  Portsmouth. . 

19,134 
50,309 

(  Winchester. . 

8,712 

(  Stafford 

6,956 

Stafford  (/). . . 

1,196 

6,122 

108,507 

410,485 

1,200,324 

536,720 

10,826 

48,600 

171,578 

<  Newcastle  . . . 

(  Lichfield 

(  Ipswich 

8,192 

6,499 

20,201 

Suffolk 

1,566 

3,573 

61,909 

296,304 

1,151,304 

453,484 

11,972 

299,684 

^Bury  St.  Ed- 
(      iniiiui's  .... 

11,436 

Surrey 

811 

33,805 

964,438 

480,326 

1,589,701 

1,504,532 

21,023 

321,304 

(  Soiithwark  . . 
j  Guildford.... 
(  Brighton 

3,916 
40,634 

Sussex  (g) 

1,461 

6,818 

202,837 

272,328 

919,350 

372,058 

4,610 

289,051 

<  Lewes 

8,590 

(  Chichester . .. 

8,270 

I  Birmingham. 

146,986 

Warwick  (A)-  • 

984     9,3G8 

100,602 

336,988 

1,209,756 

669,369 

12,966 

16,950192,303 

<  Coventry 

27,070 

(  Warwick 

9,109 

VVcstmore-     / 
land \ 

722 

1,039 

21,120 

55,041 

299,582 

52,575 

1,184 

32,044 

Kendal 

10,015 

Wilts 

1,283 

3,622 

68,577 

239,181 

1,215,619 

376,070 

6,981 

3,100  220,931 

Salisbury .... 

9,876 

Worcester  (i) . 

674 

4,872 

100,826 

211,356 

820,020 

273,303 

1,137 

3,800   97,178 

Worcester  . . . 
f  York 

18,610 
26,454 

York  (t) 

6,013 

20,189 

415,539 

1,371,296 

4,700,424 

1,710,886 

24,416 

62,200  586,126 

1 1^eeds 

)Hull 

123,393 
36,293 

(  Sheffield 

59,111 

N.  Wales. 

402 

220 

4,080 

7,982 

48,325 
65,753 

94,700 

3,998 
20,641 

19,196 
2.3,440 

(  Beaumaris. .. 

2,497 

Caeriiar-        ) 

von  (/)....  ( 

775 

.538 

131,212 

220 

/  Holyhead 

Caernarvon. . 

4,282 
7,642 

Denbigh  (m)  . . 

856 

14,411 

83.167 

312,576 

19,677 

305! 

41,139 

Denbigh 

3,786 

Flint  (n) 

176 

3,375 

60,012:    175,115 

]l,fX.6 
7,261 

•18,748 

795  15  40C'  "'^  'iT' 

8,969 
4,087 
5.255 

292 

Dolgelly 

Welshpool. . . 

Montffoniery  . 

.... . 

605 

7,971 

66,485 

212,083 

794 

38,665 

S.  Wales. 

460 

7,599 
999 

20,928 
20,685 

5,026 
2,795 

Cardigan  (o)  . . 

726 

74 

64,780 

146,816 

13,727 

282 

Cardigan  .... 

Caermarthen  . 

9iJ6 

570 

8,363 

100,655 

282,091 

30,320 

5,361 

37,957 

Caermarthen 

9,955 

gan(p)...  \ 

1,712 

31,268 

126,612 

372,603 

103,203 

3,149  55,900   42,301 

Swansea  .... 

13,694 

Pcnihroke  (q)  . 



740 

12,701 

81,424 

220,241 

45,.'MS 

1,531 28,308 

Pembroke  . . . 

6,511 

174 

2,202 

24.651 

101,956 

3,42!) 

40  - .          I-";  9rtf 

Radnor 

1,089 

la)  Bolton     -    - 
Salford       -    - 
Rnchdale    -    - 
Prpston  -    -    - 
Oldham      -    - 
Pilkington 
Croinpton 
Blackburn 
Toxtfiih  Park 
Chorllon  Row 
Wurrington    - 


41,195 

40,786 
35,735 
3:1,112 
32,381 
11,006 
7,004 
27,091 
24,067 
20,.i69 
16,018 


Bury   -    -    - 

Chorley   -    - 

Preecot     -    - 

(A)  Louirhbo- 

riiugli    -    - 

(c)  Lynn  Reels 

(d)  Tyncinouth 
North  Shields 
Hexham  -  - 
Mnvpeth  -    - 

ie)  Wells    -    - 


15,086 
9,282 
5,055 

10,800 
13,370 
10.182 
6.744 
6,042 
3.890 
6,649 


(/)  Wolverhamp- 


ton 
Bilsion      . 

(g)  Hastings    - 
Rye      -    -    - 

(A)  Leamington 
Kenilworth  - 

(i)  Dudley  - 
Kidilfii  minster  14,981 
Hornbridge  -      C.148 
Evesham      -      3,991 


24,732 
14,492 
10097 
3,715 
6,209 
3.097 
23,043 


Droitwich  - 
(k)  Whitby  - 
Scarborough 
Beverley  -  - 
Doncaster  - 
Huddersfield 
Halifax  - 
Bradford  -  - 
Barnsley  -  - 
Ripon  -  - 
Ponlefract 


2,487 
11,725 
8,760 
8,302 
10,801 
19,035 
15,382 
23,233 
10,330 
J,080 
4,832 


(/)    Bangor     - 
(m)  Wrexham 

Llangollen  - 
(n)  Mold     -    - 

Flint  -  -  - 
(o)  Aberystwith 
(p)  Merthyr  Tyd- 

vil     -    -    -    22,083 

(^irdiff     -    -      6.187 
(9)Haverfordwest  3,915 

Tenby      -    -     2,128 


4.751 
5,483 
3,630 

8,086 
2,216 

4,128 


364 


DESCRIPTWE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


The  topographical  details  of  England  may  be  distributed  under  the  following  subsec- 
tions : — 1.  Southern  counties ;  2.  Eastern  counties ;  3.  Midland  counties ;  4.  Northern  coun- 
ties ;  5.  Western  counties. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Southern  Counties. 

Under  this  head,  Kent,  Surrey,  Sussex,  Berkshire,  Hampshire,  Wiltshire,  and  Dorset,  the 
counties  south  of  the  Tiiames,  and  along  the  Channel,  will  be  comprehended.  This  fine 
district  is,  in  general,  of  a  level  character ;  but  is  traversed,  however,  by  ranges  of  low  hills 
or  downs,  which  give  to  it  a  varied  and  picturesque  aspect.  Chalk  is  a  predominant  feature 
in  its  soil ;  and,  on  the  coast,  forms  those  bold  clifl's,  which  characterise  the  soutiiern  bound- 
ary of  Britain.  Many  tracts  are  under  high  cultivation,  yielding,  in  perfection,  tlie  usual 
agricultural  products,  with  others  of  great  value,  peculiar  to  this  district;  particularly  liops, 
in  Kent,  and  part  of  Sussex  and  Surrey.  A  prominent  feature  consists  of  large  expanses  of 
downs,  composed  of  chalky  soil,  scarcely  fit  for  the  plough,  but  pastured  by  vast  flocks  of  sheep, 
Kent,  the  largest  and  finest  of  these  counties,  holds  a  conspicuous  place  in  English  annals. 
The  men  of  Kent  have  been  noted  as  a  race  peculiarly  stout,  hardy,  and  courageous.  In 
the  west  are  extensive  wealds,  presenting  still  many  finely  wooded  districts ;  also  large  marshy 
tracts,  interspersed,  however,  with  dry  cultivated  portions,  in  which  the  best  grain  in  the  king- 
dom is  raised.  Tlie  interior  around  Maidstone  and  Canterbury  forms  almost  a  contimied 
garden,  supplying  fruits  for  tlie  markets  of  London ;  and  above  all,  hops,  that  essential  ingre- 
dient in  the  staple  beverage  of  the  English  nation. 

Canterbury,  the  chief  place  in  Kent,  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  venerable  of  the  English 
cities.  It  is  the  ecclesiastical  metropolis  of  the  kingdom,  the  residence  of  its  primate  ;  who, 
as  such,  places  the  crown  on  the  sovereign's  head,  and  ranks  next  in  dignity  to  the  royal 

family.     Its   cathedral  (fg.  138.)  is  of  early 
origin  and  of  vast  extent ;  while  revered  through 
the   Catholic  world  as  the  shrine  of  the  mur- 
dered Becket,  it  was  visited  by  crowds  of  pil- 
grims, and  enriched  with  offerings;  but  of  these 
treasures  it  was  stripped  by  Henry  VIII.    Can- 
terbury is  built  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  and  in- 
tersected by  branches  of  the  Stour.     Manufac- 
^^,  tures  of  cloth,  silk,  and  cotton  were  early  in^ 
g^  troduced,  and  still  subsist,  though  they  cannot 
bear  a  comparison  with  those  of  the  great  towns 
i^  of  the  interior  and  of  the  nortli. 

Maidstone  and  Tunbridge  are  among  the 
agreeable  inland  towns  in  Kent.  The  former, 
of  great  antiquity,  has  one  of  the  most  elegant  parochial  churches  in  the  kingdom.  It  is 
the  chief  market  for  hops ;  and  has  some  manufactures,  particularly  of  paper.  Tunbridge 
Wells,  situated  five  or  six  miles  from  the  town  of  Tunbridge,  have  long  been  a  place  of 
public  resort.  The  springs  are  considered  efficacious  in  cases  of  debility  and  certain  chronic 
disorders.  The  town  has  also  a  thriving  manufacture  of  Tunbridge  ware,  consisting  of 
various  wooden  ornaments,  snuff-boxes,  children's  toys,  &c. 

But  the  chief  places  of  Kent  are  maritime,  the  most  ancient  being  those  called  the 
Cinque  Ports.  At  an  early  period,  they  were  considered  the  most  important  stations  for  the 
defence  of  the  kingdom,  and  were  bound  to  furnish  and  equip  fifty-seven  vessels,  each 
manned  with  twenty-one  sailors  ;  in  return  for  which,  their  citizens  held  the  rank  of  barons, 
and  sent  two  members  to  parliament  from  each  port.  Their  greatness  is  now  departed,  and 
some  of  their  harbours  have  been  filled  up  by  sand. 

The  Kentish  Cinque  Ports  are  Dover,  Sandwich,  Hythe,  and  Romney.  The  first  is  still 
a  place  of  considerable  note.  The  spacious  castle  on  a  commanding  eminence,  the  white 
and  towering  cliffs,  present  to  the  approaching  mariner  an  imposing  spectacle.  As  the  main 
channel  of  communication  with  France,  it  maintains  twenty-seven  packets  in  constant  ser- 
vice,   Romney  and  Hythe  are  of  little  maritime  importance.     Sandwich  on  the  east  coast, 

yields  in  importance  to  its  nominal  de- 
^     rr.  is-^'  pendencies.  Deal,  Margate,  and  Rams- 

gate.  Deal  derives  its  prosperity  fi"om 
the  vicinity  of  that  fine  anchorage,  the 
Downs,  where  the  outward-bound  fleets 
of  England  usually  remain  for  a  certain 
period,  when  they  olitain  supplies  and 
refreshments  from  Deal.  Margate  is 
crowded,  though  not  fashionable ;  and 
the  establishment  of  steam-packets  al- 
lows daily  intercourse  with  the  metro- 
polis.   It  likewise  carries  on  some  trade 


Canltrbury  Catliedral 


139 


Dover  Castle, 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


365 


Greenwich  Hospital. 


with  the  Baltic,  and  supplies  the  metropolis  with  grain  and  fish.  Having  risen  within  the 
last  half  century,  it  is  built  with  regularity,  and  contains  twelve  marble  baths,  into  which 
the  sea-water  is  admitted  for  those  wlio  prefer  that  mode  of  bathing.  Ramsgato,  situated 
on  the  isle  of  Thanet,  possesses  the  advantage  of  a  smooth  and  extensive  beach.  Conside- 
rable improvements  have  been  made  in  the  harbour  at  the  expense  of  government,  with  the 
view  to  its  yielding  protection  to  vessels  navigating  this  coast,  where  the  dangerous  shoals 
of  tlie  Goodwin  Sands  have  often  proved  fatal. 

Deptford,  Woolwich,  Cliatham,  and  Sheerness,  are  grand  establishments  for  the  construc- 
tion of  siiips  of  war..  Deptford  contains  also  the  Victualling  Office.  Woolwich  is  the  de- 
pot of  artillery,  and  the  theatre  of  all  the  operations  connected  with  its  construction  and 
preparation.  Here  is  also  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  in  which  an  hundred  young  men  of 
respectable  family  are  trained  in  all  tlie  branches  of  knowledge  necessary  for  the  engineer- 
ing department ;  and  who,  after  a  strict  examination,  are  appointed  to  commissions  in  the 
service.  Chatham  is  the  grand  magazine  of  naval  stores.  The  rope-house  is  1128  feet  long, 
m  which  cables  101  fathoms  in  length,  and  upwards  of  two  feet  in  circumference,  are  con- 
structed. Twenty  forges  are  constantly  employed  in  the  fabrication  of  anchors,  some  of 
which  are  five  tons  in  weight.  This  important  post,  with  the  exception  of  Portsmouth,  is 
now  the  strongest  in  Britain.  Sheerness,  on  the  Isle  of  Sheppey,  is  a  smaller  station, 
chiefiy  employed  in  the  repair  of  shattered  vessels. 

Greenwich,  about  two  miles  below  Deptford,  is  celebrated  for  its  superb  hospital  {fig.  140.) 

for  disabled  and  superannuated  ma- 
riners. This  edifice  was  begun  by 
Charles  H.,  on  a  design  of  Inigo 
Jones,  as  a  royal  palace.  It  remained 
unfinished,  until  the  reign  of  Wil- 
liam III.,  when  it  was  converted 
into  a  naval  hospital.  It  was  en- 
larged by  the  addition  of  three  wings, 
enriched  by  donations,  and  by  a  tax 
of  Gd.  a  month  from  every  seaman, 
and  it  now  supports  3000  boarders, 
and  pays  pensions  to  5400  in  dif- 
ferent (juarters  of  the  kingdom.  In 
Greenwich  park  stands  the  cele- 
brated observatory,  furnished  with  the  best  instruments  that  can  be  obtained  for  perfecting 
astronomical  observations.  The  recorded  observations  of  I'lamsteed,  of  Halley,  of  Bradley, 
and  of  Maskelyne,  rank  among  the  most  important  contributions  to  astronomical  science. 

At  Gravesend,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Thames,  the  vessels  employed  in  foreign  commerce, 
both  in  going  up  and  down,  must  stop  and  undergo  an  examination.  Rochester,  with  an 
ancient  cathedral,  contains  in  its  vicinity  numerous  seats,  among  which  may  be  particularly 
noted  Cobham  Hall.  Lee  Priory  is  also  remarkable  for  its  works  of  art;  and  Knowle  Park 
forms  a  magnificent  structure  of  great  extent. 

Sussex  extends  about  forty  miles  along  the  Channel.  It  is  covered  to  the  extent  of 
170,000  or  180,000  acres  witli  noble  oaks  which  are  sought  for  the  use  of  the  royal  navy. 
The  Sussex  sheep  are  peculiarly  valued  both  for  mutton  and  wool. 

The  capital  is  Chichester,  an  ancient  little  city  with  a  cathedral.  Winchelsea,  Rye,  and 
Hastings  are  Cinque  Ports,  which  have  lost  their  ancient  importance ;  but  Hastings,  from 
its  fine  views  of  land  and  sea,  attracts  numerous  visitants  during  the  summer.  Brighton,  the 
gayest  of  all  the  southern  watering-places,  from  being  a  large  fishing  village,  rapidly  rose  to 
be  an  elegant  town.  Its  extensive  lawn  called  the  Steyne,  sloping  towards  the  sea,  forms 
an  agreeable  promenade.  The  Pavilion,  or  palace  built  by  George  IV.,  and  the  chain  pier 
are  among  the  objects  of  note. 

The  rough  downs  and  bleak  heaths  of  Surrey  contrasted  with  its  numerous  fine  parks 
and  wooded  districts,  give  to  its  scenery  a  striking  and  picturesque  character.  Southwark 
is  in  Surrey ;  but  it  is  too  entirely  a  part  of  London  to  be  treated  separately  from  the  rest  of 
that  capital.  Along  the  southern  bank  of  the  Thames  are  Kew,  with  its  palace  and  fine 
gardens,  containing  plants  from  every  quarter  of  the  world ;  Richmond  and  its  hill,  which 
commands  a  magnificent  view  of  the  Thames  winding  among  wooded  parks  and  palaces. 
Camberwell,  Clapham,  and  other  villages  in  the  vicinity  of  the  capital,  are  entirely  composed 
of  the  villas  of  opulent  citizens,  and  the  seats  are  numerous.  At  St.  Anne's  Hill,  a  beautiful 
villa  on  the  Thames,  Fox  passed  the  latter  years  of  his  life  in  literary  retirement. 

Berkshire  contains  extensive  sheep  pastures ;  and  a  great  expanse  of  its  eastern  border  is 
occupied  by  forests ;  yet  more  than  half  its  extent  consists  of  fine  arable  land.  The  sheep 
fair  of  Ilsley  is  the  most  considerable  in  the  kingdom,  the  annual  number  sold  averaging  two 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand.  The  Jiogs  also  of  this  county  are  in  high  repute.  Berksliire  is 
remarkable  for  its  manufactures  of  copper,  whicli  is  brought  from  Swansea  to  the  annual 
extent  of  six  hundred  to  one  thousand  tons. 

31* 


366 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  m 


Reading,  the  capital  of  Berkshire,  is  remarkable  in  history,  as  several  parliaments  were 
held  there,  and  a  siege  was  sustained  during  the  civil  war.  It  still  enjoys  some  prosperity, 
through  the  export  of  the  produce  of  the  fertile  surrounding  district. 

Windsor,  from  the  beauty  of  its  site,  on  an  eminence  near  the  Thames,  and  the  magnifi- 
cence of  its  royal  castle  (Jig.  141.),  forms  a  commanding  feature  in  the  prospect  for  many 


141 


si-«N-;s?^ 


Windsor  Castle. 


miles  around.  William  I.  constructed  here  a  fortress  of  considerable  size ;  but  the  whole 
structure  was  re-modelled  by  Edward  III.  Since  it  ceased  to  be  important  as  a  place  of 
strength,  it  has  been  occupied  as  a  palace ;  and  is  the  only  one,  in  fact,  suitable  to  the  dignity 
of  the  monarch.  The  noble  terrace  walk  1870  feet  in  length,  commands  a  finely  varied 
and  extensive  prospect.  George  III.  completely  repaired  St.  George's  chapel,  and  partly 
restored  the  north  front  of  the  upper  ward ;  but  in  consequence  of  his  illness,  the  improve- 
ments were  suspended  for  eleven  years.  George  IV.  resumed  them  on  a  scale  commensurate 
with  the  importance  of  so  venerable  an  edifice ;  and  large  sums  of  money  were  voted  by 
parliament  for  this  national  purpose.  The  royal  apartments  contain  an  extensive  collection 
of  paintings,  among  which  are  some  fine  portraits  by  Vandyke,  and  some  historical  pictures 
by  Guide,  Correggio,  Carlo  Dolci,  and  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  Tlie  chapel  of  St.  George  is 
considered  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  tlie  ornamented  Gothic  in  the  kingdom.  The  choir 
in  particular  is  of  admirable  worlcmanship,  and  adorned  with  banners  of  knights  of  the  garter 
ranged  on  each  side.  It  includes  also  the  tombs  of  many  of  the  English  princes,  particularly 
their  late  majesties,  and  the  Princess  Charlotte ;  and  some  of  its  v/indows  are  painted  after 
the  designs  of  Reynolds.  To  tlie  soutii  of  the  palace  extend  Windsor  Great  Park,  and 
Windsor  Forest,  grand  features,  first  formed  by  William  the  Conqueror.  Even  after  the 
considerable  abridgment  that  has  taken  place,  the  domam  is  still  fifty-six  miles  in  circum- 
ference, containing  within  its  range  some  noble  timber.  Parts  of-it  were  devoted  by  George 
III.  to  his  favourite  pursuit  of  experimental  farming. 

The  other  towns  of  Berkshire  are  small ;  at  Newbury,  two  obstinate  battles  were  fought 
in  1643  and  1644.  Maidenhead  (formerly  Mainhithe),  on  the  Thames,  is  beautifully  encircled 
with  villas. 

Hampshire  contains  extensive  remains  of  those  grand  forests  which  once  overspread  so 
great  a  part  of  England.  The  principal  is  the  New  Forest,  bordering  on  the  Channel  and 
the  bay  of  Southampton.  From  this  tract  of  about  92,365  acres,  William  the  Conqueror 
drove  out  the  inliabitants,  and  demolished  the  parish  cliurches,  tliat  the  royal  sports  might  be 
carried  on  undisturbed.  Tiie  forests  of  Bex,  Holt,  Alice,  &c.,  containing  upwards  of  30,000 
acres,  belong  also  to  the  crown.  The  wood  is  chiefly  oak  and  beech ;  the  former  with  a 
short  thick  trunk  and  strong  crooked  branches,  rendering  it  of  e.xcellent  service  as  knee- 
timber  for  the  navy,  while  the  masts  and  acorns  feed  hogs  of  vast  size,  weighing  sometimes 
eight  hundred  pounds,  and  producing  the  best  bacon  in  the  kingdom. 

Winchester  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  venerable  cities  in  England.  During-part  of 
the  Saxon  period,  it  was  the  metropolis.  It  had  atone  time  upwards  of  ninety  churches  and 
chapels,  with  colleges  and  monasteries  attached  to  them.  Being  frequented  on  account  of 
its  fairs,  and  chosen  as  one  of  the  staples  for  wool,  it  became  at  one  period  the  seat  of  a  very 
extensive  commerce.  After  the  Norman  conquest,  when  London  became  the  royal  residence, 
the  decline  of  Winchester  commenced,  and  was  accelerated  by  the  removal  of  the  wool 
trade ;  but  above  all  by  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries,  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  It 
now  owes  its  importance  to  its  rank  as  an  episcopal  city,  and  a  county  town  in  which  assizes 
are  held  alternately  with  Southampton.  Its  venerable  cathedral  (jig.  142.)  has  been  the 
work  of  successive  ages.  It  was  founded  under  the  Saxon  kings,  enlarged  by  William  of 
Wykeham  under  Edward  III.,  and  completed  by  Bishop  Fox,  in  Sie  sixteenth  century,  when 


Book  I, 


ENGLAND. 


367 


extensive  additions  were  made  to  it  in  the  highly  ornamented  and  pointed  English  style; 


VA'inchester  Cathedral. 


142 


of  which  several  of  the  specimens  here  pre- 
served are  reckoned  the  finest  in  the  king- 
dom. The  college,  or  rather  school,  founded 
by  Bisliop  Wykeham  is  also  a  magnificent 
edifice,  and  is  one  of  the  four  great  classical 
schools  to  which  the  distinguished  youth  of 
England  resort.  Southampton  now  surpasses 
Winchester,  and  is  a  flourishing  town,  at  the 
head  of  the  bay  called  Southampton  Water. 
It  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  with  the 
south  of  Europe,  and  regular  packets  sail 
from  it  to  Havre  de  Grace. 
Portsmouth  is  the  grand  arsenal  for  equippmg  the  powerful  navies  of  Great  Britain.  The 
harbour  is  formed  by  a  considerable  bay,  with  a  commodious  entrance,  perfectly  landlocked, 
and  sheltered  fi-om  every  wind,  affording  secure  anchorage  all  round ;  and  capable  from  its 
dimensions  of  containing  tiie  whole  British  navy.  The  Isle  of  Wight  forms  at  its  eastern 
extremity  the  safe  and  magnificent  road  of  Spithead,  the  principal  rendezvous  of  the  national 
fleets.  The  place  has  been  strengthened  by  fortifications,  till  it  has  become  the  strongest 
and  most  finished  fortress  in  the  empire,  and  is  considered  absolutely  impregnable.  Ports- 
mouth itself  is  situated  on  an  island  about  fourteen  r/iiles  in  circumference,  separated  from 
the  land  only  by  a  narrow  channel.  The  suburb  of  Portsea,  on  the  same  island,  begun  only 
a  century  ago,  has  now  outgrown  the  original  town,  and  contains  the  principal  dockyards. 
Here  are  carried  on,  upon  a  gigantic  scale,  all  the  operations  subservient  to  building,  equip- 
ping, and  refitting  ships,  and  supplying  the  navy.  The  sea-wall  of  the  dockyards  extends 
nearly  three  quarters  of  a  mil^,  and  encloses  an  area  of  one  hundred  acres:  the  forge,  where 
anchors  of  huge  dimensions  are  formed;  the  ropery,  above  a  thousand  feet  long;  the  spacious 
dry  docks ;  the  endless  range  of  warehouses ;  the  gun-wharf,  the  armoury,  are  objects  which 
astonish  by  their  immensity. 

Christchurch  is  noted  for  a  fine  ancient  church ;  Beaulieu  for  the  ruins  of  its  venerable 
abbey ;  Andover,  Basingstoke,  and  Romsey  are  considerable  towns. 

The  Isle  of  Wight  is  about  twenty-three  miles  m  length,  and  thirteen  in  breadth ;  divided 
by  a  channel  of  only  a  few  miles  from  the  coast,  on  which  are  the  bays  of  Portsmouth  and 
Southampton.  It  is  traversed  by  a  ridge  of  chalky  downs,  in  which  are  fed  about  forty 
thousand  fine-wooUed  sheep  of  the  Dorsetshire  breed.  On  the  north  are  luxuriant  meadows, 
supporting  valuable  breeds  of  horses  and  cattle ;  while  on  the  south  are  fine  arable  plains, 
yielding  grain  much  beyond  the  consumption  of  the  island.  The  island  is  celebrated  for  its 
striking  and  peculiar  scenery ;  the  grand  views  of  land  and  sea  enjoyed  from  its  high  open 
downs ;  the  deep  and  dark  ravines  of  its  southern  shore,  and  the  bold  romantic  cliffs  which 
it  there  presents  to  the  expanse  of  the  English  Channel.  One  of  the  most  conspicuous 
features  is  the  range  of  coast  called  the  UnderclifT.  This  district  presents  the  appearance 
of  a  series  of  gigantic  steps  rising  from  the  shore,  to  the  summit  of  the  great  perpendicular 
wall.  The  chines,  or  chasms,  with  torrents  bursting  through  them,  are  also  characteristic 
features. 

The  western  part  of  the  Isle  presents  the  rugged  and  pointed  cliffs,  called  the  Needles, 
and  a  range  of  magnificent  white  cliffs,  rising  perpendicularly  to  the  height  of  500  or  600 
feet.  These  precipices  are  inhabited  by  gulls  and  pufRns,  the  eggs  of  which  are  taken  by 
the  islander,  suspended  in  a  basket,  which  is  fixed  by  a  rope  to  the  summit.  The  eastern 
shore  presents  the  Culver  Cliffs,  a  range  of  precipices  which,  in  grandeur  and  ruggedness, 
are  not  surpassed  by  any  other  on  the  island. 

The  castle  of  Carisbrook  is  an  ancient  edifice,  in  which  Charles  I.  was  for  some  time 
imprisoned.     The  towns,  Newport,  Yarmouth,  Cowes,  and  Ryde,  are  small. 

Dorset  consists  of  open  chalky  downs,  fit  only  for  sheep,  which  are  here  of  a  breed  called 
the  Southdown  {fig.  143.),  peculiarly  fine  both  as  to  carcase  and 
wool.  The  fleece  is  very  short  and  fine ;  the  mutton  fine  in  the 
grain,  and  of  an  excellent  flavour.  The  number  of  sheep  is  estimated 
at  800,000,  producmg  2,790,000  pounds  of  wool.  The  islands  of 
Purbeck  and  Portland  are  valuable  for  the  production  of  fine  free- 
stone. 

Dorsetshire  has  no  remarkable  towns.  Dorchester,  the  capital; 
f?{^^^^^^SMM^^imu  Poole,  with  an  excellent  harbour ;  and  Weymouth,  finely  situated 
for  a  bathing-place,  are  the  principal. 
Wiltshire  is  a  fine  county ;  the  chalk  hills  here  terminating,  form 
the  table-land,  termed  Salisbury  Plain;  a  naked,  undulating  surface,  which  affords  pasturage 
for  sheep.  The  northern  part  of  Wiltshire,  watered  by  the  Thames,  is  chiefly  underwood 
and  pasture,  and  supports  a  valuable  breed  of  cattle,  from  whose  milk  is  made  the  excellent 


143 


Soulhtlown  Sheep. 


3G8 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


P.UIT  III. 


Salisbury  Cathedral. 


cheese  bearing  the  name  of  the  province.  Wiltshire  is  a  manufacturing  county.  The  pro- 
duce is  of  the  finest  description ;  superfine  broadclotli,  kerseymeres,  and  fancy  articles ;  fine 
flannels  at  Salisbury,  and  at  Wilton  the  carpets  which  bear  its  name. 

Salisbury,  the  capital,  is  a  handsome  and  well-built  town.  The  streets  are  spacious  and 
regular,  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles,  and  kept  clean  by  streams  of  water,  from  the 

river  Avon.  The  pride  of  Salisbury  is  its 
cathedral  {fig.  144.)  completed  in  1258, 
which  is  considered  the  most  elegant  and 
finished  Gothic  structure  in  the  kingdom. 
It  has  also  the  loftiest  spire,  rising  to  the 
height  of  four  hundred  and  ten  feet. 

Wiltshire  has  a  number  of  thriving  little 
towns,  in  which  fine  woollen  manufactures 
are  carried  on  with  activity :  Devizes, 
Marlborough,  Chippenham,  Malmsbury, 
Warminster,  Wilton,  &c.  Most  of  tliem 
are  adorned  with  fine  old  churches. 

Stonehenge  {fig.  145.),  in  Salisbury 
Plain,  a  remarkable  monument  of  antiquity, 
is  supposed  to  be  the  remnant  of  a  temple 
of  the  Druids.  "  It  consists,"  says  Mr. 
Sullivan,  "of  the  remains  of  two  circular 
and  two  oval  ranges,  having  one  common 
centre.  The  outer  circle  is  one  hundred 
and  eight  feet  in  diameter,  and  in  its  per- 
fection consisted  of  thirty  upright  stones.  The  upright  stones  are  from  eighteen  to  twenty 
feet  high,  from  six  to  seven  broad,  and  about  three  feet  thick ;  and  being  placed  at  the 

distance  of  three  feet  and  a  half 
from  each  other,  are  joined  at 
the  top  by  imposts  or  stones  laid 
across.  The  inner  circle  is 
somewhat  more  than  eight  feet 
from  the  inside  of  the  outward 
one,  and  consisted  originally  of 
Stonehenge.  foj-j-y  smaller  stoncs ;    of  wliich 

only  eleven  are  standing."  In  the  interior  of  all  are  two  oval  ranges,  supposed  to  be  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  work,  composing  the  cell  or  adytum.  The  stones  that  form  it  are  stupen- 
dous, some  of  them  measuring  thirty  feet  in  height.  The  whole  number  is  computed  to  have 
been  originally  one  hundred  and  forty. 

No  county  is  adorned  with  so  many  fine  seats  as  Wiltshire.  Wilton  House  contains  the 
finest  private  collection  of  ancient  sculpture  in  the  kingdom.  Corsham  House  and  Longford 
Castle  contain  celebrated  collections  of  pictures.  Wardour  Castle  is  distinguished  for  its 
grand  terrace ;  Stourhead  for  the  romantic  beauty  of  the  grounds  :  Longleat  is  a  superb  seat. 

SuBSECT.  2. —  The  Eastern  Counties. 

Under  this  title  are  comprehended  the  counties  of  Essex,  Suffolk,  Norfolk,  Cambridge, 
Huntingdon,  and  Lincoln.  The  surface  of  this  division  is  flat  and  unvaried.  Its  sluggish 
streams  unite  in  tiie  shallow  marshy  estuary  of  the  Wash ;  a  great  proportion  of  its  waters, 
however,  never  reach  that  receptacle ;  but,  spreading  and  stagnating  over  the  land,  form  the 
Fens,  a  tract  which  is  not  unproductive  to  the  husbandman,  but  sends  fortli  pestilential 
vapours,  subjecting  the  inhabitants  to  attacks  of  fever  and  ague.  The  district  contains  wide 
portions  of  good  arable  land,  which  are  well  cultivated  by  skilful  farmers  with  large  capitals; 
and  is  noted  for  its  breeds  of  cattle,  and  for  the  products  of  butter  and  cheese. 

Essex,  situated  along  the  north  of  the  Thames,  is,  perhaps,  the  richest  of  tlie  English 
counties.  It  is  diversified  by  gentle  undulations,  which  do  not  interrupt  the  careful  culture 
given  to  its  rich  alluvial  soil.  Its  wheat,  with  that  of  Kent,  is  reckoned  the  best  in  Eng- 
land ;  but  the  districts  near  the  metropolis  are  chiefly  in  pasture,  or  artificial  grass,  for  sup- 
plying calves  to  the  London  market,  or  for  fattening  the  cattle  brought  up  from  the  north. 

Chelmsford,  the  county  town,  is  a  small  regularly  built  place,  with  a  handsome  town-hall. 
Colchester,  the  ancient  Camelodunum,  contains  a  strong  castle,  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  the  Romans.  It  is  supported  by  a  manufacture  of  baize,  and  by  the  oyster  fishery. 
Harwich,  a  seaport  with  a  deep  and  spacious  harbour,  is  the  place  where  the  government 
packets,  in  time  of  peace,  sail  for  Holland  and  Germany.  Many  villas  have  been  erected  in 
fhis  coimty,  in  consequence  of  its  vicinity  to  the  metropolis. 

Suffolk  is  bordered  by  only  a  small  portion  of  eastern  coast.     The  greater  part  of  it  is 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


869 


146 


capable  of  good  cultivation,  and  is  carefully  tilled.     The  county  is  almost  purely  agricul- 
tural, there  being  neither  trade  nor  manufactures  of  any  importance. 

Among-  the  towns  of  Suffolk,  Ipswich  is  considerable,  though  its  employment  is  confined 
to  sending  down  the  Orwell  malt  and  grain,  the  produce  of  the  county.  Bury  St.  Edmund's, 
an  ancient  town,  is  rendered  venerable  by  some  fine  old  churches.  Lowestoff,  the  most 
easterly  point  of  England,  is  a  noted  seat  of  the  herring  fishery. 

Norfolk,  though  inferior  in  fertility  to  the  two  counties  now  described,  has,  by  its  industry, 
rendered  itself  more  flourishing  than  either.  The  soil  generally  is  a  light  sand,  scarcely  fit, 
originally,  for  any  thing  but  sheep ;  beneath,  however,  is  a  bed  of  rich  soapy  marl,  which 
the  farmers,  with  great  labour,  dig  out,  and  spread  over  the  ground.  The  light  sandy  loam 
thus  formed  is  peculiarly  favourable  to  the  growth  of  barley,  in  which  grain  two-thirds  of 
the  country  is  laid  out.  Norfolk  has  extensive  manufactures ;  producing  various  ornamental 
fabrics  of  silk  and  worsted.  The  ports  carry  on  a  considerable  export  of  grain,  and  a  spirited 
fishery. 

Norwich  is  the  finest  city  in  the  east  of  England.  The  chief  industry  of  Norwich,  how- 
ever, consists  in  manufactures.  Towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  a  large  colony 
of  Flemings  settled  there,  and  established  the  fabric  of  woollens,  which  soon  reached  an 
•mprecedented  height.     The  light  and  ornamented  forms  became  the  staples ;  bombasines, 

crapes,  fine  camblets,  and  worsted  damask.  In  its 
general  structure,  it  has  the  defects  of  an  old  town, 
the  streets  being  narrow  and  winding,  though  those 
recently  built  are  in  a  more  improved  style.  The 
cathedral  {fig.  146.),  founded  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, ranks  among  the  finest  ecclesiastical  edifices  in 
the  kingdom.  Its  style  of  architecture  is  the  Saxon, 
of  that  broad  and  massive  character  which  prevailed 
before  tlie  introduction  of  the  pointed  arch  and  the 
light  ornamental  style.  The  castle,  placed  in  the 
centre,  is  more  ancient  still,  since  antiquaries  refer 
it  to  the  reign  of  Canute.  Its  style  is  Saxon ;  the 
keep  remains  entire. 

Yarmouth,  by  commerce  and  fishery,  has  attained 
a  prosperity  almost  equal  to  that  of  Norwich.  Situ- 
ated at  the  mouth  of  the  Yare,  it  is  the  chief  chan- 
nel by  which  the  manufactures  of  that  city  are 
transported  to  foreign  parts.  A  more  important 
resource  is  its  herring-fishery,  which  employs  six 
thousand  seamen,  and  produces  annually  upwards 
of  fifty  thousand  barrels.  Its  quay,  upwards  of  a 
mile  long,  is  said  to  be  second  only  to  that  of 
Seville.     Yarmouth  is  also  much  frequented  as  a  watering-place. 

Lynn  Regis  is  a  flourishing  seaport  on  the  Wash,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ouse,  which,  with 
its  tributaries,  brings  down  the  agricultural  produce  of  many  rich  counties. 

Seals. — Norfolk  contains  several  of  the  most  superb  seats  in  England.  Holkham,  built  by 
Lord  Leicester  on  a  design  of  Inigo  Jones,  and  particularly  noted  for  a  gallery  room,  is  richly 
adorned  with  sculpture  and  paintings,  and  has  also  a  very  extensive  library.  Houghton  is  a 
magnificent  seat. 

Cambridgeshire  presents  a  considerable  variety  of  surface.  Its  northern  district,  called 
the  Isle  of  Ely,  intersected  by  the  lower  channels  of  the  Ouse  and  the  Nen,  exists  almost  in 
an  intermediate  state  between  land  and  sea.  Drainage,  however,  to  a  great  extent  has  been 
effected,  and  many  tracts  have  been  converted  into  fine  meadow,  or  made  to  yield  large 
crops  of  oats,  though  the  danger  of  inundation  can  never  be  wholly  averted.  The  classic 
stream  of  tlie  Cam  or  Gianta,  in  descending  to  join  the  Ouse,  waters  a  valley  called  "the 
Dairies,"  where  some  good  cheeses  and  long  rolls  of  excellent  butter  are  prepared  for  the 
tables  of  the  Cambridge  students.  The  southern  and  western  districts,  encroached  upon  by 
the  downs  from  the  south,  are  only  fit  for  the  pasture  of  sheep. 

The  capital  of  Cambridge  is  tlie  seat  of  one  of  the  two  great  universities.  There  are 
thirteen  colleges  and  four  halls,  in  which  the  masters,  tutors,  and  students,  not  only  teach 
and  are  taught,  but  are  lodged  and  boarded.  Some  of  the  largest  of  these  endowments  are 
stated  to  be  for  "  poor  and  indigent  scholars ;"  but  are  filled  with  the  sons  of  opulent  families, 
wlio  cannot  live  there  but  at  a  very  considerable  expense.  Yet  the  resort  continues  to 
increase,  and  the  existing  colleges  are  insufficient  to  contain  the  applicants,  who  must  often 
wait  several  3^ears  previously  to  admission.  These  colleges  are  large,  and  generally  fine 
and  handsome  buildings;  yet  they  do  not  produce  the  saixe  noble  and  imposing  effect  as 
those  in  the  sister  university.  There  are,  however,  two  structures  such  as  its  rival  cannot 
Vol.  I.  2  W 


Norwich  Cathedral. 


370 

match. 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  111 


147 


College  Cliaptl. 


The  first  of  tJiese  is  the  chapel  of  King's  College,  {fig.  147.),  huilt  between  tlie 

reigns  of  Henry  VI.  and  Henry  VIII.  Its 
interior  has  been  called  matchless;  the  roof 
is  of  the  most  perfect  workmanshij),  and  its 
support  without  pillars  lias  been  viewed  as 
an  architectural  mystery.  But  tiie  most 
striking  characteristic  is  the  prodigious 
blaze  of  painted  glass,  on  each  side,  from 
twelve  brilliantly  tinted  windows  fifty  feet 
high,  giving  to  the  fabric  the  appearance  of 
being  walled  with  painted  glass.  The  other 
is  Trinity  College,  particularly  admired  for 
its  library,  two  hundred  feet  long,  designed 
by  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  and  perhaps  the 
most  elegant  library-room  in  the  kingdom. 
The  hall  is  also  the  largest  in  Cambridge ;  and  the  roof  is  ornamented  with  fine  specimens 
of  old  wood-work.  Its  chapel  is  marked  by  a  beautiful  simplicity,  and  contains  Roubiliac's 
statue  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  supposed  the  best  resemblance  that  exists  of  that  great  man. 

The  principal  library  contains  100,000  volumes,  many  of  which  are  scarce  and  valuable. 
Trinity  college,  in  its  oi-namental  hall,  has  40,000.  Earl  Fitzwilliam,  from  his  seat  near 
Richmond,  presented  lately  a  handsome  library,  some  fine  pictures,  and  a  large  collection  of 
engravings.  The  botanic  garden  is  inferior  to  none  in  the  kingdom,  except  those  of  Kew 
and  Liverpool.  The  collection  of  valuable  manuscripts  and  antiquities  is  likewise  extensive. 
Since  the  university  was  adorned  by  the  immortal  nameof  Newton,  mathematics  and  natural 
philosopliy  have  been  the  ruling  pursuits ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  lustre  reflected  on  it  by 
Milton,  as  well  as  by  Bentley  and  Porson,  it  has  left  to  Oxford  the  foremost  place  in  classical 
knowledge. 

At  Newmarket,  horse-racing  has  chosen  its  most  favourite  ground.  This  town  lies  amid 
bleak  hills,  that  have,  however,  a  sufficient  extent  of  level  heath  to  make  the  finest  course 
in  the  kingdom.  It  consists  of  one  long  street,  chiefly  filled  witii  inns  and  coffee-houses  for 
the  reception  of  the  sporting  world,  who  crowd  thither  in  the  appropriate  seasons,  which  are 
April,  July,  and  October.  The  bustle  is  then  immense.  "  Trains  of  horses,"  says  Dr. 
Spiker,  "  were  led  up  and  down  tlie  streets.  Excellent  equipages,  gigs,  curricles,  landaus, 
flew  past  us  and  past  each  other  with  the  swiftness  of  an  arrow.  Horses  were  prancing 
about  with  their  riders ;  jockeys  were  carrying  bridles  to  and  fro :  in  short,  all  was  life  and 
bustle."  The  course  is  covered  with  turf,  whence  the  pursuit  of  horse-racing  itself  is  usu- 
ally designated  the  turf.  Close  to  the  goal  is  drawn  on  rollers  a  small  wooden  house,  in 
which  sits  the  judge,  usually  an  experienced  groom,  who  decides  which  is  the  v/inner.  The 
stand  is  an  open  raised  house  for  ladies  and  other  curious  spectators ;  but  men  of  real  busi- 
ness crowd  round  the  betting  post,  immediately  behind  the  jucfge,  where  they  remain  closely 
wedged  together,  "  and  nothing  is  heard  but  the  continual  cry  of  twenty,  thirty,  forty,  two 
hundred  pounds  on  such  a  horse." 

The  small  city  of  Ely  rises  like  an  island  amidst  the  surrounding  fens,  and  displays  a 
magnificent  catliedral.  Wisbeach,  a  thriving  town  on  a  navigable  branch  of  tlie  Ouse, 
combines  a  prosperous  trade  with  some  spirit  of  literary  enquiry. 

Huntingdonshire  lies  to  the  eastward  of  Cambridge ;  the  two  are  governed  by  the  same 
sheriff,  chosen  alternately  in  each.  Huntingdon  is  entirely  agricultural ;  the  pastures  are 
peculiarly  rich,  and  adapt  it  for  producing  the  famous  Stilton  cheese.  Huntingdon,  the 
county  town,  though  small,  has  an  antique  and  respectable  appearance.  St.  Ives  is  a  large 
village  on  the  Ouse. 

Lincolnshire  occupies  the  eastern  coast  from  the  Wash  to  the  Humber.  The  southern 
territory,  called,  from  that  circumstance,  "  Holland,"  comprises  more  than  half  of  the  Bed- 
lord  level,  or  fen  country,  and  is  naturally  an  almost  continuous  swamp;  but  a  great  extent 
of  it  has  now  been  drained,  and  produces  fine  pasture  land,  and  excellent  crops  of  oats.  The 
rearing  of  live  stock  forms  the  chief  occupation ;  and  Lincoln  has  breeds  of  every  descrip- 
tion that  are  held  m  Jiigh  estimation.  The  sheep,  wliicii  amount  to  upwards  of  2,000,000, 
produce  the  long  wool,  wliich,  fi-om  the  length  of  its  staple,  is  chiefly  fitted  for  worsted, 
baize,  and  other  fabrics.  Rabbits,  almost  innumerable,  are  bred  in  the  upper  districts ;  and 
the  unreclaimed  fens,  during  the  wet  season,  swarm  with  teal,  ducks,  geese,  and  aquatic 
game  of  every  form  and  description,  with  which  London  and  many  other  parts  of  England 
are  chiefly  supplied  from  this  county.  Manufactures  have  entirely  deserted  it;  even  its 
own  wool,  since  the  late  inventions  in  machinerv,  is  no  longer  spun  or  carded  within  itself. 
The  Trent,  during  all  its  course  through  this  county,  is  navigable  for  large  vessels,  and 
artificial  channels  unite  its  streams,  particularly  the  Foss  Dyke,  between  the  Witham  and 
the  Trent.  Foreign  commerce,  however,  is  much  limited  by  the  increasing  sand-banks,  by 
which  the  coasts  and  harbours  are  obstructed. 


Book  I.  ENGLAND.  371 

Tlie  city  of  Lincoln  was,  durinnr  the  middle  ages,  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  and  splen- 
did capitals  of  England.     The  cathedral  (Jig.  148.)  still  holds  the  first  rank  among  religious 
14S  1  J,  I  edifices.    From  a  distance  its  three  towers 

bdHW         pill  appear  conspicuous ;  two  of  them  180,  and 

p3         frfel  o"*2.  '^^^>  ^6t  high,  and  ornamented  with 

I  [\'\'-—       '^'^.1  various  pillars  and  tracery;    and  as  the 

r^!;^:>  -.     '        i  !  V  jp  structure  stands  on  a  hill,  in  the  midst  of 

__--.J|<^t  ^^W=_         ^  ^^^^  surrounding  flat,  it  has  the  most 

J^il^-'u'-/:,  -^ffer--      commanding  site  in  the  county.     When 

j^f*\^f  3sMK;--C      plundered  by  Henry  VIIL,  it  was  found 

MSC^AK^^E^L^  to  contain  an  extraordinary  treasure,  in 

gold   and    silver,    pearls,   diamonds,   and 
"\^Ez;   other  precious  stones.     Lincoln,  supported 
-  ■■     m^^E   °"^y  ^y  ^^^  county  trade,  and  by  the  re- 
^^^^^^^    mainhig  opulence  of  the  cathedral,  now 
holds  a  moderate  rank  among  provincial 
Lincoln  Cathudial.  towus.     Its  fifty  churches  are  reduced  to 

eleven ;  and  the  fragments  of  the  others  are  dispersed  throughout  tlie  town,  many  ordinary 
houses  being  adorned  with  Gothic  arches,  doorways,  and  windows. 

Boston,  on  the  Witham,  carries  on  the  trade  of  Holland,  or  southern  Lincolnshire.  It 
exports  the  grain,  and  aflbrds  a  great  market  for  cattle ;  and  has  thus  doubled  its  population. 
A  fine  Gothic  church  attests  the  early  prosperity  of  Boston. 

SuBSECT.  3. — Central  Counties. 
Under  this  term  we  comprehend  that  part  of  the  interior  which  is  bounded  on  the  south 
and  south-west  by  the  two  divisions  already  described ;  on  the  north  and  north-west  by  York- 
shire and  Lancashire ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  counties  of  Salop,  Worcester,  and  Gloucester. 
In  a  description  of  this  portion  of  the  country,  London  claims  a  distinct  and  separate 
notice.  As  the  metropolis  of  the  united  kingdom,  it  is  the  seat  of  legislation,  jurisprudence, 
and  government;  the  principal  residence  of  the  sovereign,  at  which  affairs  of  state  are 
transacted,  and  relations  maintained  with  foreign  courts ;  the  centre  of  all  important  opera- 
tions whether  of  commerce  or  finance,  and  of  correspondence  with  every  quarter  of  the  globe. 
London,  in  its  comprehensive  sense,  includes  the  city  and  liberties  of  London,  the  city  of 
Westminster  and  its  liberties,  the  borough  of  Southvvark,  and  the  parishes  and  precincts 
contiguous  to  those  three  component  parts  of  the  metropolis.  Its  extent,  from  Poplar  in 
the  east  to  Belgrave-square  in  the  west,  is  nearly  eight  miles;  its  breadth,  from  Islington 
in  the  north  to  Walworth  in  the  south,  exceeds  five  miles.  The  circumference,  allowing  for 
inequalities,  is  computed  at  thirty  miles.  The  buildings,  streets,  squares,  and  other  spaces, 
including  that  taken  up  by  the  river  Thames,  winding  fi-om  the  eastern  to  the  western 
extremity,  about  seven  miles  on  an  average  breadth  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  occupy  an  area 
of  eighteen  square  miles. 

By  a  more  convenient  topographical  arrangement,  London  has  been  divided  into  six  grand 
portions:  1st,  the  City,  which  may  be  termed  the  central  division;  2d,  the  western  division, 
including  Westminster ;  3d,  the  north-west  division,  including  the  district  north  of  Oxford- 
street  and  west  of  Tottenham-court-road, — these  two  last  mentioned  divisions  constitute  the 
west-end  of  the  town ;  4th,  the  northern  division,  comprising  the  whole  district  north  of 
Ilolborn  and  the  City  from  Tottenham-court-road  on  the  west  to  Shoreditch  and  Kingsland- 
road  on  the  east,  including  St.  Pancras,  Somers-town,  Pentonville,  Islington,  Hoxton,  and 
Kingsland ;  5th,  the  eastern  division,  including  the  whole  district  east  of  the  city  and  of 
Shoreditch  ;  6th,  the  southern  division,  comprising  the  borough  of  Southwark,  and  the 
mass  of  buildings  extending  from  Rotherhithe  to  Vauxhall,  and  ranging  southward  for  more 
than  two  miles.  The  divisions  north  and  south  of  the  Thames  communicate  by  five  bridges, 
— London  Bridge,  Southwark  Bridge,  Blackfi-iars,  Waterloo,  and  Westminster  bridges. 
The  port  of  London  extends  from  London  Bridge  to  Deptford,  a  distance  of  about  four 
miles,  with  an  average  breadth  of  from  four  hundred  to  five  Jumdred  yards.  Its  divisions 
are  the  Upper,  Middle,  and  Lower  Pools,  and  the  space  between  Limehouse  and  Deptford. 
Connected  with  it  are  certain  spacious  docks,  which  will  be  hereafter  noticed. 

The  population  of  London,  according  to  the  returns  in  1831  of  the  census  in  1830,  is  thus 
stated : — 

Persons 

Citj'  of  London  within  the  walls 57,fi95 

without  the  walls  (including  the  Inns  of  Court) 67,878 

Boron 2h  of  Snuthwark 9] ,501 

City  of  Wostmi  nster 202,080 

Parishes  within  the  bills  of  mortality 761,348 

Adjacent  parishe.s  not  within  the  bills , 293i567 

Total        1,474,069 


372  '  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  IIL 

The  north  division  of  London,  as  viewed  from  the  most  central  and  elevated  point,  rises 
gently  from  the  Thames,  and  extends  to  the  foot  of  a  range  of  hills  on  which  are  situated 
the  villages  of  Hampstead  and  Highgate.  On  the  east  and  west  are  fertile  plams  extending 
at  least  twenty  miles,  and  watered  by  the  winding  and  gently  flowing  Thames.  On  the 
south,  the  distant  view  is  bounded  by  the  high  grounds  of  Richmond,  Wimbledon,  Epsom, 
Norwood,  and  Blackheath,  terminating  in  the  horizon  by  Leith  Hill,  Boxhill,  and  the  Rei- 
gate  and  Wrotham  Hills.  Shooter's  Hill  is  a  conspicuous  object  to  the  eastward ;  and,  in  a 
more  northerly  direction,  parts  of  Epping  Forest  and  other  wooded  uplands  of  Essex. 

So  early  as  the  reign  of  Nero,  London  had  become  a  place  of  considerable  traffic,  as  appears 
from  Tacitus,  the  earliest  of  the  Roman  historians  who  mentions  it  by  name.  The  Romans 
fortified  it  with  a  wall,  and  made  it  one  of  their  principal  stations.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  third  century,  it  is  represented  as  a  great  and  wealthy  city,  and  considered  to  be  the 
metropolis  of  Britain.  In  the  end  of  the  si.xth  century,  it  became  the  capital  of  the  East 
Saxons,  whose  king,  Sebert,  is  reputed  the  founder  of  the  cathedral  church  dedicated  to 
Saint  Paul,  and  of  the  abbey  and  abbey  cinirch  of  Westminster.  After  tiie  union  of  the 
seven  kingdoms,  Egbert,  in  833,  held  here  his  first  witte)ia<remote,  or  council :  but  London 
was  not  constituted  the  capital  of  England  until  its  recovery  from  the  Danes  by  Alfred. 
William  of  Normandy,  whose  interest  it  was  to  conciliate  the  citizens,  though  he  built  the 
fortress  called  the  Tower,  to  keep  them  in  awe,  confirmed  the  privileges  and  immunities 
which  they  had  enjoyed  under  Edward  the  Confessor.  Notwithstanding  several  visitations 
of  fire  and  pestilence,  London  continued  to  increase,  especially  after  the  accession  of  the 
Tudors,  when  the  overthrow  of  feudal  vassalage,  and  the  more  frequent  resort  to  the  capital, 
caused  an  augmentation  so  rapid  as  to  alarm  the  government.  The  dissoluiion  of  monas- 
teries, of  which  London  contained  so  large  a  proportion,  accelerated  this  increase,  while  it 
gave  an  impulse  to  industry  and  commerce.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  the  influx  of  strangers 
driven  from  the  Netherlands,  by  the  persecutions  of  the  Duke  of  Alva,  heightened  tlie  alarm, 
and  the  queen  was  even  induced  to  issue  the  absurd  decree  that  no  more  dwelling-houses 
should  be  built:  a  prohibition  which  did  not  retard  the  growth  of  the  city.  In  1636,  the 
refinements  of  Paris  and  Madrid  were  emulated  in  London  by  the  introduction  of  hackney 
coaches  and  sedan  chairs. 

The  reign  of  Charles  II.  includes  the  most  memorable  epoch  in  the  liistory  of  London. 
In  1665,  a  plague  swept  away  100,000  persons.  In  September,  1666,  broke  out  that  great 
and  awful  fire  which  destroyed  400  streets,  13,000  houses,  and  89  churches.  For  the  re- 
building of  the  city,  an  admirable  plan  was  presented  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  the  archi- 
tect: the  difficulty  of  reconciling  conflicting  interests,  allowed  it  to  be  but  very  partially 
adopted.  He  rebuilt  the  cathedral  of  St.  Paul  and  most  of  the  parish  churches  in  the 
Grecian  style,  and  the  front  of  Guildhall  in  the  original  Gothic.  Instead  of  wood  and  plaster, 
the  chief  materials  of  the  former  city,  the  new  buildings  were  of  brick,  in  the  substantial 
though  heavy  style  then  in  vogue.  There  were  no  flagged  footpaths ;  the  streets  were  ill- 
paved  :  and  as  there  was  no  system  of  drainage  by  sewers,  and  no  distribution  of  pure  water 
by  pipes,  they  were  in  some  places  far  from  endurable.  The  city,  however,  gained  by  the 
change,  though  with  the  sacrifice  of  many  interesting  memorials  of  its  ancient  state,  and  of 
its  most  glorious  times. 

Westminster,  though  founded  in  the  time  of  the  Saxons,  and  chosen  at  an  early  period  as 
a  royal  residence,  did  not  at  first  keep  pace  with  London.  The  abbey  and  its  church,  foimded 
by  Sebert,  were  rebuilt  by  the  architects  who  reared  so  many  splendid  fabrics  of  Gothic 
masonry  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  III.  and  Edward  I.  The  celebrated  hall  was  built  by  William 
Rufus  in  1097  and  1098,  and  it  underwent  a  thorough  repair  in  that  of  Riciiard  II.  On  the 
dissolution  of  monasteries,  Henry  VIII.  converted  this  religious  establishment  into  a  college, 
and  afterwards  into  a  bishopric.  Westminster  thus  became  a  city,  and  has  ever  since  re- 
tained that  rank  by  courtesy,  though  it  never  had  but  one  bishop,  having  been  transferred  by 
Edward  VI.  to  the  see  of  Norwich. 

The  city  of  Westminster  is  comprised  in  the  united  parishes  of  St.  Margaret  and  St. 
John ;  the  liberties  include  seven  other  parishes,  St.  Martin's  in  the  Fields,  St.  James's,  St. 
Ann's,  St  Clement  Danes,  St.  Mary's  le  Strand,  St.  George's  Hanover  Square,  and  St.  Paul's 
Covent  Garden,  with  the  precinct  of  the  Savoy  and  that  of  St.  Martin's  le  Grand.  Several 
of  the  parishes  w'estvvard  of  Temple  Bar  had  each  its  church  and  contiguous  village,  com- 
municating with  each  other  by  roads  and  footpaths.  The  Strand  was  originally  a  high  road 
connecting  London  with  Westminster  by  the  village  of  Charing.  After  the  Restoration, 
the  west  end  of  the  town  rapidly  increased ;  and  its  inhabitants,  affecting  superior  refine- 
ment of  manners,  claimed  to  be  considered  as  a  distinct  class  of  beings  from  tlie  industrious 
merchants  east  of  Temple  Bar.  By  degrees,  as  the  vacant  ground  was  built  upon,  the  two 
cities  and  their  suburbs  were  united ;  and  at  length  the  distant  villages  of  Mary-le-bone 
and  St.  Pancras  became  integral  parts  of  the  metropolis.  A  splendid  quarter,  now  occupied 
by  the  most  fashionable  part  of  the  community,  has  been  built  to  the  west  of  St.  James's 
Park  and  the  new  palace.     The  villages  surrounding  London,  formerly  at  some  distance,- 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


373 


on  tho  east,  Stepney  and  Limehouse ;  on  the  south,  Peckham,  Camberwell,  Brixton,  Clap- 
ham  ;  on  the  west,  Brompton  and  Knightsbridge ;  on  the  north,  Hackney,  Hoxton,  Islington, 
Ilighgate  and  Hampstead, — being  now  joined  to  the  metropolis  by  continued  ranges  of 
streets,  may  be  considered  as  integral  portions  of  it.  The  population  within  a  radius  of 
eight  miles  from  St.  Paul's,  vvhicli  is  all  virtually  London,  does  not  fall  short  of  1,800,000. 

The  growtii  of  London,  as  a  port,  was  at  first  by  no  means  rapid.  In  1832,  besides  boats 
and  otiier  craft  not  registered,  there  belonged  to  the  port  of  London  2669  ships,  of  the  burthen 
of  5o'),174  tons ;  manned  by  32,786  men  and  boys.  In  the  same  year,  the  gross  customs 
duty  collected  in  the  port  of  London  amounted  to  9,434,854^.  The  port  of  London  has 
already  been  described  as  extending  from  London  Bridge  to  Deptford,  a  distance  of  four 
miles ;  the  average  breadth  being  fully  a  quarter  of  a  mile.  Even  these  limits  were  far 
from  affording  adequate  accommodation  to  the  shipping ;  and  the  example  of  improvement 
exhibited  by  Liverpool  at  length  roused  the  merchants  of  London  to  form  companies  for  con- 
structing docks,  with  commodious  quays  and  warehouses.  The  West  India  Docks,  stretch- 
ing across  the  isthmus  forming  the  Isle  of  Dogs  to  tlie  Middlesex  side  of  the  river,  were 
opened  in  1802.  They  consisted  originally  of  an  import  and  export  dock,  the  former  con- 
taining about  30  and  the  latter  about  25  acres  of  water,  exclusive  of  basins.  To  these  have 
recently  been  added  the  south  dock,  formerly  the  City  Canal.  The  warehouses  at  the  West 
India  Docks  are  of  vast  extent,  and  arc,  in  all  respects,  most  commodious.  The  London 
Docks,  also  of  very  great  extent,  are  situated  at  Wapping.  The  tobacco  warehouse  be- 
longing to  them  is  the  largest  and  finest  building  of  its  kind  in  the  world.  It  covers  a  space 
of  near  5  acres !  The  vaults  underneath  the  ground  are  18j  acres  in  extent,  and  have 
stowage  for  66,000  pipes  of  wine  !  There  are  also  the  St.  Katharine' s  Docks,  adjoining  the 
Tower;  the  East  India  Docks,  at  Blackwell ;  and  the  Commercial  Docks,  on  the  Surrey 
side  of  the  river. 

Southwark,  the  third  great  portion  of  the  metropolis,  (more  commonly  called  the  Borongh, 
and  as  such  returning  two  members  to  parliament,)  is  situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Thames.  The  Borougli  was  governed  by  its  own  bailitfs  until  Edward  VI.  granted  South- 
wark to  the  city  of  London  for  a  sum  of  money ;  after  which  it  became  one  of  the  city 
wards  by  the  name  of  Bridge  Ward  Without.  It  is  much  frequented  by  agriculturists  from 
Kent,  Surrey,  and  Sussex ;  and  is  the  principal  hop-market  in  the  kingdom.  Numerous 
streets  in  every  direction  connect  it  witli  tlie  surrounding  villages ;  and  by  the  five  magnifi- 
cent bridges  it  communicates  with  every  quarter  of  London  and  Westminster. 

London,  is  well  built,  well  paved,  well  lighted,  and  abundantly  supplied  with  water.  For- 
eigners who  visit  it  for  the  first  time  soon  discover  that  utility,  not  ornament,  is  the  main 
characteristic  of  the  town,  and  that  business,  not  amusement,  occupies  the  minds  of  its 
inhabitants.  The  main  streets  are  spacious;  and  all  the  streets  have  the  advantage  of  flagged 
foot-pavements  on  each  side.  The  houses  are  of  brick ;  and  though  in  the  most  populous 
streets  discoloured  by  smoke,  have  by  no  means  a  gloomy  appearance.  The  charm  of  London, 
as  a  great  city,  is  its  variety.  Those  who  dislike  the  narrow  streets  of  the  city,  shady  in 
summer,  and  sheltered  from  cold  winds  in  winter,  may  delight  in  the  spacious  streets  and 
squares  of  the  west  end ;  those  who  desire  to  contemplate  what  Dr.  Johnson  called  "  the  full 
tide  of  human  existence,"  may  visit  Cheapside,  Fleet  Street,  or  the  Strand  :  Bond  Street  is 
the  resort  of  gaiety  and  fashion ;  and  Regent  Street,  for  architectural  efliect,  is  one  of  the 
grandest  streets  in  Europe.  Great  improvements  have  been  made  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Strand  from  Charing  Cross  to  Burleigh  Street,  by  taking  down  an  immense  mass  of  small 
and  old  houses,  partly  in  narrow  streets  and  courts,  and  erecting  others  of  large  dimensions 
and  forming  wide  and  handsome  streets.  Here  also  has  been  erected  the  elegant  and  com- 
I  modious  structure  of  Hungcrford 

^^  ^  Market.    Another  improvement  is 

that  of  opening  a  line  northward 
from  Bridge  Street,  Blackfriars, 
through  the  site  of  Fleet  Market 
and  across  Clerkenvvell,  to  Isling- 
ton :  it  is  intended  that  a  parallel 
line  should  extend  from  Waterloo 
Bridge  across  the  Strand,  past  the 
portico  of  Co  vent  Garden  Theatre, 
and  into  the  northern  district  of 
the  metropolis. 

St.  Paul's  Cathedral  ^fiff.  149.), 

the  masterpiece  of  Sir  Christopher 

Wren,  is  the  finest  specimen  of 

modern  architecture  in  the  king- 

^'  ^'"' "  dom,  and,  after  St.Peter's  at  Rome, 

may  rank  as  the  finest  ecclesiastical  structure  in  Christendom  ;  but  it  is  so  surrounded  with 

Vol.  I.  32 


374 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  UI. 


150 


buildings  that  the  beauty  of  its  exterior  cannot  be  appreciated.    The  style,  which  is  Grecian, 

unites  grandeur  of  design  with  just- 

1^1  III" 


ill- 


^^* "^^'^  ^l  k,- 


Westminster  Abbey. 


ness  of  proportion.  The  interior  of 
St.  Paul's  is  too  bare  of  ornament ; 
but  the  defect  is  partly  supplied  by 
marble  monuments  of  various  de- 
grees of  mei'it. 

Westminster  Abbey  (Jig.  150.) 
is  a  noble  specimen  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture. The  interior  is  grand  in 
design  and  rich  in  detail,  and  the 
mterest  which  it  excites  is  en- 
hanced by  the  ninncrous  monuments 
of  kings,  warriors,  statesmen,  phi- 
losophers, and  poets,  which  it  en- 
closes. The  chapel  built  at  the 
\rpstcrn  extremity  by  Henry  VII. 
m  honour  of  the  blessed  Virgin,  is 
in  the  richest  style  of  the   later 


Gothic,  and  its  exterior  has  been  skilfully  renovated. 

Among  the  parish  churches  of  the  metropolis,  that  of  St.  Stephen's,  Walbrook,  is  distin- 
guished for  the  fine  proportions  and  finished  elegance  of  its  interior.  The  stately  portico  of 
St.  Martin's,  Charing  Cross,  excites  universal  admiration ;  next  to  which  may  rank  that  of 
the  new  church  of  St.  Pancras ;  the  steeple  of  which  is  constructed  on  the  model  of  the  Temple 
of  the  Winds  at  Athens.  The  other  public  buildings  are  too  numerous  to  be  described,  and 
a  bare  mention  of  them  would  give  little  satisfaction.  The  principal  mns  of  court,  and  their 
subsidiary  inns,  are  remarkable  rather  for  plainness  than  magnificence  of  architecture.    The 

pile  called  Somerset  House  (Jiff. 
151.)  would  have  a  grand  effect 
if  its  eastern  wing  were  com- 
pleted ;  and  this  desideratum  is 
partly  supplied  by  the  buildings 
assigned  to  "  King's  College,  Lon- 
don." The  Banqueting  House  at 
Whitehall  is  a  memorial  of  the 
fine  taste  of  Inigo  Jones ;  and  its 
ceiling  is  decorated  with  an  alle- 
gorical painting  from  the  pencil 
of  Rubens,  which  is  still  exposed 
to  view,  though  the  apartment  has 
Somerset  House.  jjgg^    converled    into    a   chapel. 

Westminster  Hall,  of  which  the  portal  has  been  rebuilt  in  the  original  style,  is  reputed  the 
longest  hall  in  Europe  unsupported  by  pillars.  It  is  276  feet  long  by  76  broad.  Within  it, 
on  coronation  festivals,  10,000  persons  have  dined.  On 'its  south  side  are  entrances  to  the 
new  law  courts,  the  King's  Bench  Common  Pleas,  Exchequer  and  Chancery,  with  an  addi- 
tional court  for  the  vice-chancellor.  The  House  of  Peers  is  a  spacious  and  lofly  chamber, 
decorated  with  tapestry  representing  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  armada.  The  subordinate 
apartments  and  passages  are  of  recent  construction  and  of  a  dig- 
nified elegance.  The  House  of  Commons,  originally  a  chapel  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Stephen,  retains,  perhaps,  too  much  of  that  character 
in  its  fi-ont  and  side  galleries,  the  seats  rising  on  either  hand 
beneath  them,  and  the  speaker's  chair  exactly  in  the  place  where 
a  pulpit  might  have  stood.  The  house  was  altered  and  enlarged, 
to  admit  the  accession  of  members  consequent  on  the  union  with 
Ireland.*  The  Bank  of  England,  a  building  of  great  extent ;  the 
Royal  Exchange ;  the  East  India  House,  in  Leadenhall  street ; 
the  Tower,  which  has  still  an  arsenal  and  a  garrison,  being  the 
depository  of  the  regalia  of  the  United  Kingdom ;  the  Trinity 
House,  and  the  New  Mint,  both  situated  on  Tower  Hill ;  the 
new  Post  Office,  in  St.  Martin  le  Grand ;  the  new  Palace  in  St. 
James's  Park,  &c.  deserve  mention. 

The  Monument  (Jiff.  1.52.)  is  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  orna- 
ments of  the  metropolis.  The  pedestal  is  42  feet,  tlie  shaft  of  the 
column  120  feet,  the  cone  at  the  top  with  the  blazing  urn  of  gilt 
brass  40  feet,  making  the  total  height  of  the  monument  202  feet.  It  was  erected  by  Sir 
Christopher  Wren,  to  commemorate  the  fire  of  London,  in  1666. 


'  Tlie  Parliament  Houses  were  burnt  down  in  1834. 


Book  1. 


ENGLAND. 


375 


The  bridges  of  London  attract  attention  by  their  beauty  and  utility.  Until  the  year  1740, 
the  only  one  existing  was  London  Bridge,  built  in  the  twelfth  century,  with  arches  so  nar- 
row, unequal,  and  ill-placed,  as  to  tbrm  a  sort  of  breakwater,  occasioning  a  rapid  or  fall  of 
the  stream,  highly  dangei-ous  to  boats  and  barges.    The  new  London  Bridge  (Jig.  153.)  coni- 

153 


JScw  Loiiiiuii  linda 


menced  in  1824,  and  opened  in  1831,  has  taken  its  place.  The  bridge  consists  of  five  semi- 
elliptical  arches ;  the  centre  arch  152  feet  span,  with  a  rise  above  high  water  mark  of  29  feet 
6  inclies ;  the  two  next  the  centre  arch,  140  feet  span,  rise  27  feet  6  inches ;  the  two  abut- 
ment arches,  1.30  feet  span,  rise  24  feet  6  inches.  The  length  of  the  bridge  from  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  abutment  is  928  feet ,  within  the  abutments,  782  feet.  The  roadway  is  53  feet 
between  the  parapets ;  of  this  width,  the  footways  occupy  9  feet  each,  and  the  carriage-way 
35  feet.  Southwark  Bridge  leads  from  Queenhithe  to  Bankside,  Southwark.  Of  its  three 
arches  of  cast  iron,  the  central  one  is  240  feet  span ;  the  others  210  feet  each.  The  piers 
and  abutments  are  of  stone,  the  rest  of  the  work  iron  :  this  is  the  most  stui>endous  bridge 
of  these  materials  in  the  world.  Blackfriars  Bridge,  built  between  the  years  1760  and  1769, 
has  8  piers  and  9  elliptical  arches;  length  995  feet.  Waterloo  Bridge  {fig.  154.),  of  granite, 

154 


\\>iitrluu  Eiid^'c 

has  nine  arches,  each  120  feet  span ;  the  piers  are  20  feet  thick.  Westminster  Bridge  lias 
fourteen  piers  supporting  thirteen  large  and  two  small  arches.  The  width  of  the  middle 
arch  is  76  feet ;  that  of  the  two  next,  72,  tliat  of  the  last,  52.  Waterloo  Bridge  is  the  finest 
piece  of  masonry  in  Europe :  the  expense  exceeded  1,000,000?.  Tliese  immense  works, 
with  the  exception  of  London  Bridge,  have  all  been  accomplished  by  associations  of  private 
individuals. 

The  municipal  institutions  of  London  have  received  from  time  such  modifications  as  were 
requisite  to  improve  them.  The  city  is  divided  into  twenty-live  wards,  the  Borough,  as 
Bridge  Ward  Without,  making  the  twenty-sixth.  Each  has  for  its  magistrate  an  alderman 
chosen  for  life  :  and  those  persons  collectively  form  the  Court  of  Aldermen.  The  chief 
magistrate,  styled  Lord  Mayor,  is  elected  annually,  from  the  Court  of  Aldermen,  by  the  great 
body  of  freemen  called  the  Livery.  The  Common  Council  is  an  elective  body  representing 
the  several  wards. — These  public  bodies  form  a  sort  of  parliament,  tlie  court  of  aldermen 
ranking  as  peers,  that  of  common  council  as  the  commons.  The  military  force  of  the  city 
formerly  consisted  of  the  Train  Bands ;  but  under  an  act  passed  in  1794,  two  regiments  of 
militia  are  raised  by  ballot,  each  consisting  of  2200  men.  No  troops  can  enter  the  city,  nor 
can  its  own  militia  depart  from  it,  without  permission  of  the  lord  mayor.  His  power  is  very 
great ;  and  thougli  his  office  be  elective,  his  authority  does  not  cease  on  the  demise  or  abdi- 
cation of  the  king,  as  that  of  the  commission  officers  does  :  and  in  such  cases  the  Lord  Mayor 


376  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  IH. 

of  London  is  said  to  be  the  principal  officer  of  the  kingdom.  There  are  two  sheriffs,  one  for 
London  and  one  for  Middlesex ;  but  they  make  but  one  officer ;  and  if  one  of  them  dies,  the 
office  is  at  an  end  until  a  successor  to  him  is  chosen.  The  next  officers  in  rank  are,  the 
Recorder,  the  Chamberlain,  and  the  Common  Serjreant. 

The  police  of  the  metropolis  has  not  been  brought  to  a  very  high  degree  of  efficiency,  but 
is  continually  undergoing  improvements.  Tliere  are  eleven  offices :  the  Mansion  House  ; 
the  Guildhall;  Bow  Street;  Queen  Square,  Westminster;  Marlborough  Street;  High 
Street,  Mary-le-bone ;  Hatton  Garden  ;  Worship  Street ;  Lambeth  Street,  in  Whitechapel ; 
High  Street,  Sliadwell ;  Union  Street,  Soutluvark;  and  Wapping  New  Stairs,  for  offences 
connected  with  the  shipping  and  port.  The  Bow  Street  Police  Office  is  wholly  under  the 
direction  and  management  of  the  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Home  Department.  All  the 
magistrates  belonging  to  it  are  in  the  commission  of  the  peace  for  the  counties  of  Middlesex, 
Surrey,  Kent,  and  Essex,  this  being  the  chief  police  office  of  England.  Subject  to  its 
authority  is  the  body  of  foot  and  horse  patrole  by  v.hich  the  roads  witliin  ten  miles  of  the 
metropolis  are  watched  and  guarded  during  a  considerable  part  of  the  night.  In  another 
department  of  police  a  most  important  change  has  been  effected  by  substituting  for  the 
nightly  watch  appointed  by  different  parishes  without  concert  or  co-operation,  a  constabu- 
lary POLICE  FORCE,  regularly  organized,  and  subject  to  officers  appointed  by  the  Home 
Secretary  of  State.  The  men  are  maintained  by  rates  levied  on  the  different  parishes, 
and  are  on  duty  night  and  day,  in  successive  divisions,  relieving  each  other  like  gendarmes. 

The  gaols  and  prisons  cannot  be  passed  without  notice.  The  King's  Bench  prison,  in 
Southwark,  is  under  the  particular  authority  of  the  Court  of  King's  Bench.  The  liberties, 
or  rules,  comprehend  an  area  three  miles  in  circumference,  within  any  part  of  wjiich  debtors 
may  reside  on  paying  certain  fees.  The  Fleet  Prison,  cliiefly  for  debtors,  is  situated  on  the 
east  side  of  Farringdon  Street.  Whitecross-street  prison  was  erected  in  1817,  for  the 
reception  of  such  debtors  as  were  liable  to  be  confined  in  the  city  gaols  of  Newgate  and  the 
Compter.  Newgate,  a  place  o'f  confinement  for  prisoners  before  and  after  trial,  lias  been 
placed  under  new  regulations  through  the  efforts  of  benevolent  persons  anxious  to  render  it 
a  place  of  reform.  Bridewell,  Blackfriars,  though  a  prison,  is  usually  ranked  among  the 
hospitals.  The  Middlesex  House  of  Correction,  in  Coldbath  Fields,  has  long  been  the  terror 
of  delinquents,  through  tiie  double  punishment  of  incarceration  and  hard  labour.  The  Peni- 
tentiary at  Milbank  is  destined  for  the  reception  of  convicts  selected  from  those  sentenced 
to  transportation  or  to  confinement  on  board  the  hulks  for  a  certain  term  of  years.  They  are 
confined  here  to  hard  labour  for  a  shorter  term,  part  of  which  is  remitted  if  they  behave  well. 
Tothill-fields  Bridewell  is  a  large  pile  of  building,  finished  in  1833.  A  new  House  of  Cor- 
rection has  been  erected  at  Brixton,  in  Surrey. 

The  charitable  institutions  of  London  would  require  a  volume  for  their  description. 
Chelsea  and  Greenwich  hospitals  are  asylums  provided  by  national  gratitude  to  support  the 
aged  or  infirm  who  liave  devoted  thoir  best  days  to  the  service  of  their  country  by  land  and 
sea.  St.  Bartholomew's  and  St.  Thomas's  hospitals  are  assigned  to  the  maimed  and  diseased. 
Bridewell  Hospital  to  the  correction  of  the  idle,  and  Christ's  hospital  to  the  support  and 
education  of  the  young  and  helpless.  For  the  cure  of  diseases,  and  for  the  relief  of  acci- 
dental injuries,  there  are  various  institutions ;  such  are  the  London,  Middlesex,  St.  George's, 
and  Westminster  hospitals ;  St.  Bartholomew's,  St.  Tliomas's,  and  Guy's,  are  also  celebrated 
as  schools  of  surgery  ;  the  hospitals  of  Bethlehem  and  St.  Luke's  are  appropriated  to  insane 
patients :  there  are  sixteen  medical  charities  for  particular  purposes,  as  the  Ophthalmic 
Institution,  the  Srnall-pox  Hospital,  the  Vaccine  Society,  &c. ;  fourteen  lying-in  hospitals 
and  charities;  schools  for  the  indigent  blind,  and  for  the  deaf  and  dumb;  the  Philanthropic 
and  Humane  Societies,  the  Refuge  for  the  Destitute,  tlie  Foundling  Hospital,  the  Magdalen 
Asylum,  the  Female  Penitentiary,  &c.  To  the  class  of  charitable  foundations  belong  also 
the  alms-houses  of  the  various  city  companies. 

The  most  distinguislied  schools  of  the  metropolis  are,  Christ's  Hospital,  the  Charter-house, 
Westminster,  St.  Paul's,  and  Merchant  Tailor's  schools.  For  the  acquisition  of  the  higher 
branches  of  knowledge,  an  important  provision  has  been  made  in  the  establishment  of  the 
London  University,  and  in  that  of  the  institution  called  King's  College,  London. 

Of  the  scientific  and  literary  associations  of  the  metropolis,  the  most  considerable  are  the 
Royal  Society,  the  Society  of  Ajitiquarios,  the  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  Arts  and 
Manufactures,  the  Royal  Institution  for  facilitating  the  introduction  of  useful  Inventions  and 
Improvements,  the  London,  and  the  Russcl  Institutions.  The  College  of  Physicians,  and  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  decide  on  the  admission  of  members  to  practise  in  each  of  those 
professions.  For  the  cultivation  of  sciences  connected  with  them,  four  eminent  societies 
exist,  and  lectures  are  established  at  various  theatres  of  anatomy  and  hospitals.  Of  institu- 
tions for  particular  branches  of  knowledge,  the  more  eminent  are  the  Linnean,  the  Geological, 
the  Horticultural,  the  Geographical,  and  the  Zoological  societies.  As  a  national  repository 
of  literature,  of  antiquities,  and  of  objects  belonging  to  natural  history,  the  British  Museum, 
elsewhere  described,  is  daily  rising  in  public  estimation. 

London  is  the  principal  literary  emporium  of  the  kingdom.     Almost  all  books  of  nnporl* 


Book  I.  .  ENGLAND.  377 

ance  are  there  printed  and  published ;  and  thence  distributed  over  the  kingdom ;  forming'  a 
considerable  branch  of  commerce.  The  annual  value  sold  is  estimated  at  from  1,000,000Z. 
to  2,000,000Z.  sterling.-  Being  also  the  centre  of  intelligence  relative  to  public  affairs,  the 
metropolis  gives  circulation  to  a  prodigious  number  of  newspapers  and  periodical  journals. 
Some  of  the  newspapers  circulate  upwards  of  8000  a  day ;  and  by  the  profit  derived  from 
such  extensive  sale,  and  from  advertisements,  they  are  enabled  to  maintain  complete  and 
costly  establishments  for  obtaining  early  political  intelligence,  and  for  reporting  trials  and 
parliamentary  proceedings.  The  number  of  single  papers,  published  annually  in  London, 
as  calculated  from  the  stamp  returns,  exceeds  16,000,000. 

Tlie  manufactures  of  the  metropolis  are  too  miscellaneous  to  be  particularised ;  indeed, 
London  may  be  called  a  commercial  rather  than  a  manufacturing  city.  The  most  consider- 
able is  the  Spitalfields  silk  manufacture,  which,  however,  has  for  years  remained  stationary, 
while  that  of  other  parts  of  the  kingdom  has  been  rapidly  extending.  In  household  furni- 
ture the  artisans  of  London  take  the  lead  both  in  the  design  or  fashion  of  the  articles,  and 
in  the  excellence  of  their  construction.  The  same  may  be  said  of  coaches,  carriages,  and 
harness,  of  watches,  of  gold  and  silver  plate,  and  of  jewellery.  Of  articles  of  consumption, 
the  peculiar  product  of  London  is  porter.  In  1823-4,  the  quantity  brewed  was  1,168,000 
barrels,  including  a  comparatively  small  quantity  of  ale ;  and  almost  the  whole  of  which 
was  produced  by  eleven  great  establishments.  The  distilleries  of  British  spirits  are  very 
extensive. 

The  foreign  trade  of  London  has,  since  the  peace,  continued  nearly  stationary.  The  vici- 
nity of  Liverpool  to  the  manufacturing  districts,  and  her  more  easy  and  frequent  intercourse 
with  Ireland,  give  her  considerable  advantages.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  vast  population 
of  London  and  of  the  basin  of  the  Thames,  her  proximity  to  the  Continent,  the  immense 
wealth  and  connexions  of  her  merchants,  will  most  probably  suffice  to  ensure  her  predomi- 
nance. The  charges  on  vessels  frequenting  the  Thames,  though  within  these  few  years 
very  heavy,  are  now  extremely  moderate. 

The  inland  trade  of  London  is  very  extensive,  as  appears  from  tlie  number  of  arrivals  by 
all  the  great  roads  of  the  metropolis,  and  by  the  Regent's  Ganal,  extending  from  the  Thames 
to  the  basin  at  Paddington,  a  sort  of  internal  port,  communicating  with  the  principal  canals 
of  the  kingdom.  Sixty-four  mail-coaches  and  a  great  number  of  steam-packets  maintain  a 
constant  communication  between  the  London  General  Post-Office  and  the  cities  and  towns 
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  regulated  speed  of  the  mails  is  eight  miles  an  hour, 
including  stoppages. 

London  is  the  great  money  market  of  the  empire.  The  Bank  of  England,  founded  in 
1694,  has  become  the  greatest  bank  of  circulation  and  deposit  in  Europe.  Its  usual  issue 
amounts  to  about  20,000,000^.  sterling ;  it  advances  about  10,000,OOOZ.  sterling  to  govern- 
ment, and  discounts  bills  to  the  value  of  about  3,000,000/.  Though  some  of  its  privileges 
are  curtailed  by  the  late  act,  this  is  compensated  by  the  regulation  which  makes  its  notes  a 
legal  tender.  The  Stock  Exchange  is  the  place  where  purchases  and  sales  are  effected  by 
brokers,  at  a  commission  of  one-eighth  per  cent,  on  the  amount  of  stock  purchased  or  sold. 
The  establishment  consists  of  a  certain  number  of  brokers,  about  thirteen  hundred,  elected 
annually  by  ballot,  and  bound  in  a  certain  sum  to  the  observance  of  certain  regulations, 
which  are  superintended  and  enforced  by  a  committee.  None  but  members  are  admitted  on 
tlie  stock  exchange ;  and  no  stock-broker  can,  by  the  regulations,  become  a  dealer,  and  sub- 
ject himself  to  the  operation  of  the  bankrupt  laws.  If  he  becomes  a  bankrupt,  he  is  desig- 
nated a  scrivener.  The  property  bought  and  sold  in  this  market,  between  the  hours  of  ten 
and  four,  is  sometimes  enormous.  The  Insurance  Companies  are  about  twenty  in  number, 
of  which  only  three  are  incorporated  by  charter.  Of  other  joint-stock  companies,  for  pur- 
poses immediately  connected  with  London,  tlie  principal  are  the  Water  and  Gas  Light  Com- 
panies. 

As  the  seat  of  legislation  and  jurisprudence,  London  is  necessarily  the  resort  of  the  prin- 
cipal persons  in  the  kingdom  during  the  session  of  parliament,  which  usually  continues  from 
Christmas  to  midsummer  ;  and  as  that  period  includes  three  of  the  four  law  terms,  the  afflux 
of  strangers  is  increased  by  those  who  are  interested  in  any  proceedings  before  the  courts. 

The  town  mansions  of  the  nobility  and  ffentry  are  not  so  remarkable  as  their  country  resi- 
dences for  architectural  beauty ;  but  some  of  tliem  are  celebrated  for  their  treasures  of  lite- 
rature or  art.  The  grounds  of  St.  James's  Park,  Hyde  Park,  and  Kensington  Gardens, 
emphatically  called  the  lungs  of  London,  and  the  fine  enclosure  of  the  Regent's  Park,  are 
destined  for  the  recreation  of  the  public. 

Middlesex  may  be  regarded  as  the  dairy  and  garden  of  London.  Its  soil  is  mostly  a  poor 
gravel ;  but,  by  the  application  of  manure,  it  is  fitted  for  kitchen  gardens  to  the  extent  of 
nearly  three  thousand  acres ;  the  same  extent  of  fruit  gardens,  and  about  half  that  extent 
of  nurseries,  whence  the  greater  part  of  England  is  supplied  with  choice  plants  and  exotics. 
But  the  largest  portion  of  Middlesex  is  in  grass,  partly  for  the  support  of  10,000  cows, 
which  supply  London  with  milk,  and  partly  for  furnishing  it  with  hay,  that  of  Middlesex 
being  said  to  be  made  in  a  superior  manner  to  any  other  in  the  kingdom.     Great  profits  have 

^ou  L  32  *  2  X 


378 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


Hampton  Court. 


been  derived  froin  that  species  of  clay  which  is  convertible  into  brick.  large  tracts  liave 
yielded  4000?.  an  acre ;  and  after  tliis  clayey  substance  has  been  pared  off,  the  soil  has  been 
easily  restored,  by  manure,  to  the  uses  of  agriculture. 

Hampton  Court  (Jig.  155.),  built  by  Cardinal  Wolsey,  and  enlarged  by  Sir  Christopher 

Wren,  forms  one  of  the  largest  of  the 
English  palaces.  Here  are  many  fine  pic- 
tures, among  whicli  are  seven  of  the  car- 
toons of  Raphael,  regarded  as  the  master- 
pieces of  that  renowned  painter.  Bnsliy 
Park,  the  seat  of  William  IV.  while  Duke 
of  Clarence,  is  surrounded  with  magnifi- 
cent woods.  Ciiiswick,  the  villa  of  the 
Duke  of  Devonshire,  and  Osterley  Park, 
both  in  tliis  vicinity,  contain  fine  paintings. 
Syon  House  is  tlie  seat  of  the  Duke  of 
Northumberland.  But  the  chief  ornaments 
of  Middlesex  are  the  villas  of  the  wealthy 
citizens  of  London.  At  Twickenham,  bar- 
barous hands  have  demolished  Pope's  villa.  Strawberry  Hill  is  a  light  fantastic  fabric,  built 
by  Horace  Walpole.  The  villas  which  cover  the  hills  of  Hampstead  and  Highgate  com- 
mand beautiful  prospects. 

Hertford,  Bedford,  Buclcingliam,  Oxford,  Northampton,  Leicester,  consist  generally  of  a 
vast  plain,  varied  by  gentle  undulations ;  the  air  is  healthy  and  pure ;  the  agriculturists  are 
careful  and  laborious.  The  horses  and  black  cattle  of  Leicestershire  are  famous  throughout 
the  kingdom.  Bedford  and  Berks  have  some  fabrics  of  shawls,  straw  hats,  and  bone  lace. 
Silk  and  woollen  hosiery  have  found  their  way  into  Leicester  and  Oxford  sliires,  and  Coven- 
try has  for  centuries  been  renowned  for  its  silk  manufacture. 

Oxford  justly  claims  the  first  rank  among  the  midland  cities.  Its  university,  the  most 
richly  endowed  in  Europe,  and  the  nursery  of  so  many  great  men ;  the  numerous  and  exten- 
sive edifices  connected  with  it,  arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  a  truly  noble  effect, 
render  it  one  of  the  most  interesting  places  in  England.  The  visiter,  as  he  passes  along 
either  of  the  two  main  streets  {fig.  156.),  beholds  at  every  step  some  antique  and  majestic 

structure ;  even  the  houses  of  pri- 
■,r.a  f. fit '/if        ^^^^    individuals,    presenting    the 

'  aspect  of  ornamented  cottages  rising 
one  above  the  other,  have  a  better 
effect  than  the  usual  mechanical 
lines  of  street.  This  beautiful  city 
is  supported  almost  entirely  by  the 
university,  which  is  of  great  anti- 
quity, and  the  principal  buildings 
which  now  ornament  it  were  built 
between  the  times  of  Henry  VI.  and 
Elizabeth.  Oxford,  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  I.,  was  a  place  of  consider- 
able political  importa;ice ;  parlia- 
ments were  summoned  to  meet 
there,  and  the  king  maintained  it 
long  as  his  last  strong-hold.  It  has 
nineteen  colleges  and  four  halls,  in  which  reside  above  three  thousand  persons,  of  whom 
a;bout  a  third  are  maintained  out  of  the  funds  of  the  colleges;  and  many,  under  the  ciiarac- 
ter  of  masters,  fellows,  and  other  functionaries,  enjoy  liberal  incomes. 

The  Bodleian  Library  is  the  most  extensive  m  England,  afler  that  of  the  British  Museum. 
In  the  spacious  quadrangle  which  contains  this  library  are  also  the  public  schools;  a  large 
gallery  of  portraits  having  reference  to  the  university ;  the  Arundel  marbles,  and  the  Pom- 
fret  statues,  whicli,  though  much  mutilated,  present  some  fine  specimens  of  ancient  sculp- 
ture. The  RadclifFe  Library  is  the  finest  library  room  in  Oxford ;  but  it  labours  under  a 
deficiency  of  books.  Christ-church  is  an  ample  and  venerable  edifice,  adorned  with  some 
fine  old  painted  glass.  In  an  adjoining  apartment  is  the  collection  of  pictures  bequeathed 
by  General  Guise,  which  contains  some  specimens  of  unquestioned  excellence.  New  Col- 
lege chapel  attracts  admiration  by  its  fine  series  of  paintings  on  glass,  executed  by  Jervis, 
after  the  designs  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.  All-Souls  College,  Magdalen  College,  and 
Queen's  College,  display  architectural  beauties  of  no  common  order. 

Woodstock  has  a  gay  aspect ;  to  the  interesting  features  in  English  history  and  romance 
it  adds  the  solid  benefit  of  a  large  manufacture  of  leather  gloves.  Buckingham  and  Da- 
ventry  are  small  antique  towns.  Newport  Pagnell,  in  Bucks,  forms  a  sort  of  centre  of  the 
lace  trade,     Bedford  carries  on  some  manufactures  of  this  description ;  and  being  situated  in 


High  Street,  Oxford. 


Book  I.  ENGLAND.  379 

a  rich  valley,  watered  by  the  Ouse,  has  a  considenible  stir  in  transmitting  its  produce.  The 
industry  of  Dunstable  is  attested  by  the  straw  hats  which  bear  its  name.  Hertford  is  a 
small  provincial  capital,  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  college  which  the  East  India  Company 
have  tbunded,  for  the  education  of  the  civil  servants  whom  they  send  abroad:  St.  Alban's 
is  venerable  for  its  antiquity,  and  its  cathedral.  Northampton,  a  place  of  considerable  name 
in  English  history,  a  well-built  town  on  the  Nen,  with  a  market-place  which  has  been 
reckoned  the  finest  in  the  kingdom,  has  a  manufactory  of  boots  and  shoes  for  exportation, 
and  of  lace.  It  is  a  great  centre  of  the  inland  travelling  between  London  and  the  north; 
and  the  trade  in  horses  has  always  been  carried  on  in  great  fairs  at  this  place.  Leicester 
is  a  still  more  important  provincial  capital.  It  is  a  place  of  note  in  English  history,  and 
attests  its  ancient  importance  by  some  fine  old  cliurches ;  but  it  had  fallen  into  considerable 
decay,  till  it  was  revived  by  the  prosperity  of  the  surrounding  country,  chiefly  in  conse- 
quence of  the  introduction  of  new  breeds  of  stock  into  fine  pastures.  Leicester  has  also  a 
large  fabric  of  woollen  stockings,  in  which  it  is  only  excelled  by  Nottingham,  and  which, 
under  favourable  circumstances,  employs  seven  or  eight  thousand  persons.  Oakliam,  the 
capital  of  Rutlandshire,  is  a  very  small  town.' 

The  seats  of  this  extensive  district,  thougli  not  so  thickly  planted  as  in  the  southern,  are 
J57  yet  numerous.     Foremost  stands  Blen- 

heim (fig.  157.)  that  proud  monument 
of  a  nation's  gratitude  to  its  long  un- 
rivalled hero.  Its  exterior  displays  that 
linuteness  of  detail  and  general  hea- 
\  iness,  which  characterise  the  designs 
of  Vanbrugh :  some  of  the  apartments, 
however,  are  of  almost  unequalled 
grandeur;  particularly  the  great  hall, 
fifty-three  feet  by  forty-four,  and  sixty 
high ;  and  the  library,  one  hundred  and 
eighty  feet  by  forty-three.  The  woods, 
also,  the  lake,  and  the  general  disposition  of  the  grounds,  are  greatly  admired.  The  gallery  of 
pictures  is  one  of  the  very  finest  in  the  kingdom,  containmg  some  of  the  best  works  of 
Rubens,  Vandyke,  and  Titian.  Stowe,  the  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  is  celebrated 
as  the  most  elaborate  and  splendid  example  of  the  species  of  gardening  called  classical,  in 
which  an  attempt  is  made  to  present  nature  herself  in  an  ornamented  form.  Her  own  pro- 
per ornaments,  of  wood,  water,  hill  and  plain,  are  heightened  by  the  introduction  of  tem- 
ples, ruins,  statues,  inscriptions,  and  other  objects  calculated  to  excite  lofl;y  and  poetical 
ideas.  Modern  taste  rejects  many  of  these  accessories,  as  breaking  in  upon  the  idea  of 
simple  nature,  to  which  it  seeks  to  make  the  nearest  possible  approach ;  yet,  a  space  of  four 
hundred  acres,  filled  with  groves,  temples,  and  meandering  streams,  must  present  many 
beautiful  sites.  "  The  rich  landscapes,"  says  Walpole,  "  occasioned  by  the  multiplicity  of 
temples  and  obelisks,  and  various  pictures  that  present  themselves  as  we  shift  our  situation ; 
occasion  surprise  and  pleasure,  sometimes  recalling  Albano's  landscapes  to  our  mind,  and 
oftener  to  our  fancy  the  idolatrous  and  luxurious  vales  of  Daphne  and  Tempo."  The  house 
also  is  handsome  and  richly  ornamented,  and  contains  some  fine  paintings.  Woburn  Abbey, 
wliere  the  house  of  Russel,  by  princely  shows  and  festivals,  have  thrown  a  new  lustre  on 
Britisli  agriculture,  is  a  magnificent  edifice.  The  stables,  experimental  farm,  and  other 
appendages  of  the  most  useful  of  arts,  e.xcite  the  admiration  of  every  farmer  and  even  ama- 
teur ;  nor  is  this  residence  deficient  in  the  lighter  embellishments  of  painting  and  statuary, 
Althorp,  near  Northampton,  is  adorned  with  many  rare  and  valuable  works  of  art ;  but  it  is 
in  London  chiefly  that  Earl  Spencer  keeps  his  library,  the  fii'st  in  the  kingdom.  Opposite 
to  Stamford  is  Burleigh,  a  noble  old  residence  of  Cecil,  Elizabeth's  minister.  It  contains  a 
fine  library  of  books  and  manuscripts ;  and  tlie  Exeter  family  have  enriched  it  with  a  col- 
lection of  paintings,  generally  supposed  to  be  the  most  extensive  in  England.  Near  Oak- 
ham, is  another  Burleigh  on  the  hill,  once  the  seat  of  the  gay  revels  of  Buckingham.  It 
has  a  noble  terrace  in  fi-ont,  and  contains  a  good  library,  with  some  curious  paintings.  On 
the  border  of  Leicestershire  and  Lincolnshire,  stands  the  Duke  of  R,utland's  proud  castel- 
lated edifice  of  Belvoir.  From  a  lofty  height  it  overlooks  a  vast  extent  of  country,  includ- 
uig  the  vale  of  the  same  name,  one  of  the  ricliest  and  most  beautiful  in  England.  The  col- 
lection of  paintings  is  of  great  value. 

Warwick  is  a  noble  county.  Its  woodlands,  the  remains  of  the  wide  ancient  forest  of 
Arden,  are  still  extensive,  and  a  great  part  lies  in  fine  natural  grass.  Pasturage  predomi- 
nates greatly  over  agriculture,  occupying  nearly  two-thirds. 

Warwick,  an  ancient  and  well-built  town,  still  preserves  a  portion  of  its  prosperity  by  the 
manufacture  of  woollens.  Coventry  is  a  large  old  town,  built  very  irregularly,  and  many  of 
the  houses  exhibiting  the  uncouth  architecture  of  a  distant  period.  Its  ecclesiastical  monu- 
ments, however,  are  of  importance.  St.  Michael's  is  a  very  light  and  elegant  structure, 
with  a  spire  rising  to  three  hundred  feet.     The  fabric  of  silk,  introduced  more  than  a  cen- 


380 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


158 


tury  ago  by  the  IVench  refugees,  has  made  a  most  rapid  progress,  so  tliat  in  1819  it  employed 
2819  looms.  In  the  making  of  watches,  also,  this  city  now  rivals  London.  Leamington, 
though  its  spa  is  mentioned  by  Camden,  never  became  a  scene  of  crowded  resort,  till  the 
beginning  of  this  century;  yet  so  great  since  that  period  lias  been  its  attraction,  that  it  has 
risen  from  a  mere  village  to  bo  a  flourit<hing  place.  There  are  both  hot  and  cold  baths ;  and 
the  waters  are  used  either  for  drinking  or  bathing.  Leamington  now  possesses,  on  a  hand- 
some scale,  baths,  inns,  a  theatre,  an  assembly-room, — all  the  accommodation  for  the  sick 
and  the  gay.  Stratford,  a  considerable  town  on  the  Avon,  to  which  the  muse  has  given  a 
deathless  name,  is  the  birth-place  of  Shakspeare ;  the  poetical  pilgrim  here  beholds  the 
genuine  tomb  of  the  poet,  and  the  site  of  the  house  chosen  by  him  for  his  tinal  residence ; 
though  the  house  itself  a  barbarous  hand  has  demolished.  Birmingham  is  in  Warwickshire, 
but  as  it  is  the  capital  of  the  iron  country,  which  is  almost  wholly  in  Staffordshire,  we  shall 
class  it  with  the  great  towns  devoted  to  tiie  working  of  that  material. 

There  are  two  castellated  seats  in  this  county,  Kenilworth  and  Warwick,  both  of  almost 
matchless  grandeur ;  but  the  former  presents  only  the  picturesque  remains  of  its  pristine 

state  {Jig.  158.).  Founded  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  I.,  it  was  extended 
and  adorned  by  John  of  Gaunt ;  and 
remained  with  tiie  princes  of  the 
house  of  Lancaster  till  wrested  from 
them  by  the  triumpli  of  the  house  of 
York.  It  continued  thenceforth  a 
royal  appanage  ;  and  was  bestowed 
by  Elizabeth  on  her  handsome  fa- 
vourite, Leicester,  whose  residence 
Keniiworih  Casiie.  here,  and  the  splendid  fetes  and  ro- 

mantic incidents  connected  with  it,  have  been  so  happily  worked  up  by  the  greatest  romance 
writer  of  the  age.  At  the  close  of  the  civil  wars,  it  was  given  up  wholly  by  Cromwell  to 
his  soldiers  for  plunder,  and  was  reduced  to  the  totally  fallen  state  in  wliich  it  now  appears. 
The  walls  were  indeed  entire,  but  completely  naked  and  roofless ;  and  the  visiter  who  stands 
at  the  interior  foot  of  the  tower  can  trace  only  by  chimneys,  and  other  slight  marks,  the 
successive  apartments  rising  above  each  other  till  tliey  are  terminated  by  the  dome  of  the 
sky.  Kenilworth  exhibits  the  feudal  age  in  its  total  downfall ;  but  the  traveller  has  only  to 
proceed  a  few  miles  in  order  to  see  it  entire  and  in  full  glory.  This  is  the  proud  mansion 
once  mhabited  by  the  king-making  Earl  of  Warwick  {Jig.  159.).     It  was  built  by  the  Earl 

of  Warwick,    who,    in   the   four- 
teenth century,  distinguislied  him- 
self at  the  battles  of  Cressy  and 
Poitiers.     Edward  IV.    seized   an 
opportunity  of  annexing  it  to  the 
crown.  It  was  afterwards  bestowed 
by  King  James  on   Lord   Brooke, 
who  spent  a  large  sum  in  restoring 
^t)    it  from  a  state  of  decay ;  and  the 
•^\  "^     late  earl  repaired  it  so  judiciously, 
w       and   made   his  additions   in   such 
harmony  with   the   original   pile, 
that  he  may  be  considered  almost 
the  creator  of  the   edifice   in  its 
Warwick  Castle.  present  state.     The  entrance,  cut 

through  a  rock,  and  opening  at  once  on  three  of  the  loftiest  towers,  has  an  effect  truly 
striking.  The  interior  is  equally  grand  and  interesting.  First  is  a  passage  or  corridor  up- 
wards of  300  feet  in  extent,  seen  from  end  to  end,  and  along  which  tlie  state  apartments  are 
arranged.  The  grand  hall,  62  feet  long,  is  wainscoted  with  oak,  hung  with  armour,  and 
maintained  in  full  feudal  keeping. 

Staf^brdsliire  has  a  somewhat  bleak  and  uninviting  aspect ;  the  farms  are  smaller,  and 
improvements  less  advanced  than  in  the  other  midland  counties,  but  its  mineral  stores  are 
immense.  The  region  of  coal  is  supposed  to  be  about  50,000  acres  in  extent,  and  cannot  be 
exhausted  for  ages.  Besides  its  economical  uses,  tliis  mineral  is  the  main  basis  of  the  works 
and  manufaptures  of  the  county,  and  of  all  those  in  tlie  north-west  of  England,  which,  but 
for  this  ample  supply  of  fuel,  could  never  have  attained  their  present  astonishing  height. 
Iron,  the  most  useful  of  metals,  exists  in  equal  abundance ;  and  since  the  discovery  that  it 
could  be  worlced  with  coke,  iron  works  have  been  established  on  an  immense  scale.  The 
wliole  district  from  Wolver!)ampton  to  Birmingham  may  be  called  a  Cyclopean  land,  where 
furnaces  without  number  are  continually  pouring  out  fire  and  smoke.  The  clays  afford  the 
material  of  tlie  pottery,  which  forms  the  other  groat  Staftbrdsliire  manufacture.  It  is  long 
eince  some  coarse  vessels  were  made  at  Burslem ;  but  jNIr.  Wedgwood  raised  tliis  fabric  to 


Boor  I.  ENGLAND.  381 

the  highest  perfection,  and  rendered  it  an  object  of  national  importance.  Not  content  with 
tlie  native  materials,  he  imported  the  finest  white  clays  and  best  flints  from  the  southern 
counties ;  and  formed  that  variety  of  articles  called  Wedgv/ood's  ware,  applicable  to  all 
purposes  of  use  and  ornament,  and  superior  in  some  respects  to  the  best  porcelain.  Hence 
has  sprung  up  a  range  of  villages  forming  a  district  called  the  Potteries,  of  which  Burslem 
is  the  centre,  and  which  contain  about  6(),000  inhabitants. 

The  principal  cluster  of  large  towns  in  Stalfordsliire  consists  of  those  in  the  southern 
quarter  which  are  employed  in  making  iron,  and  manufacturing  it  into  various  forms.  Of 
this  district  Birmingham  is  tlie  capital ;  and  at  the  remotest  periods  iron  is  mentioned  as  its 
staple,  but  the  grand  impulse  given  was  early  in  the  last  century,  when  John  Taylor,  the 
founder  of  the  wealthy  family  of  that  name,  Matthew  Boulton,  Esq.,  and  other  individuals, 
by  the  spirit  of  their  undertakings,  and  by  their  liberal  patronage  of  skill  and  ingenuity  in 
every  line,  contributed  greatly  to  the  establishment  of  the  manufacturing  fame  of  the  town. 
Mr.  Boulton,  having  secured  the  celebrated  Mr.  Watt,  established,  in  conjunction  with  him, 
at  Soho,  near  Birmingham,  their  immense  manufactory,  in  which  talent,  science,  capital,  ex- 
perience, united  every  thing  which  could  raise  liardware  articles  to  perfection.  Pre-eminent 
above  all  is  the  steam-engine,  which  Mr.  Watt,  its  great  improver,  not  only  applied  to  the 
use  of  his  works  here,  but  constructed  for  the  rest  of  England.  The  co])per  coinage  exe- 
cuted at  Soho  by  steam-power  for  the  use  of  government  has  been  greatly- admired.  Under 
tlie  impulse  of  such  an  example,  tlie  citizens  of  Birmingham  soon  produced  tlieir  standard 
articles  of  a  cheapness  and  excellence  which  defied  all  competition.  The  articles  manu- 
flictured  in  Birmingham  consist,  in  a  great  measure,  of  such  as,  individually,  appear  un- 
wortliy  of  being  named,  yet  astonish  and  dazzle  by  their  magnitude,  when  half  the  world  is 
to  be  supplied  with  them;  such  as  pins,  buttons,  nails,  paper  trays,  filigree,  and  toys.  There 
are  not  wanting,  however,  fabrics  of  greater  magnitude,  taken  even  singly,  such  as  that  of 
fire-arms,  &c.  During  the  last  war,  the  gunsmiths  of  Birmingham  met  the  demand  with 
such  energy,  that,  on  one  occasion,  they  delivered  to  government  14,000  muskets  in  a  week. 
Of  ponderous  machinery,  none,  perhaps,  is  more  interesting  tlian  that  of  the  metal  rolling- 
mills.  Birmingham  is  commodiously  built,  with  suitable  churches  and  other  edifices,  but 
without  any  thing  prominent  in  iuxhitecture,  or  any  antique  monuments.  The  town  can 
boast  of  enlightened  citizens,  under  whose  auspices  letters  and  the  arts  have  been  cultivated 
with  ardour.  The  institutions  for  tlie  education  of  the  poor  are  not,  perhaps,  surpassed  by 
any  in  the  kingdom  for  extent  and  efficacy. 

The  other  great  manufacturing  towns,  almost  all  in  Staffordshire,  are  Wolverhampton,  a 
very  populous  place,  of  considerable  antiquity,  with  a  fine  old  church ;  but  indebted  for  its 
present  greatness  to  the  making  of  locks  and  keys  in  a  manner  superior  to  any  town  in  the 
world.  Wednesbitry  has  a  fine  old  Gothic  church ;  but  its  main  boast  at  present  is,  the 
making  of  all  the  hard  materials  of  coach  harness  in  an  unrivalled  manner.  Walsall  flour- 
ishes by  the  making  of  every  thing  connected  with  saddlery ;  Dudley  by  its  nails :  but  it 
has  also  a  castle  of  some  note  in  history,  commanding  a  view  of  seven  counties. 

The  nominal  capital,  Stafford,  is  yet  to  be  noticed  ;  an  ancient  but  small  town,  of  neat 
appearance,  ornamented  with  the  usual  county  buildings.  The  Grand  Trunk  Canal,  how- 
ever, passing  by  it,  has  given  an  impulse  to  its  industry ;  and  it  carries  on  a  considerable 
manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes.  Newcastle-under-Line,  and  Tamworth,  are  both  consider- 
able towns  on  one  of  the  great  London  roads. 

Lichfield  is  a  more  elegant  and  interesting  place.  Its  most  prominent  object  is  the  cathe- 
dral, of  high  antiquity,  the  finest  part  of  which  was  built  in  1140;  some  particular  portions 
are  equal  to  any  thing  of  the  kind  in  Britain :  such  are  the  portico,  richly  adorned  with 
sculpture;  the  choir;  and  St.  Mary's  chapel.  The  society  fixed  there  by  this  richly  endowed 
establishment,  together  with  the  neatness  of  tlie  town,  and  its  pleasant  situation,  have 
induced  many  of  the  gentry  in  this  quarter  to  make  it  their  residence.  These  circumstances 
have  contributed  to  give  to  Lichfield  that  intellectual  character  which  is  so  conspicuous, 
and  has  made  it  almost  the  literary  metropolis  of  south-western  England.  The  birth  and 
early  education  of  Johnson  and  Garrick  are  alone  sufficient  to  immortalise  it.  Lichfield 
enjoys  Iiigh  privileges  as  a  city,  having  a  district  of  some  e.xtent  round  it  considered  a  county 
of  itself 

Derbyshire,  in  its  natural  features,  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  of  any  county  of  Eng- 
land. Except  in  the  lower  and  southern  districts  on  the  Tient,  the  whole  county  is  traversed 
by  ranges  of  rugged  and  rocky  hills,  penetrated  by  vast  excavations,  and  separated  by 
narrow  valleys.  Lead  is  abundant,  chiefly  in  tlie  form  of  galena.  Iron  is  also  worked  very 
plentifully.  This  county  is  also  celebrated  for  the  variety  and  beauty  of  its  calcareous  sub- 
stances, particularly  the  kind  called  Blue  John  (fluor  spar),  which,  by  the  skilful  application 
of  a  gentle  heat,  is  made  to  exhibit  the  most  brilliant  colours.  Lastly,  there  are  numerous 
hot  springs  variously  impregnated ;  and  the  county  contains  two  of  the  most  remarkable 
watering-places  in  the  kingdom,  Matlock  and  Buxton. 

In  proceeding  to  Castleton,  the  traveller  passes  through  the  Winyats,  or  gates  of  the 


382 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


Pajrt  hi. 


winds,  a  narrow  road  of  about  a  mile  in  length,  between  precipices  a  thousand  feet  high, 
_  dark,  rugged,  and  perpendicular.     At  the 


d: 


'^-\ 


Cavern,  Dtiby?lii 


end  of  tliis  road  opens  on  one  side  Mam 
Tor,  or  the  Shivering  Mountain,  1300  feet 
high  ;  on  tlie  other  the  High  Peak  crowned 
with  the  ruins  of  a  Saxon  fortress ;  and 
at  its  foot,  the  wonder  of  wonders,  "  tlie 
Peak  Cavern."  {jig.  16  ».)  This  is  a  huge 
gulf,  42  feet  high  and  120  long,  at  the  foot 
of  perpendicular  cliffs.  The  visiter  is 
thence  guided  through  a  succession  of 
dark  cavernous  apartments,  and  is  ferried 
along  a  subterraneous  river ;  above  which 
the  rocks  rise  so  close,  that  he  must  lie 
flat  on  his  face.  At  the  end  of  somewhat 
above  2000  feet  the  cavern  terminates,  or, 
at  least,  becomes  no  longer  passable. 
Elden  Hole  is  a  fissure  near  Bu.xton,  which 
descends  perpendicularly  to  an  unknown  depth.  A  line  of  2652  feet  has  been  let  down 
without  finding  a  bottom.  Poole's  Hole,  near  Buxton,  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  petri- 
factions witli  which  it  is  filled. 

On  descending  into  the  Low  Peak,  a  milder  grandeur  presents  itself  The  most  rugged  chains 
of  Derbyshire  are  interspersed  with  beautiful  valleys ;  but  none  equals  that  of  Matlock,  where 

the  banks  of  the  Derwent  are  bordered 
by  extensive  woods,  interspersed  with 
the  boldest  and  most  varied  forms  of 
rock.  Dovedale  {fig.  161.)  is  a  wilder 
scene,  where  the  river  Dove  is  hem- 
med in  by  perpendicular  rocks,  of  forms 
so  bold,  and  covered  with  such  variety 
of  trees  and  shrubs,  that  this  has  some- 
times been  deemed  the  most  picturesque 
spot  in  England. 

Derby,  the  capital  of  this  county,  on 
the  Derwent,  is  handsome  and  well 
built,  and  has  extensive  manufactures. 
Silk,  introduced  at  the  commencement 
of  the  last  century,  has  continued  to 
'^"■^""'"  flourish.     Porcelain   is   also    manufac- 

tured here  ;  and  what  is  called  its  white  ware  is  considered  almost  unrivalled.  A  consider- 
able number  of  workmen  are  employed  in  cutting  and  polishing  marble ;  and  the  Derbyshire 
spar  is  fashioned  into  a  variety  of  beautiful  forms. 

The  watering-places  in  Derbyshire  have  the  next  claim  to  notice.  Matlock  contains 
mineral  springs,  efficacious  in  consumptive  and  rheumatic  complaints.  Buxton,  in  the  High 
Peak,  surrounded  by  naked  mountams,  attracts  a  much  greater  multitude ;  and  its  waters 
are  considered  very  powerful  in  rheumatism,  gout,  and  other  diseases.  The  Duke  of  Devon- 
shire has  here  constructed  a  superb  crescent,  occupied  by  inns,  shops,  ball-rooms,  and  every 
thing  that  can  contribute  to  the  accommodation  and  gaiety  of  the  visitants. 

Of  seats,  Chatsworth  has  sometimes  been  considered  the  finest  in  England.  It  was  built 
by  William  first  duke  of  Devonshire,  in  1702 ;  and  is  191  feet  square,  of  the  Ionic  order, 
richly  ornamented  both  within  and  without.  Keddlestone  House  has  a  fine  Doric  front,  360 
feet  long,  considered  one  of  the  finest  architectural  features  in  England.  Hardwicke  Hall 
was  long  the  residence  of  the  unfortunate  Mary  ;  the  furniture  and  the  portraits  remain,  in 
many  respects,  in  the  same  state  as  during  her  residence. 

Nottingham  is  watered  by  the  broad  stream  of  the  Trent,  its  tributaries,  and  numerous 
canals.  The  Vale  of  Belvoir,  to  the  south-east,  ranks  with  the  richest  tracts  in  the  island. 
The  north-western  part  contains  the  remnant  of  the  great  forest  of  Sherwood,  famed  for  the 
revelries  of  the  merry  outlaw  Robin  Hood.  Being  covered,  also,  in  a  great  measure,  with 
the  ornamented  grounds  of  noblemen  of  high  rank,  it  is  called  the  "dukeries."  The  manu- 
factures of  hosiery  in  this  countv,  Leicester  and  Derby,  employ  33,000  frames  and  73,000 
operatives,  producing  in  cotton  880,000?.,  worsted  870,000Z„  silk  241,000/.  The  lace  trade 
employs  150,000  embroiderers  in  this  county. 

Nottingham  is  a  large  town,  boldly  and  picturesquely  situated  upon  the  Trent.  Its  streets 
are  arranged  along  the  face  of  a  hill  so  steep,  that  the  ground  floors  of  the  street  behind,  in 
some  instances,  rise  higher  than  the  roofs  of  those  in  front.  The  rocky  materials  of  this  hill 
are  so  soft  and  yielding,  that  they  are  cut  to  a  great  extent  into  cellars  and  warehouses. 
The  makijig  of  stockings  has  always  been  the  staple  of  Nottingham.     They  are  w'orked  on 


Book  I.  ENGLAND.  383 

frames,  which,  in  the  middle  of  last  century,  scarcely  exceeded  1200,  and  at  present  amount 
to  10,000.  The  lace  trade  recently  added  is  of  very  great  importance.  There  are  stated  to 
be  1240  machines  in  the  town,  and  1070  in  the  neighbourhood ;  and  tlie  lace  sold  in  its  mar- 
ket is  valued  at  130,000Z.  Nottingham  has  also  a  great  inland  trade  by  the  Trent  and  canals 
connected  with  it. 

Newark  is  noted  for  its  castle,  and  for  a  parish  church,  said  to  be  the  finest  in  the  king- 
dom. 

Nottinghamshire  may  boast  some  splendid  seats.  Worksop  Manor,  built  by  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  contains  fine  portraits  of  the  Howard  family.  Clumber  Park  is  fitted  up  in  a  mag- 
nificent style  by  the  Duke  of  Newcastle,  with  a  very  valuable  collection  of  pictures.  Wel- 
beck  Abbey,  a  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Portland,  is  noted  for  its  fine  stables.  Newstead  Abbey 
had  been  stripped  of  its  fine  furniture  and  paintings  before  it  came  to  the  late  Lord  Byron. 

StnBSECT  4. —  The  Northern  Counties, 

The  northern  counties  of  England  may  be  described,  generally,  as  reaching  fi-om  the 
Humber  and  the  Mersey  to  the  Scottish  border.  They  include  the  wide  extent  of  Yorkshire, 
divided  into  three  ridings,  and  of  Lancashire,  Durham,  Northumberland,  Cumberland,  and 
Westmoreland.  The  eastern  portion  is  interspersed  with  large  bleak  tracts  of  mountain, 
moss,  and  moor.  Its  ports  carry  on  a  thriving  trade  in  coarse,  bulky,  and  useful  commodities. 
The  south-western,  comprising  Lancashire  and  the  west  riding  of  Yorkshire,  by  the  vast  pro- 
duce of  its  manufactories,  leaves  far  behind  it  every  other  district  in  the  world.  The  north- 
western, or  the  country  of  the  liakes,  has  a  higher  degree  of  picturesque  beauty  than  any 
other  part  of  England. 

The  counties  of  Northumberland  and  Durham  are  hilly  and  elevated ;  and  their  chief 
wealth  is  subterraneous.  A  species  of  coarse  coal,  mixed  with  lead,  everywhere  abounds ; 
and  the  lead  is  exported  to  the  extent  of  from  five  to  ten  thousand  tons.  But  within  this 
mineral  region  there  is  enclosed  a  smaller  one,  reaching  fi-om  the  mouth  of  the  Coquet  to 
the  Tees,  a  length  of  about  fifty  miles,  and  having  its  greatest  breadth  of  about  twenty  miles 
upon  tlie  Tyne.  Within  this  tract  are  found  uninterrupted  beds  of  that  valuable  coal  with 
which  London  is  wholly  supplied,  and  of  which  great  quantities  are  either  sent  to  other  parts 
of  the  kingdom,  or  exported. 

Newcastle  was  famed  at  an  early  period  in  the  military  annals  of  England.  It  formed  a 
leading  point  in  the  wall  of  Hadrian  and  in  that  of  Severus.  Robert,  son  of  the  Conqueror, 
built  here  a  castle  of  immense  strength,  more  than  two  miles  in  circuit,  which  served  long 
as  the  main  bulwark  against  Scottish  invasion.  Scarcely  a  trace  of  it  now  remains ;  and 
the  occupations  of  Newcastle  are  entirely  changed.  Both  banks  of  the  river,  down  to  Tyne- 
mouth,  form  an  immense  wharf,  to  which,  by  railways  and  steam  wagons,  coals  are  conveyed 
from  the  contiguous  pits.  In  1830,  the  quantity  exported  was  867,513  chaldrons,  about 
2,300,000  tons.  Newcastle  carries  on  very  extensive  manufactories,  particularly  that  of 
glass.  There  are  tliirty-one  works  on  the  Tyne,  which  in  some  years  have  produced  glass  to 
the  value  of  500,000Z.  In  shipping  it  is  second  only  to  London,  having  belonging  to  it,  in  1832, 
1077  vessels,  of  the  burthen  of  220,784  tons.  Foundery,  pottery,  weaving,  are  not  on  a 
very  great  scale.  Newcastle  is  now,  on  the  whole,  a  well-built  town,  though  some  of  the 
streets  are  inconveniently  steep :  it  is  highly  ornamented  by  the  spire  of  St.  Nicholas,  con- 
sidered by  the  best  judges  as  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  the  Gothic.  It  possesses  a  lite- 
rary society,  which  has  published  valuable  transactions ;  and  an  antiquarian  society,  destined 
particularly  to  receive  the  Roman  coins,  &c.  which  are  frequently  dug  up  on  this  line.  The 
large  town  of  Gateshead,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  though  placed  in  Durham,  is  really 
part  of  Newcastle,  and  raises  its  population  to  57,000. 

A  continued  range  of  great  commercial  towns  cluster  tliick  around  Newcastle.  Near  the 
mouth  of  the  Tyne  are  North  Shields  and  South  Shields,  on  opposite  sides  of  the  river ;  the 
latter  being  in  the  county  of  Durham.  They  cany  on  with  activity  the  coal  trade,  and  the 
others  proper  to  Newcastle ;  particularly  ship-building  and  the  making  of  ropes  and  sails. 
Tynemouth,  at  the  immediate  opening  of  the  river  into  the  ocean,  displays,  on  a  bold  prom- 
ontory, a  castle,  a  light-house,  and  a  fine  old  abbey ;  they  form  a  striking  and  romantic  scene, 
which  contrasts  with  those  immediately  above.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Wear,  are  Sunderland 
and  Wearmouth, — the  one  a  very  great,  and  tlie  other  a  considerable  port.  Their  prosperity 
is  supported  by  the  same  great  trade  of  coals,  of  which  in  1832  they  sent  600,000  tons  to 
the  port  of  London,  two-thirds  of  that  wliich  comes  down  the  Tyne.  They  carry  on  also 
the  same  manufactures,  particularly  ship-building,  in  which  Sunderland  is  supposed  to  exert 
a  greater  activity  than  any  other  place  in  the  kingdom.  The  bridge  there  has  long  been 
celebrated :  it  consists  of  one  arch  of  iron  framework  thrown  across  the  river,  200  feet  span, 
and  100  feet  high,  allowing  very  large  vessels  to  pass  under  without  lowering  their  sails. 
"  Nothing,"  says  M.  Dupin,  "  can  be  more  striking  than  this  view  of  the  two  cities,  and  the 
bridge  that  unites  them  ;  that  majestic  arch  drawn  against  the  sky,  which  allows  large  vessels 
to  pass  under  its  vault  with  their  sails  flying."  He  al1;erwards  adds,  in  regard  to  tliese  ports 
generally :  "  It  is  an  admirable  thing,  withm  an  extent  of  coast  which  a  man  may  walk  over 


3^  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY,  Part  IIL 

on  foot  in  three  or  four  hours,  to  see  two  great  rivers  receive  16,000  vessels,  and  send 
them  away  loaded  with  the  produce  of  their  banks.  On  the  same  narrow  space  are  six 
flourishinij  towns,  containing  a  population  of  85,927  persons,  all  devoted  to  commerce  and 

industry."  . 

Durham  is  handsomely  built,  though  on  very  uneven  ground  ;  its  grand  ornament  is  the 
catliedral,  reared  in  the  eleventh  century,  which  is  perhai^s  unrivalled  as  to  its  situation, 
ranging  along  the  summit  of  a  precipitous  rock  eighty  feet  high  above  the  Wear,  which 
winds  along  its  base.  The  see  of  Durham  is  the  richest  in  England ;  and  the  cathedral, 
besides  a  dean,  twelve  prebendaries,  and  two  archdeacons,  has  attached  to  it  about  sixty 
spiritual  servants  of  various  ranks. 

The  number  of  smaller  towns  in  those  counties  is  still  considerable.  In  Durham,  Stock- 
ton near  tiie  mouth  of  the  Tees  carries  on  the  trade  of  tliat  river;  in  1832  it  carried  17:3,000 
tons  of  coal  to  London,  and  has  also  the  Baltic  trade,  and  the  manufacture  of  sailcloth  and 
other  naval  materials.  Hexham,  on  the  Upper  Tyne,  is  the  capital  of  interior  Northumber- 
land, and  of  the  grand  ancient  scene  of  border  debate.  Morpeth  has  a  weekly  market  for 
the  cattle  brought  up  from  Scotland. 

The  seats  are  chiefly  great  baronial 
castles,  at  the  head  of  which  stands  Aln- 
wick (jig.  162.).  This  proud  keep  of  the 
Percies  covers  five  acres,  ami  is  defend- 
ed by  sixteen  towers.  An  expense  of 
200,(X)0Z.  has  been  incured  in  converting 
the  interior  from  a  feudal  castle  into  the 
most  splendid  of  modern  mansions.  Wark- 
worth  Castle,  another  seat  of  the  Percies, 
retains  its  antique  character.     Lumley, 

the  feudal  castle  of  the  Earls  of  Scar- 

Aiiiwick  Casile.    ""  ""  borougii,   presents  entire  its  august  and 

formidable  front.  Raby  Castle,  Howick,  Lambton  Hall,  and  Bishop  Auckland,  are  fine  seats. 
Yorkshire  is  nexi;  in  order :  its  eastern  division  resembles  the  two  counties  just  described  ; 
while  the  western  forms  part  of  the  great  central  seat  of  English  manufacture.  The  York- 
shireman  has  a  character  of  his  own,  marked  by  shrewdness,  simplicity,  good  humour,  and  a 
species  of  drollery ;  so  that  the  London  comic  stage  is  considered  incomplete  without  one  of 
his  representatives.  The  North  Riding  consists,  to  a  great  extent,  of  moorlands;  the  hills 
of  which  rise  often  to  a  considerable  height.  These  dreary  tracts  spread  over  the  whole 
Riding,  so  that  culture  can  exist  only  in  the  valleys.  The  East  Riding,  which  extends  to  the 
llumber,  is  traversed  also  by  a  range  of  high  wolds,  which,  though  rugged,  have  no-t  been 
able  to  resist  the  energies  of  Britisli  industry.  These  Ridings  present  to  the  German  Ocean 
high  and  often  precipitous  rocks,  of  which  Flamborough  Head,  nearly  500  feet  high,  forms 
one  of  the  boldest  features  in  English  landscape.  The  West  Riding  is  composed  chiefly  of 
a  wide,  flat,  fertile  plain,  traversed  by  the  Aire,  the  Calder,  and  other  navigable  rivers,  which 
convey  its  produce  to  tlie  eastern,  and,  by  means  of  canals,  to  the  western  sea.  In  this  tract 
is  placed  tiie  immense  manufacturing  district  of  Yorkshire ;  in  its  extreme  west  is  the  dis- 
trict of  Craven,  the  most  rugged  and  mountainous  of  all  England ;  for  here  rise  Ingleborough, 
Wharuside,  Pennigcnt,  each  to  the  height  of  nearly  tliree  thousand  feet.  There  is  scarcely 
a  county  in  which  the  spirit  of  agricultural  improvement  has  been  so  active  as  in  Yorkshire  ; 
and  vast  tracts  of  waste  and  common  land  have  been  reclaimed  and  rendered  productive. 

Hull,  the  principal  port,  is  the  fourth  commercial  city  in  England,  only  surpassed  by  Lon- 
don, Liverpool,  and  Bristol.  It  carries  on  a  most  extensive  export  of  goods  brought  by  the 
interior  system  of  rivers  and  canals.  It  is  the  principal  of  the  whale-fishery  ports ;  though 
tiiis  brancli  has  lately  declined.  During  the  nine  years  ending  with  1818,  the  average 
number  of  vessels  fitted  out  from  Hull  for  the  whale  fishery  amounted  to  53  J  ;  while  in  1830, 
it  sent  out  only  33.  In  1832,  it  owned  557  ships,  carrying  68,892  tons,  and  there  entered 
its  port  1279  vessels,  of  the  burden  of  192,661  tons.  The  Old  Dock,  completed  in  1778,  the 
Humber  Dock  in  1809,  and  the  Junction  Dock  in  1829,  contain  a  space  of  twenty-three 
acres.  Goole,  on  the  Ouse,  a  little  above  its  junction  with  the  Humber,  is  beginning  to  share 
with  Hull  in  the  exportation  of  woollens.  Though  a  few  years  ago  a  mere  village,  and  still, 
in  1831,  containing  only  1670  inhabitants,  it  has  two  spacious  docks,  and  in  1829  the  customs 
exceeded  40,000Z.,  and  the  declared  value  of  exports  amounted  to  625,000Z.  Goods  sent 
from  Leeds  or  Wakefield  by  rivers  or  canals  can  be  embarked  at  Goole  in  the  course  of 
twelve  hours. 

Whitby  is  a  very  ancient  town,  with  the  remains  of  a  fine  abbey  built  soon  after  the  Con- 
quest. Its  modern  importance  is  derived  from  large  mines  of  alum.  The  export  of  their 
pro<lucc  forms  a  considerable  trade,  to  which  Whitby  soon  added  the  other  branches  preva- 
lent on  this  coast,  and  became  second  only  to  Hull. 

Scarborough,  romantically  situated  on  a  promontory  between  two  rocks  overlooking  the 
Bca,  is  the  cliief  watering-place  of  the  north  of  England. 


Book  I.  ENGLAND.  385 

York,  the  capital,  is  the  first  object  that  strikes  us  as  we  proceed  into  the  interior  of  the 
North  and  West  Ridings.  This  celebrated  city,  though  so  much  eclipsed  by  several  that  are 
only  of  to-day,  still  boasts  a  dignity  superior  to  them,  and  to  almost  any  other  in  England. 
Eboracum  was  a  distinguislied  Roman  station ;  for  some  time  York  disputed  with  London  the 
distinction  of  being  the  capital  of  England;  and  when  obliged  to  give  up  this  claim,  continu- 
ed the  unquestioned  metropolis  of  the  north,  till  the  creative  powers  of  trade  raised  up  rivals 
to  it  in  the  north-west.  The  houses  are  high,  and  the  streets  narrow ;  yet,  altogether,  York 
is  a  handsome,  respectable-looking  old  city.  It  boasts  one  feature  of  almost  unrivalled 
beauty,— its  cathedral,  {fig.  163.)  On  the  exterior  all  the  richness  and  elegance  of  Gothic 
jg3  ,       „_,j™,  ornament   has   been   lavished,  particularly 

i|T'   !  ;  upon  the  western  front  and  the  large  win- 

i^;  -  '-^1  dow  in  the  eastern.      But  the  interior  is 

without  a  rival  in  the  empire ;  its  effect  is 
altogether  sublime  :  its  numerous  windows 
of  painted  glass  slied  a  dim,  solemn,  reli- 
gious light,  in  accordance  with  the  charac- 
ter of  the  edifice.  The  chapter-house  is  of 
singular  elegance  and  magnificence ;  and, 
tliough  of  great  extent,  has  its  roof  support- 
ed by  a  single  pin.  The  choir  of  this  splen- 
did edifice  suffered  severe  injury  from  a  fire 
_  kindled  by  the  hands  of  a  maniac ;  but  by 

Yurk  Cathedral.  great  excrtions  has  been  flilly  repaired.    Tlie 

remains  of  the  ruined  abbey  of  St.  Mary,  and  those  of  several  of  the  twenty-three  churches 
of  York,  are  also  deserving  notice.  There  are  likewise  some  elegant  modern  edifices,  par- 
ticularly the  assembly  room,  the  county  hall,  guildhall,  the  mansion-house,  and  the  museum 
of  the  Yorkshire  Philosophical  Society.  Yorli  is  still  a  gay  town,  visited  by  many  of  the 
northern  gentry,  particularly  at  the  time  of  its  races.  It  carries  on  some  inland  trade  by 
the  Ouse,  which  passes  through  it. 

Doncaster  is  much  frequented  during  the  time  of  its  races.  Pontefract  is  surrounded  by 
a  great  extent  of  garden  and  nursery  ground,  the  produce  of  which  is  sent  to  a  considerable 
distance.  Scarcely  a  vestige  remains  of  that  immense  and  powerful  keep,  covering  seven 
acres,  in  which  Thomas  of  Lancaster,  Richard  II.,  and  many  other  fallen  chiefs  and  states- 
men, were  immured.  The  parliament,  during  the  civil  wars,  having  taken  it  after  three 
successive  and  arduous  sieges,  caused  it  to  be  completely  demolished. 

Leeds  is  the  capital  of  western  Yorkshire,  and,  in  a  commercial  sense,  of  the  whole 
county.  Although  it  was  of  some  note  even  in  early  times,  its  present  greatness  is  modern, 
and  of  the  most  rapid  growth.  The  population,  which  in  1775  was  only  17,117,  amounted 
in  1831  to  123,393 ;  being  thus  nearly  quintupled.  A  peculiar  activity  and  spirit  of  enter- 
prise has  been  observed  among  the  manufacturers  of  Leeds :  it  was,  doubtless,  greatly 
favoured  by  the  vast  extent  of  inland  navigation,  which  seemed  to  centre  liere,  connecting 
it  with  the  capital,  with  both  seas,  and  with  tlie  counties  to  the  south,  from  which  it  derives 
inexhaustible  supplies  of  fine  coal.  The  woollen  manufacture  is  not  carried  on  wholly  in 
large  towns;  the  cloth  is  wrought  to  a  certain  state  of  forwardness  in  the  numerous  villages, 
thence  sent  into  Leeds,  where  it  is  purchased  and  worked  up  into  a  saleable  state.  The 
cloths  are  sold  in  weekly  markets,  held  in  the  cloth  halls,  the  most  remarkable  feature  in 
Leeds.  That  for  mixed  cloths  was  built  in  1758,  that  for  white  cloth  in  1775.  They  form 
quadrangular  edifices  round  an  open  area,  and  are  divided  into  stands,  of  which  in  the  first 
hall  are  1800,  and  in  the  second  1210.  These  are  let  at  a  moderate  rent  to  tlie  owners  of 
the  cloth,  who,  on  the  ringing  of  a  bell,  occupy  their  stands,  and  though  the  market  remains 
open  only  an  hour,  goods  to  an  immense  value  are  often  disposed  of  Although  the  staple 
of  Leeds  and  of  Yorkshire  be  common  cloth,  yet  other  branches  are  in  some  degree  included, 
as  sail-cloth,  cotton,  carpets,  and  superfine  cloths.  Mr.  Drinkwater  states  the  persons  em- 
ployed in  the  mills  for  wool  at  5290;  worsted,  702;  flax,  2434;  cotton,  80;  silk,  158;  in 
all,  8634 ;  of  whom  5318  are  males,  and  3346  females  ;  to  which  may  be  added  1814  in  the 
suburb  of  Holbeck.  The  town  of  Leeds  is  mostly  well  built,  with  several  broad  and  spa- 
cious streets;  and  the  theatre,  the  new  court-house,  and  the  commercial  buildings,  finished 
in  1829,  are  elegant  structures.  Kirkstall  Abbey,  th'ree  miles  distant,  presents,  in  a  beauti- 
ful situation,  the  most  complete  specimen  of  the  architecture  of  the  12th  century  that  is 
extant.  The  people  of  Leeds  have  formed  a  literary  and  philosophical  society,  and  an  insti- 
tution flar  the  promotion  of  the  fine  arts ;  for  the  purpose  of  which  a  very  handsome  and 
commodious  edifice  has  been  erected:  meritorious  exertions  have  also  been  made  for  the 
education  of  the  poor. 

Of  the  ot'.ier  towns  of  the  clothing  district,  which  cluster  round  Leeds,  Wakpfield,  beauti- 

fiilly  situated  on  the  Caider,  has  a  cloth  market,  on  a  smaller  scale,  resembling  that  of  Leeds, 

and  also  great  g'rain  and  cattle  markets.    Halifax,  and  the  whole  district  about  twenty  miles 

round  it,  has  been  converted  from  a  desert  into  a  populous  and  prosperous  scene,  containing 

Vol.  I.  33  2  Y 


386  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

altogether  110,000  inhabitants.  Its  staples  are  what  are  properly  called  stuffs ;  shalloons, 
series,  baize,  moreens,  kerseys  ;  and  it  has  lately  embraced  a  considerable  share  of  the  cot- 
ton^manufacture.  Huddersfield  is  also  a  very  thriving  town,  employed  nearly  in  the  same 
branches ;  and  its  murket  hall  is  supposed,  next  to  that  of  Leeds,  to  present  tiic  greatest 
show  of  woollens  in  the  kingdom.  Bradford  and  Keighley  are  large  towns,  which  carry  on 
to  a  great  extent  the  manufacture  of  worsted :  besides  which,  Bradlbrd  has  great  iron  found- 
ries in  its  neighbourhood. 

In  the  southern  part  of  this  riding,  the  manufactures  of  iron  and  cutlery  take  the  place  of 
those  of  woollen ;  and  flourish  to  such  an  extent,  that  they  are  second  only  to  the  great  iron 
district  around  Birmingham.  Sheffield  is  the  capital  of  tliis  district.  It  early  derived  im- 
portance from  the  fabrication  of  arms,  but  it  has  reached  a  much  higher  degree  of  greatness 
suice  it  betook  itself  to  the  more  useful  fabrics  of  knives,  forks,  razors,  snuflers,  scissors, 
combs,  buttons,  saws,  sickles,  and  various  instruments  of  husbandry.  The  art  of  plating 
goods  with  silver  is  carried  to  a  vast  extent.  The  silver  is  soldered  upon  the  copper ;  and 
the  articles  are  wrought  by  tlie  hand  or  stamped.  The  cutlers  of  Sheffield  keep  many  hun- 
dred patterns  of  knives,  of  which  some  are  of  the  value  of  seven  or  eight  guineas,  contain- 
ing twenty-eight  blades  within  the  handle;  while  others,  after  passing  through  a  multitude 
of  different  hands,  are  sold  for  a  penny  each.  The  rapid  growth  of  Sheffield  commenced 
about  the  year  1750,  when  the  river  Don  was  rendered  navigable  to  within  a  few  miles  of 
the  town.  Since  that  time  its  advance  has  been  steady  ;  new  branches  having  been  con- 
stantly adding,  and  the  former  ones  extending.  The  houses  are  chiefly  modern,  and  well 
built ;  and  the  town  makes  a  tolerable  appearance,  notwithstanding  the  smoke  of  the  forges 
in  which  it  is  involved.  Tlie  military  barracks  erected  here  form  an  extensive  pile  of  build- 
ing. The  infirmary  is  considered  equal  to  any  in  the  kingdom ;  and  great  credit  is  due  to 
Sheffield  for  the  excellence  of  the  schools  which  it  maintams  for  the  education  of  the  lower 
orders.  It  supports  also  many  public  charities ;  has  a  literary  society,  a  mechanics'  insti- 
tute, and  a  library. 

Barnsley  produces  wire,  nails,  and  other  articles,  but  derives  its  chief  importance  from  the 
linen  manufacture.  Rotherham  has  a  great  foundery  for  cannon.  The  first  iron  bridge  was 
constructed  here  at  the  works  of  Messrs.  Walker;  and  they  have  since  executed  those  of 
Sunderland,  Staines,  and  Yarm.  Rotherham,  being  in  a  fine  country,  has  also  a  great  corn 
and  cattle  market. 

The  superb  seats  which  adorn  Yorkshire  are  so  many,  that  to  enumerate  even  the  most 
distinguished  can  with  difficulty  suit  our  limits.  Castle  Howard  is  a  magnificent  pile,  noted 
for  its  classical  collection  of  sculpture  and  painting.  Duncombe  Park  is  admired  for  the 
noble  view  obtained  from  the  terrace  in  front,  and  for  the  ruins  of  Rivaulx  Abbey,  situated 
in  a  beautiful  vale  at  a  little  distance ;  Studley  Royal,  an  almost  unrivalled  specimen  of  an 
ornamental  park,  encloses  within  its  precincts.  Fountain's  Abbey,  one  of  the  grandest  of 
monastic  remains,  covering  several  acres.  Wentworth  House  is  generally  considered  the 
noblest  mansion  in  the  north.  The  principal  front  extends  upwards  of  600  feet,  forming  a 
centre  and  two  wings,  in  the  middle  of  which  is  a  fine  Corinthian  portico. 

Lancashire,  situated  beyond  the  hilly  border  of  York  West  Riding,  forms  the  capital  or 
central  seat  of  manufacture  for  Britain,  and  even  for  the  world.  Its  soil  and  climate  are 
unfavourable;  the  upland  tracts  being  rocky  and  barren,  and  the  coast  too  low  and  flat,  while 
the  moisture  from  the  Atlantic  is  injurious  to  the  growth  of  the  finer  kinds  of  grain.  But 
coal  traverses  in  large  beds  the  south  and  south-eastern  parts  of  the  county  ;  and  being  con- 
veyed by  short  canal  lines  to  all  the  great  towns,  aftbrds  cheap  and  abundant  fuel  for  the 
steam-engines  and  other  grand  manufacturing  apparatus.  Canal  navigation,  which  origi- 
nated in  Lancashire,  has  been  carried  to  a  greater  extent  there  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
kingdom.  Besides  those  smaller  canals  which  connect  all  the  great  thriving  towns,  it  has 
the  Lancaster  Canal  running  north  and  south  through  nearly  its  whole  extent,  and  into 
Westmoreland  as  far  as  Kendal ;  and  the  still  more  important  line  of  the  Leeds  and  Liver- 
pool Canal ;  while,  in  the  southern  border,  the  Grand  Trunk  connects  it  with  London  and 
the  whole  centre  of  England.  A  most  important  additional  communication  has  recently 
been  opened  by  the  railway,  elsewhere  described,  by  whicli  Liverpool  and  Manchester,  so 
far  as  respects  personal  conveyance,  are  brought  almost  into  contact. 

Manchester,  the  centre  of  British  industry,  and  the  manufacturing  capital  of  the  empire, 
is  favourably  situated  on  the  Irwell ;  though  this  stream,  navigable  for  barges,  scarcely  makes 
any  figure  beside  the  vast  artificial  lines  formed  from  its  waters.  Although  the  cotton  manu- 
facture is  now  widely  diffused  throughout  England,  Manchester  continues  the  centre  of  the 
trade ;  receiving  and  distributing  the  raw  material,  collecting  the  produce  worked  up  in 
numerous  towns  and  villages,  and  transmitting  it  to  the  various  markets.  From  the  middle 
of  the  last  century  she  has  advanced  with  amazing  and  accelerated  rapidity  ;  and  the  system  oT 
inland  navigation  having  afforded  copious  channels  by  which  the  material  can  be  introduced 
and  the  manufactured  article  exported,  every  obstacle  to  the  absorption  of  the  whole  into 
this  centre  was  removed.  Its  manufacture  embraces  the  finer  muslins  and  other  delicate 
fabrics,  with  the  plain  and  useful  forms  of  dimities,  fustians,  velveteens,  checks,  shirtings, 


Book  I.  ENGLAND.  387 

ginghams,  diapers,  cambric  muslins,  figured  muslins,  calicoes  for  printing,  and  various  fancy 
goods.  Tlie  different  cotton  fabrics  generally  denominated  Manchester  goods,  are  not  all 
manufactured  witliin  tlie  town  itself,  but  in  the  neighbouring  towns  and  districts;  and,  after 
lieing  bleached,  and  some  of  them  printed,  are  sent  in  a  finished  state  to  Manchester  to  be 
sold ;  the  chief  inarket  days  being  Tuesdays  and  Saturdays.  Thus  Marseilles  quiltings, 
cambric  muslins,  calicoes  for  printing,  bed  quilts  and  counterpanes,  checks,  fustians,  and 
shirtings,  are  brought  in  fi-om  the  surrounding  towns  and  villages.  A  vast  deal  of  yarn  is 
also  spun  for  exportation.  Manchester  has  extensive  establishments  for  printing  and  dyeing; 
also,  for  constructing  and  keeping  in  repair  steam-engines,  as  well  as  other  machines 
employed  in  manufacture.  Even  iron  founderies  are  necessary  to  supply  the  materials. 
Other  important  branches  have  recently  been  added.  Manchester  now  rivals  Macclesfield 
and  Norwich  in  the  manufacture  of  silks,  and  Nottingham  in  that  of  lace.  In  1832,  there 
were  at  work  m  the  townships  of  Manchester  and  Salford,  96  cotton  mills,  16  silk,  4  woollen 
and  Worsted,  and  2  flax  mills.  The  number  employed  in  cotton  factories  amounted  to 
20,585;  of  whom,  5361  Vv'ere  male  and  7035  female  adults;  4286  male  and  3903  female 
children.  The  wages  paid  to  them  per  month  were  40,333?.,  making  about  9s.  9d.  of  ave- 
rage weekly  earnings  to  each  individual.  There  were  7174  mule  spinners,  earning  15,106Z. 
per  month,  averaging  lO.s.  Qd.  each  per  week;  1497  spinners  of  a  higher  class,  earning 
8491?.  per  month,  or  \l.  8s.  M.  each  per  week.  Pieccrs'  scavengers  2944,  earning  3287?. 
per  month,  each  weekly  5s.  Qd.  In  the  power  looms,  women  receive  8s.  to  12s. ;  men,  13s. 
to  16s.  lOf/. ;  dressers,  28s.  to  30s.  per  week.  Manchester  is  not  an  elegant  town ;  some 
parts  of  its  interior  are  narrow,  crowded,  fljU  of  warehouses  and  factories  in  huge  masses 
The  entrances,  however,  have  been  made  handsome ;  and,  in  the  extremities  of  the  town, 
streets  of  elegant  houses  have  been  built  for  the  accommodation  of  the  opulent  merchants. 
It  has  one  handsome  Gothic  collegiate  church  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  several  more 
modern,  that  are  creditable  to  the  taste  of  the  town,  as  the  Exchange,  which  includes  a 
news-room  and  a  good  library ;  the  Infirmary  (which  in  one  year  received  above  12,000 
patients)  ;  the  Town  Hall,  which  contains  one  of  the  most  splendid  public  rooms  in  Europe ; 
and  the  Royal  Institution  for  the  Promotion  of  the  Fine  Arts.  The  prison  called  the  New 
Bailey  is  an  immense  structure, — the  inmates  of  which  are  classed  and  provided  with 
employment  to  a  considerable  extent.  Manchester  is  remarkable  for  its  charitable  institu- 
tions ;  hospitals  of  different  kinds ;  and  schools  for  tlie  education  of  the  poor.  Clieetham's 
Hospital,  maintaining  eighty  poor  children,  has  a  library  of  18,000  or  20,000  volumes,  con- 
taining rare  and  valuable  works.  In  1781,  a  literary  and  pliilosophical  society  was  formed 
at  Manchester,  and  produced  several  valuable  volumes  of  Transactions,  enriched  by  the  con- 
tributions of  Percival,  Ferriar,  Dalton,  Henry,  and  other  eminent  gentlemen  there  resident. 
In  1774,  the  population  of  the  whole  parish  was  41,000 ;  the  amount  of  142,000  for  1831  by 
no  means  comprehends  all  that  may  be  considered  Manchester.  The  large  towns  and  vil- 
lages which  have  sprung  up  within  its  parish  form  really  its  suburbs,  and  raise  the  entire 
population  to  270,000.  Of  these,  the  most  important  are  Salford,  immediately  contiguous, 
and  now  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  borough ;  and  Chorlton  Row,  which  in  1801  contained  675 
inhabitants ;  in  1831,  20,565. 

Huge  towns,  resembling  cities,  devoted  to  the  cotton  m.anufacture,  are  found  in  every 
direction  round  Manchester.  To  the  north  are  Blackburn  and  Bolton ;  the  former  chiefly 
employed  in  the  branch  of  printed  calicoes,  which  are  supposed  to  be  produced  to  the  annual 
value  of  2,000,000?.  A  great  advantage  is  derived  from  the  Leeds  and  Liverpool  Canal 
passing  close  by  it.  Bolton  is  a  town  anciently  of  some  strengtli,  but  now  supported  entirely 
by  industry.  Some  of  the  greatest  improvements  in  the  cotton  manufacture,  have  been 
made  by  Arkwright  and  Crompton,  residents  in  this  place.  Preston,  a  flourishing  seat  of 
manufacture,  elects  two  members  on  a  basis  of  almost  universal  suffrage.  Wigan  is  a  large 
town,  which  adds  to  those  of  cotton  and  linen  some  manufactures  of  brass  and  pewter. 
Bury,  very  near  Manchester,  besides  extensive  cotton  works,  has  some  of  woollen.  Oldham 
was  early  a  place  of  some  consequence,  carrying  on  a  large  fabric  of  hats ;  but  the  intro- 
duction of  the  cotton  manufacture  has  caused  it  to  make  an  astonishing  progress,  so  that  in 
thirty  years  it  has  nearly  trebled  its  population,  and  the  parish,  including  Pilkington,  Cromp- 
ton, and  other  towns,  contains  67,.50()  inhabitants.  There  are  here  now  65  cotton  mills  and 
140  steam-engines,  almost  all  erected  during  the  present  century. 

Some  large  towns  employed  in  other  manufactures  than  those  of  cotton  lie  on  the  borders 
of  Lancashire.  Rochdale,  near  the  western  point  of  Yorkshire,  and  in  character  a  York- 
shire town,  has  for  its  staple  woollen  stuffs  and  flannels,  of  which  8000  pieces  are  made 
weekly ;  fifty-seven  steam-engines  are  employed  here,  and  about  84,000  lbs.  of  cotton  yarn 
spun  in  the  week.  Warrington,  on  the  Mersey,  which  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  eighty 
tons  from  Liverpool,  in  Henry  VIII.'s  time  was  superior  to  Manchester;  but  it  is  now  left 
far  behind.  Its  staples  of  sailcloth  and  coarse  linens  have  been  exchanged  for  cotton,  to 
which  it  adds  glass  and  pins.  Prescot  is  noted  for  the  making  of  watch-wheels,  springs, 
chain.s,  &c.  several  of  which  have  been  invented  and  improved  by  its  workmen.  Near  itj 
at  St.  Helen's,  is  a  great  manufactory  of  plate  glass,  employing  300  persons. 


388  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III, 

Liverpool,  the  commercial  capital  of  Lancashire,  is,  if  possible,  a  still  grander  object,  and 
far  surpassing  indeed  every  otlier  seaport,  with  the  exception  of  the  metropolis.  Nothing 
can  hv.  more  remarkable  than  the  contrast  of  its  present  state  with  its  humble  origin.  In 
the  sixteenth  century,  it  is  described  as  a  small  place  with  only  a  chapel,  having  no  parish 
churcli  within  four  miles.  It  had  then  138  inliabitants,  and  two  or  three  siiips,  wliose  aggre- 
gate tonnage  was  223  tons;  and  in  a  petition  to  Elizabeth,  about  tiie  year  1578,  it  is  styled, 
"  her  majesty's  poor  decayed  town ;"  it  continued  gradually  to  increase  during  the  seven- 
teenth century,  till,  in  1700,  it  was  constituted  a  parish,  and  had  5000  inhabitants. 
Since  that  time  it  has  advanced  with  rapid  and  accelerated  steps  ;  in  1730,  it  had  12,000 ; 
in  1760,  20,(H)0 ;  in  1800,  50,000  inhabitants ;  but  tlie  most  rapid  growth  has  been  between 
1811  and  1821,  when  it  rose  from  94,376  to  1 11,487.  The  increase  to  165,000  in  1831 
appears  less  rapid ;  but  in  fact,  the  population  during  this  period  has  overflowed  into  the 
adjacent  villages,  and  swelled  them  into  large  towns ;  Toxtcth-park  increased  from  2069  in 
1801,  to  24,067  in  1831 ;  West  Derby,  Kirkdale,  Everton,  form  in  fact  the  suburbs  of  Liver- 
pool, and,  added  to  it,  make  an  amount  of  203,000.  There  must  always  have  been  a  consi- 
derable port  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mersey ;  but  this  estuary,  in  its  natural  navigation,  could 
never  come  in  competition  with  the  Ilumber  or  tiie  Severn.  When,  iiowever,  its  disadvan- 
tages as  a  seaport  were  partly  removed,  by  the  formation  of  docks, — and,  much  more,  wlien 
it  became  the  basis  of  a  canal  system  reaching  eastward  to  tlie  German  Ocean,  and  south- 
ward to  the  Thames, — Liverpool  could  communicate  with  an  immense  interior  circle.  It 
derived  benefit,  above  all,  trom  the  cotton  manufacture  established,  on  such  an  extensive 
scale,  in  the  country  inunediately  behind ;  the  materials  of  which  were  brougiit  to  Liverpool 
from  the  opposite  side  of  the  Atlantic,  and  the  finished  fabric  tlience  exported,  partly  to  the 
same  quarter.  At  tlie  same  time  Liverpool  imported,  for  a  great  part  of  England  at  least, 
articles  of  consumption  from  America  and  the  West  Indies.  It  found  also  a  most  extensive 
employment  in  bringing  grain  and  provisions  fi-om  Ireland,  and  returning  salt,  coals,  and  pot- 
tery. The  merchants  of  Liverpool,  meanwhile,  were  mobt  active  in  improving  these  cir- 
cumstances, particularly  by  the  construction  of  that  immense  line  of  docks,  which  M.  Dupin 
has  described  with  such  admiration.  A  dock,  or  space  enclosed  all  round,  and  fed  with 
sluices,  in  which  the  vessels  while  they  receive  or  discharge  their  cargoes  are  kept  regu- 
larly afloat,  without  being  exposed  to  swell,  tide,  or  current,  is  an  obvious  improvement  upon 
the  best  natural  harbour.  The  expense,  however,  is  great;  and  it  was  not  till  1710  that 
Liverpool  began  the  first  dock  in  Britain,  called  the  Old  Dock,  which  has  recently  been  filled 
up.  Twenty  years  were  employed  in  its  completion ;  and  a  rstill  longer  time  in  that  of  the 
next,  or  the  Salthouse  Dock.  The  others  were,  however,  constructed  on  a  more  extensive 
scale,  and  with  greater  rapidity : — George's  (II.)  Dock ;  the  King's  Dock,  for  Greenland 
ships  and  tobacco ;  the  Queen's  Dock,  directly  for  the  Baltic  and  North  American  trade. 
On  a  still  larger  scale  have  been  constructed  "the  Prince  Regent  Dock,  opened  in  1821,  and 
the  Clarence  Dock,  in  1830.  The  Brunswick  Dock,  for  the  accommodation  of  vessels  with 
cargoes  of  timber,  nearly  completes  the  present  plan,  when  the  whole  area  of  water  in  the 
docks  will  exceed  90  acres.  In  1832,  there  belonged  to  this  port  853  registered  vessels,  of 
the  burthen  of  166,028  tons.  Tlie  customs  paid  at  the  port  amounted,  inl765,  to  269,000^. ; 
in  1810,  to  2,675,000Z. ;  and  in  1832  they  had  risen  to  3,925,062/.  The  following  are  the 
leading  articles  of  import  in  the  year  1830 :— 792,350  bags  of  cotton,  510,000  hides,  42,000 
hogsheads  of  sugar,  8000  hogsheads  of  tobacco,  300,500  barrels  of  flour,  7800  casks  and 
7300  barrels  and  bags  of  coflee,  27,000  casks  of  palm  oil,  900  seroons  and  1430  chests  of 
indigo,  12,000  puncheons  of  rum,  31,200  bags  of  rice,  22,500  barrels  of  American  ashes, 
42,500  barrels  of  tar,  51,000  barrels  of  turpentine,  6200  tons  of  logwood,  5650  logs  of  maho- 
gany. The  dock  duties,  which  in  1800  were  only  23,379/.,  amounted,  in  1832,  to  170,000/. 
In  1832,  the  ships  entered  inwards  were  10,266," tonnage  1,361,000;  outwards,  8717  ships, 
tonnage  1,218,645.  Of  this,  610,000  tons  were  from  foreign  parts,  chiefly  the  United  States 
and  British  America,  the  rest  coasters,  of  which  386,000  were  from  Ireland.  The  value  of 
agricultural  produce  from  that  country  amounted  to  4,444,000/. 

Liverpool  has  numerous  lines  of  packets  to  all  the  principal  foreign  ports.  Every  month 
four  sail  to  New-York,  two  to  Philadelphia,  one  to  Boston,  two  respectively  to  Rio  Janeiro, 
Genoa  and  Leghorn,  and  to  Lisbon ;  one  every  three  weeks  to  Oporto.  The  New- York 
packets  are  first-rate  vessels  containing  splendid  accommodations  for  passengers,  and  the 
value  of  goods  conveyed  in  one  of  them  has  been  known  to  exceed  140,000/.  Trading  ves- 
sels also  are  continually  sailing  to  the  above  and  to  all  other  commercial  places  throughout 
the  world.  An  almost  daily  communication  is  maintained  by  steam  packets  with  Dublin, 
Belfast,  Glasgow,  Whitehaven,  and  all  ports  of  anv  consequence  in  Ireland,  and  on  the 
western  coast  of  England.  The  solid  construction  of  its  docks ;  the  powerful  iron  gates  by 
which  thoy  are  enclosed  ;  the  long  covered  ways  where  the  goods  may  be  landed  without 
injury  from  the  inclemency  of  the  weather;  the  immense  magazines,  some  rising  to  the 
height  of  12  or  13  stories, — all  denote  a  o-ig-antic  industry  and  a  magnificence  which  spares 
no  sacrifice  to  attain  objects  of  puldic  utility.  The  inhabitants  of  Liverpool  have  generally 
shown  the  same  spirit  in  their  other  arrangements  as  in  those  connected  witli  trade.     The 


Book  I. 

town  is  well  lighted  with  gas. 

164 


ENGLAND. 


389 


Town  Hall,  Liverpool 


The  public  building  have  an  elegant  and  classical  character, 
almost  peculiar  to  Liverpool.  The  Town- 
Hall  {jig.  164),  is  a  fine  Grecian  edifice, 
ornamented  with  a  superb  cupola  and  ap- 
propriate statues.  The  Exchange  forms 
behind  it  an  elegant  square,  in  the  midst  of 
which  is  a  sculptural  composition  by  West- 
macott,  representing  Nelson  and  his  victo- 
ries. The  new  edifice  erected  for  a  market 
is,  perhaps,  the  most  spacious  and  commo- 
dious of  any  employed  in  the  kingdom  for 
that  purpose.  There  are  also  several  ele- 
gant modern  churches,  one  formed  of  cast- 
iron.  The  finest  view  of  Liverpool  is 
obtained  from  the  sea,  where  the  vast  heiglit 


and  extent  of  the  exterior  dock  wall,  the  forest  of  masts  above,  and  the  town  behind,  make 
a  most  imposing  appearance.  The  charitable  institutions  are  administered  on  a  great  scale, 
and  with  activity.  Foremost  stands  the  Blind  Asylum,  the  first  established  in  England,  which 
receives  inmates  from  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  infirmary  is  in  a  very  spacious  and 
airy  situation;  and,  among  the  other  institutions  common  to  great  towns,  t!ie  Strangers' 
Friends'  Society  distinguishes  itself  by  its  generous  exertions.  The  English  mercantile 
towns  generally  show  a  zeal  to  combine  intellectual  pursuits  witli  those  of  wealth ;  but 
none,  perhaps  so  successfully  as  Liverpool, — one  of  whose  merchants,  while  carrying  on  an 
extensive  business,  produced  works  which  rank  liini  among  the  most  classical  English 
writers.  Although  this  example  be  single,  it  is  connected  with  a  general  spirit,  which 
d'splays  itself  in  the  liberal  procedure  of  several  individuals;  in  the  Lyceum  and  the 
Athenaeum ;  two  public  libraries  and  literary  institutions,  supported  by  subscription ;  and  in 
a  botanic  garden,  which  ranks  as  the  first  tliat  was  formed,  and  at  least  the  third  as  to 
eminence,  in  the  kingdom.  Both  the  Atlienasum  and  the  botanic  garden  owe  their  founda- 
tion to  the  public  spirit  and  the  munificent  example  of  Mr.  Roscoe,  who  had  also  the 
magnanimity  to  exert  his  povveriul  talents  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  in  a  town  long 
devoted  to  that  traffic. 

Lancaster,  the  county  town,  is  handsomely  built  of  a  beautiful  free-stone ;  the  Town-hall 

and  some  other  buildings  are  handsome ; 

,.5j     *■  ----.- 

10'" 


165 


Lancaster  Caslle. 


but  the  castle  {Jig.  165.)  forms  one  of 
the  grandest  monuments  of  the  feudal 
age.  Its  vast  extent;  its  commanding 
site;  the  greatness  of  all  its  features, 
even  now,  when  three  of  its  seven  towers 
are  fallen  into  ruin ;  produce  the  most 
powerful  impression.  It  has  been  con- 
verted into  a  well-arranged  prison  for 
the  county.  Lancaster,  though  its  river, 
the  Lime,  is  not  navigable  for  vessels  of 
more  than  250  tons,  possesses  73  sail. 
It  builds  some  ships,  makes  sailcloth, 
and  manufactures,  upon  a  small  scale, 
some  cotton  fabrics.  About  a  mile  from 
it,  the  Lancaster  Canal  is  carried  over  the  Lune  by  a  very  noble  aqueduct  bridge. 

The  counties  of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland,  or  the  country  of  the  Lakes,  form  a  bold 
and  peculiar  region,  presenting  a  striking  contrast  to  those  recently  surveyed  ;  being  enriched 
neither  by  natural  wealth,  nor  by  human  industry.  Wide  ranges  of  high  and  rocky  moun- 
tains, enclosing  long  lakes  and  narrow  vales,  afford  scanty  space  for  the  plough.  A  great 
proportion  of  these  fells  and  moors  is  absolutely  barren  ;  in  the  more  fevoiu-ed  spots  tlie  her- 
bage is  often  scanty ;  and  even  the  arable  tracts  are,  in  general,  fit  only  for  the  coarser 
grain  of  oats.  But  the  multitude  of  moimtains  crowded  together,  their  bold,  perpendicular, 
and  often  projecting  forms;  the  pleasing  though  not  extensive  lakes,  and  soft  pastoral 
valleys,  which  they  enclose,,  render  this  the  most  beautiful  country  of^  England,  and  the 
favourite  resort  of  all  the  admirers  of  the  picturesque  and  sublime. 

Three  divisions  are  distinctly  seen  in  these  counties,  reaching  from  north  to  south.  I.  A 
plain  eastward  of  the  mountains,  through  which  the  high  road  runs  by  Kendal  and  Carlisle 
to  London.  II.  The  mountains  and  lakes,  occupying  the  larger  portion  of  their  surface. 
III.  A  sea-coast,  containing  some  harbours  of  importance. 

The  first  part  consists  of  a  plain,  wliicli,  tliongh  narrow,  is  in  many  places  fertile ;  and 
contains  some  large  towns.  In  the  northern  part  is  "merry  Carlisle,"  long  distinguished  in 
the  border  annals,  and  the  scene  of  interesting  events  in  the  contest  of  1745.  Carlisle  bebig 
a  military  post  of  the  first  consequence,  its  castle  and  walls  were  considered  a  model  of 

33* 


390 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


strength,  according'  to  the  ideas  of  the  middle  ages;  the  cathedral  is  an  ancient  edifice,  stil! 
nearly  entire,  in  the  heavy  Saxon  style.  Carlisle  has  of  late  begun  to  carry  on  some  manu- 
facture, chiefly  cotton ;  also  woollen,  linen,  and  a  few  minor  articles.  A  canal  connects  it 
with  tli'o  Sohvay,  and  enables  it  to  employ  some  shipping.  Eastward  from  Carlisle  is  tho 
great  dcbateable  line ;  and  near  Brampton  is  Naworth  Castle,  that  powerful  station  whero 
Lord  William  Howard  undertook  to  bridle  the  license  of  the  border.  Yet,  however  strong, 
it  forms  rather  a  dark  border  keep,  than  a  display  of  feudal  grandeur.  Lord  Howard's 
apartments,  which,  with  their  books,  furniture,  and  armour,  remain  almost  undisturbed,  an; 
separated  by  four  strong  doors  from  the  rest  of  the  castle  ;  and  secret  passages  lead  to  every 
part,  and  to  the  dungeons  beneath.  Farther  south  is  Kendal,  tlie  chief  town  of  Westmore- 
land ;  a  considerable  place,  with  an  old  manufactory  of  woollens  bearing  its  name,  dnd 
some  of  cotton  and  leather.  Burton  and  Kirby  Lonsdale  are  small  neat  towns  on  the  border 
of  Lancashire. 

The  second  division  comprises  the  country  of  the  Lakes,  forming  the  peculiar  character- 
istic of  the  country,  and  cliicfly  distin- 
guished by  its  scenery.  Ullswater,  {Jig. 
1G6.)  divided  into  three  reaches.  The 
mountains  are  numerous,  steep  and  lofty, 
not  broken  or  impending,  but  of  a  bold 
and  swelling  form.  The  two  highest  in 
the  region  are  Helvellyn,  and  the  square 
rocky  mass  of  Stone  Cross  Pike,  rearirig 
tlieir  almost  perpendicular  forms  to  an 
amazing  height  above  the  wooded  hills 
which  cluster  round  them.  Opposite 
rises  the  immense  precipitous  steep  of 
Place  Fell ;  and  the  whole  produces  a 
scene  of  solemn  and  simple  grandeur.     At  Pattcrdale,  though  the  features  be  grand,  the 

1G7  beautiful    predominates.      From    the 

meadows  bordering  the  lake,  the  nu- 
merous glens  branching  off,  with  the 
scattered  abodes  of  the  shepherds  and 
dalesmen,  present  one  of  the  sweetest 
of  alpine  pastoral  scenes.  Keswick  or 
Derwentvvater  {fig.  107.)  is  of  equal 
grandeur,  but  a  quite  different  aspect. 
The  mountains  preserve  no  regular 
form,  but  are  broken,  shattered,  im- 
pending, shooting  into  a  thousand  fan- 
tastic shapes ;  and  though  they  do  not 
produce  the  same  grand  unity  of  effect,  astonish  by  a  continual  change  of  scenery.     In 

the  wooded  cliffs  and  waterfall  of  Lodore  {fig.  168.), 
and  on  the  rocks  of  Borrcwdale,  nature  seems  to  have 
sported  her  wildest  fancies.  Yet  exquisite  beauty  is 
here  mingled  with  horrors,  ])articularly  in  the  views  of 
the  lake  from  tho  south,  with  Skiddaw  behind ;  and  in 
a  lovely  rural  vale,  which  runs  along  its  northern  bor- 
der, and  is  seen  to  peculiar  advantage  from  the  road  to 


Keswick  Lake 


Lodore  Waierfii'.l.  Windermere  Lake. 

Ambleside.  Windermere  {ftg.  169.),  is  of  much  wider  extent ;  not  shut  in  by  mountainous 
cliffs,  but  bordered  by  wooded  and  ornamented  hills.  Around  its  northern  banks,  however, 
is  ranged  an  amphitheatre  of  very  high  mountains,  which,  with  their  varied  summits,  form 
a  sublime  backgiound  to  all  its  landscapes.  These  are  generally  grand,  open,  diffusive,  and 
extended.     The  other  lakes,  Coniston,  Grasmere,  Buttermere,  Cromack,  Wastdale,  Enner- 


Book  I.  ENGLAND  391 

dale,  have  attractions  for  the  admirers  of  nature.  In  this  district,  the  only  places  to  which 
the  name  of  towns  could  be  given  are  Keswick  on  Derwentwater,  and  Ambleside  on  Win- 
dermere ;  and  even  these  are  only  large  villages,  supported  by  the  resort  of  travellers,  and 
by  some  persons  of  distinction  who  are  induced  to  reside  there  by  the  beauty  of  the  neigh- 
bourhood. 

The  third  division  consists  of  the  sea-coast.  The  most  considerable  port  is  Whitehaven, 
which  has  become  flourishing  in  consequence  of  the  immense  coal  mines  found  and  v/orked 
in  its  immediate  vicinity.  Some  of  them  have  a  depth  of  320  yards,  supposed  to  be  greater 
than  any  other  in  the  world;  and  some  extend  several  miles  beneath  the  sea.  The  total 
quantity  worked  is  estimated  at  100,000  chaldrons,  chiefly  exported  to  Ireland :  besides  which, 
Whitehaven  has  pushed  its  trade  to  Africa,  America,  and  the  West  Indies ;  and  carries  on 
much  ship-building. 

SuBSECT.  5. — Western  Counties. 

The  western  counties  form  the  last  division  of  England  Proper,  comprising  the  counties 
south  of  the  Mersey,  which  form  the  western  boundary  of  England.  This  extensive  line 
has  scarcely  any  character  which  can  be  said  generally  to  apply  to  it.  We  mention  Cheshire, 
Shropshire,  Hereford,  and  Monmouth,  as  bordering  on  Wales,  and  the  last  three  partaking 
somewhat  of  its  rude  and  romantic  character ;  Worcester,  Gloucester,  and  Somerset,  occu- 
pying the  fine  valley  of  the  Severn, — a  region  filled  with  commerce  and  cultivation,  and 
containing  several  great  cities;  lastly,  Cornwall  and  Devon,  the  extreme  corner  of  England, 
but  marked  by  a  mild  climate,  rich  mines,  and  a  surface  agreeably  diversified. 

The  soil  of  Cheshire  is  generally  fit  for  all  the  purposes  of  agriculture,  particularly  in  the 
valley  of  the  Dee :  but  the  dairy  is  the  branch  pursued  with  peculiar  success ;  and  it  pro- 
duces the  cheese  which,  bearing  the  name  of  the  country,  equals  in  ricjiness,  though  not  in 
delicacy,  any  other  in  Britain.  There  are  valuable  mines  of  coal,  and  some  of  iron ;  but 
the  mineral  substance  of  which  Cheshire  chiefly  boasts  is  salt.  The  pits  were  discovered 
about  a  century  and  a  half  ago,  at  Northwich,  Middlewich,  and  Nantwich,  and  have  proved 
of  the  highest  importance  to  the  nation,  at  once  for  internal  consumption,  for  the  curing  of 
fish,  and  for  exportation. 

Chester  is,  perhaps,  the  city  in  Britain  which  bears  the  most  venerable  character  of 
antiquity.  The  very  name  implies  a  Roman  camp,  the  form  of  which  is  still  preserved  in 
the  direction  of  its  principal  streets.  The  effect  is  heightened  by  the  mouldering  red  stone, 
of  which  its  most  ancient  edifices  are  built.  The  principal  streets  have  a  very  peculiar 
structure.  The  lower  story,  which  has  been  hollowed  out  of  the  rock,  consists  of  shops, 
above  which  is  a  paved  way  covered  by  the  projecting  upper  story ;  but  the  middle  part  of 
the  house  appears  thus  retired  from  the  open  street  behind  this  species  of  arcade.  The 
arrangement  is  neither  very  elegant  nor  very  convenient.  The  castle  of  Chester  presents 
a  very  complete  specimen  of  early  military  architecture ;  connected  with  it  is  a  range  of 
handsome  Grecian  buildings,  containing  the  barracks,  county  hall,  and  county  gaol.  The 
cathedral  displays  considerable  grandeur,  and  has  a  very  elegant  chapter-house.  The  im- 
provements on  the  Dee  enable  vessels  of  300  tons  to  come  up  to  Chester,  which  has  62 
vessels,  of  above  4000  tons ;  yet  its  trade  with  Ireland  has  been  transferred  to  Liverpool. 

Of  the  other  towns,  the  most  remarkable  are  those  near  which  the  salt  mines  are  situated, 
particularly  Northwich.  There  are  fourteen  pits  of  rock  salt,  and  between  thirty  and  forty  of 
brine  salt.  The  rock  salt  is  hard  and  brown  ;  the  pits,  after  being  dug  to  a  certain  depth, 
are  excavated  horizontally,  leaving  a  portion  of  the  salt  for  a  roof  They  thus  form  apart- 
ments, often  of  more  than  an  acre  in  extent ;  and  the  reflection  of  lights  fi"om  the  mineral, 
like  that  of  numberless  precious  stones,  produces  a  magical  effect.  Stockport  and  Maccles- 
field have  flourished  greatly  in  consequence  of  the  introduction  from  Lancashire  of  the 
cotton  manufacture,  to  which  Macclesfield  adds  some  branches  of  that  of  silk. 

Among  the  seats  are  Eaton  Hall,  a  magnificent  Gothic  edifice,  which  Earl  Grosvenor  has 
erected  at  an  expence,  it  is  said,  of  400,000?. 

Shropshire,  or  Salop,  consists  chiefiy  of  a  wide  plain  watered  by  the  Severn.  On  its 
eastern  border  it  shares  to  a  great  extent  in  the  mineral  wealth  of  Staffordshire,  coal  and 
iron.  These  are  carried  on  in  a  remarkable  manner  at  Colebrook ;  a  deep-wooded  vale  on 
the  Severn,  here  traversed  by  the  first  iron  bridge  erected  in  the  kingdom.  This  county  is 
also  interesting  to  the  student  of  English  history;  many  spots  having  been  the  scenes  of 
remarkable  events,  on  which  the  destinies  of  the  kingdom  have  depended. 

Shrewsbury,  the  capital,  is  particularly  rich  in  memorable  recollections.  Being  the  strong- 
est fortress  on  the  western  marches,  it  became  a  rendezvous  of  the  royal  army,  both  for 
overawing  the  Welsh,  and  for  northern  expeditions ;  many  of  the  streets  are  narrow,  wind- 
ing, and  irregular,  and  the  old  and  new  buildings  too  closely  intermingled ;  only  a  small 
part  of  the  castle  remains ;  St.  Mary's  church  is  elegant  and  entire.  The  free  school, 
founded  by  Edward  VI.  and  Queen  Elizabeth,  has  produced  several  eminent  teachers  and 
pupils.  Shrewsbury  is  praised  for  its  house  of  industry,  and  for  the  arrangement  of  its 
county  gaol. 


392 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pakt  III, 


Ludlow,  an  ancient  town,  was  frequently  the  residence  of  royalty,  and  the  regular  station 
of  those  powerful  officers  the  Lords  Presidents  of  the  Marches.  The  castle,  placed  on  a 
wooded  rock  overhanginor  the  Tcrne,  was  considered  one  of  the  strongest  places  in  the  king- 
dom. In  its  vicinity  occurred  many  of  the  most  distinguished  events  in  the  contest  between 
the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster.  It  was  afterwards  dismantled;  yet  remained  a  splendid 
private  mansion,  in  which  Milton's  "  Comus"  was  first  performed,  and  where  Butler  wrote  a 
part  of  his  "  Hudibras."  It  is  now  entirely  roofless  and  covered  with  ivy,  but  still  adorns 
the  town,  which  is  well  built  and  pleasantly  situated. 

Hereford  and  Monmouth,  two  demi-Welsh  counties,  fill  the  interval  from  Shropshire  south- 
wards to  the  Bristol  Channel.  Being  traversed  by  the  Wye,  the  most  picturesque  of  the 
English  rivers,  they  vie  in  beauty  with  almost  any  part  of  the  kingdom.  The  chief  inchistry 
is  in  the  rearing  of  fi-uit,  and  the  wlutlc  country  is  as  it  were  covered  with  orchards :  hence 
Hereford  draws"its  staple  production  of  cider  and  perry,  in  peculiar  abundance  and  perfection. 
The  crop  is  precarious ;  but  in  a  good  year  the  produce  of  an  acre  will  be  from  eighteen  to 
twenty-four  hogsheads,  sometimes  of  such  fine  quality,  that  it  will 
sell  from  the  pVess  at  20Z.  a  hogshead.  The  western  district  of 
Hereford  produces  also  a  large  quantity  of  liops,  and  lias  one  of 
the  finest  breeds  of  cattle  in  the  kingdom,  both  fordrauglit  and  feed- 
ing. The  breed  of  sheep,  called  Ryeland  {fi^.  170.),  besides  tlie 
excellence  of  their  flesh,  bear  the  very  finest  wool  in  the  kingdom. 
Monmouth  is  not  so  fertile :  its  chief  wealth  is  mineral,  coal  being 
most  abundant ;  and  iron  works  are  established  to  such  an  extent, 
Ryeland  Sheep.  ^t^^^  tjjgy  j^j^yg  been  known  to  produce  a  thousand  tons  in  tlie  week. 

Of  the  towns,  Hereford  bears  venerable  marks  of  antiquity,  particularly  its  cathedra],  not- 
withstanding the  llill  of  its  principal 
tower.  Ross,  once  the  residence  of 
Mr.  Kyrle,  celebrated  by  Pope  as 
"  the  Man  of  Ross,"  is  a  beautiful 
village,  considered  as  a  sort  of  centre 
of  the  picturesque  scenes  of  the  Wye. 
The  towns  of  Monmouthshire  are 
small.  The  capital  has  a  limited 
trade  along  the  Wye;  but  its  situa- 
tion, in  a  delightful  country,  has 
attracted  the  neighbouring  gentry. 
There  are  still  remains  of  its  once 
powerful  castle,  and  of  a  Benedictine 
priory.  A  few  miles  from  Monmouth 
is  Tintern  Abbey  (Jig.  171.),  the  most 
Timem  Aiibey.  picturesque,  perhaps,  of  all  the  English 

monastic  remains.     This  arises,  not  merely  from  its  extent  and  beauty,  althougli  these  be 
gieat:  but  from  its  roofless  and  ruined  state,  whence  the  walls,  botii  within  and  without, 

are  overgrown  witli  luxuriant  ivy,  and  de- 
caying art  and  nature  are  blended  together. 
In  another  direction  is  Ragland  castle,  the 
seat  of  the  dukes  of  Beaufort  (Jig.  172.), 
and  considered  one  of  the  strongest  of  the 
ancient  fortresses ;  but,  after  the  gallant  de- 
fence made  by  tlie  marquess  of  Worcester 
for  Charles  I.,  "Cromwell,"  says  Gilpin, 
"  laid  his  iron  hand  upon  it,  and  sliattered  it 
to  ruins;  to  which  it  owes  its  present  pic- 
turesque form."  Chepstow,  at  the  mouth 
of  tlie  Wye,  is  a  neat  town,  and  carries  on 
some  trade.  It  is  chiefly  interesting,  how- 
ever,  from  the  remains  of  its  castle,  one  of 
the  most  strikmg  of  all  the  mighty  fortresses  of  Wales.  Five  or  six  large  towers  still  re- 
main, with  the  outer  walls  of  a  magnificent  chapel. 

Worcester  and  Gloucester  occupy  tlie  lower  valley  of  the  Severn,  which  there  becomes  a 
river  of  the  first  magnitude.  This  valley  is  broad,  smooth,  and  fertile,  yet  nowhere  degene- 
rates into  a  dead  unvaried  level.  Worcester  has,  on  the  west,  the  Malvern  Hills,  some  of 
wnose  summits  rise  to  the  height  of  nearly  1500  feet.  Gloucestershire,  again,  has  to  the 
east  the  Cotswokl  Hills,  more  rugged,  though  not  so  elevated ;  while  to  tlTe  west  are  the 
rugged  remains  of  the  Forest  of  Dean.  Worcestershire  has,  besides,  the  valley  of  the  Lower 
Avon  and  ot  Evesham,  famed  for  their  beauty  and  fertility.  The  vales  of  these  fine  counties 
are  fitted  for  produce  of  every  description, — grain,  fruits,  pasturaffe,  with  some  preference  of 
tJie  two  latter,     Gloucester  is  particularly  distinguished  for  its  dairies,  which  produce  that 


Ragland  Casi 


Boor  1.  ENGLAND.  393 

rich  cheese  well  known  under  its  name.  The  best,  or  double  Gloucester,  is  produced  in  tlie 
vale  of  Berkeley,  situated  along  the  lowest  part  of  the  course  of  the  Severn.  Both  counties 
have  flourishing-  manufactures,  though  not  on  the  vast  scale  of  the  northern  districts. 
Gloucester,  in  particular,  has  a  very  extensive  fabric  of  fine  woollens,  carried  on  through 
numberless  villages,  in  what  are  called  "  the  Bottoms,"  a  range  of  territory  along  the  Ipwer 
part  of  the  Cotswold  Hills.     Its  scarlet  and  blue  woollens  are  in  particular  repute. 

Worcester  is  a  considerable  and  very  handsome  city,  the  principal  streets  being  spacious 
and  regular,  with  many  good  houses,  and  presenting  a  general  air  of  neatness  and  comfort. 
It  is  of  high  antiquity,  the  cathedral  {Jig.  173.)  having  been  founded  in  the  7th  century, 

though  the  present  structure  was  almost  en- 
tirely erected  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries. 
It  is  of  great  extent,  simple  and  august, 
without  the  rich  ornament  which  distm- 
guishes  some  others.  It  contains  the  tomb 
of  King  John,  one  of  the  most  ancient  in 
England  ;  also  that  of  Prince  Arthur.  Wor- 
cester is  chiefly  noted  in  history  for  the 
great  battle  in  which  Cromwell  totally  routed 
the  Scots  army,  and  compelled  Charles  II. 
to  quit  England  as  a  fugitive.  The  city  has 
lost  its  woollen  manufacture ;  but  has  still 
one  of  porcelain,  the  finest  in  the  king- 
dom. Fifteen  different  materials  are  used, 
chiefly  white  granite,  and  steatite  from  Corn- 
wall ;  and  every  piece  passes  through  twenty-three  hands  before  it  is  brought  to  perfection. 
Gloves  are  also  made ;  and  there  is  a  considerable  trade  up  and  down  the  Severn. 

Kidderminster  is  large  and  flourishing,  in  consequence  of  a  very  extensive  manufactory 
of  carpets.  Droitwich  is  noted  for  its  salt  springs.  They  are  covered  with  a  deep  stratum 
of  gypsum :  and  for  a  long  time  the  salt  was  made  only  from  the  brine  which  penetrated  this 
bed  ;  but,  about  a  century  ago,  it  was  bored  through,  when  the  brine  rushed  up  in  vast  quan- 
tities, and  a  large  salt  river  was  found  to  flow  beneath.  Thus  the  salt  can  now  be  procured 
in  any  quantity,  and  supplies  a  great  part  of  England. 

Gloucester  is  also  an  ancient  and  fine  city,  though  not  quite  so  large  as  Worcester.  It 
bears,  in  the  arrangement  of  its  streets,  the  marks  of  having  been  a  Roman  station.  It  was 
formerly  also,  a  place  of  great  strength.  The  manner  in  which  it  frequently  baffled  the 
utmost  efforts  of  Charles  I.  was  one  of  the  circumstances  which  contributed  most  to  the 
downfall  of  the  royal  cause.  The  most  conspicuous  feature  at  present  is  the  cathedral, 
built  in  the  Saxon  and  Norman  styles,  between  the  11th  and  13th  centuries.  The  beautiful 
liglitness  of  its  tower;  its  east  wmdow,  said  to  be  the  largest  in  the  kingdom ;  and  its  whis- 
pering gallery  ;  attract  peculiar  notice.  The  gaol,  built  at  an  expense  of  40,000/.,  afforded 
one  of  the  first  applications  of  the  beneficent  principles  of  Howard.  Pins  are  the  chief 
manufacture  of  Gloucester ;  and,  small  as  the  article  is,  the  sale  is  so  great  as  to  render  the 
amount  it  returns  considerable.  Its  trade  has  been  much  obstructed  by  the  bad  navigation 
of  the  Severn;  but  since  the  parallel  line  of  the  Berkeley  Canal  has  just  been  completed,  by 
which  large  ships  can  come  up  from  the  Channel,  Gloucester  is  placed  almost  on  a  footing 
with  Bristol. 

Cheltenham,  by  tlie  fame  of  its  waters,  and  its  attractions  as  a  place  of  fashionable  resort, 
has  become  a  greater  and  more  crowded  place  than  Gloucester.  The  waters  are  at  once 
saline  and  chalybeate ;  and,  being  thus  both  tonic  and  aperient,  are  efficacious  in  indiges- 
tion, biliary  affections,  and  similar  disorders.  Cheltenham  now  ranks  second  only  to  Bath, 
both  as  a  resort  for  invalids  and  a  gay  rendezvous  of  the  fashionable  world. 

There  are  other  interesting  towns  in  Gloucestershire.  Tewkesbury  has  in  close  vicinity 
the  "  Bloody  Meadow,"  on  which  whs  fought  the  great  battle  which  finally  crushed  the  for- 
tunes of  the  house  of  Lancaster.  Placed  at  the  junction  of  the  Severn  and  Avon,  it  is  a 
venerable  old  town,  containing  the  Abbey  churcJi  a  remnant  of  that  grand  monastery,  of 
which  the  superior,  being  a  mitred  abbot,  sat  in  the  House  of  Peers.  Cirencester,  a  town  of 
great  historical  name,  covers  only  part  of  its  ancient  site,  but  contains  one  of  the  finest  parochial 
churches  in  the  kingdom.  Stroud  is  the  centre  of  the  \\oollen  manufacture  carried  on,  not 
in  itself,  but  in  the  surrounding  valleys,  and  raising  the  population  of  the  parish  to  42,000. 
Bristol  we  shall  consider  as  belonging  to  Somerset. 

Of  the  seats  the  most  interesting  is  Hagley,  the  grounds  of  which  Lord  Lyttelton  adorned 
with  classic  taste.  Near  it  is  the  interesting  spot  of  the  Leasowes,  embellished  by  Shen- 
stone  with  all  the  taste  of  a  poet.  Berkeley  Castle  is  a  grand  castellated  edifice,  almost  ag 
old  as  the  Conquest,  and  the  scene  of  Edward  II.'s  death ;  retaining  still  its  antique  cha- 
racter. 

Somerset  has  vales  almost  as  extensive  as  those  of  Gloucester,  yet  it  is  crossed  by  long 
ranges  of  those  rugged  hills  which  pervade  all  the  extreme  west  of  England.     The  most 
Vol.  I.  2  Z 


394 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


P.UIT  III 


easterly  are  the  RIendip  Hills,  rich  in  mineral  stores ;  farther  west  are  the  Quantock  Hills, 
while  on  the  borders  of  Devon  lies  Exmoor  Forest,  the  most  elevated  of  all  tliese  tracts — its 
highest  point  Duiikerry  Beacon,  being  1668  feet  high.  The  prevailing  husbandry  is  pas- 
turage, cliiclly  of  rich  natural  grass;  and,  besides  a  number  of  cattle  sent  to  the  London 
markets,  tlie  dairy  is  a  great  brancli  of  industry.  Chcddcr  cheese  is  considered  equal  to  any 
in  England ;  and  a  great  quantity  of  what  is  called  Gloucester  is  produced  in  Somerset. 
Tlie  orcliards  are  extensive,  and  cider  and  perry  nearly  as  abundant  as  in  the  counties  on 
the  Severn.  The  Mendip  Hills  yield  excellent  coal,  lead  of  fine  quality,  and  calamine.  The 
manufactures  are  considerable,  both  woollen  and  linen ;  the  former  chiefly  of  the  finer  sorts ; 
the  latter,  mostly  dowlas,  tickens,  and  sail-cloth. 

Bristol,  since  we  have  attached  it  to  Somerset,  must  hold  the  first  place.  Tliis  city 
ranked  long  as  second  to  the  metropolis  in  commercial  importance ;  but  in  the  course  of  tlie 
last  century,  it  has  remained  nearly  stationary  in  extent  and  population,  though  not  in  wealth. 
In  1736,  it  had  80,000  inhabitants ;  in  1621,  87,771 ;  but  in  1831,  with  its  suburbs,  104,886. 
It  has  still  a  very  extensive  trade,  chiefly  with  Wales,  Ireland,  and  the  West  Indies.  Nor 
does  its  spirit  seem  abated;  since,  in  1809,  it  completed,  at  an  expense  of  60,000t.,  a  series 
of  extensive  improvements,  by  which  the  rivers  Avon  and  Frome  were  spread  out  into  vast 
basins,  for  the  commodious  reception  of  vessels.  Tlie  manufactures  of  Bristol  are  very  con- 
siderable; its  glass-works  are  twenty  in  number;  its  brass  founderies  the  most  extensive 
in  the  kingdom ;  to  which  it  adds  shot,  pottery,  &c.  In  1832  there  belonged  to  it  296  ships, 
of  the  burthen  of  46,o67  tons.  The  amount  of  customs,  in  1831,  was  1,168,978?.,  chiefly 
from  duties  on  West  Lidia  produce  ;  and  there  entered  its  port  2547  vessels,  of  the  bur- 
then of  625,000  tons.  It  has  still  the  remains  of  a  magnificent  cathedral,  and  tlie  beau- 
tiful church  of  St.  Alary  Redcliflie,  with  many  interesting  monuments.  The  old  interior  of 
Bristol  is  ill-built  and  inconvenient;  but  tlie  merchants  in  the  new  quarters  of  the  city  have 
reared  some  handsome  streets  and  squares.  Bristol  has  wells,  considered  very  efficacious, 
especially  in  consumptive  complaints.  Visiters  chiefly  resort  to  the  beautiful  village  of  Clif- 
ton, about  a  mile  distant,  amid  the  romantic  rocks  of  St.  Vincent.  Bristol  stands  conspicu- 
ous for  its  beneficent  institutions,  in  which  those  for  education  stand  prominent.  Chat- 
tcrton,  Southey,  and  Coleridge  were  natives  of  Bristol. 

The  name  of  Bath  (fig.  174.)  unplies  the  circumstance  to  \vhich  from  the  earliest  ages  it 
has  owed  its  importance.     The  Romans  made  it  one  of  their  principal  stations,  and  built 


"    C-S««~^ 


splendid  baths,  of  which  the  remains  have  been  discovered.  Near  tlie  middle  of  the  last 
century,  it  became  very  distinguished  as  a  scene  of  fashionable  residence,  and  continued 
to  increase  till  recently,  when  its  attraction  was  shared  by  Cheltenham  and  some  newer 
places  of  resort.  It  became  the  most  beautiful,  we  may  nearly  say  tlie  only  beautiful,  city 
in  England.  The  houses,  built  of  a  fine  freestone,  while  those  of  almost  all  the  other  great 
towns  are  of  bric'k,  have  a  decidedly  superior  aspect;  and  several  of  the  streets,  as  Great 
Pulteney  Street,  the  Crescent,  the  Parades,  &c.,  being  not  only  composed  of  fine  houses,  but 
formed  on  a  regular  plan,  may  vie  with  the  finest  in  Europe.  The  city,  moreover,  rising  by 
a  gentle  ascent  from  the  Avon,  large  portions  of  it  may  often  be  seen  at  once  in  the  most 
advantageous  points  of  view.  The  pump-room,  the  "assembly-room,  and  every  structure 
raised  for  the  sick  or  the  gay,  are  unequalled  in  splendour.  Bath  has  a  Gothic  cathedral 
one  of  the  latest  built,  and  on  a  small  scale,  but  the  most  highly  ornamented  in  the  king- 
dom ;  the  chief  beauty  is  in  tlie  west  front. 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


395 


Other  venerable  and   interesting  cities  are  found  in  Somersetshire.     Wells  is  chiefly 
distinguished  by  a  cathedral  {fig.  175.),  which  ranks  with   the  finest  in  England.     The 
175         IMM  western  front,  built  in  the  13th  century, 

is  one  of  the  most  splendid  specimens 
existing-  of  the  light  and  highly  orna- 
mented Gothic.  In  the  interior,  a  chapel 
dedicated  to  the  Virgin  is  mucii  admired ; 
the  rest  is  Saxon,  and  heavy.  About  two 
miles  distant  is  Wookey  Hole,  a  natural 
cavern ;  the  aperture,  at  first,  merely  al- 
lows one  rnan  to  pass ;  but  it  soon  opens 
into  a  succession  of  large  apartments, 
filled  with  spars,  concretions,  petrifac- 
Weiis  Cathedral.  tious  of  the  most  fantastic  forms.    A  sub- 

terraneous river  prevents  farther  advance.  Glastonbury  contains  the  small  remains  of  the 
most  extensive  monastery  in  the  kingdom ;  which,  with  its  various  gardens  and  offices, 
covered  sixty  acres,  supported  500  nipnks,  and  enjoyed  a  revenue  of  25,000Z.  Even  the 
church  attached  to  it  rivalled  the  greatest  of  the  English  cathedrals.  Bridgewater  and 
Taunton  are  towns  of  note  in  history,  which  carry  on  some  trade  and  manufactures.  Wel- 
lington gives  a  title  to  the  greatest  commander  of  the  age,  in  whose  honour  a  pillar  is  there 
erected.     Frome  is  a  large  and  flourishing  town,  employed  in  the  woollen  manufacture. 

Devonshire  is  traversed  by  ridges  of  hills,  low,  broad  and  flat,  whicli,  seen  from  a  height, 
appear  often  as  one  uninterrupted  plain ;  but  on  minuter  inspection  are  found  separated  by 
deep  valleys  called  coombs,  walled  in  by  the  steep  sides  of  the  hills.  This  structure  pro- 
duces many  sequestered  and  romantic  sites ;  it  renders,  however,  many  of  the  roads  steep  and 
circuitous,  and  in  some  places  scarcely  passable.  The  forest  of  Dartmoor,  an  extensive  dis- 
trict on  the  west  of  the  county,  is  of  a  character  peculiarly  rugged,  broken  into  fantastic 
summits,  and  the  valleys  chiefly  under  wood  or  lying  waste.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Vale 
of  Exeter,  and  what  are  called  the  Hams,  in  the  southern  districts,  are  distinguished  for 
fertility,  which  is  rather  heightened  than  injured  by  the  moderate  inequalities  of  the  surface. 
Grain,  cattle,  sheep,  potatoes,  excellent  cider,  are  raised  according  to  the  situation,  and  are 
all  generally  good.  The  cattle  are  of  a  very  superior  breed,  both  for  feeding  and  draught. 
Devonshire  does  not  rank  high  as  a  manufacturing  county  ;  yet  woollens  are  made  to  some 
extent  in  Exeter  and  several  other  places.  Fishing  is  carried  on  with  spirit  and  success, 
both  in  the  sea  and  in  the  rivers ;  of  which  last,  the  Exe  and  the  Tamar  are  the  principal. 
The  Western  Canal,  joining  the  two  channels,  passes  chiefly  through  Devonshire. 

Exeter,  the  capital,  is  an  ancient  and  pleasantly  situated  town,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Exe.  In  consequence  of  its  advantages  for  education  and  society,  many  of  the  gentry  from 
different  parts  of  the  county  have  made  it  their  residence.  Its  manufacture  and  export  of 
serges  and  kerseys  have  declined,  but  are  still  considerable ;  the  East  India  Company  taking 
them  to  the  annual  value  of  400,000Z.  The  cathedral  holds  a  high  rank  among  ecclesiasti- 
cal antiquities.  Some  part  of  it  is  traced  to  the  ninth  century ;  but  the  greater  proportion 
belongs  to  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth.  The  painted  east  window,  and  the  bell  of 
12,500  lbs.  weight,  the  gift  of  Bishop  Courtenay,  are  particularly  noticed.  Some  modern 
embellishments  have  been  added. 

Plymouth  is  the  most  important  of  the  towns  of  Devonshire,  and  one  of  the  great  naval 
arsenals  of  Britain.  The  main  and  central  depots  lie  at  Portsmoutli  and  on  the  Thames; 
but  it  is  important  that  the  fleets  should  have  this  exterior  station,  where  they  may  rendez- 
vous, and  receive  their  final  equipment  and  supplies  before  leaving  the  Channel ;  where 
also,  when  exhausted,  they  may  put  in  and  refit.  The  Plym  and  the  Tamar,  at  their  junc- 
tion, form  an  estuary  of  nearly  two  miles  broad,  composing  a  harbour,  or  rather  a  series  of 
harbours,  capable  of  containmg  2000  vessels  in  a  state  of  perfect  security.  In  that  of  Ha- 
moaze,  on  the  Tamar,  100  sail  of  the  Ime  may  be  safely  moored.  Catwater,  the  port  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Plym  ;  and  Sutton  Pool,  immediately  adjoining  the  town;  are  both  excellent  and 
extensive.  Plymouth  Bay  forms  also  an  excellent  roadstead,  though  exposed  to  the  heavy 
swell  which  came  in  firom  the  Atlantic.     To  remedy  this,  government  undertook  that  stu- 

17G 


f 


Plymouth  Breakwater. 


pendous  work  the  Breakwater,  a  mole  formed  by  immense  stones  heaped  upon  each  other 
Btretching  across  the  entrance,  aj.d  at  a  certain  distance  from  either  shore  (Jig.  176.).    The 


396  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III 

estimated  expense  was  1,17£),000Z. ;  and  the  quantity  of  stone,  2,000,000  tons.  It  has  com- 
pletely answered  expectation  ;  and,  in  proportion  as  it  has  advanced,  has  rendered  the 
roadstead  more  secure.  As  the  approach  was  also  rendered  dangerous  by  the  Eddystone 
rocks,  a  lio-Jit-house  has,  after  much  difficulty  and  several  unsuccessful  trials,  been  erected 
there'  by  Air.  Smeaton,  sufficiently  firm  to  withstand  tlie  furious  assaults  of  the  Atlantic 
waves  to  which  it  is  exposed.  Plymouth  is  now  divided  into  two  nearly  equal  parts — 
Plymouth  and  Plymouth  dock,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tamar,  recently  called  Devonport,  and 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  separate  borough.  The  dock-yard  is  most  superb ;  3500  yards  in 
length,  and  from  1000  to  1600  m  breadth.  All  the  establishments  connected  with  it,  the 
ropery,  smitliy,  saw-pits,  mast-houses,  as  also  the  victualling  departments,  are  on  the  most 
extensive  scale,  yet  conducted  in  the  most  regular  order.  I'lymouth  is  not,  on  the  whole, 
a  well-built  town :  but  it  contains  some  handsome  edifices;  as  tlie  government-house;  the 
theatre,  chiefly  of  cast-iron;  the  public  library,  (to.  The  charitable  institutions  are  nu- 
merous. 

Barnstaple  is  a  sort  of  capital  of  North  Devon,  situated  on  a  rich  plain,  and  retaining  a 
few  manufactures.  Dartmouth  carries  on  some  foreign  trade ;  while  between  it  and  Teign- 
mouth  is  Torbay,  where,  sheltered  from  the  heavy  gales  ihat  blow  up  the  Channel,  the 
Britisli  fleet  can  ride  safely  at  anchor. 

Cornwall  is  a  peninsula  of  a  triangular  form,  bounded  by  Devon,  and  the  sea.  The  hills 
form  a  bleak  central  ridge,  terminating  in  the  rugged  and  obtuse  point  called  the  Land's 
End.  But  some  of  llie  narrow  valleys  wear  the  aspect  of  smiling  fertility.  In  some  se- 
cluded spots  the  climate  is  so  genial,  that  the  myrtle  and  other  shrubs  peculiar  to  the  south 
of  Europe  flourish  in  the  open  air.  Cornwall  has  from  the  earliest  ages  been  renowned  for  its 
mineral  products.  These  are  principally  tin  and  copper;  it  also  yields  some  lead.  These 
metals  occur  in  the  granite  ciiain,  extending  eastward  as  far  as  Dartmoor  in  Devon ;  but  at 
present  the  principal  mining  district  is  that  between  tlie  Land's  End  and  St.  Austel. 
The  most  celebrated  are  the  tin  mines  of  Palgooth,*  about  two  miles  west  of  that  town  :  in 
these  there  are  no  fewer  than  fifty  shafts,  of  which  twenty  or  thirty  are  constantly  in  use. 
The  principal  vein  of  ore,  which  is  about  six  feet  thick,  runs  from  east  to  west,  and  dips  to 
the  north  with  an  inclination  of  about  six  feet  in  a  fathom.  The  ore  is  of  the  vitreous 
kind,  but  rarely  found  in  crystals ;  the  colour  for  the  most  part  grayisli-brown ;  the  covntry 
of  tiie  ore  is  a  gray  killas.  The  water  is  carried  away.  Steam  power  has  been  substituted 
for  that  of  horses  in  moving  the  machinery  employed  for  raising,  washing,  and  stamping  the 
ore ;  after  which  last  operation  it  is  carried  to  the  smelting-house.  Tin  cannot  be  sold  until 
it  is  assayed  and  stamped  with  the  duchy  seal ;  for  which  purpose  meetings  are  usually  held 
four  times  a  year.  The  annual  produce  is  estimated  at  20,000  or  25,000  blocks,  each  block 
weighing  from  2|  to  3^  cwt.,  and  valued  on  the  average  at  ten  guineas.  Grain  tin,  which 
is  obtained  fi"om  stream  ore,  is  deemed  superior  in  value  to  the  common  metal,  and  has  been 
procured  to  the  amount  of  2000  or  2400  blocks  annually.  The  annual  produce  of  copper 
is  about  13,000  tons,  estimated  at  1,300,000/.  The  lead  mines  are  not  much  worked.  The 
tinners  are  in  many  respects  a  distinct  body  of  men ;  they  have  a  court  and  parliament  of 
their  own.  The  stannary  laws,  by  which  the  mines  and  tlie  operations  connected  with 
them  are  regulated,  do  not  appear  to  have  undergone  any  change  since  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.     The  mines  give  employment  to  about  16,000  men. 

The  pdchard  fishery  affords  another  source  of  wealth  to  Cornwall.  The  pilchards  appear 
annually  in  vast  shoals  about  the  middle  of  July;  and  are  taken  in  large  nets  of  a  peculiar 
form,  called  seans,  each  sean  managed  by  three  boats,  contaming  eighteen  men.  After  lying 
salted  in  store  for  six  weeks,  the  fish  are  packed  in  hogsheads,  so  closely  that  the  whole 
contents,  when  turned  out,  appear  in  a  compact  state.  The  oil  expressed  fi'om  them  is  so 
considerable  in  quantity  as  to  have  become  an  article  of  trade.  The  quantity  annually 
exported  from  the  Cornish  coast  may  be  wortli  50,0O0Z.  including  the  receipts  for  oil.  The 
number  of  persons  employed  in  this  fishery  is  about  .5000. 

The  towns  of  Cornwall  are  small.  Launceston,  situated  on  the  Tamar,  extends  up  the 
side  of  a  hill,  on  the  summit  of  which  are  the  remains  of  a  small  fortress  called  Castle  Ter- 
rible, where  a  vigorous  stand  was  made  to  sustain  the  sinking  fortunes  of  Charles  I.  Truro 
is  a  neat  thriving  town,  the  ti'ade  of  which  consists  in  a  considerable  export  of  tin.  Penzance, 
near  the  Land's  End,  from  the  mild  salubrity  of  its  air,  has  been  found  highly  beneficial  to 
persons  of  delicate  constitutions,  particularly  of  a  consumptive  tendency ;  and  those  who 
take  up  their  residence  at  Penzance,  are  agreeably  surprised  by  the  lovely  scenery  in  its 
neighbourhood.  Falmouth,  the  westernmost  of  the  line  harbours  on  the  Channel,  is  the  prin- 
cipal packet  station  for  Lisbon,  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  West  Indies. 

'  SuBSECT  5. —  Wales. 

Wales  is  a  territory  which,  though  united  to  England  by  early  conquest,  still  retains  the 
title  of  a  separate  principality,  and  possesses  a  national  aspect.     The  verdant  and  extensive 

*  Dr.  Mafon's  Observations  on  the  Western  Counties. 


Book  I.  ENGLAND.  397 

plains  of  western  England  here  give  place  to  the  lofty  mountain,  the  deep  valley,  the  roar- 
ing torrent,  and  the  frightful  precipice.  Wales  has  rivers  and  torrents  without  number, 
whicli  roll  through  its  mountain  valleys,  and  whose  banks,  adorned  with  verdure  and  culti- 
vation, combine  in  the  most  striking  manner  with  the  lofty  and  varied  summits  which  tower 
above  them.  The  loftiest  mountains  are  in  North  Wales;  its  valleys  are  deeper  and 
narrower ;  and  it  presents  more  strikingly  all  the  characteristic  features  of  Welsh  scenery. 
In  South  Wales,  on  the  contrary,  the  valleys  are  broader,  more  fertile,  and  fuller  of  towns 
and  villages;  they  often  even  expand  into  wide  plains,  still  encircled  by  a  mountain  bound- 
ary. Agriculture,  in  such  a  country,  labours  under  many  disadvantages,  and  is  carried  on 
too  often  upon  the  old  system  of  infield  and  outfield.  Manufactures  are  nearly  confined  to 
the  article  of  flannel,  which  has  always  been  a  fabric  of  the  Welsh,  in  which  they  still  excel 
their  Yorkshire  rivals.  It  is  to  mining,  liowever,  that  the  mdustry  of  Wales  has  been  chiefly 
attracted,  by  the  profusion  of  mineral  wealth  which  nature  lias  lodged  in  the  bowels  of  its 
mountains.  Tlie  lead  of  Flint,  Caernarvon,  and  other  counties  of  North  Wales,  the  copper 
of  Anglesey,  and  above  all,  the  iron  of  Glamorgan  and  other  counties  in  the  British  Channel, 
are  objects  of  extensive  importance.  Coal  is  found  almost  everywhere,  and  is  employed 
either  for  domestic  purposes,  or  in  fusing  and  refining  the  metallic  ores. 

The  Welsh  are  a  Celtic  race,  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Britons,  who,  in  these  moun- 
tain recesses,  sought  refuge  from  the  destroying  sword  of  the  Saxons,  which  so  completely 
dispossessed  them  of  the  low  country  of  England.  They  could  not  resist  the  overwlielming 
power  of  Edward  I.,  who  annexed  Wales  to  tlie  English  crown.  In  order  to  hold  it  in  sub- 
jection, however,  he  was  obliged  to  construct,  not  only  on  its  frontier,  but  in  its  interior, 
castles  of  immense  extent  and  strength.  Yet  they  did  not  prevent  formidable  insurrections, 
in  one  of  which  Owen  Glendower  maintained  himself  for  years  as  an  independent  prince. 
Within  the  last  800  years,  the  Welsli  liave  been  as  peaceable  as  any  other  subjects  of  the 
empire.  They  have  retained,  of  their  feudal  habits,  only  venial  failings.  Among  these  is 
national  pride,  through  which  the  genuine  Cambrian  holds  his  country  and  his  nation  supe- 
rior to  all  others ;  and  regards  the  Sasna  or  Saxon  as  a  lower  race  of  yesterday.  With  this 
is  connected,  in  a  high  degree,  the  pride  of  pedigree ;  even  the  humblest  Welshman  tracing 
his  origin  far  above  any  lowland  genealogy.  Strong  ties  of  friendship  subsist  between  the 
landowners  and  their  tenants :  manifested,  on  one  side,  by  indulgence  and  protecting  kind- 
ness ;  on  the  other,  by  a  profound  veneration  for  the  representatives  of  the  ancient  chiefs  of 
their  race.  The  Welsh  have  many  superstitions,  mixed  with  much  genuine  religious  feeling. 
They  are  hardy,  active,  lively,  hospitable,  kind-hearted ;  only  a  little  hot  and  quarrelsome. 
Their  English  neighbours  complain  that  they  have  not  yet  attained  that  pitch  of  industry 
and  cleanliness  in  which  the  former  place  their  pride. 

North  Wales  comprises  the  counties  of  Caernarvon,  Merioneth,  Montgomery,  Denbigh, 
and  Flint,  with  the  island  of  Anglesey.  The  characteristic  feature  of  this  division  consists 
in  the  very  elevated  chains  of  mountains  which  cross  it  from  north  to  south,  facing  the  Irish 

Channel.  The  chief  is  Snowdon  (Jig. 
177,)  which  raises  its  head  to  the  height 
of  3700  feet ;  yet  it  is  only  the  most  ele- 
vated of  a  crowd  of  summits,  many  of 
which  rear  their  peaks  almost  as  high. 
They  cover  a  great  part  of  the  county  of 
Caernarvon,  at  the  northern  part  of  which 
they  present  to  the  Bay  of  Beaumaris  the 
lofty  steep  of  Penmanmawr,  wdiose  broken 
fragments  threaten  to  bury  him  who 
travels  the  difficult  path  which  has  been 
formed  along  its  almost  perpendicular 
sides.  Merioneth  is  chiefly  covered  with 
inferior,  but  lofty  and  rugged  mountains, 
till  towards  the  southern  extremity,  they  tower  into  Cader  Idris,  the  second  summit  of 
Wales.  It  is  everywhere  steep,  craggy,  and  precipitous.  Lastly,  in  the  heart  of  Montgomery, 
towers  the  Imge  mass  of  Plinlimmon,  with  a  crowd  of  attendant  mountains. 

Tiie  vales  which  intervene  between  these  heights  diversify  bleak  and  barren  regions, 
otherwise  calculated  to  inspire  only  impressions  of  dreary  sublimity.  The  most  extensive 
is  that  of  Clwyd,  in  the  county  of  Denbigh,  where  the  mountain  chains  gradually  sink.  It 
is  about  twenty  miles  in  length,  and  four  or  five  in  average  breadth ;  and  presents  a  more 
brilliant  picture  of  fertility,  heightened,  doubtless,  by  contrast,  than  almost  any  other  spot 
in  the  island.  The  narrower  vales,  however,  present  more  of  picturesque  beauty,  particu- 
larly that  of  Llangolen,  where  the  Dee,  winding  through  cultivated  and  pastoral  scenes, 
overhung  by  high  rocks  and  cliffs,  presents  at  every  step  a  varying  landscape.  The  island 
of  Anglesey  is  generally  level,  and  its  scenery  presents  few  striking  features,  except  the 
rocks  of  its  western  shore.  It  has  happened,  fortunately  for  the  improvement  of  this  formi- 
dable range  of  territory,  that  it  lies  on  the  highway  from  London  towards  Dublin ;  and  with 
Vol.  I.  34 


398 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


the  view  of  facilitating  the  intercourse  between  the  kinordoms,  government,  at  the  national 

expense,  has  formed  one  of  the  finest  roads  in  the  world ;  among  the  principal  features  oi 

'    -^  which   is   tlie    iron    suspension-bridge, 


formed  across  the  arm  of  llie  sea,  called 
the  Menai  Channel.  The  chief  centre 
of  the  flannel  manufacture  is  in  Mont- 
gomery and  Merioneth.  The  lead  mines 
of  Holywell  and  the  copper  mines  of 
Anglesey  possess  an  importance  scarce- 
ly inferior  to  those  of  South  Wales. 

Caernarvon  is  a  handsome,  well-built 
town.  Its  chief  ornament  is  the  castle, 
a  stately  edifice  (Jig.  178.),  built  by  Ed- 
ward I.  to  curb  the  spirit  of  the  newly 
subdued  Welsh.  It  encloses  an  area  of 
two  acres  and  a  half;  the  towers  are  of  stupendous  magnitude,  and  crowned  by  light  and 
beautiful  turrets.  To  the  south  of  Caernarvon  is  the  steep  ascent  of  Snowdon,  whence  a 
view  of  astonishing  extent  is  commanded ;  though  only  to  be  seen  in  those  fortunate  days 

when  the  veil  of  mist,  which  usually 
wraps  it,  has  been  dissipated.  On 
its  declivity  is  the  wild  and  rocky 
lake  of  Llanbieris,  with  the  ruined 
castle  of  Dolbadern  overhanging  its 
banks.  Nearly  at  the  opposite  ex- 
tremity of  the  county  is  Conway ; 
a  poor  town,  but  containing  the  walls 
of  a  still  more  mairnificent  castle 
{.fig.  179.),  also  erected  by  Edward 
I.    The  interior  is  in  a  state  of  total 

_i$s«rti»?»ri--^--'^^sss*j?s    i-^^«K5^=*5L  "-^  K^atjg'^fe^      ruin;  but  the  view,  from  a  little  dis- 

_;     -••  .  .j;i..saHHarlu£i      ^e>»:*i&  5sfel^afer:^&_     tance,   of  its  eight  mighty  towers, 

ranging  along  the  summit  of  a  lofty 

rock,   which  overlooks  the   Bay   of 

Beaumaris,    presents    an   image   of 

Conway  Cu^Ue.  grandeur  which  scarcely  any  other 

castellated  structure  in  the  kingdom  can  rival.     About  midway  between  those  two  castled 

sites  is  Bangor,  a  pleasant  little  town,  on  the  high  road  to  Holyhead  and  Dublin.    Here,  and 

j^gQ  X  "^-^^  ^ at  Penryn,   is  a  great  shipment  of  slates,   brought 

~    ^~"  "~  from  the  steep  sides  of  the  neiglibouring  mountains. 

Merioneth  has  a  few  large  villages,  each  enclosed 
by  a  circuit  of  lofty  and  almost  inaccessible  mountains. 
Bala  is  supported  by  a  small  manufacture  of  knit 
gloves  and  stockings,  and  by  the  vicinity  of  the  largest 
of  the  little  lakes  of  Wales,  which  has  clear  water 
and  abounds  in  fisli.  Dolgelly,  about  midway  between 
Snowdon  and  Cader  Idris  {jig.  180.),  is  seated  in  the 
very  heart  of  all  the  grandest  scenery  of  Wales.  On 
the  coast,  the  castle  of  Harlech,  built  also  by  Edward, 
bears  marks  of  great  strength. 
Montgomery,  though  its  centre  is  occupied  by  the  "  huge  Plinlimmon,"  whence  branches 
shoot  out  in  every  direction,  is  yet,  on  the  whole,  of  a  milder  aspect.  The  town  of  Mont- 
gomery is  small,  plea-santly  situated  on  the  declivity  of  a  hill,  crowned  with  the  ruins  of  a 
once  noble  castle.  Welshpool  is  an  ill-built  straggling  to^m,  but  has  a  great  market  for  flan- 
nels ;  and  communicates  by  a  canal  with  Chester  and  Ellesmere.  Near  Montgomery  is  Powis 
Cattle,  wiiich  dates  from,  the  twelfth  century,  and  was  long  one  of  the  proudest  fortresses  in 
Wales :  it  is  still  a  superb  modern  seat. 

In  proceeding  to  Denbigh  and  Flint,  we  come  to  broader  valleys,  and  hills  gradually  dimin- 
ishuig  down  to  the  level  plain  of  western  England.  Denbigh,  a  pleasant,  ancient  little 
town,  is  crowned  by  a  castle,  seated  on  a  high  rock,  looking  down  to  the  vale  of  Clwyd,  pro- 
verbial for  its  smiling  fertility.  In  the  valley  of  the  Dee,  is  Wrexham,  noted  for  its  fairs,  in 
which  Welsh  flannel  is  the  staple  commodity.  But  the  chief  ornament  of  Denbigh  is  Llan- 
gollen Vale,  on  the  upper  Dee,  where  the  mixture  of  culture  and  wildness  produces  the  most 
striking  variety  of  scenery.  Among  its  leading  features  are  the  ruined  castle  of  Dinas  Bran, 
crowning  the  steep  summit  of  one  of  the  principal  hills ;  and  the  remains  of  the  Abbey  of 
Valle  Crucis.  This  last  is  situated  in  a  valley  connected  with  that  of  Llangollen,  enclosed 
by  lofty  mountains  verdant  to  the  summit,  and  sprinkled  with  trees.  The  edifice  has  been 
in  the  simplest  style  of  Saxon  architecture ;  but  the  situation  renders  it  one  of  the  moFt 


Book  I.  WALES.  399 

picturesque  spots  in  England.  Chirk  has  near  it  a  castle,  one  of  the  most  perfect  of  the 
many  with  which  Wales  is  adorned.  Near  it  also  is  the  fine  aqueduct  of  Pont-y-Cysilte,  by 
which  Mr.  Telford  has  conducted  the  Ellesmere  Canal  over  the  Dee,  resting  on  18  piers, 
1007  feet  in  length,  and  126  feet  above  the  level  of  the  river. 

Flint  is  rich  in  lead  and  otlier  mineral  stores.  The  county  town  of  Flint,  and  its  castle, 
have  entirely  lost  the  importance  tJiey  possessed  when  they  were  the  prison  of  Richard  II. ; 
and  the  glory  of  Caerwys,  the  ancient  scene  of  musical  and  poetical  contest,  has  entirely 
passed  away.  Holywell,  besides  its  extensive  lead  mine,  carries  on  works  in  brass  and 
copper,  and  even  some  cotton  fabrics.  Here  the  sacred  well  of  St.  Winfrede,  from  which 
it  derives  its  name,  is  beneficially  applied  to  the  purposes  of  industry.  The  lead  mine  of 
Llan-y-Pander  is  the  most  extensive  in  the  kingdom,  and  employs  four  vast  steam-engines  in 
clearing  off  the  water.  Mold  is  a  pretty  large  town,  in  the  centre  of  a  rich  plain  of  the 
same  name.      St.  Asaph  attracts  notice  by  its  neat  cathedral. 

The  Island  of  Anglesey  is  generally  a  naked  and  gloomy  flat.     It  was  anciently  the  cen- 
tral seat  of  druidical  superstition,  still  attested  by  the  cromlechs,  or  large,  flat,  stone  tables 
supported  by  rude  pillars,  which  are  more  numerous  here  than  in  any  other  part  of  Britain. 
Its  importance  has  rested  almost  entirely  upon  its  copper  mines,  but  of  late  they  have  become 
2g2  unproductive,  and  the  annual  amount  is  only 

from  7-50  to  950  tons.  Beaumaris,  the  capital, 
is  a  neat  little  town.  Much  more  importance 
attaches  to  Holyhead,  now  the  main  point  of 
communication  between  England  and  Ireland.  ^ 
To  render  it  such,  government  has  constructed 
a  noble  road  from  London  across  the  most  rugged 
part  of  North  Wales,  and  also  made  an  admira- 
ble harbour.  The  neighbouring  coast  is  very 
bold,  and  the  promontory,  called  the  Head  (Jig. 
Iioiyhoad.  181.),  cousists  of  immense  masses  of  precipitous 

rocks,  hollowed  into  deep  caverns.  The  town  itself  has  been  rapidly  extended  and  improved. 
South  Wales  comprises  the  counties  of  Radnor,  Cardigan,  Brecknock,  Caermarthen,  Pem- 
broke, and  Glamorgan.  It  presents  scenery  equally  romantic  with  that  of  North  Wales, 
mingled  with  a  greater  degree  of  softness  and  cultivation ;  and  its  agricultural  and  mining 
products  are  of  considerably  greater  value. 

Radnor  is  composed  of  bleak  ranges  of  mountains,  in  some  parts  almost  impassable ;  the 
greater  part  is  only  fitted  to  afford  pasture  for  sheep,  the  wool  of  which  is  valuable.  New 
Radnor,  once  a  fortified  city,  is  dwindled  into  a  village. 

Cardigan  includes  some  of  the  boldest  features  of  Welsh  scenery.  The  domain  of  Hafod, 
in  particular,  has  been  covered  with  extensive  plantations,  so  happily  disposed  as  to  render 
it  almost  a  scene  of  enchantment.  At  a  few  miles' distance  is  "the  Devil's  Bridge;"  an 
arch  thrown  over  a  deep  and  narrow  rocky  chasm,  overgrown  with  wood,  at  the  bottom  of 
w^hich  rolls  the  Mynach,  after  rushing  down  three  lofty  cascades ;  forming  altogether  the 
grandest  scene  of  the  kind  in  the  kingdom.  The  lead  mines  of  Cardiganshire  are  extensive, 
though  the  want  of  fuel  has  caused  the  working  of  many  of  them  to  be  discontinued.  Car- 
digan is  a  small  old  town,  which  carries  on  a  considerable  coasting  trade,  having  nearly  300 
small  vessels  belonging  to  it.  There  is  great  resort  to  Aberystwith,  an  agreeable  bathing 
place ;  its  trade  also  is  considerable. 

Brecon,  or  Brecknock,  is  mountainous  and  rugged,  but  has  some  fertile  lands  in  the  valleys 
of  the  Uske  and  the  Wye.  Brecon,  an  ancient  town  on  the  Uske,  amid  lofty  mountains,  has 
tlie  remains  of  a  castle,  which  was  once  strong,  and  held  by  Buckingham,  the  favourite  and 
afterwards  the  victim  of  Richard  III. 

Caermarthen  includes  an  ample  proportion  of  bleak  and  barren  hills,  intermixed  with 
large  fertile  valleys.  There  are  abundance  of  coal,  and  some  iron  works  on  the  Glamorgan 
border.  The  capital,  situated  on  the  Towey,  which  admits  to  it  vessels  of  300  tons,  is  one 
of  the  most  flourishing  and  best  built  towns  in  Wales. 

Pembroke  consists  of  a  peninsula  branching  out  between  the  Irish  and  British  channels , 
it  presents  merely  an  undulating  surface,  rising  at  most  to  elevations  of  200  or  300  feet. 
Its  breed  of  cattle  is  in  high  repute,  and  its  indented  coasts  contain  some  of  the  finest  har- 
bours in  Britain.  Two  Roman  roads  cross  this  county,  which  is  also  rich  in  druidical  and 
feudal  monuments. '  The  ancient  city  of  Pembroke  is  strikingly  situated  on  an  almost  in- 
sulated neck  of  land  on  the  bay  of  Milford  Haven,  the  highest  part  of  which  presents  the 
vast  remains  of  its  castle,  one  of  the  most  magnificent  structures  of  Wales  or  England. 
The  town  contains  some  ancient  churches.  The  large  bay  composing  Milford  Haven 
forms  tlie  most  capacious  and  secure  harbour  in  Britain.  Hence  government  have  been 
induced,  at  tlie  new  towns  of  Milford  and  Haberstone,  on  its  northern  shore,  to  form  dock- 
yards and  establisli  packets  for  the  .south  of  Ireland.  St.  David's,  the  ecclesiastical  capital 
of  Soutli  Wales,  is  now  only  a  large  dirty  village,  adorned,  however  with  venerable  ancient 
structures. 


400  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

Glamorgan  is  the  finest  county  in  South  Wales,  and,  as  to  wealth,  superior  to  any  other 
in  the  principality.  Its  coast,  along  the  Bristol  Channel,  and  for  some  miles  inland,  is  level, 
and  fertile  in  the  extreme.  Thence  the  ground  rises  into  hills  of  continually  increasing 
elevation,  till,  on  the  frontier,  they  rise  to  the  heiglit  of  upwards  of  2000  feet,  and  unite 
with  the  Brecon  chains.  From  these  heights  descend  lunnerous  streams,  which,  in  their 
progress  to  the  sea,  produce  all  the  varieties  of  ravines,  wooded  vales,  falls,  and  cataracts; 
which,  with  the  beauty  of  the  plains  below,  and  the  tine  views  over  tlie  Bristol  Channel, 
render  Glamorgan  equal  in  picturesque  beauty  to  any  other  county  m  Wales.  The  crops 
of  every  description  of  grain  are  ample ;  and  there  are  good  breeds  both  of  cattle  and  sheep. 
But  these  objects  are  trifling,  when  compared  with  the  mineral  treasures  of  Glamorgan. 
It  forms  tiie  centre  of  a  vast  field  of  coal  and  iron,  from  which  branches  extend  into  the 
neighbouring  counties.  Since  it  was  found  that  iron  could  be  smelted  with  coke,  the  work 
ing  of  tills  metal  has  prodigiously  increased,  and  the  town  of  Merthyr  Tydvil,  near  which 
it  is  most  abundant,  has  grown  from  a  meie  village  to  be  the  most  populous  place  in  Wales. 
In  consequence  also  of  the  abundance  of  fuel,  the  copper  ore  dug  out  in  Anglesey,  Cornwall, 
and  Ireland,  is  bronglit  hither  to  be  smelted  and  retined.  The  plating  of  iron  with  tm  is 
also  an  extensive  occupation.  The  iron  is  reduced  by  rollers  to  the  requisite  thinness,  and 
is  then  cut  by  scissors  into  plates,  which  afterwards  require  little  more  than  simple  immer- 
sion into  the  smelted  tin.  The  coal,  besides  its  essential  use  in  these  various  works,  is  in 
itself  a  most  extensive  object  of  exportation,  amounting  in  some  years  to  300,000  tons.  The 
rivers  of  Glamorgan  are  very  imperfectly  navigable;  but  this  defect  has  been  supplied  by 
industry.  From  JN'eath,  Cardiff,  and  Sv.ansea,  canals  reach  far  into  the  interior;  and  their 
benefits  being  extended  by  railways,  a  channel  has  been  opened  for  conveying  to  -the  sea  the 
produce  even  of  the  most  interior  mines.  Cardiff  ranks  as  the  county  town,  but  is  now  much 
surpassed  by  others.  Yet  it  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  ;  having  a  commodious  harbour, 
and  being  connected  by  a  canal  with  the  interior  works  at  Merthyr  Tydvil.  It  is  now  much 
surpassed  by  Swansea,  which  has  risen  to  its  present  importance  by  immense  works  in  iron 
and  copper,  and  by  the  exportation  of  coal ;  which  is  furnished  in  such  abundance,  tliat  a 
large  vessel  may  enter  at  one  tide  and  go  out  loaded  at  the  next.     Its  pleasant  situation  on 

a  fine  bay  has  also  made  it  an  extensive  re- 
•^"■^  ^  ^_  ««\  sort  for  sea-bathing,  and  led  to  the  erection 

of  many  elegant  buildings.  Swansea  has 
thus  risen  into  a  sort  of  capital  of  South 
Wales ;  yet  it  is  not  so  large  as  Merthyr 
Tydvil  has  been  rendered  by  the  extensive 
iron  works  in  and  round  it.  There  are  near 
it  seventeen  furnaces,  in  one  of  which  11,000 
tons  of  pig  iron  and  12,000  tons  of  bar  iron 
are  produced  annually.  Caerphilly,  a  thriv- 
ing little  town,  with  some  manufactures, 
deserves  notice  chiefly  from  the  remains  of 
its  immense  castle  {Jig.  182.),  which  pre- 

^         ^^  sent  a  most  stupendous  scene  of  ruins.     It 

CaerphinjTcasUe*^  '^  stated  to  have  been  a  mile  and  a  quarter 

in  circumference,  and  capable  of  contain- 
ing a  garrison  of  20,000  men.  LlandafF,  the  only  nominal  city  in  the  county,  is  only  a  vil- 
lage, the  seat  of  the  least  richly  endowed  bisliopric  in  Wales.  The  cathedral,  however,  is 
a  fine  ruin. 

The  small  islands  attached  to  England  are  unimportant.  Man,  thirty  miles  in  length  by 
t^velve  in  breadth,  is  nearly  equidistant  from  each  of  the  three  kingdoms.  It  comprises  a 
considerable  extent  of  level  territory ;  but  rises  in  the  interior  into  high  mountains,  among 
which  Snowfell,  nearly  2000  feet  high,  stands  conspicuous.  Man  ranked  long  as  an  inde- 
pendent sovereignty,  held  by  the  Earls  of  Derby,  and  is  celebrated  for  the  gallant  defence 
made  by  the  countess  of  that  name  for  Charles  I.  It  descended  afterwards  to  the  Duke  of 
Athol,  from  whom  the  sovereignty  was  purchased,  in  1765,  by  the  British  government,  with 
a  view  to  the  prevention  of  smuggling,  and  to  the  establishment  of  a  free  trade.  The  natives 
are  a  Celtic  race.  Castletown,  the  capital,  is  the  neatest  town  in  the  island ;  and  in  its 
centre.  Castle  Rushen,  the  ancient  palace  of  the  kings  of  Man,  rears  its  gloomy  and  maj^tic 
brow.  Douglas,  however,  as  being  the  spot  in  wliich  the  whole  trade  circulates,  is  now  of 
superior  importance,  and  has  attracted  a  great  number  of  English  settlers. 

The  Scijly  isles,  situated  at  some  distance  from  the  western  extremity  of  Cornwall,  arc 
tenanted  by  2000  poor  inhabitants,  who  raise  a  little  grain,  but  depend  chiefly  upon  fishing, 
pilotage,  and  the  making  of  kelp. 

Jersey,  Guernsey,  and  Alderney,  with  Sark,  form  a  group  naturally  French,  and  originally 
part  of  the  patrimony  of  the  JVonnan  kings,  which  the  naval  superiority  of  England  has 
enabled  her  to  retain.  They  enjoy  certain  privileges  and  immunities,  founded  on  this  dis- 
tinction, as  laid  down  by  Coke,  that,  "  though  parcel  of  the  dominion  of  the  crown  of  Eng- 


Book  I. 


SCOTLAND 


401 


land,  they  are  not,  nor  ever  were,  parcel  of  the  realm  of  England."  The  climate  is  mild 
and  agreeable,  and  the  soil  generally  fertile.  Jersey,  the  finest  of  the  group,  is  so  abundant 
in  orchards,  that  cider  forms  the  chief  object  of  exportation.  St.  Holier,  the  capital  of  Jersey, 
is  a  handsome  Iowa. 


"Mu       t   (jail  «aj 


CHAPTER  III. 

SCOTLAND 

The  place  which  Scotland  holds  as  part  of  Great  Britain,  has  already  been  exhibited  in 
tlie  introduction  to  the  chapter  on  England.  We  shall  now  describe  in  detail  this  import- 
ant, though  secondary,  member  of  the  empire. 

Sect.  I. — Geographical  Outline. 
Scotland  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  England,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  line  drawn 
along  the  Tweed,  the  Cheviot  Hills,  and  thence  to  the  Solway  Frith.     On  every  other  side 

it  is  bounded  by  the  Atlantic,  the  Northern 
and  the  German  oceans.  The  "ength  of 
Scotland,  from  the  Mull  of  Galloway 
ijig.  183.),  in  about  54°  40'  to  Dunnet 
Head,  Caithness,  in  58°  40',  is  280  miles. 
The  greatest  breadth,  from  Buchan-Ness  to 
a  point  on  the  opposite  shore  of  Inverness  is 
130  miles.  This  breadth  varies  little  in  the 
interval  between  the  friths  of  Forth  and 
]\Ioray ;  but  to  the  south  of  the  former,  the 
average  breadth  scarcely  exceeds  100,  and 
to  the  north  of  the  Moray  Frith,  40  or  50 
miles.  The  entire  extent  of  Scotland  is 
29,600  square  miles. 
Scotland,  in  its  general  outline,  consists  of 
cWo  great  and  perfectly  distinct  parts :  the  Lowlands  and  the  Highlands.  The  former  com- 
prehends all  Scotland  south  of  the  friths  of  Forth  and  Clyde ;  for  the  pastoral  hills  of  the 
southern  and  western  borders,  less  elevated  than  the  northern  mountains,  and  inhabited  by 
a  different  race,  are  not  considered  as  forming  any  tie  between  these  and  the  Highlands 
properly  so  called.  Immediately  north  of  the  Clyde,  the  highland  ranges  begin  to  tower  in 
endless  succession ;  but  on  the  east  coast,  the  Lowlands  extend  bej'ond  the  Forth  and  north- 
ward through  the  counties  of  Fife,  Forfar,  Kincardine,  and  Aberdeen ;  though  these  last  are 
closely  encroached  upon  by  the  mountain  territory.  The  lowland  district  also  extends 
round  the  northern  promontory  of  Aberdeen,  and  along  the  borders  of  the  INlurray  or  Moray 
Frith,  which  contain  as  level  tracts  of  territory,  and  enjoy  as  mild  a  climate,  as  any  part 
of  Scotland.  This  level  tract  does  not  comprehend  quite  the  half  of  the  country ;  even  the 
Lothians,  and  still  more  the  western  provinces,  are  hemmed  in  by  low  ridges  of  bleak  table- 
lands, covered,  in  a  great  measure,  with  heath  and  moss.  The  arable  lands  are  almost 
solely  comprised  in  broad  flat  valleys,  chiefly  along  the  friths,  called  straths  or  carses. 
Several  of  these  are  much  famed  for  fertility,  a  blessing  but  partially  bestowed  even  on  tlie 
best  districts  of  Scotland. 

The  Highlands,  which  comprise  the  whole  west  and  centre  of  northern  Scotland,  form  a 
region  of  very  bleak  and  rugged  aspect.  A  chain  of  long  and  lofl;y  ridges  extends  from 
south-west  to  north-east,  not  reaching,  however,  the  German  Ocean  or  the  Moray  Frith,  but 
leaving  between  them  the  level  inteiTal  of  the  northern  lowland.  These  mountains  usually 
dip,  almost  perpendicularly,  into  the  lakes  and  seas  on  which  tliey  border ;  and  even  the  in- 
terior valleys  are  on  so  high  a  level,  that  in  this  climate  they  admit  only  in  scattered  patches 
the  culture  of  the  coarser  kinds  of  grain,  particularly  oats  and  bigg.  These  mountains,  par- 
ticularly the  great  Grampian  barrier,  which  extends  across  from  Ben  Lomond  to  Blair- Athol, 
lock  in  closely  with  each  other,  and  can  be  entered  only  by  formidable  and  easily  defended 
passes.  The  consequence  has  been,  that  they  have  preserved  within  their  recesses  a  primi- 
tive people,  who,  in  dress,  language,  and  the  whole  train  of  their  social  ideas,  differ  essen- 
tially from  the  Lowlanders,  and  have  retained  antique  and  striking  characteristics,  both 
phvsical  and  moral,  that  are  obliterated  in  almost  every  other  part  of  Great  Britain. 

The  Isles  comprise  tlie  third  part  of  Scotland.  On  the  east,  indeed,  and  even  on  great 
part  of  the  south-west  coast,  only  a  few  bold  and  naked  rocks  rise  perpendicularly  from  the 
ocean.  But  the  western  highlands  are  bordered  by  the  Hebrides,  an  extensive  range  of 
large  islands,  some  of  which  are  separated  from  the  continent  by  such  narrow  channels,  that 
thev  mav  almost  be  considered  as  forming  part  of  it.  Again,  the  northern  extremity  of 
Scotland  is  prolonged  by  the  two  ranges  of  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  islands,  in  a  continu- 
ous line  witli  each  other,  but  at  some  distance.  These  islands  are  rocky  and  bare,  exposed 
Vol.  L  34*  3  A 


103 


MAP  OF  SCOTLAND. 


Fig.  184. 


Book  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


403 


to  excessive  moisture  and  the  perpetual  storms  of  the  Atlantic.  The  population  bears,  in 
language  and  features,  the  marks  of  a  Scandinavian  origin ;  dating  from  the  period  vi^hen 
the  piratical  rovers  of  tlie  north  made  extensive  inroads  on  the  western  states  of  Europe. 

Among  the  Scottish  mountains,  the  most  considerable  are  the  Grampians,  a  name  which 
is  given  very  generally  to  all  those  which  cover  the  surface  of  the  Highlands,  but  applied 
more  particularly  to  the  chain  running  across  the  counties  of  Perth  and  Argyle,  and  com- 
prising Ben  Lomond,  Ben  Ledi,  Ben  More,  Ben  Lawers,  and  others  of  that  elevated  ridge 
which  directly  face  the  low  country  of  Stiding  and  Perth.  Several  of  these  mountains 
exceed  the  altitude  of  4000  feet.  Ben  Nevis  rises  to  the  height  of  4315  feet.  On 
the  borders  of  Inverness  and  Ross-shire,  Ben  VVyvis,  and  some  others,  are  of  nearly  equal 
elevation.  The  south  of  Scotland  is  also  very  hilly  ;  but  its  heights  are  seldom  more  than 
2000  feet,  green  and  pastoral.  The  most  remarkable  are  the  boundary  chain  of  the  Cheviot, 
celebrated  in  the  annals  of  early  feud,  hunting,  and  border  warfare.  The  Lowthers,  a  steep 
high  ridge,  including  valuable  lead  mines  ;  the  pastoral  hills  of  Ettrick  and  Yarrow ;  and 
Criifel  and  Cairnsmuir,  in  Galloway,  form  important  objects :  the  lower  ranges  of  the  Pent- 
land  and  Lammermoor  border  the  Lothians. 

The  rivers  of  Scotland  are  not  so  much  distinguished  for  their  length  or  magnitude,  as 
for  the  pastoral  scenery  through  which  they  wind  tlieir  early  coursOj  and  for  the  magnificent 
estuaries  which  they  form  at  their  junction  with  the  sea. 

The  Forth  rises  near  the  foot  of  Ben  Lomond,  flows  east  towards  Stirling,  near  which  it 
is  swelled  by  the  larger  stream  of  the  Teith  ;  whence,  after  many  windings  through  the 
beautiful  plain  overlooked  by  Stirling  castle,  it  opens  into  the  great  frith  on  which  the  capi- 
tal of  Scotland  is  situated. 


References  lo  the  Map  of  Scotland. 


NORTH  PART. 
X.  Dunnet 

2.  Cannesby 

3.  Freswick 

4.  Wick 

5.  Ulbsler 

6.  Easkay 

7.  Thurso 

8.  Brachry 

9.  Siraihy 

10.  Fair  Kirk 

11.  Riviegill 

12.  Tongue 

i'i.  Inch  Kcanloch 
H.  Loch  Eriboll 
1.^.  (yradey 

16.  Diumacray 

17.  .Scourie 

18.  Colesrentie 

19.  Inver  Ba!?asly 

20.  Loch  Naver 
2L  Loch  Badca 
22.  Achnahoe 
a.").  Latheron 

24.  Berrviiale 

25.  Ilelmsdala 

26.  Clyne 

27.  .\chintran 

28.  Dalmor 

29.  Lairg 

30.  Tullcch 

31.  Loch  Slim 

32.  Assynt 

33.  Sloir 

34.  IJ.irney 

3.').  ("annahoulish 
r.6.  Ullapool 

37.  I'orlinlick 

38.  Bra 

39.  Oolspie 

40.  Dornoch 
41.Tarbat 

42.  Ooinarty 

43.  Tain 

44.  Invcrgordon 

45.  Kincardine 

46.  Kildrimoro 

47.  lien  Wyvia 

48.  Lochbroom 

49.  Loch  Fiiir 

50.  Tiniifidine 

51.  Molveg 

52.  F.rndale 

53.  Gairloch 

54.  Loch  Marce 

55.  Loch  Fannich 

56.  Loch  Luichard 

57.  Killearn 

58.  Fortrose 

59.  Fort  George 
6i).  Nairn 

61.  ForrcB 

62.  Flaiii 

63.  Rolhrs 

64.  Fochabers 

65.  Cullen 

66.  Marnoch 

67.  Porlsoy 


68.  Banff 

69.  Turreff 

70.  Aberdour 

71.  Frasersburgh 

72.  Strichen 

73.  Peterhead 

74.  Cruden 

75.  Ellon 

76.  Rothie 

77.  Meldrum 

78.  Cusalmond 

79.  Kinnethmont 

80.  Achindore 

81.  Huntley 

82.  Kinnacoil 

83.  Aberlour 

84.  Grantown 

85.  Edenskille 

86.  Dymer 

87.  Cairmichyle 

88.  Inverness 

89.  Dares 

90.  Obriachao 

91.  Kilrnuir 

92.  Beauly 

93.  Mucrich 

94.  Kilnacrow 

95.  Attadale 

96.  Torridon 

97.  Vonebane 

98.  Applecross 

99.  Killilan 

100.  Glen  Shiel 

101.  Aftarie 

102.  Dundragan 

103.  Loch  Ness 

104.  Bellaloin 

105.  Aberarder 

106.  Aviemore 

107.  Kincardine 

108.  Abernethy 

109.  Achenraw 

110.  Sirathdon 
lll.Towie 
112.  Cluny 
11.3.  Kin'.ore 
114.  Inverury 
11.5.  Foveraa 

116.  Fintray 

117.  Old  Aberdeen 

118.  New  Aberdeen 

119.  Stonehaven 

120.  Ternan 

121.  Birse 

122.  Balmoral 

123.  Braemar 

124.  IncK 

125.  Invernahaven 

126.  Laggan 

127.  Fort  Augustus 
12?.  Loch  Garry 
129.  Loch  Lochy 
l:'0.  Clones 

131.  Loch  Arkeg 
]:!2.  Rosary 

133.  Ruddroch 

134.  Loch  Morrcy 


133.  Arasaig 

136.  Sininasary 

137.  Loch  Sheil 

138.  Cromer 

139.  Strane 

140.  Ben  Nevis 

141.  Fort  William 

142.  Aberarder 

143.  Loch  Laggan 

144.  Dalwhinnie 

145.  Eirish 

146.  Clachay 

147.  Clova 

148.  Mennuir 

149.  Craigour 
I.iO.  Glenbcrvie 
]51.Borvie 
1.52.  Montroso 
l.')3  Brechin 

154.  Lunan 

155.  Oalhla\v 

156.  Glenisla 

157.  Moulin 

158.  Blair-Alhol 

159.  Dalnacardoch 

160.  Shechallion 

161.  Loch  Rannoch 

162.  Loch  Ericht 

163.  Loch  Treag 

164.  Kinlochmore 
16.1.  Corriherich 

166.  Aryhoulan 

167.  Scarnadale 

168.  Langall 

169.  Liddesdale 

170.  Kinlochaline 

171.  Morven 

172.  Ardnamurchan 

SOUTH  PART. 

1.  Appin 

2.  Ardchattan 

3.  Glencon 

4.  Loch  Etive 

5.  King's  House 

6.  Fingar 

7.  Ben  Lawers 

8.  Killin 

9.  Loch  Tay 

10.  Kenmore 

11.  Aberfeldy 

12.  Amnbrie     ■ 

13.  Dunkeld 

14.  Blairgowrie 

15.  Cupar-Angus 

16.  Meigle 

17.  Arbroath 

18.  Muirdrum 

19.  Dinidee 

20.  Kllrneny 

21.  Cupar 

22.  Npwburgh 

23.  Penh 

24.  Crieff. 

25.  Conirie 

26.  Loch  Earn 

27.  Craggan 


28.  Loch  Voil 

29.  Loch  Lochart 

30.  Glenurchay 

31.  Cl.idick 

32.  Kilmore 

33.  Atdmaddy 

34.  Craignish 

35.  Kilmartin 

36.  Invtrary 

37.  Strachur 

38.  Kilmorish 

39.  Ben  Lomond 

40.  Lock  Katrine 

41.  Loch  Lubnaig 

42.  Doune 

43.  Williamstown 

44.  Muchart 
4.5.  Forteviot 

46.  Kinross 

47.  Falkland 

48.  St.  Andrew's 

49.  Anstruther 

50.  Leven 

51.  Kinghorn 

52.  Dunffrmline 

53.  Clackmancan 
.54.  Airth 

55.  Stirling 

56.  Dumblane 

57.  Milton. 

58.  Campsie 

59.  Loch  Lomond 

60.  Tarbat 

61.  Kilmodan 

62.  Gilpbead 

63.  Acbahoish 

64.  Carnmore 

65.  Killanaw 

66.  Kilcbenzie 

67.  Southend 

68.  Campbellton 
no.  Suddale 

70.  Gorton 

71.  Skipness 

72.  Ruban 

73.  Grienock 

74.  Kilbirnie 

75.  Dumbarton 

76.  Pais'ey 

77.  Renfrew 

78.  Glasgow 

79.  Bothwcll 

80.  Airdtie 

81.  Whitburn 

82.  Falkirk 

83.  Linlithgow 
&1.  Borrowstown- 

nes3 

85.  Edinburgh 

86.  Dalkeith 

87.  Musselburgh 

88.  Haddinffton 

89.  North  Berwick 
<I0.  Dunbar 

91.  Soateraw 

92.  Bunkle 

93.  Dunse 


94.  Paxton 

95.  Ecclea 

96.  Gordon 

97.  Channelkirk 

98.  Lauder 

99.  Middleton 

100.  Linton 

101.  Peebles 

102.  Carnwath 
10.3.  Lanaik 
104.  Hamilton 
10.5.  Eaglesham 
K16.  Siewartoa 

107.  Dairy 

108.  Irvine 

109.  Ayr 

110.  Mauchline 

111.  Kilmarnock 

112.  Straihaven 

113.  Douglas 

114.  Crawfordjohn 

115.  Crawford 

116.  Culter  Fell 

117.  Galashiels 

118.  Melrose 

119.  Selkirk 
]20._Kelso 

121.  Yetholme 

122.  Hownam 

123.  Southdean 

124.  Jedburgh 

125.  Hawick 

126.  Bedford  Green 

127.  Kirkpatrick 

128.  Sanquhar 

129.  Kirkconnel 

130.  Ochiltree 

131.  Dalrymple 

132.  Giivan 

133.  Ballintrae 

134.  Ballocli 
1.35.  Garry 

136.  Minihive 

137.  Dunscore 

138.  Penponl 

139.  Lochmaben 

140.  Westerkirk 

141.  Langholm 

142.  Gretna  Green 

143.  Annan 

144.  Dumfries 

145.  Caerlaverock 

146.  Douglas 

147.  Urr 

148.  Loch  Ken 

149.  Newton  Stew- 

art 

150.  Craighach 

151.  New  Luce 
1.52.  Siranraer 

153.  Portpalrick 

154.  Maidenkir 
1.55.  Ardwell 

156.  Glenluce 

157.  Mochrum 

158.  Whitehorn 

159.  Wigton 


160.  Laurieston 

161.  Kirkcudbright 

162.  Colvend 

Rivers. 
a  Naver  Water 
b  Thurso  Water 
c  Oikel 
d  Orrin 
e  Nairn 
f  Findhorn 
g  Spey 
h  Doveran 
i   Don 
,i  Dee 
k  Esk 
1   Tay 
m  Earn 
n  Forth 
o  Tweed 
p  Annan 
q  Nith 
r  Ken 
s  Ayr 
t  Clyde 

SKYE  ISLE. 
LDig 

2.  Uig 

3.  Totnacrach 

4.  Snizort 

5.  Stein 

6.  Roag 

7.  Bracadale 

8.  Drumah 

9.  Gillan 

10.  Broadford 

11.  Kyle 

MULL  ISLE. 

1.  Kilninian 

2.  Tobermorie 

3.  Keallan 

4.  Arog 

5.  Achnacraig 

6.  Cambus 

7.  Moy 

8.  Fidden 

JURA  ISLE. 

1.  Leaghall 

2.  Lagg 

ISLAY  ISLE. 

1.  Sanaig 

2.  Kilchoman 

3.  Bolsha 

4.  Askaig 

5.  Bowmore 

6.  Kildalton 

7.  Kinira 

ARRAN  ISLE 

1.  Oran 

2.  Corrio 

3.  Kilbride 

4.  Kilraory 


404  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III 

The  Clyde  rises  on  the  borders  of  Dumfries-shire ;  flows  for  a  considerable  space  through 
a  wild  pastoral  valley ;  and  descends,  by  a  succession  of  most  picturesque  cascades,  into  the 
lower  region  of  Lanarkshire.  Atler  passing  through  a  tract  which  may  be  denominated  the 
garden  of  Scotland,  it  enters  Glasgow,  becomes  a  broad  stream,  and  expands  into  a  winding 
fritb,  not  so  broad  as  the  Forth,  but  the  scene  of  a  much  more  active  trade. 

Tlie  Tweed  rises  from  the  same  chain  as  the  Clyde,  and  running  eastward,  waters  the 
most  beautiful  and  classic  of  the  pastoral  districts  of  Scotland,  in  whose  verse  T\\  eod  is  tlie 
favourite  name.  Of  similar  fame  are  its  tributaries,  tiie  Yarrow,  the  Gala,  the  Teviot ; 
swelled  by  whose  Avaters  it  forms,  on  reaching  Berwick,  a  capacious  harbour. 

The  Tay  rises  in  the  central  Highlands,  descends  into  the  lowlands  of  Perthshire,  and 
after  winding  beautifully  round  the  city  of  Perth,  expands  into  the  Frith  of  Tay,  and  forms 
the  harbour  of  Dundee. 

The  Spey  has  a  longer  course  than  any  other ;  but,  rising  in  the  midst  of  the  Perthshire 
highlands,  and  rolling  northward  through  the  wild  recesses  of  Atliol  and  Braemar,  its  line  is 
comparatively  obscure.  Tlie  other  rivers  of  Scotland  are  of  subordinate  rank  ;  the  Dee  of 
Aberdeen,  the  Esk  of  Montrose,  the  Nith  and  Annan  of  Dumfries,  the  Ayr  and  Irvine 
of  Ayr. 

Lochs  form  a  characteristic  feature  of  Scotland ;  many  of  them  are  long  arms  of  the  sea, 
running  up  into  the  heart  of  the  mountains.  Among  these.  Loch  Lomond  is  pre-eminent. 
The  traveller  admires  its  vast  expanse,  its  gay  and  numerous  islands,  its  wooded  promon- 
tories and  bays,  and  the  high  mountain  barrier  at  its  head.  Loch  Katrine,  in  a  smaller 
compass,  presents  a  singular  combination  of  romantic  beauty.  Loch  Tay,  enclosed  by  the 
loftiest  of  the  Grampians,  presents  alpine  scenery  on  the  grandest  scale ;  while  at  Inverary, 
Ix)ch  Fyne  unites  the  pomp  of  art  with  that  of  nature.  The  long  chain  of  Lochs  Linnhe, 
Lochy,  and  Ness,  stre telling  diagonally  across  Scotland,  comprises  much  fine  scenery, 
and  has  afforded  facilities  for  making  a  navigable  communication  between  tlie  German  and 
Atlantic  oceans. 

Sect.  II. — Natural  Geography. 

This  section  will  contain  Geology  only,  as  the  Botany  and  Zoology  of  Scotland  were  de- 
scribed along  with  that  of  Great  Britain  in  general,  under  the  head  of  England. 

ScBSECT.  1. — Geology  of  Scotland. 

Scotland  may  be  divided  geologically  into  the  following  great  districts : — 1.  Southern ;  2. 
Middle;  3.  Northern;  4.  Insular. 

(1.)  Southern  divi.sion.  This  division  includes  that  part  of  the  country  bounded  on  the 
south  by  the  northern  frontier  of  England ;  and  on  the  north  and  west,  by  the  comparatively 
flat  country  between  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde.  It  is  traversed  from  St.  Abb's  Head  on  the 
east  coast  to  Portpatrick  on  the  west  coast  by  a  high  land,  named  the  great  southern  high 
land  of  Scotland,  in  which  are  situated  the  highest  mountains  in  this  division  of  Scotland. 
This  lofty  range  sends  out  branches  in  different  directions,  many  of  which  reach  the  sea- 
coast,  while  others  terminate  in  the  lower  and  flatter  parts  of  the  country  tliat  lies  around 
them.  Although  abundantly  supplied  with  rivers,  the  southern  division  contains  but  few 
lakes,  in  this  respect  forming  a  striking  contrast  with  the  middle  and  northern  divisions. 
The  mountainous  regions  are  composed  of  transition  rocks,  while  the  lower  and  flatter  con- 
sist principally  of  secondary  and  alluvial  formations. 

I.  Transition  rocks.  The  predominating  rocks  of  the  Neptunian  class  are  greywacke, 
with  subordinate  beds  of  clay  slate,  flinty  slate,  and  transition  limestone ;  the  Plutonian 
species  are  granite,  syenite,  porphyry,  serpentine,  and  trap ;  by  far  the  most  abundant  rock 
is  the  greywacke,  in  which  the  principal  lead-mines  in  Scotland,  those  of  Leadhills  and 
Wanlockhead,  are  situated.  They  have  been  worked  from  an  early  period,  and  during  a 
long  course  of  years  have  yielded  to  the  proprietors  a  very  rich  return.  Of  late  years, 
owing  to  the  disturbed  state  of  the  world,  their  prosperity  has  been  interrupted.  Copper 
ores  have  been  raised  in  Galloway,  but  not  in  considerable  quantity ;  and  the  same  may  be 
said  of  the  sulphuret  of  antimony,  formerly  mined  at  Glendinning  in  Dumfries-shire. 

II.  Secondary  rocks.  Scotland  is  distinguished  from  England  by  the  smaller  nuinber  of 
its  secondary  formations,  and  their  more  limited  distribution ;  the  southern  division  contains 
a  greater  proportion  than  the  middle  or  nortliern ;  and  hence  approaches  more  nearly  to 
England  in  a  general  geognostic  point  of  view.  The  following  secondary  formations  have 
been  observed : — 1.  Old  red  sandstone.  2.  Mountain  limestone.  3.  Coal  formation.  4.  New 
red  sandstone.     5.  Various  trap  and  porphyry  rocks. 

1.  Old  red  sandstone.  This  formation  skirts  the  transition  chains  of  mountains  lying 
immediately  upon  the  greywacke,  &c.  It  is  well  exposed  in  the  Pentlands,  the  upper  part 
of  the  river  district  of  the  river  Clyde,  in  the  course  of  the  river  Tweed,  in  various  points 
m  Dumfi-ies-shire,  &.c.  In  the  districts  where  it  occurs,  it  is  frequently  quarried  as  a 
building-si  one. 

2.  Mountain  limestone.     The  beds  of  limestone  in  the  lower  part  of  the  coal  formation 


Book  I.  SCOTLAND.  405 

in  the  neighbourhood  of  Edinburgh,  and  the  beds  of  limestone  upon  which  the  coal  formation 
rests  in  other  quarters,  as  in  Dumfries-shire,  belong  to  the  mountain  limestone. 

3.  Coal  formation.  This  important  deposit  occupies  considerable  portions  of  Ea«t,  Mid, 
and  West  Lothian,  and  extends  westward  to  Glasgow.  It  forms  extensive  tracts  in  Ayr- 
shire ;  in  Dumfrics-shire  ;  and  in  Berwickshire.  The  coal  mines  in  tlie  Lothians  and  around 
Glasgow  are  the  most  productive  in  Scotland.  The  annual  quantity  of  coal  brought  into 
Glasgow  is  561,049  tons ;  of  which  124,000  are  exported.  It  may  also  be  noticed,  as  con- 
nected with  coal,  that  in  Gla.sgow,  during  twenty-four  hours  in  tiie  winter  months,  the  gas 
company  make  upwards  of  500,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  from  coal ;  and  during  the  same  period 
in  the  summer  months,  about  120,000.  The  pipes  extend  to  more  than  100  miles  through 
streets.  The  great  iron-works  at  Carron  are  supplied  with  the  ore  from  which  the  iron  is 
obtained,  from  the  coalfields  of  this  and  the  middle  division  of  Scotland.  The  ore  or  stone, 
which  is  an  argillaceous  carbonate  of  iron,  occurs  in  beds  and  embedded  masses,  and  princi- 
pally in  tlie  slate  of  the  coal  deposit.  The  admirable  building-stone  around  Edinburgh  and 
Glasgow  is  a  sandstone  which  occurs  in  beds  in  the  coal  formation. 

4.  New  red  sandstone.  This  formation  in  the  regular  succession  rests  upon  the  coal 
formation,  in  which  position  it  is  to  be  seen  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cannoby  in  Dumfries- 
shire. 

5.  Trap  and  porphyry  rocks.  These  ignigenous  masses  occur  in  many  parts:  they 
abound,  for  instance,  all  around  Edinburgh;  forming  part  of  the  Calton  Hill,  (Jastle  Hill, 
Salisbury  Craigs,  Arthur  Seat,  the  Pentlands,  &c. :  the  beautiful  conical  liill  named  North 
Berwick  Law,  the  Bass  Rock,  the  Isle  of  May,  Traprain  Law,  are  also  formed  of  trap  and 
porphyry  rocks.  Renfrewshire  and  Ayrshire  also  abound  in  splendid  and  interesting  displays 
of  trap  and  porphyry.  In  many  parts  of  the  country  these  rocks  are  used  as  building-stones, 
and  the  greenstone  of  the  trap  series  aflbrds  an  admirable  material  for  road-making.  The 
splendid  causeways  and  roads  around  Edinburgh  are  of  greenstone. 

III.  Alluvial  rocks.  In  various  parts  of  the  country  there  occur  deposits  of  old  alluvium, 
or  what  is  called  diluvium ;  and  everywhere  the  modern  alluvium,  or  that  daily  forming 
meets  the  eye. 

(2.)  Middle  division.  This  division  of  Scotland  is  bounded  to  the  south  by  the  southern 
division ;  on  the  north  by  the  Moray  Frith  and  the  great  chain  of  lakes  extending  from 
Inverness  to  Fort  William  and  the  Linnhe  Loch.  It  is  traversed  in  a  north  and  south- 
westerly direction  by  the  Grampian  range  of  mountains,  which  extends  from  the  Mull  of 
Cantyre  to  Stonehaven  in  Kincardineshire,  and  to  the  rocky  northern  coasts  of  Aberdeen- 
shire and  Banffshire.  The  country  in  general  falls  rapidly  to  the  west  of  this  great  moun- 
tain range,  and  comparatively  gently  to  the  eastward  of  it :  hence  the  western  acclivity  is 
steep  and  short,  the  eastern  gentle  and  long.  On  the  eastern  acclivity  and  the  low  lands 
connected  with  it  are  situated  the  Sidlay,  Ochil,  and  Campsie  hills,  forming  a  pretty  conti- 
nuous range ;  and  Kellie  Law,  Largo  Law,  the  Lomonds,  and  the  Saline  Hills  in  Fifeshire, 
forming  a  less  continuous  and  lower  range  of  hills.  Water  is  abundantly  distributed  over 
this  district,  in  the  form  of  rivers,  lakes,  and  springs.  Lakes,  which  are  so  rare  in  the 
southern  division,  are  here  abundantly  distributed,  and  exhibit  many  beautiful  and  splendid 
scenes.  Of  these  lakes  the  most  considerable  are  the  following :  Loch  Lomond,  Loch  Tay, 
Loch  Ness,  and  Loch  Awe.  The  rocks  are  more  varied  in  this  tlian  in  the  southern  divi- 
sion ;  magnificent  displays  of  primitive,  transition,  and  secondary  formations  present  them- 
selves to  our  attention. 

I.  Primitive  and  transition  rocks.  The  Neptunian  kinds  are  granite,  gneiss,  mica  slate, 
clay  slate,  talc  slate,  chlorite  slate,  quartz  rock,  grey  wacke,  limestone :  the  Plutonian  rocks 
are  granite,  syenite,  porphyry,  trap,  and  serpentine.  The  Neptunian  rocks  generally  range 
from  north-east  to  south-west ;  most  frequently  dip  under  an  angle  of  about  45° ;  and  are 
variously  upheaved,  broken,  and  disturbed  by  the  Plutonian  rocks.  They  are  principally 
confined  to  the  Grampian  liigh  land  and  its  branches.  The  most  remarkable  granite  and 
syenite  districts  are  Cairngorm,  Benachie,  Aberdeen,  Peterhead,  Ben  Cruaclian ;  and  Ben 
Nevis  conjoins  along  with  its  slaty  Neptunian  strata,  granite,  syenite,  and  porphyry.  In 
some  quarters  the  limestone  is  raised  as  marble,  as  in  Glen  Tilt ;  but  more  frequently  it  is 
burnt  into  quicklime.  The  clay  slate  quarries  of  Luss,  on  the  banks  of  Loch  Lomond  ;  those 
of  Balachulish,  in  Argylesliire ;  and  the  slate  quarries  in  the  interior  of  Aberdeenshire,  are 
of  considerable  extent,  and  employ  many  workrnen.  Tliere  were  formerly  lead-mines  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Tyndrum,  where  the  lead  glance,  or  sulphuret  of  lead,  was  disposed  in 
veins  in  quartz  rock  and  mica  slate. 

II.  Secondary  rocks.  These  are,  old  red  sandstone,  mountain  limestone,  coal  formation, 
and  new  red  sandstone,  and  probably  the  lias  formation :  these  strata  are  variously  inter- 
mingled with  trap  and  porpliyry  rocks. 

1.  Old  red  sandstone.  This  rock,  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  as  in  the  vicinity  of 
Stonehaven  and  near  Blair-Gowrie,  exhibits  magnificent  cliffs  of  conglomerate.  It  forms 
the  principal  reck  in  the  great  tract  of  country  included  between  lines  drawn  from  Stone- 
haven by  Blair-Gowrie,  Comrie,  Callender,  Dumbarton,  Stirling,  Kinross,  Dundee,  Arbroath, 


iOG  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  UI. 

Montrose,  and  Bervie.  It  appears  again  near  Inverness,  and  on  the  banks  of  Loch  Ness. 
In  many  localities  there  are  extensive  quarries,  the  sandstone  being  used  as  a  building-stone, 
and  as  a  pavement-stone.  The  Kinguddie  sandstone  and  the  Arbroath  pavement-stone,  from 
old  red  sandstone  localities,  are  well  known. 

2.  Cotd  formation.  The  coal  formation  in  the  middle  division  of  Scotland  has  not  been  met 
witli  firllier  north  than  Fifeshire.  The  counties  of  Fife,  Clackmannan,  and  Stirling,  abound 
in  coal ;  of  the.se  counties,  Fife  is  that  which  contains  the  greatest  fields  of  this  valuable 
mineral. 

3.  New  red  sandstone  occurs  apparently  in  some  points  on  the  east  coast,  and  also  on  the 
north  coast  between  Cullcn  and  the  Cromarty  Frith. 

4.  Lias  formation.  Near  to  Banff  there  are  beds  of  clay,  which,  from  the  organic  re- 
mains contained  in  them,  may  turn  out  to  belong  to  this  formation. 

5.  Plutonian  rocks.  These  are  various  traps,  as  greenstone,  amygdaloid,  trap  tuffa, and 
basalt;  and  porphyries,  having  a  basis  of  claystone  or  clinkstone.  The  famous  headland  the 
Red  Head,  on  the  east  coast,  exhibits  a  fine  display  of  Plutonian  rocks,  connected  with  the 
red  sandstone.  Bervie  Head  and  the  vicinity  are  interesting  fi-om  their  porphyry  rocks. 
The  trap  rocks  of  Montrose  are  famous  on  account  of  tlie  agates  they  afford.  Kinnoul  Hill, 
at  Perth,  is  composed  of  amygdaloid,  tuf!h,  and  other  rocks  of  the  trap  series,  and  abounds 
in  agates.  The  Ochil  Hills  are  principally  composed  of  trap  and  porpiiyry;  and  trap  rocks 
abound  in  the  Campsie  range.  The  Fifeshire  hills,  viz.  Kellie  Law,  Largo  Law,  the  cones 
of  tlie  Lomond,  and  tlie  Saline  Hills,  are  of  trap.  Tliese  various  traps  and  porphyries  have, 
as  is  generally  tlie  case,  broken  and  changed  more  or  less  the  Neptunian  strata  with  which 
they  are  intermingled. 

III.  Alluvial  rocks.  These  have  the  same  general  characters  as  those  met  with  in  the 
southern  division.  In  a  kw  districts,  however,  as  near  to  Peterhead,  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
Banff,  tiiere  are  numerous  chalk  fints.  These,  by  some,  are  considered  as  alluvial,  and 
foreign  to  Scotland ;  while  others  are  of  opinion  that  they  are  remains  of  the  chalk  forma- 
tion, formerly  distributed  in  some  of  the  tracts  where  the  flints  are  found. 

(3.)  Northern  division.  This  division  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  chain  of  lakes 
which  forms  the  northern  limit  of  the  middle  division,  and  on  the  north,  the  east,  and  the 
west,  by  the  ocean.  The  high  land  ranges  throughout  its  whole  length,  from  south-west  to 
north-east.  The  western  acclivity  is  steep  and  short;  the  eastern  comjxiratively  gently 
inclined  and  long.  Rivers,  springs,  and  lakes  are  numerous.  The  whole  of  tliis  division, 
nearly,  is  composed  of  primitive  and  transition  rocks,  the  secondary  occurring  principally 
along  the  east  coast  and  a  small  extent  of  the  north-west  coast. 

I.  Primitive  and  transition  rocks.  The  Neptunian  species  are  disposed  in  strata  that 
oflen  range  from  south-west  to  north-east,  are  of  gneiss,  mica  slate,  clay  slate,  quartz  rock, 
talc  slate,  limestone,  and  greywacke.  The  Plutonian  rocks  are  less  abundant  than  in  the 
middle  and  southern  divisions  of  Scotland ;  and  are  granite,  syenite,  porphyry,  and  trap. 
The  only  mines  are  those  at  Strontian,  where  the  ore  is  lead  glance,  or  sulphuret  of  lead, 
in  veins  traversing  gneiss.  The  mineral  in  which  the  Strontiaii  earth  was  first  found 
occurs  in  these  mines,  along  with  other  curious  minerals,  of  which  the  cross-stone  is  the 
most  interesting. 

II.  Seco)idary  rocks.  The  formations  of  this  class  are  both  Neptunian  and  Plutonian. 
The  Neptunian  are  old  red  sandstone,  new  red  sandstone,  lias,  and  oolite  ;  the  Plutonian,  trap 
and  porphyry. 

1.  Old  red  sandstone.  Much  of  the  county  of  Caithness,  and  some  tracts  on  the  east 
coast,  and  a  few  points  on  the  west,  are  composed  of  this  formation. 

2.  New  red  sandstone.  The  county  of  Caithness  affords  examples  of  this  deposit,  which 
is  remarkable  on  account  of  the  beds  o? fossil  fshes  it  contains. 

3.  Lias  and  oolite.  This  formation  occurs  on  the  east  coast  of  Sutherland.  The  coal 
mmes  at  Brora  are  situated  in  this  deposit ;  the  coal  is,  however,  of  indifferent  quality. 

4.  The  Plutonian  rocks  are  not  frequent,  and  consist  principally  of  trap  and  porphyry. 

III.  Alluvial  rocks.  These  exhibit  the  same  characters  as  in  the  middle  and  southern 
divisions. 

(4.)  Insular  division.  This  may  be  subdivided  in  the  following  manner: — 1.  Forth 
Islands ;  2.  Clyde  Islands ;  3.  Hebrides ;  4.  Orkneys ;  5.  Shetlands. 

(1.)  Forth  Islands.  The  Bell  Rock  is  of  a  red  sandstone,  having  the  same  characters  as 
that  on  the  neighbouring  coast  at  Arbroath.  The  other  islands  are  principally  composed  of 
trap  rocks,  occasionally  associated  with  clinkstone  porphyry,  and  rocks  of  the  coal  formation, 
C2.)  Clyde  Islands  and  the  Cumbrays  are  composed  of  secondary  rocks ;  the  Neptunian  rocks 
are  chiefly  old  red  sandstone,  which  is  traversed  and  overlaid  by  different  kinds  of  trap  rocks, 
of  which  tlicre  are  magnificent  displays  in  these  islands.  The  southern  part  of  Bute  is 
almost  entirely  composed  of  rocks  of  "igneous  origin,  belonging  to  the  trap  series ;  the  mid- 
dle, of  old  red  sandstone ;  the  northern  of  clay  slate,  mica  slate,  quartz  rock,  and  trap.  Arran 
affords  highly  illustrative  examples  of  Neptunian  and  Plutonian  rocks  of  the  primitive  and 


Book  I.  SCOTLAND.  407 

transition  classes,  viz.  clay  slate,  mica  slate,  greywacke,  as  Neptunian  deposits ;  and  granite, 
as  a  Plutonian  rock.  The  junctions  of  the  granite,  of  which  there  are  two  formations,  with 
each  other  and  with  the  Neptunian  slates,  are  most  instructive.  Reposing  on  tliese  rocks  is 
a  deposit  of  the  old  red  sandstone,  on  which  rests  the  coal  formation ;  and  the  whole  are 
covered,  more  or  less  completely,  with  new  red  sandstone.  These  Neptunian  secondary 
rocks  are  traversed  in  all  directions  by  Plutonian  rocks  of  the  porphyry  and  trap  series, 
affording  an  admirable  study  to  the  geologist.  Alluvial  deposits  occur  all  round  the  coast, 
and  covering,  more  or  less  deeply,  the  bottom  and  sides  of  valleys.  Both  old  and  new  allu- 
vium are  met  with  in  Arran.  The  Craig  of  Ailsa,  which  is  900  feet  high,  is  composed  of 
secondary  syenite,  in  several  cliffs  disposed  in  magnificent  columns,  alid  ti-aversed  by  veins 
of  secondary  greenstone,  &c. 

(3.)  The  Hebrides  or  Western  Islands  form  two  groups ;  the  one,  ranging  immediately 
along  the  coast,  tire  Inner  Hebrides ;  the  other,  lying  beyond,  to  the  westward,  the  Outer 
Hebrides. 

Inner  Hebrides.  Gigha,  Isla,  Jura,  Colonsay,  Oronsay,  Scarba,  and  the  Slate  Isles,  are 
principally  composed  of  Neptunian  primitive  and  transition  strata,  having  frequently  a  north- 
east and  south-west  direction ;  and  variously  disposed,  from  the  slightly  inclined  to  the  ver- 
tical position.  The  rocks  are  mica  slate,  quartz  rock,  talc  sb.te,  chlorite  slate,  liornblende 
slate,  clay  slate,  limestone,  and  grcywacke.  These  are  traversed  by,  and  intermingled  with, 
Plutonian  rocks  of  the  trap  and  porphyry  series.  The  clay  slate  is  extensively  quarried  in 
the  isle  of  Eisdale,  one  of  the  Slate  Islands.  In  Isla  there  is  a  great  deposit  of  limestone, 
in  which  formerly  lead-mines  were  worked.  lona,  Tiree,  and  Coll  are  principally  composed 
of  gneiss,  mica  slate,  quartz  rock,  hornblende  rock,  with  occasional  intermixtures  of  granite 
and  syenite,  and  all  traversed,  more  or  less  frequently,  by  veins  of  trap  rock.  Mull,  with 
the  exception  of  two  or  three  points,  which  are  composed  of  granite,  gneiss,  and  mica  slate, 
is  composed  of  secondary  trap  and  porpliyry  rocks,  with  occasional  intermixtures  of  lias  lime- 
stones, and  lias  coals.  The  usual  alluvial  deposits  appear  in  different  parts  of  the  island. 
Slaffa,  which  is  composed  of  basalt,  amygdaloid,  and  trap  tuffa,  lias  been  long  celebrated  on 
account  of  its  splendid  columnar  basaltic  cave,  the  Fingal's  Cave  of  travellers.  Eigg  is 
principally  composed  of  trap  rocks,  occasionally  intermingled  with  lias  limestones.  The 
Scure  Egg  is  a  remarkable  columnar  ridge  of  pitchstone  porphyry,  presenting  the  most 
splendid  display  of  the  natural  columnar  structure  to  be  met  with  anywhere  in  the  British 
islands.  Canna  is  entirely  composed  of  secondary  trap  rocks;  and  Rum,  a  wild,  rugged, 
and  hilly  island,  besides  red  sandstone,  which  forms  a  prominent  constituent  part,  also  con- 
tains many  varieties  of  trap,  some  of  which  are  remarkable  from  their  containing  agates, 
bloodstone,  opal,  &c.  Skye,  the  largest  of  the  Inner  Hebrides,  exhibits  great  variety  of 
scenery  and  of  geological  arrangement.  The  southern  part  of  the  island  is  composed  of 
primitive  and  transition  rocks,  principally  of  the  Neptunian  series  ;  namely,  mica  slate,  clay 
slate,  chlorite  slate,  hornblende  rock,  quartz  rock,  greywacke,  and  limestone.  The  middle 
•part  affords  magnificent  displays  of  Plutonian  rocks,  as  syenite,  porphyry  and  trap,  which 
are  frequently  observed  intermixed  with  lias  limestone,  wliich  in  many  places  is  seen  con- 
verted into  marble  through  the  agency  of  those  ignigenous  rocks :  tlie  northern  division  of 
the  island  is  principally  composed  of  various  trap  rocks,  often  abounding  in  zeolite  and  other 
curious  minerals,  and  intermingled  with  lias  limestone  and  coal.  The  alluvium  here  exhibits 
its  usual  cliaracters.  Rasay.  The  southern  and  middle  parts  of  this  island  are  of  secondary 
formation,  principally  of  old  red  sandstone  and  lias  sandstone  ;  the  northern  extremity  is  of 
primitive  rocks,  principally  gneiss.  Rona.  This  island,  which  appears  formerly  to  have 
been  a  part  of  Rasay,  is  entirely  of  primitive  formation,  the  prevailing  rock  being  gneiss, 
with  subordinate  mica  slate,  quartz  rock,  hornblende  rock,  &c.,  traversed  by  splendid  veins 
of  granite. 

Outer  Hebrides.  This  group,  which  lies  in  a  north-east  and  south-west  direction,  con- 
sists of  the  following  islands ;  viz.  Lewis,  Harris,  North  Uist,  South  Uist,  and  Barra.  The 
whole  range  of  islands  is  nearly  of  prunitive  formation,  and  the  predominating  rocks,  which 
are  gneiss  and  mica  slate,  range  generally  from  north-east  to  south-west.  The  following 
rocks,  which  are  generally  subordinate  to  those  just  mentioned,  viz.  quartz  rock,  clay  slate, 
chlorite  slate,  hornblende  rock  of  various  kinds,  limestone  (?),  serpentine,  with  masses  and 
veins  of  granite,  syenite,  and  porphyry,  present  many  interesting  phenomena. 

(4.)  Orkney  Islands.  This  group  of  islands  is  distinguished  from  all  others  that  lie  around 
the  coasts  of  Scotland,  by  the  uniformity  of  its  structure  and  composition.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  a  small  extent  of  transition  rocks  near  Stromness  in  the  island  of  Pomona,  the  largest 
of  the  Orkneys,  tliat  island  and  all  tlie  others  are  composed  of  tlie  old  red  sandstone,  with 
some  rare  appearance  of  secondary  trap. 

(5.)  Shetland  Islands.  This  very  interesting  group  of  islands  exhibits  great  variety  in 
its  geognostical  structure  and  composition.  Mainland.  With  the  exception  of  a  band  of 
old  red  sandstone  extending  from  the  line  of  Sumburgh  Head  to  Rovey  Head,  on  the  east 
coast  the  wliole  of  this  island  is  formed  of  primitive  rocks.     Tlie  Neptunian  strata  are 


408 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


gneiss,  with  subordinate  mica  slate,  clay  slate,  quartz  rock,  limestone,  and  hornblende  rocks ; 
the  Plutonian  rocks,  which  frequently  alter  and  upraise  the  Neptunian  strata,  are  granite, 
syenite,  porphyry,  greenstone,  and  epidotic  syenite.  Yell  is  almost  entirely  composed  of 
gneiss, 'variously  intersected  by  veins  of  granite.  Vnst  is  composed  of  gneiss,  mica  slate, 
talc  slate,  chlorite  slate,  and  limestone,  which  are  variously  intermixed  with  serpentine  and 
diallao-e  rocks.  Hermancss,  the  most  nortliern  point  of  the  British  dominions  in  Europe,  is 
composed  of  gneiss;  while  the  Land's  End  of  Cornwall,  the  most  south-westerly  cape  of 
Britain,  is  formed  of  granite.  Unst  and  the  neighbouring  island  of  Fetlar  abound  in  chro- 
mate  of  iron.  Hydrate  of  magnesia,  grenatite,  precious  garnet,  and  other  beautiful  minerals, 
occur  in  this  island.  Fetlar  is  composed  of  serpentine  as  the  predominating  rock,  with 
diallage  rock,  gneiss,  mica  slate,  chlorite  slate,  and  quartz  rock.  Whalsey  is  composed  of 
gneis.s.  Bressay,  Noss,  and  Mousa  are  composed  of  old  red  sandstone.  Barra  and  House 
are  composed  of  gneiss  and  mica  slate,  with  subordinate  limestone;  Papa  Stoitr  is  a  mass  of 
porphyry.  In  Foula  the  predominating  rock  is  old  red  sandstone;  at  one  point  there  is  a 
lunited  display  of  primitive  rocks  of  granite,  gneiss,  mica  slate,  and  clay  slate. 

Sect.  III. — Historical  Survey. 
To  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  Scotland  was  not  known  as  a  distinct  country.  Albion, 
or  Britain,  was  viewed  as  one  region,  parcelled  out  among  a  multitude  of  different  tribes. 
Agricola  first  penetrated  into  that  part  of  Britain,  which  we  now  call  Scotland.  He  easily 
over-ran  the  low  country,  but  encountered  the  most  obstinate  resistance  when  he  approached 
the  Caledonians,  who  appear  then  to  have  held  all  the  northern  districts.  An  obstinate 
battle,  the  precise  place  of  which  has  never  been  ascertained,  was  fought  at  the  foot  of  the 
Grampians.  All  the  rude  valour  of  Caledonia  could  not  match  the  skill  of  Agricola  and  the 
discipline  of  the  Roman  legions.  The  whole  open  country  was  abandoned  to  the  invaders, 
whose  progress,  however,  was  stayed  by  what  they  tenned  the  Caledonian  forest,  under 
which  they  seem  to  have  vaguely  comprehended  the  vast  pine  woods  of  Glenmore,  and  the 
Bteep  barrier  of  the  Grampians.  Their  military  occupation,  however,  is  attested  by  the  form- 
ation of  numerous  camps,  of  which  that  of 
Ardoch,  {Jig.  185),  ten  miles  north  of  Stir- 
ling, is  the  most  extensive  and  complete. 
The  Romans  endeavoured  to  resist  the  in- 
cursions of  the  natives,  by  rearing  at  different 
periods,  two  walls,  one  between  the  Forth 
and  Clyde,  and  the  other  south  of  the  low 
coimtry  of  Scotland,  between  the  Solway 
and  the  Tyne.  The  northern  tribes,  how- 
ever, continued  their  inroads,  now  chiefly 
under  the  name  of  Picts,  who  seem  clearly 
to  have  been  the  same  people  with  the 
Caledonians.  In  the  fit\h  century  Britain 
was  abandoned  by  the  Romans,  and  over-run 
by  the  Saxons,  who  occupied  the  eastern 
part  of  the  south  of  Scotland,  as  far  as  tlie 
Forth. 

The  western  part  was  formed  into  the 
kingdom  of  Strathcluyd.  It  flourished  for 
about  300  years,  and  was  rendered  illustrious 
by  the  name  and  exploits  of  Arthur  and  his 
knights,  whose  power  from  508  to  .542,  is 
represented  by  tradition  as  having  been  predominant  over  the  south  of  Scotland  and  the  north 
of  England.  The  capital  and  bulwark  of  this  kingdom  was  Alcluyd,  called  aflerwards  Dun 
Briton  and  Dumbarton,  seated  on  an  insulated  precipitous  rock  at  the  mouth  of  the  Clyde. 
The  Strathcluyd  Britons,  closely  pressed  by  their  Saxon  neighbours,  endeavoured  to  defend 
themselves  by  a  lengthened /esse,  of  which  the  traces  have  been  supposed  to  remain  in  the 
Catrail  or  Picts'-work  Ditch,  drawn  across  the  counties  of  Selkirk  and  Roxburgh.  -Such 
feeble  defences  could  not  support  a  sinking  monarchy ;  in  757,  Alcluj^d  was  taken  by  the 
Saxons,  and  the  kingdom  subverted. 

The  Scots,  before  this  time,  had  come  from  Ireland,  their  original  seat,  which,  in  the  fourth 
century,  was  often  called  Scotland.  Even  before  the  departure  df  the  Romans,  the  Scots, 
joined  with  the  Picts,  are  mentioned  as  the  ravagers  of  defenceless  Britain.  They  appear  at 
one  time  to  have  baen  driven  back  into  Ireland;  but  in  .503  they  again  landed  in  Cantyre, 
and  durmg  the  next  four  centuries,  spread  gradually  over  the  kingdom.  At  length  under  the 
\aetorious  reign  of  Kenneth,  which  commenced  in  836,  they  wrested  the  sceptre  from  Wred 
the  Pictish  kmg,  and  established  supreme  sway  over  the  whole  of  that  country,  which,  from 
tliem,  was  ever  afterwards  called  Scotland. 


Camp  at  Ardoch. 


Book  I.  SCOTLAND.  409 

The  Scoto-Saxon  era,  as  j\Ir.  Chalmers  calls  it,  is  memorable  rather  for  an  insensible 
zlmnge,  than  for  any  sudden  revolution.  After  the  subversion  of  the  kingdom  of  Strath- 
cluyd,  by  the  Saxons,  that  people  had  colonized  and  filled  the  whole  south;  and  the  Scottish 
kings,  thoug-h  of  Celtic  orif.nn,  having  established  themselves  in  this  more  fertile  part  of  their 
territories,  soon  began  to  imbibe  the  spirit  of  its  occupants.  From  this  or  other  causes  the 
whole  lowlands  of  Scotland  is  in  language  and  manners  Teutonic,  and  the  Gael  or  Celts 
were  again  confined  within  their  mountain  boundary. 

An  era  of  disputed  succession  arose  out  of  the  contending  claims  of  Bruce  and  Baliol, 
after  the  death  of  Margaret  of  Norway.  Edward  I.,  availing  himself  of  this  dissension, 
succeeded  in  introducing  himself  under  the  character  of  an  arbiter,  and  having  established 
Baliol  on  the  throne  by  an  armed  interference,  sought  to  rule  Scotland  as  a  vassal  kingdom. 
Tiie  result  was  a  struggle,  calamitous  to  Scotland,  but  which,  however,  placed  in  a  con- 
spicuous light  the  energy  and  heroism  of  the  nation,  and  brought  forward  the  names  of 
Wallace  and  Bruce,  ever  afterwards  the  foremost  in  her  annals.  The  result  was  glorious ; 
the  concentrated  force  of  the  English  was  finally  defeated  in  a  pitched  battle  at  Bannock- 
burn  ;  they  were  compelled  to  renounce  their  ambitious  pretensions,  and  allow  the  kingdom 
to  be  governed  by  its  native  princes. 

Under  the  turbulent  and  unfortunate  sway  of  the  Stuarts,  Scotland  continued  for  several 
centuries  without  any  prominent  revolution,  though  with  a  continual  tendency  to  internal 
coinmotion.  This  dynasty,  from  their  connexion  with  the  French  and  English  courts,  had 
acquired  the  idea  of  more  polished  manners,  and  habits  of  greater  subordination  as  due  from 
the  nobles.  Such  views  were  ill  suited  to  the  power  and  temper  of  a  Dougflas,  and  many 
other  powerful  chieftains,  through  whose  resistance  the  attempts  of  the  monarchs  were 
followed  with  disaster,  and  often  with  violent  death.  The  introduction  of  the  reformed 
religion  especially,  in  open  opposition  to  the  court,  which  granted  only  a  reluctant  and  pre- 
carious toleration,  was  unfavourable  to  the  crown,  and  fatal  to  a  princess  whose  beauty  and 
misfortunes  have  rendered  her  an  object  of  enthusiasm  to  the  gay  and  chivalric  part  of  the 
Scottish  nation. 

The  union  of  the  crowns,  by  the  accession  of  James  VI.  in  1603,  to  the  English  throne, 
produced  a  great  change,  in  itself  flattering  to  Scotland,  whose  race  of  princes  now  held 
sway  over  all  the  three  kingdoms.  The  struggle  between  presbytery  and  prelacy  gave  rise 
to  a  conflict  which  still  powerfully  influences  the  temper  and  character  of  the  Scots.  The 
efforts  of  the  presbyterians,  acting  under  the  bond  of  their  League  and  Covenant,  first 
enabled  the  English  parliament  to  rear  its  head,  and  had  a  great  effect  in  turning  the  scale 
of  contest  against  the  crown.  The  Scots  revolted,  however,  at  the  excesses  of  the  inde- 
pendents, and  endeavoured  to  rear  again,  on  a  covenanted  basis,  the  fallen  crown  of  the 
Stuarts.  These  brave  but  unsuccessful  efforts  were  ill  requited  by  an  embittered  persecu- 
tion against  all  the  adherents  of  presbytery,  till  the  Revolution  finally  fixed  that  system  as 
the  established  religion  of  Scotland. 

The  union  of  the  kingdoms,  in  1707,  placed  Scotland  in  that  political  position  which  she 
has  ever  since  maintained;  and,  by  allaying  internal  contest,  and  opening  a  free  trade  with 
the  sister  kingdom,  this  union  has  produced  results  highly  beneficial,  although  the  devoted 
attachment  of  her  mountain  tribes  to  the  exiled  Stuarts  repeatedly  impelled  them  to  attempt 
to  replace  that  house  on  the  throne ;  attempts  which,  at  one  critical  moment,  spread  alarm 
into  the  heart  of  England. 

Sect.  IV. — Political  Constitution. 

The  political  system  of  Scotland  being  now  almost  completely  incorporated  with  that  of 
England,  little  is  to  be  added  to  the  statements  given  under  the  head  of  the  sister  kingdom. 
A  few  peculiarities,  however,  may  be  deserving  of  notice. 

The  representation  allowed  to  Scotland  at  the  union  was  somewhat  scanty.  It  consisted, 
for  the  House  of  Commons,  of  forty-five  members,  fifteen  from  the  boroughs,  and  thirty  from 
the  counties.  The  members  were  elected,  not  by  the  burgesses,  but  by  the  magistrates, 
who  themselves  were  appointed  chiefly  by  their  predecessors  in  office ;  thus  constituting 
close  boroughs,  in  u-hich  a  party  having  once  obtained  a  majority  might  keep  it  in  perpetuum. 
In  county  elections,  the  right  of  voting  was  attached  to  the  possession  of  lands  held  im- 
mediately of  the  crown,  and  of  the  valued  rent  of  400Z.  Scots.  But  the  feudal  superiority 
which  entitled  to  vote  was  separable  from  the  actual  possession  of  the  property.  The  original 
proprietor,  who,  perhaps,  had  a  number  of  these  votes  on  his  estate,  might  either  sell  or 
distribute  them  among  his  friends,  so  as  to  multiply  his  own  elective  influence.  The  free- 
holders of  Scotland  amounted  to  not  quite  8000,  of  whom  a  certain  number,  for  the  reason 
stated,  had  no  actual  property  in  land.  The  peers  of  Scotland  are  represented  by  sixteen 
of  their  number,  elected  at  the  commencement  of  each  parliament.  There  are,  besides, 
upwards  of  twenty  who  are  British  peers,  and  sit  in  their  personal  right. 

Vol.  L  35  3  B 


410  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  P.uit  III. 

By  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832,  the  power  of  returning  members  to  the  House  of  Cor^anons 
is  vested  in  the  following  cities  and  burghs : — 


Edinburgh 
Glasgow  . . 


Paisley 

Dundee 

Greenock 

Perth 

Leith,  Pnrtohcllo,  Musselburg ' 

Kirkwall,  Wick,  Dornoch,  Dingwall,  Tain,  Cromarty 

Fortrose,  Inverness,  Nairn,  Forres 

Elgin,  Cullen,  Banff,  Inverary,  Kintore,  Peterhead 

Inverbervie,  Montrose,  Arbroath,  Brechin,  Forfar • 

Cupar,  St.  Andrew's,  Anstruther  Easter  and  Wester,  Crail,  Kilrenny,  Pittenween 

Dysart,  Kirkaldy,  Kinghorn,  Burntisland 

Iiiverkeithinir,  D'lnfermliiic,  Kinross,  (iueensferry,  Culross,  Stirling   

Renfrew,  Rutherfflen,  Dumbarton,  Kilmarnock,  Port  Glasgow 

Haddington,  Dunbar,  North  Berwick,  Lauder,  Jedburgh 

Linlithgow,  Lnnark,  Falkirk,  Airdrie,  Hamilton 

Ayr.  Irvine,  Campbell  ton,  Inverary,  Oban 

Dumfries,  Sanquahar,  Annan,  Lochmaben,  Kirkcudbright 

Wigton,  New  Galloway,  Stranraer,  Whithorn 


These  members  are  returned  by  the  inhabitants  paying  rent  to  the  value  of  lOZ.  and  upwards. 
The  counties  continue  each  to  elect  a  member,  except  that  only  one  in  conjunction  is  re- 
turned by  Elgin  and  Nairn,  one  by  Ross  and  Cromarty,  and  one  by  Clackmannan  and  Kin- 
ross. The  power  of  voting,  too,  is  attached  to  the  possession  of  actual  property  yielding 
lOZ.  of  yearly  rent. 

The  judicial  administration  of  Scotland  has  always  continued  distinct  from  that  of  the 
sister  kingdom.  The  supreme  court,  or  Court  of  Session,  consisted  until  lately,  of  fifteen 
members,  sitting  together,  and  deciding  in  all  civil  causes,  while  sLx  of  these  constituted  a 
Justiciary  Court  for  the  trial  of  criminal  case.s.  The  trial  by  jury  was  employed  only  in  the 
Justiciary  Court,  and  in  revenue  questions,  which  are  tried  before  the  Court  of  Exchequer. 
But  the  supreme  court  is  now  divided  into  two  chambers,  one  of  six  and  the  other  of  seven 
members.  Trials  by  jury,  in  civil  cases,  have  been  introduced,  and  are  now  carried  on,  like 
others,  under  the  direction  of  the  Court  of  Session.  The  Court  of  Exchequer,  which  con- 
sisted of  five  barons,  the  Consistory  and  the  Admiralty  Courts  have  been  abolished,  and  their 
jurisdiction  transferred  to  the  Court  of  Session. 

The  revenue  of  Scotland  has  been  hitherto  collected  separately  from  that  of  England, 
and  by  separate  boards  for  each  branch ;  but,  under  recent  regulations,  the  whole  has  been 
placed  under  the  direction  of  boards  resident  in  London,  and  the  systems  have  been  in  a  great 
measure  incorporated  together.     In  the  year  ending  5th  January,  1831 — 

£ 

The  Scottish  excise  was 2,395,490 

Customs 1,357,000 

Stamps 526,000 

Assessed  taxes 292,000 

Post  office 201,000 


4,771,490 


Sect.  V. — Productive  Industry. 

Scotland  has  always  ranked  as  a  poor  country ;  and,  for  a  long  time,  natural  obstacles  were 
enhanced  by  moral  impediments.  The  Scots  showed  an  aptitude  to  embark  in  all  schemes 
of  turbulence ;  but  indolence,  and  dislike  of  plain  hard  work,  might  be  recognized  as  a 
national  characteristic.  Since  the  age  arrived,  however,  when  industry  came  into  honour, 
and  when  improved  processes  were  studiously  applied  to  all  the  useful  arts,  the  Scots- have 
entered  with  peculiar  spirit  and  intelligence  into  this  new  career;  and  in  its  prosecution 
have  been  more  successfiil,  in  some  respects,  than  their  southern  neighbours. 

The  agriculture  of  Scotland  has  to  contend  with  obstacles  which  must  be  manifest,  when 
we  look  at  its  rutrged  aspect,  and  its  vast  hills  and  morasses.  Forty  years  ago,  moreover, 
the  progress  of  Scotland  in  this  primary  art  was  generally  behind  that  of  the  rest  of  the 
empire.  As  soon,  hov.-ever,  as  the  great  system  of  agricultural  improvement  was  adopted 
throughout  the  kingdom,  the  Scottish  farmers  not  only  shared  in  it,  but  carried  it  farther 
than  those  of  England.  The  farmers  of  the  Lothians,  of  the  Carse  of  Gowrie,  and  even  of 
the  district  on  the  Moray  Frith,  made  a  complete  reform  in  the  whole  train  of  agricultural 
operations.  They  brought  extensive  tracts  of  common  and  waste  under  cultivation,  reduced 
the  number  of  cattle  and  improved  the  breed,  cultivated  the  artificial  grasses,  dismissed 


Book  I.  SCOTLAND.  411 

superfluous  hands,  and  adopted  the  use  of  machinery,  of  which  the  most  important,  the 
thresliing  machine,  was  of  Scottish  invention.  The  consequence  was,  that  considerable 
fortunes  were  made  by  successful  farmers,  and  that  rents  were  in  almost  every  instance 
trebled,  and  in  some  cases  raised  to  eight  or  ten  times  their  former  amount.  In  the  moun- 
tainous districts,  also,  a  new  system  was  introduced,  which  proved  more  profitable  to  the 
landlord.  The  numerous  little  farms  liitherto  held  by  tenants  or  vassals,  were  thrown  into 
extensive  sheep-walks.  Considerable  depopulation,  in  the  agricultural  districts,  was  the 
consequence  ;  a  great  proportion  of  this  brave  and  warm-hearted  race  were  forced  to  quit 
their  native  glens,  to  which  they  were  fondly  attached,  and  to  seek  support,  either  in  the 
great  manufacturing  towns,  or  in  settlements  formed  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic. 

The  cultivated  lands  of  Scotland,  and  the  amount  of  its  produce,  after  all  these  improve- 
ments, are  still  limited.  Of  the  18,944,000  acres,  its  computed  extent  of  land,  only  5,043,000 
are  under  regular  cultivation,  and  not  more  than  1,800,000  under  grain.  Of  these  only 
140,000  produce  wheat,  though  this  is  considered  the  most  profitable  crop,  and  is  raised  of 
good  quality,  where  the  soil  and  climate  admit.  Oats,  a  hardy  plant,  is  the  staple  produce 
of  Scotland,  and  the  food  of  its  rural  population :  it  covers  1,260,000  acres.  Barley  occupies 
280,000  acres,  being  raised  chiefly  for  distillation ;  but  in  the  higher  districts  it  is  the  ruder 
species  called  hear  or  big.  The  chief  exportable  produce  consists  in  cattle  and  sheep,  which 
are  sent  in  numbers  to  the  English  markets.  The  sheep  are  not  equal  to  the  fine  English 
breeds,  but  the  mutton  of  the  Grampians  and  Cheviots  is  of  exquisite  flavour. 

The  manufacturing  industry  of  Scotland  has,  within  the  last  century,  advanced  with  pro- 
digious rapidity,  being  quite  equal,  compared  with  the  extent  and  population  of  the  country, 
to  that  of  England.  Woollen,  the  grand  original  staple  of  England,  has  never  obtained  more 
than  a  very  partial  footing  in  Scotland.  Linen,  with  other  products  of  flax,  is  the  original 
staple  of  Scotland.  It  was  throughout  the  country  a  household  manufacture,  and  for  house- 
hold use.  Flax,  in  almost  every  family,  was  diligently  spun  into  yarn,  which  was  then  sent 
out  to  be  woven  and  bleached.  The  coarser  kinds  of  linen  still  form  the  staple  of  the  eastern 
counties,  though  Dunfermline  excels  in  fine  sheeting  and  diaper.  The  linen  made  in  Scot- 
land was  estimated,  in  1810,  at  26,457,000  yards,  value  1,265,000^.  The  increase  in  the 
manufacture  has  since  been  so  great,  that  in  1831,  Dundee  alone  exported  more  than 
57,000,000  yards !  By  far  the  greater  proportion  of  the  raw  material  is  imported,  very  little 
hemp  or  flax  being  grown  either  in  Scotland  or  England ;  almost  all  the  former,  and  more 
than  half  the  latter,  is  brought  from  Russia,  the  rest  of  the  flax  from  Holland,  Flanders,  and 
Germany. 

The  cotton  manufacture,  though  of  comparatively  recent  introduction,  has,  in  Scotland, 
no  less  than  in  England,  risen  to  be  the  first  in  point  of  magnitude.  Glasgow  and  Paisley 
produce  fabrics  carried  to  an  extreme  degree  of  fineness.  The  muslin  of  Paisley  is  one  of 
the  most  delicate  fabrics  existing.  The  printing  of  cottons,  particularly  shawls,  is  also  carried 
on  to  a  greater  proportional  extent  in  Scotland  than  in  England.  The  total  quantity  of  cotton 
wool  spun  in  Scotland  in  1832,  amounted  to  24,500,000  lbs.  of  the  value  of  about  4,000,000?. 

Distillation  of  spirits  from  grain  has  been  long  a  characteristic  branch  of  Scottish  industry; 
and  in  the  highland  districts,  the  quality  of  the  article  has  been  carried  to  very  great  per- 
fection. It  has  been  much  cramped  by  fiscal  restrictions,  which  have,  of  late,  been  almost 
entirely  abolished.  In  the  first  seven  years  of  the  present  century,  the  quantity  paying  duty 
averaged  2,000,000  gallons;  it  then  gradually  approached  to  4,000,000;  but  in  1824,  upon 
the  reduction  of  the  duty,  it  suddenly  increased  to  above  5,000,000,  and  in  1830  it  rose  to 
6,070,000. 

Scotland  has  various  other  ordinary  manufactures,  and  generally  supplies  itself  with  all 
the  common  necessaries  of  life.  The  ale  of  Edinburgh  and  of  some  Scottish  towns  enjoys 
reputation  even  out  of  Scotland.  In  1829,  there  were  brewed  in  Scotland  110,000  gallons 
of  strong  beer,  and  229,000  of  table  beer.  Glass  is  made  to  the  extent  of  nearly  double  the 
consumption  of  the  country ;  the  surplus  being  exported,  chiefly  to  Ireland.  Salt,  which 
does  not  exist  in  a  mineral  fonn,  is  largely  extracted  from  sea-water  by  boiling ;  and  though 
not  equal  in  quality  to  English  rock  salt,  nor  fit  for  use  in  the  fisheries,  its  cheapness  recom- 
mends it  for  common  culinary  purposes.  Candles,  soap,  starch,  leather,  paper,  are  produced 
in  quantity  sufficient  for  the  supply  of  the  inhabitants.  In  1829,  the  produce  was  5,731,000 
lbs.  tallow  candles;  12,721,000  lbs.  hard  soap,  and  2,332,000  lbs.  soft  soap;  812,000  lbs. 
starch  ;  6,002,000  lbs.  hides ;  7,162,000  lbs.  paper. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Scotland  is  chiefly  of  an  humble  and  usefiil  description.  Its  moun- 
tains are  not  metalliferous.  In  Lanark  and  Dumfries  is  a  large  deposit  of  lead  mixed  w'ith 
silver,  which,  together  with  some  smaller  mines  in  the  Hebrides,  is  supposed  to  yield  136,000^. 
in  the  former  metal,  and  10,000/.  in  the  latter.  Ironstone  occurs  extensively  in  the  upper 
coal  districts.  In  1825,  the  annual  production  of  pig  iron  in  Scotland  was  29,200  tons, 
which  is  not,  however,  sufficient  to  supply  the  founderies  at  Carron  and  elsewhere.  Those 
at  Carron  are  considerable,  the  casting  being  chiefly  of  ordnance,  grates,  and  culinary  ves- 
sels. Coal,  lime,  and  stone,  compose  tlie  solid  mineral  wealth  of  Scotland.  The  great  coal- 
field extends  in  a  diagonal  line  of  100  miles  along  the  friths  of  Clyde  and  Forth ;  beginning 


412 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


P.VKT  III. 


Bouth  of  the  former,  and  ending  north  of  the  latter.  It  is  immensely  rich  in  coal  of  pretty 
good  quality,  though  not  equal  to  the  best  English.  A  large  quantity  is  exported  to  Ireland. 
Lime  is  furnished  abundantly,  both  for  building  and  manure.  Freestone,  chiefly  on  both 
sides  of  the  Fortli ;  granite,  in  Aberdeenshire ;  slate,  in  the  Hebrides  and  Argyleshire,  aftbrd 
excellent  materials  for  building. 

The  fisheries  form  a  considerable  branch  of  industry  in  Scotland ;  the  herring,  cod,  and 
haddock  abound  on  various  parts  of  its  shores.  The  Dutch  long  monopolised  the  great 
northern  licrring  bank ;  and,  by  a  superior  mode  of  cure,  obtained  a  preference  in  all  mar- 
kets. The  British  government,  however,  has  for  some  time  made  great  exertions  for  the 
promotion  of  the  Scottish  fisheries ;  and  there  has  been  a  wonderful  increase  in  the  quantity 
caught,  and  a  corresponding  improvement  in  the  processes  of  cure.  The  former,  which  in 
1815  was  only  160,000  barrels,  had  risen  in  1830  to  329,000,  of  which  237,000  were  exported. 
In  the  same  year,  63,500  cwt.  of  cod  were  cured  in  a  dried  state,  and  5400  cwt.  in  pickle ; 
of  the  former,  23,000  were  exported.  Salmon,  taken  in  all  the  considerable  rivers,  and  kept 
fresh  by  being  packed  in  ice,  chiefly  supplies  the  London  market.  The  whale  fishery  in 
Greenland  and  Davis's  Straits  has  for  some  time  been  prosecuted  by  Scotland  with  increased 
activity.  In  the  nine  years  ending  in  1818,  she  sent  at  an  average  only  40  ships:  in  1830, 
she  sent  47;  the  produce  of  which  was  .5613  tuns  of  oil.  Kelp  was  in  extensive  demand 
during  the  late  war ;  but  the  repeal  of  the  duty  on  salt,  and  the  reduction  of  the  duty  on 
barilla,  have  ruined  this  branch  of  industry. 

The  relative  foreign  commerce  of  the  principal  ports  of  Scotland  is  exhibited  in  the  fol- 
lowing Table : — 


Aberdeen . . . . 

Bo'ne?s 

Dundee 

Glasgow 

Grangemouth 
Greenock 


Tonnase 
in  1830. 


4r,,200 
0,100 
2(j,000 
41,100 
24,:!00 
30,200 


Proiluce  ul 
Cusiiims 
in  18-29. 


£ 
52,-}  00 
5,400 
G8,000 

25,000 
431,000 


Inverjiess. . . . 

Irvine 

Lcith 

Montrose. . . . 

Perth 

Port  Glasgow 


Tonnaae 
in  18.iO. 


7,300 
13,300 
14,800 
20,300 
l(i,100 

6,800 


Protluceor 
Customs 
in  1829. 

£ 
2,000 
4,400 
f.,800 
44,400 
0.000 
248,000 


Commerce,  till  the  union  of  the  crowns,  and  even  of  the  kingdoms,  could  scarcely  be  con- 
sidered as  existing  in  Scotland  ;  but  it  has  since  been  cultivated  with  great  ardour  and  enter- 
prise. One  branch  of  commercial  intercourse  is  that  with  her  opulent  sister  kingdom.  In 
England  she  finds  a  market  for  cattle,  her  chief  agricultural  surplus;  for  her  wool,  such  as 
it  is ;  for  her  sail-cloth  and  other  coarse  fabrics  from  flax  and  hemp ;  for  part  of  her  fine 
calicoes  and  muslins,  &c.  In  return,  she  receives  almost  all  the  woollen  cloth,  and  a  great 
part  of  the  silk  consumed  by  her;  hardware  and  cutlery  of  every  kind  ;  tea  and  other  East 
India  goods ;  and  through  this  channel  a  part  of  all  the  foreign  luxuries  which  she  requires. 
The  trade  with  Ireland  is  chiefly  supported  by  the  exchange  of  coal  and  iron  for  oats  and 
cattle.  That  with  the  Baltic,  particularly  Russia,  is  very  active ;  the  eastern  part  of  the 
kingdom  deriving  thence  the  hemp  and  flax,  wliich  form  the  material  of  her  staple  manu- 
facture ;  also  timber,  iron,  and  the  other  bulky  and  useful  staples  of  that  trade.  Having 
few  articles  of  her  own  with  wliich  this  market  is  not  already  stocked,  the  payment  is  made 
chiefly  in  bullion  and  colonial  produce.  The  flourishing  trade  carried  on  from  the  west  coast 
with  America  and  the  We.st  Indies,  is  supported  by  the  export  of  cottons,  linen,  wearing 
apparel,  and  otlier  commodities ;  and  by  the  import  of  cotton,  sugar,  rum,  and  the  various 
luxuries  of  those  fertile  regions.  The  Mediterranean  trade  is  not  neglected ;  and  since  the 
opening  of  that  to  India,  Greenock  has  adventured  into  it  with  considerable  success. 

The  roads,  whicli  half  a  century  ago  were  almost  impassable,  are  now,  through  all  the 
Lowlands,  little  inferior  to  those  of  England.  After  the  rebellion  of  1745,  government  con- 
structed excellent  roads  into  the  heart  of  the  Highlands  as  far  as  Inverness;  and  in  1803,  a 
body  of  commissioners  was  appointed  by  government,  for  improving  the  roads  of  the  north 
of  Scotland.  They  proceeded  upon  the  principle,  that  half  the  expense  must  in  everj'  case 
be  defrayed  by  the  coimty  proprietors,  and  in  eighteen  years  good  roads  were  formed  into 
the  remotest  tracts  of  Inverness,  Skye,  Ross,  and  even  to  the  farthest  point  of  Caithness. 

Artificial  navigation  meets  with  peculiar  obstructions  from  the  ruggedness  of  the  surface, 
and  lience  canals  have  never  become  very  numerous.  The  "Great  Canal,"  admits  vessels 
of  considerable  size  to  pass  from  the  Frith  of  Forth  to  that  of  Clyde,  and  thus  unite  the  Ger- 
man and  Atlantic  oceans.  Branches  to  Glasgow  and  to  the  fine  coal-field  at  Monkland  have 
been  advantageously  opened.  The  Union  Canal,  completed  at  an  expenseof  nearly  400,000/., 
connects  tlie  Great  Canal,  near  its  eastern  point,  with  Edinburgh,  by  a  line  of  thirty  miles 
through  a  country  very  rich  in  coal  and  lime.  Tlie  Caledonian  Canal,  uniting  the  chain  of 
lakes  whicli  crosses  Scotland  diagonally  through  the  counties  of  Inverness  and  Argyle, 
allows  even  ships  of  war  to  pass,  from  the  east  coast,  into  the  Atlantic,  without  encounter- 
ing the  perils  of  the  Pentland  Frith  and  Cape  Wrath.  It  was  finished  in  1822,  at  an 
expense  of  nearly  1,000,000?.  sterling,  entirely  defrayed  by  government    The  gates  of  the 


Book  I.  SCOTLAND.  413 

locks  are  of  iron;  the  expense  of  each  lock  was  9000?.  The  locks  are  twenty-three  in  all, 
eight  of  which,  looking-  do\vn  from  Loch  Eil,  where  it  opens  into  the  western  sea,  are  called 
by  sailors  the  "  stair  of  Neptune."  The  canal  is  fifty  feet  broad ;  length  twenty-two  miles, 
with  forty  miles  of  lake  navigation. 

Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State, 
Of  the  population  of  Scotland  an  estimate  was  first  attempted  in  the  year  1755,  when  it 
was  computed  to  be  1,265,380.  The  reports  of  the  clergy  for  the  "  Statistical  Account," 
between  1792  and  1798,  gave  1,526,492 ;  which  was  raised  by  the  government  enumeration 
of  1801  to  1,599,000.  The  census  of  1811  gave  1,805,000 ;  which  was  raised  by  that  of 
1821  to  2,093,456.     In  1831,  it  was  2,363,842. 

In  point  of  disposition,  the  Scots  are  a  grave,  serious,  and  reflecting  people;  but  bold, 
enterprising,  ambitious,  and  imbued  with  a  deep-rooted  determination  to  pursue  the  objects 
of  their  desire,  and  repel  those  of  their  aversion.  Under  these  impulses,  they  quit,  without 
much  regret,  a  land  which  affords  few  opportunities  of  distmction,  and  seek,  either  in  the 
metropolis  and  commercial  tovrns  of  England,  or  in  the  most  distant  transmarine  regions,  that 
wealth  and  fame  which  they  eagerly  covet;  yet,  amid  this  distance  and  these  eager  pursuits, 
their  hopes  and  affections  remain  fixed  on  the  land  of  their  nativity ;  and  they  usually  seek 
to  spend  the  evening  of  their  days  in  Scotland.  The  Scots  appear  naturally  brave;  a  quality 
which  is  particularly  observable  among  the  highland  tribes,  and  by  which  they  rendered 
themselves  formidable,  first  under  Montrose,  and  afterwards  in  the  rebellion  against  the  house 
of  Hanover.  Since  they  were  conciliated  by  the  wise  measures  of  Pitt,  they  have  crowded 
into  the  British  army,  and  formed  some  of  its  bravest  regiments.  Among  the  lower  classes, 
crimes  against  the  order  of  society  are  of  comparatively  rare  occurrence,  and  there  is  less 
necessity  for  capital  punishment ;  there  is  also  less  of  e.xtreme  dissoluteness  among  the  higher 
ranks.  Among  the  Scottish  females,  in  particular,  tlie  obligations  of  the  marriage  tie  are 
much  more  seldom  disregarded  ;  and  if  the  other  sex  too  often  abuse  the  license  which  public 
manners  are  supposed  to  allow,  they  are  at  least  obliged  to  observe  some  outward  appear- 
ances. The  pride  of  birth  is  still  prevalent,  particnlarly  among  the  highland  clans;  and  it 
is  accompanied  with  a  general  ambition  to  rise  above  their  original  station,  and  a  propensity, 
with  that  view,  to  spend  their  moderate  wealth  rather  in  outward  show  than  in  solid  com- 
fort. The  sister  nations  accuse  the  Scots  as  selfish,  yet  Scotsmen  raised  to  power  have  not 
shown  any  backwardness,  either  in  the  general  offices  of  humanity,  or  to  promote  the  pros- 
perity of  their  country  and  countrymen. 

To  their  religious  duties  the  Scots  people  have  always  shown  an  exemplary  attention.  In 
catholic  times,  the  Romish  church  in  Scotland  enjoyed  more  influence,  and  had  acquired  a 
much  greater  proportion  of  the  national  wealth,  than  in  England.  But  they  entered  upon 
the  cause  of  reform  with  an  ardent  zeal,  which  left  behind  it  that  of  all  their  neighbours. 
After  a  desperate  struggle,  on  which,  for  nearly  a  century,  the  political  destinies  of  the  king-  - 
dom  depended,  they  obtained  their  favourite  form  of  presbytery,  the  most  remote  from  that 
pompous  ritual,  for  which  they  have  entertained  the  most  rooted  abhorrence.  The  principle 
of  presbytery  consists  in  the  complete  equality  of  all  its  clerical  members,  who  have  each  a 
separate  parish,  of  which  they  perform  all  the  ecclesiastical  functions.  The  title  of  bishop, 
so  long  connected  with  wealth  and  power,  has  been  rejected,  and  that  of  minister  substi- 
tuted. In  the  management  of  the  poor,  and  some  church  functions,  the  minister  is  assisted 
by  a  body  of  lay  members  called  elders,  who  constitute  the  kirk  sessiori.  The  government 
of  the  church  consists  in  presbyteries  formed  by  the  meeting  of  the  ministers  of  a  certaui 
district,  with  lay  members  from  each  session,  the  last  of  whom,  however,  attend  only  occa- 
sionally. A  synod  is  formed  by  the  union  of  several  presbyteries ;  and  the  General  Assem- 
hly  is  composed  of  deputies,  partly  clerical  and  partly  lay,  from  each  presbytery  and  borough. 
They  meet  every  year,  and  an  appeal  lies  to  them  upon  every  subject;  but  the  laws  of  the 
church,  though  proposed  in  the  Assembly,  can  be  passed  only  by  a  majority  of  presbyteries, 
after  being  debated  in  each.  The  king  sends  a  Commissioner,  who  is  present  at  the  debates 
of  the  Assembly,  and  seems  even  to  claim  a  right  of  Constituting  and  dissolving  it ;  but  this 
is  denied  by  the  church  itself,  which  acknowledges  no  human  head,  and  accounts  itself  and 
the  state  as  powers  entirely  independent. 

The  nobles  availed  themselves  of  the  downfall  of  the  catholic  establishment,  to  appro- 
priate nearly  tlie  whole  of  the  immense  income  with  which  it  had  been  endowed.  They 
took  at  first  not  only  the  lands,  but  the  tithes;  and  even  when  obliged  to  make  a  provision 
for  the  presbyterian  clergy  out  of  the  latter,  they  retained  part,  valued  often  at  a  very  low 
rate,  but  subject  to  be  called  upon  if  needed.  Thus  the  Scots  clergy  have  enjoyed  only 
such  incomes  as  enabled  them,  with  strict  economy,  to  maintain  their  place  in  the  middle 
rank  of  society.  When  even  this  became  impossible  under  the  increased  expense  of  livino-, 
augmentations  were  granted  out  of  the  tiends,  or  valued  tithes ;  and  where  these  were 
exhausted,  the  legislature  have  come  forward,  and  raised  the  lowest  stipend  to  150Z.  a  year. 
No  body  of  clergy  have  maintained  a  fairer  character,  or  more  efficiently  performed  their 
important  duties,  than  those  of  the  Scottish  church. 

35* 


414  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  UI. 

The  dissenters  from  the  Scottish  church  consist  chiefly  of  persons  zealously  attached  to 
presbytery,  and  who  have  seceded  because  they  considered  its  principles  as  not  maintained 
in  sufficient  purity  within  the  establishment.  Their  chief  complaint  is  against  the  system 
of  patronaj;^e  exercised  by  the  landed  interest,  who  present  g-enerally  to  the  vacant  parishes. 
Two  great  bodies,  into  which  they  were  formerly  divided  on  the  subject  of  the  burgher  oath, 
have,  since  the  abolition  of  that  test,  been  united  into  what  is  called  the  Associate  Synod. 
A  considerable  proportion,  especially  of  the  higher  ranks,  is  attached  to  episcopacy,  either 
as  it  was  established  in  Scotland  under  the  Stuarts,  or  as  it  now  exists  in  England ;  indeed, 
an  union  has  been  recently  formed  between  these  once  separate  branches.  None  of  the 
other  sects,  independents,  baptists,  methodists,  &c.  are  numerous ;  and  the  Roman  catholics 
consist  chiefly  of  emigrants  trom  Ireland,  though  their  form  of  religion  still  prevails  in  some 
of  the  remote  highland  districts. 

Literature,  soon  after  its  revival  in  Europe,  was  cultivated  in  Scotland  with  peculiar 
ardour.  Even  in  the  age  of  scliolastic  pursuits.  Duns  Scotus  and  Criciiton  were  pre-emi- 
nently famed  throughout  the  Continent.  Wiien  tlie  sounder  taste  for  classical  knowledge 
followed,  Buchanan  acquired  tlie  reputation  of  writing  Latin  with  great  purity.  Letters 
were  almost  entirely  suppressed  during  the  subsequent  period,  marked  by  a  conflict  between 
a  licentious  tyranny  and  an  austere  religious  party,  who  condemned  or  despised  the  exer- 
tions of  intellect  and  the  creations  of  fancy  ;  and  literature  lay  dormant  till  the  middle  of  the 
last  century,  when  Scotland,  with  a  cluirch  and  universities  alike  poorly  endowed,  produced 
as  illustrious  a  constellation  of  writers  as  had  been  called  fortli  by  the  most  lavish  patronage 
in  the  great  European  capitals.  We  shall  only  mention,  in  history,  Robertson  and  Hume ; 
in  moral  and  political  philosophy,  Hume,  Reid,  Smith,  Ferguson,  Kames,  Stewart,  Brown ; 
divinity,  Blair,  Campbell,  Macknight ;  poetry.  Home,  Thomson,  Beattie,  Burns ;  physical 
science,  Gregory,  Black,  Playfair,  Leslie.  In  the  present  generation,  the  most  popular  of 
fictitious  writings,  and  one  of  the  most  able  pof  iodical  works  known  m  modern  times,  have 
issued  from  the  Edinburgli  press. 

The  universities  of  Scotland  have  been  a  powerful  instrument  in  supporting  her  literary 
fame.  Though  not  riclily  endowed,  tlie  fees  of  well-attended  classes  afford  a  liberal  income, 
and  have  enabled  them  to  attract  the  most  learned  among  the  clergy ;  while,  in  England,  a 
wealthy  church  draws  eminent  scholars  from  the  universities.  The  students  live  generally 
in  the  towns,  without  any  check  on  their  private  conduct,  or  even  any  obligation  to  attend- 
ance, except  what  arises  from  the  dread  of  the  refusal  of  a  certificate  at  the  close.  The 
chief  exertion  of  the  professors  is  bestowed  on  their  lectures,  by  which  they  hope  to  attract 
students  to  their  class  and  seminary.  The  more  diligent  combine  with  them  examinations 
and  exercises,  but  not  on  the  same  systematic  and  searching  plan  as  in  England ;  and  the 
degrees  are  conferred,  in  many  instances,  with  culpable  laxity.  A  much  greater  proportion 
of  the  people  receive  a  college  education  than  in  England.  The  church  exacts  an  attend- 
ance of  eight  years ;  four  for  languages  and  philosophy,  and  four  for  divinity :  the  faculty 
of  medicine  requires  also  several  years ;  and  the  gentry  and  liigher  grades  of  the  middle 
ranks  in  general  consider  an  attendance  on  the  elementary  classes  as  an  essential  part  of 
education. 

The  public  libraries  are  not  rich.  That  belonging  to  the  advocates  or  barristers  of  Edin- 
burgh contains  upwards  of  100,0(X)  volumes,  among  wiiich  there  are  ample  materials,  both 
printed  and  in  manuscript,  for  elucidating  the  national  liistory.  The  university  library  is 
half  as  large ;  and  those  of  Glasgow,  King's  College  Aberdeen,  and  St.  Andrew's,  are  highly 
respectable.     Each  of  these  universities  can  claim  a  copy  of  every  new  work. 

Scotland  has  a  native  music,  simple  and  pathetic,  expressive  of  rural  feelings  and  emotions, 
to  which  she  is  fondly  attached.  Golf  and  foot-ball  are  the  only  amusements  that  can  be 
deemed  strictly  national.  Skating,  and  curling,  or  the  rolling  of  smooth  stones  upon  the 
ice,  are  also  pursued  with  great  ardour  during  the  season  that  admits  of  those  amusements. 
The  recreations  of  the  higher  ranks  are  nearly  the  same  as  in  England.  Dancing  is  prac- 
tised with  peculiar  ardour,  especially  by  the  Highlanders,  who  have  favourite  national  steps 
and  movements. 

The  Highlanders  retain  the  remnants  of  a  national  costume  peculiar  to  themselves;  the 
tartan,  a  mixture  of  woollen  and  linen  cloth,  adorned  with  brilliant  stripes  variously  crossing 
each  other,  and  marking  the  distinctions  of  the  clans ;  the  kilt,  or  short  petticoat,  worn  by 
the  men,  the  hose  fastened  below  the  knee,  which  is  left  bare ;  and  the  bonnet,  which  in 
another  shape  is  also  still  worn  by  the  shepherds  of  the  border. 

In  regard  to  food,  the  Scots,  in  general,  are  temperate.  Even  the  rich  attach  less  import- 
ance than  their  southern  neighbours  to  the  gratifications  of  the  palate.  The  peasantry,  pre- 
viously to  the  rise  of  wages,  which  took  place  about  thirty  years  ago,  were  content  with  the 
hardest  fare.  Neither  wheaten  bread  nor  animal  food  formed  part  of  their  ordinary  diet. 
Oatmeal,  not  accounted  in  the  south  of  England  an  article  of  food  for  human  beings,  was 
prepared  here  under  the  forms  of  cakes  or  porridge,  and  constituted  the  chief  means  of  sub- 
sistence. To  this  was  occasionally  added  barley  broth,  with  greens  or  kail,  the  chief  pro- 
duce of  theii-  little  gardens.     The  Scots  have  some  dishes  which  they  cherish  with  national 


JioOK   I. 


SCOTLAND. 


415 


eathusiasm,  and  among  which  the  haggis  holds  the  foremost  place.  This  is  a  mixture  of 
oatmeal,  fat,  liver,  and  onion,  boiled  up  in  the  bag  which  composed  the  stomach  of  the  ani- 
mal. They  have,  moreover,  hotcli-potch,  and  other  soups,  the  merit  of  which  has  been 
acknowledged  by  English  palates. 

Sect.  VII. — Local  Geography. 

The.  following  is  a  table  of  the  extent,  population,  and  rental  in  the  different  counties  of 
Scotland,  derived  from  agricultural  reports  and  parliamentary  returns : — 


T 


Acres 
under  Cul- 
tivation. 


Popula 
tion  in 
1S3I. 


Tonus,  with  Populalii 


Aberdeen 

Argyle 

Ayr 

Banff 

Berwick 

Bute 

Caithness 

Clackmannan 

Dumbarton 

Dumfries 

Edinburgh 

Elgin 

Fife 

Forfar 

Haddington 

Inverness. .'. 

Kincardine 

Kinross 

Kirkcudbright 

Lanark 

Linlithgow 

Nairn 

Orkney  and  Shetland 

Peebles 

Perth 

Henfrew 

Ross  and  Cromarty. . 

Roxburgh 

Selkirk  

Stirling 

Sutherland 

Wigton 


],039 

645 
443 
]G1 

C87 

48 

228 

1,253 

354 

473 
467 


272 

4,054 

380 

72 
821J 

942 

120 

195 

1,280 

319 

2,588 

225 

2,885 

715 

263 

489 

1,754 

451J 


451,000 
270,000 

325,000 

123,000 
137,000 
29,000 
92,000 
23,000 
54,000 
232,000 

145,000 

121,000 

209,000 

369,000 

139,000 
244,000 
92,000 
27,000 
168,000 

271,000 

57,000 
37,000 
46,000 
24,000 
580,000 

72,000 
170,000 

206,000 

10,000 
105,000 
63,000 

101,000 


£ 
301,000 
207,000 

369,000 

85,000 
280,000 
20.000 
32,000 
39,000 
63,000 
264,000 

713,000 

66,000 

378,000 

326,000 

213,000 
172,000 
88,000 
24,000 
192,000 

616,000 

91,000 
12,000 
20,000 
60,000 
512,000 

234,000 
111,000 

242,000 

41,000 
207,000 
28,000 

131,000 


27,579 
16,059 

17,842 

8,971 
5,803 
2,205 
5,319 
2,145 
3,536 
12,248 

19,077 

6,668 

18,944 

16,812 

6,230 
17,055 
5,894 


6,441 

47,016 

3,302 


9,176 
1,750 
26,718 

10,490 
13,038 

6,587 

1,081 

8,984 
4,654 


177,651 
101,425 

145,055 

48,004 
34,048 
14,151 
34,529 
14,729 
33,211 
73,770 

219,592 

34,231 

128,839 

139,606 

36,145 
94,797 
31,431 
9,072 
40,599 

316,819 

23,291 
9.354 
58,239 
10,578 
142,894 

133,443 
74,820 

43,663 

6,883 
72.621 
25,518 

36,218 


Aberdeen  . . .  58,019 

Campbellton  9,472 

i  Avr 7,(;06 

/  Irvine 5,200 

Banff 3,711 

Durise 3,469 

Rothesay  ...  4  819 

Thurso 4,679 

Clackmannan     4,266 

Dumbarton  .  3,623 

Dumfries  ...  11,606 

(  Edinburgh  .  136,303 

(Dalkeith...  5,586 

Elgin 6,130 

(  Cfiipar 6,493 

(Kirkaldy...  5,034 

Dundee 45,3.55 

/  Forfar 7,949 

Haddington  .  5,883 

Inverness...  15,324 

Bervie 1.137 

Kinross 2,917 

Kirkcudbright!    3,511 

(  Glasgow  . . .  202,428 

\  Lanark  ....  7,672 

Linlithgow  .  4,874 

Nairn 3,266 

Kirkwall  ...  3,065 

Peebles 2,750 

Perth 20,016 

(  Paisley 57,466 

/  Port  Glasgow   5,192 

(  Dingwall  . .  2,124 

\  Cromarty  . .  2,901 

I  Kelso 4,939 

(  Hawick 4,970 

Selkirk "^,833 

Stirling 8,340 

Dornoch  ....  50-1 

I  Wigton 2,337 

i  Portpatrick  2,239 


Peterhead  . . .  6,698 
Iiiverary  . . . .  2.133 
Kilmarnock  .  18,093 

Cullen 1,593 

Lauder 2,003 

Wick 9.850 

Alloa 6,379 

Sanquhar  .  ..  3,268 

Leith 25,853 

Musselburgh  8,961 

Forres 3,895 

St.  Andrew's  5,621 

Dunfermline  17,068 

Montro.se  . .  .  12,055 

Arbroath 6,660 

Dunbar 4,735 


9,503 


Lerwick  . . 

Dumblane. 
Greenock. . 
Renfrew  . . 
Tain 


Jedburgh . 


Falkirk  . . 
Stranraer 


2,750 

3,228 
27,571 
2,133 
3,078 

5,647 


12,743 
3,321 


In  treating  of  Scotland  in  detail,  we  shall  divide  it  into  three  constituent  parts : — 1.  The 
Lowland  counties ;  2.  The  Highland  counties ;  3.  The  Islands. 

SuBSECT.  1. —  The  Lowland  Counties. 

The  whole  of  the  south  of  Scotland,  though  diversified  by  elevated  ranges  of  hills,  is 
always  considered  as  belongmg  to  the  Lowlands.  It  presents,  however,  three  districts  of 
opposite  character: — 1.  The  agricultural  counties  along  the  German  Ocean  and  the  Frith 
of  Forth ;  2.  The  southern  pastoral  counties ;  3.  The  manufacturing  counties  of  the  west. 

The  agricultural  district  of  southern  Scotland  consists  of  the  counties  of  Berwick  (for- 
merly the  Merse),  o?  Haddington,  Edinburgh,  and  Linlilhgoio  (fully  as  familiar  under  the 
appellations  of  East,  Mid,  and  West  Lothian),  and  of  Stirling,  which  touches  westward  on 
the  highland  bo-:ndary.  Even  of  this  range,  the  cultivated  "part  is  closely  hemmed  in  by 
Lammermoor,  a  low,  broad,  moorish  ridge,  which  fills  all  the  eastern  interior,  and  has  even 
a  considerable  extent  along  the  shore  of  the  Gennan  Ocean. 

The  cultivated  part  of  Berwickshire  consists  of  the  Merse,  extending  chiefly  along  the 
Tweed,  and  reaching  to  the  sea.  Above  it  is  Lauderdale,  or  the  Valley  of  the  Lauder, 
which  is  fitted  chiefly  for  grazing,  and  touches  closely  on  the  heaths  of  Lammermoor.  Ber- 
wick-upon-Tweed, though  its  liarbour  be  indifferent,  is  the  chief  cliannel  for  exporting  the 
valuable  produce  of  tlie  Merse,  to  the  annual  amount,  it  is  said,  of  80,000  bolls  of  grain. 
The  strong  wall  and  deep  ditch,  whi.ch  once  defended  Berwick, still  remain,  tliough  neglected; 
and  large  barracks  have  been  erected.  Greenlaw,  tlie  seat  of  county  business," and  Lauder, 
tlie  only  borough,  are  but  small  places  in  the  upper  district.  Dunse,  in  the  agricultural  tract, 


416  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  IU. 

is  the  most  thrivin;?.  Coldstream,  a  large  village  on  the  Tweed,  is  noted  as  tlie  scene  of 
Monk's  retirement.  In  the  western  part  of  Berwickshire  is  Dryburgh  Abbey,  a  fine  old 
Gothic  editicc,  in  which  rest  the  remains  of  Scott. 

Haddingtonshire,  or  East  Lothian,  runs  along  the  Frith  of  Fortli,  between  wliich  and  the 
range  of  Lammermoor  extends  a  plain  about  twenty  miles  in  Icngtii  and  twelve  in  breadtli, 
perhaps  tlie  largest  in  Scotland,  and  all  under  liigli  cultivation.  Edinburgh  is  chiefly  supplied 
with  wheat  from  the  market  at  Haddington,  wliich  is  considered  one  of  the  first  in  the 
country.  The  towns  are  of  secondary  importance.  Haddington  is  supported  only  by  the 
market  and  by  its  court  for  legal  proceedings.  Dunbar  has  a  little  trade  and  fishery.  Its 
castle,  the  ruins  of  which  extend  over  a  promontory  of  broken  rocks,  stretching  out  into  the 
sea,  forms  a  truly  grand  object.  The  Bass,  "  that  sea  rock  immense,"  which  rises  to  the  height 
of  400  feet,  forms  a  perpendicular  precipice,  on  which  build  crowds  of  that  rare  species  of  sea- 
foul  called  Solan  goose.  Their  young,  whose  down  is  of  some  value,  are  taken  by  the 
perilous  exertions  of  fishermen,  suspended  by  ropes  from  the  top  of  the  cliff.  There  are  still 
some  remains  of  the  fortified  prison  which  was  in  ancient  times  reserved  for  state  offenders, 
and  in  which  some  of  the  most  eminent  covenapters  were  confined  for  several  years.  On 
the  shore  immediately  opposite,  crowning  a  perpendicular  cliff,  appears  Tantallon,  a  strong 
castle  of  the  Douglases,  now  in  a  ruinous  state.  Prestonpans,  a  long  dirty  village,  has  some 
manufactures  of  salt  and  vitriol. 

Mid  Lothian,  or  Edinburghshire,  is  penetrated  by  a  branch  of  the  Lammermoor,  and  by 
the  long  range  of  the  Pentlands :  and,  at  the  distance  of  a  few  miles  south  from  Edinburgh, 
a  general  high  level  begins,  which  is  favourable  only  to  the  production  of  oats  and  bailey. 
There  are  no  manufactures  of  any  consequence,  the  county  being  entirely  supported  by  the 
metropolis  and  its  appendages. 

Edinburgh,  the  capital  of  Scotland  (Jig.  188.),  is  a  city  of  no  very  high  antiquity.  T^>e 
Castle  Hill,  indeed,  whose  rocky  and  precipitous  sides  support  on  the  summit  a  level  spr  'e 

189 


Edinburtih. 

of  some  extent,  accessible  only  by  a  narrow  ridge  at  one  point,  must  always  have  been  of 
importance  in  a  military  age.  It  is  named  in  the  Pictish  annals  under  the  title  of  Castrum 
Puellarum,  which  is  supposed  to  have  originated  from  the  custom  of  placing  the  princesses 
and  ladies  of  rank  to  be  educated  there,  as  in  a  place  of  security.  In  the  tenth  century, 
mention  is  first  made  of  the  town  of  Edin ;  but  David  I.,  in  the  twelfth  century,  founded 
the  abbey  and  palace  of  Holyrood ;  and,  under  the  sway  of  the  Stuarts,  Edinburgh  became 
the  capital  of  Scotland.  Edinburgh  is  built  upon  three  ridffes,  running  from  east  to  west, 
and  separated  from  each  other  by  deep  ravines.  The  Old  Town,  which,  till  the  last  half 
century,  formed  the  whole  of  Edinburgh,  is  situated  on  the  middle  ridge,  extending  nearly 
a  mile  of  gradual  descent  from  the  Castle  to  the  palace  of  Holyrood.  To  secure  the  protec- 
tion afforded  by  this  site,  the  houses  were  crowded  into  the  very  smallest  possible  space ; 
they  are  raised  six  or  seven  stories  on  the  side  facing  the  street,  which  from  the  acclivity 
of  the  ground,  gives  to  that  facing  the  ravine  a  height  often  or  even  fourteen  stories.  From 
this  central  street,  there  descend  on  each  side  closes  or  lanes  about  six  feet  broad,  and 
sloping  very  abruptly.  Tlie  Cowgate,  a  poor  street,  inhabited  by  small  tradesmen,  extends 
along  the  bottom  of  the  ravine,  and  tenninates  in  a  spacious  Grass-market,  completing  old 
Edinburgh.  Although  it  contains  many  excellent  houses,  it  is  now  occupied  only  by  the  infe- 
rior orders  of  tradesmen,  who  occupy  spacious  apartments  at  very  low  rents.  The  wealthy 
citizens  have  migrated  to  two  towns,  built  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  Old  Town;  one  on 
the  south  side,  or  St.  Leonard's  Hill,  occupied  by  citizens  of  the  middle  class,  those  con- 
nected with  the  university,  or  such  as  are  fond  of  retirement ;  the  other,  called  properly  the 
New  Town,  is  on  the  north;  and  comprises  the  residence  of  almost  all  the  opulent  and 
fashionable  classes.  Being  built  on  a  regular  plan,  and  of  fine  freestone,  it  forms  one  of  the 
most  elegant  towns  in  Britain.' 

The  beauty  of  Edinburgh  is  enhanced  by  its  situation :  being  overlooked  on  one  side  by  the 
eminence  of  the  Castle,  and  its  ancient  towers,  and  oo  the  other  by  a  range  of  bold  hills,  the 
highest  of  which  is  called  Arthur's  Seat.  The  lowest,  the  Calton  Hill,  round  which  walks 
of  easy  access  liave  been  fonned,  commands  a  fine  view  cf  Edinburgh,  the  Frith  of  Forth, 


Book  I. 


SCOTLAND 


417 


and  its  surrounding  shores.  The  general  effect,  rather  than  that  of  any  particular  fedifices, 
constitutes  the  merit  of  Edinburgh.  Of  antique  structures,  there  is  nothing  very  fine,  except 
the  large  hospital  for  boys,  erected  from  the  funds  bequeathed  by  George  Heriot,  the  cele- 
rated  goldsmith.  Tlie  great  cathedral  of  St.  Giles  has  been  admired  almost  solely  for  its 
spire,  and  Ilolyrood  Palace,  a  comparatively  modern  structure,  for  its  little  ancient  chapel. 
The  former  has  been  now  externally  rebuilt  on  a  very  handsome  plan,  and  the  latter  has 
undergone  a  thorough  repair.  Four  miles  south,  in  a  very  commanding  situation,  are  the 
remains  of  Queen  Mary's  pleasant  country  palace  of  Craigmillar.  The  Register  Office,  the 
new  College,  and  new  High  School  are  elegant  structures;  but  the  National  Monument, on 
the  Calton  Hill,  begun  on  the  model  of  the  Parthenon,  is  stopped  for  want  of  funds. 

The  inhabitants  in  1801,  including  Leith,  were  82,560;  in  1831,  they  had  increased  to 
162,156.  The  principal  support  is  derived  from  the  law ;  the  professors  of  the  university, 
and  private  lecturers,  &c.  constitute  a  considerable  number;  and  genteel  families  are 
attracted  from  every  part  of  Scotland  by  the  opportunities  of  education  and  agreeable 
society.  Edinburgh  is  a  city  eminently  scientific  and  literary,  and  has  even  become  known 
under  the  appellation  of  the  "  modern  Athens."  Connected  with  these  pursuits,  an  extensive 
trade  in  printing  and  publishing  books  is  carried  on  by  some  enterprising  individuals.  There 
are  few  manufacturos,  with  the  above  exception.  A  great  quantity  of  ale  is  brewed,  which 
has  attained  to  a  high  reputation;  and  there  are  in  the  neighbourhood  some  considerable 
distilleries.  Shawls  are  manufactured  equal  to  any  in  the  empire.  There  are  extensive 
banking  establishments,  both  public  and  private,  and  considerable  fortunes  have  been  made 
in  that  brancli  of  comm.erce. 

The  University  of  Edinburgh,  founded  in  1581,  has  risen  to  great  fame,  both  as  an  institu- 
tion for  teaching,  and  a  nursery  for  eminent  men.  The  medical  school,  in  particular,  attracts 
(Students  from  all  the  three  kingdoms.  The  annual  number  of  students  at  the  University 
exceeds  2000.  They  are  lodged  in  the  town,  and  are  not  subject  to  any  personal  discipline, 
except  that  of  attendance  on  the  lectures.  Edinburgh  has  its  Royal  Society  for  physical  and 
literary  researches,  its  Antiquarian  and  Horticultural  Societies,  an  Institution  for  the  promo- 
tion of  the  Fine  Arts,  and  an  Academy  for  Painting. 

Leith  is  the  port  of  Edinburgh,  and  carries  on  a  considerable  import  trade  for  the  supply  of 
that  capital  and  all  the  interior  country,  for  which  purpose  slie  carries  on  a  constant  inter- 
course with  London  and  other  ports  on  the  eastern  coast.  Her  intercourse  with  the  Baltic 
is  very  extensive ;  and  that  with  the  West  Indies  considerable.  The  harbour  of  Leith  is 
not  good ;  but  large  sums  have  been  expended  in  the  construction  of  an  extensive  range  of 
docks  for  the  accommodation  of  its  shipping ;  and  of  a  pier  stretching  far  into  the  sea,  so  as 
to  enable  vessels  to  enter  at  all  times  of  the  tide,  with  a  breakwater  opposite.  The  roads, 
at  the  distance  of  about  a  mile,  afford  excellent  anchorage.  Leith,  originally  a  collection  of 
dirty  lanes,  is  now  everywhere  skirted  by  excellent  streets,  and  ranges  of  villas,  erected  by 
the  opulent  inhabitants  for  their  private  residence.  In  1832  there  entered  its  port  334 
vessels,  tonnage  46,200. 

Besides  these  great  towns,  Mid  Lothian  contains  only  some  large  pleasant  villages.  Porto- 
bello  is  the  principal  bathing  place  of  Edinburgh.  Musselburgh  has  a  good  turf,  which  has 
supplanted  Leith  sands  for  the  annual  Edinburgh  races.  The  valley  of  the  Esk  contains 
the  finest  scenery  in  the  Lothians.  Roslin  chapel,  though  not  on  an  extensive  scale,  exhi- 
bits some  exquisite  specimens  of  (jothic  sculpture;  and  the  ruins  of  the  castle  bear  marks 
of  great  strength.  All  tlic  south  and  west  of  this  county  consists  of  wild,  hilly,  and  pastoral 
scenery,  in  the  heart  of  which  is  a  pleasingly  retired  spot,  chosen  by  Ramsay  as  the  scene 
of  his  Gentle  Shepherd. 

Linlithgow  or  West  Lothiar    consists,  in  its  upper  part,  of  a  bleak  table-land ;   in  its 

lower,  of  an  extensive,  fertile,  and  highly  cultivated  plain.     It  abounds  with  coal,  freestone, 

lime,  and  marl.     The  Union  Canal  passes  through  this  county.      The  towns  are  small ; 

,c,r.  but  Linlitligfow  still  retains  somewhat 

.  ,  .        159 

^^  ' 


of  the  aspect  of  grandeur  suited  to  a 
once  royal  residence.  The  palace, 
ijiff.  189.)  situated  on  a  hill  behind 
the  town,  and  overlooking  a  beautiful 
little  lake,  forms  one  of  the  grandest 
ancient  edifices  in  the  kingdom.  There 
is  also  a  Gothic  cliurch  of  some  beauty. 
Stirling,  an  extensive  and  beautiful 
county,  the  link  between  the  High- 
lands and  Lowlands,  extends  for  thirty- 
five  miles  ajong  the  Forth.  It  encloses  several  of  the  richest  carses  in  Scotland ;  but  the 
greater  part  is  hilly  and  pastoral,  while  many  of  the  lower  grounds  consist  of  fine  meadows, 
adorned  by  the  beautiful  moanderings  of  tlie  Forth.  It  even  encroaches  on  the  Highlands, 
since  its  western  extremity  includes  Ben  Lomond.  This  county  is  traversed  by  the  cele- 
brated Roman  wall  between  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  usually  ascribed  to  Antoninus,  though, 
Vol.  I.  3  C 


Linliihgow  Palace. 


418 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


from  the  account  of  Tacitus,  it  would  appear  to  have  been  first  formed  by  Agricola.  It 
seems  to  liave  reached  from  near  Dumbarton  to  Carriden,  rather  more  than  thirty-six  miles. 
Stirling  is  also  crossed  by  the  great  canal  between  tlie  Forth  and  Clyde. 

The  town  of  Stirling  can  boast  a  situation  as  noble  and  commanding  as  any  in  Scotland. 
The  view  from  its  castle,  whicli  includes  entire  the  principal  range  of  tlie  Grampians,  the 
meadows  or  links  through  which  the  Forth  winds,  and  a  part  of  thirteen  counties,  is  gener- 
ally considered  the  finest  in  the  country.  The  main  street,  like  that  of  Edinburgh,  descends 
gradually  down  the  ridge  of  the  hill  on  which  the  castle  stands  {fig.  190.).  This  fortress, 
190  in  feudal  times,  was  accounted  one  of  the  bulwarks 

of  the  kingdom ;  and  Stirling  was  the  frequent 
seat  of  royalty,  and  tlie  scene  of  many  of  the 
most  memorable  and  tragic  events  in  Scottisli  his- 
tory. The  town  owes  its  present  limited  pros- 
perity chiefly  to  its  carpet  manufacture  and  other 
branches  of  industry.  Falkirk  is  a  larger  town, 
situated  in  a  broad  and  beautiful  carse,  through 
whicli  the  Forth  flows.  The  three  great  annual 
trysts  exhibit  an  immense  show  of  highland  cattle 
and  sheep  brought  up  for  the  supply  of  the  south- 
ern districts.  Near  Falkirk  is  Carron,  accounted 
only  a  village,  but  the  seat  of  the  greatest  iron- 
Siiiling  Castle.  works  in  Scotland,  in  which,  during  war,  2000  men 

were  employed.  It  particularly  excels  in  grates,  and  in  that  species  of  artillery  first  cast 
here,  and  hence  denominated  carronades.  Grangemouth,  at  the  connecting  point  of  the 
great  canal  with  the  Frith  of  Forth,  derives  from  this  situation  a  considerable  trade. 

The  next  district,  including  tlie  counties  of  Roxburgh,  Selkirk,  Peebles,  Dumfries,  and 
part  of  Lanark,  may  most  properly  bear  the  appellation  of  pastoral  Scotland.  It  is  covered 
with  long  ranges  of  hills,  from  one  to  two  thousand  feet  high,  clothed  with  pasturage  to  their 
summits.  This  is  the  region  of  Scottish  poetr)'.  It  was  amid  these  scenes  that  Thomson 
and  Scott  caught  that  inspiration  which  has  rendered  their  poetry  the  delight  of  tlieir  country. 
Tlie  chief  occupation  in  this  tract  is  sheep-farming. 

The  towns  in  this  tract  are  generally  small  and  agreeable.  Kelso  is  one  of  the  most 
beautifiil  in  Scotland,  being  surrounded  by  ornamented  villas  and  extensive  woods.  Tlie 
abbey  is  not  without  grandeur;  and  the  ruins  of  the  castle  of  Roxburgh  are  striking.  The 
village  of  Melrose  is  only  distinguished  by  its  abbey  (Jig.  191.),  founded  by  David  I.,  in  the 
191  _    j^  I  twelft:h  century,  and  the  finest  edifice 

ever  erected  in  the  south  of  Scotland. 
The  profusion  of  the  ornaments,  and. 
the  beauty  of  the  sculptures,  which 
remain  nearly  entire,  have  rendered 
it  the  study  of  the  painter  and  the 
theme  of  the  poet.  Selkirk  and  Pee- 
bles, capitals  of  their  respective  little 
counties,  are  only  pleasant  villages, 
bordering  on  the  great  pastoral  vales 
of  Ettrick  and  Yarrow.  Dumfries,  a 
well-built,  gay-looking  city,  is  a  sort 
Melrose  Abbey.  of  Southern   Scottish  capital,  and  it 

has  been  so  distinguished  from  an  early  period ;  but  no  traces  remain  either  of  the  castle, 
or  of  tlie  monastery  in  which  Cumming  fell  by  the  hand  of  Bruce.  The  town  carries  on 
fome  trade  by  the  Nith,  which  admits  vessels  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  tons,  and  it  has 
two  great  annual  markets  for  the  cattle  from  the  west ;  but  it  is  ciiiefly  supported  by  the 
gentry  who  make  it  their  residence.  Annan  is  agreeably  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
of  that  name.  A  small  spot,  famed  in  the  annals  of  gallantry,  is  Gretna  Green,  close  on 
the  English  border;  whitlier  fly  many  a  fond  matrimonial  pair,  to  escape  the  jealousy  of 
parents  and  guardians.  On  the  bleak  northern  boundary  is  Wanlockhead ;  and  nearly  con-- 
tiguous  to  it  Leadhills,  in  Lanarkshire.  Wanlockhead  yields  annually  lead  to  the  amount 
of  about  15,000  bars,  of  nine  stones  each;  and  Leadhills  about  18,000. 

192  ^<?r^  Seats.    The   Duke  of  Ruccleugh  has 

numerous  seats  in  the  district,  of  which 
Cs^^^^         fell^  A  ^jM  jM^^i^   thecliief  is  Drumlaiirig  Castle  (_/;n^.  192.), 

>#S?fc>^Ja<SS"'  H^Sf^^^w  '^^HHBhw  a  magnificent  edifice,  on  the  Nith,  and 

surrounded  by  extensive  parks  and  planta- 
tions. Among  many  others  round  Kelso,  is 
Fleurs,  the  splendid  seat  of  the  Roxburgh 
family.  Abbotsford,  from  the  many  addi- 
tions made  by  its  illustrious  proprietor,  has 
Drnmlanrig  Castle.  become  a  striking  and  picturesque  object. 


Book  I.  SCOTLAND.  419 

The  three  counties  of  Ayr,  Wigton,  and  Galloway  compose  what  is  called  the  West  of 
Scotland.  They  are  chiefly  under  pasture,  and  the  cultivators  are  mainly  occupied  in  the 
rearing-  of  cattle.  The  range  of  mountains  which  separates  Ayr  and  Galloway  is  almost 
as  elevated  as  any  in  Scotland ;  but  the  upland  country  of  the  latter  is,  in  general,  diversi- 
tied  only  with  steep  rocky  eminences  of  two  or  three  hundred  feet  high.  In  Ayr,  too,  though 
the  southern  district  of  Carrick  be  very  mountainous,  the  middle  one  of  Kyle  has  a  level 
coast ;  while  Cunningham,  the  most  northerly,  consists  almost  entirely  of  a  fertile  plain. 
Both  counties,  from  tlie  boundary  line  of  mountains,  are  watered  by  fine  rivers ;  in  one,  the 
Ayr,  the  Doon,  and  the  Irvine ;  in  the  other,  the  Dee  and  the  Cree.  The  Ayrshire  breed  of 
horses,  called  also  the  Clydesdale,  is  highly  esteemed ;  and  generally  supplies  the  markets 
in  the  east  of  Scotland ;  but  the  little  active  breed  called  galloways  are  now  become  scarce. 
The  kine  of  Ayrshire  are  valued  chiefly  for  the  dairy.  The  Galloway  bullock  produces 
beef  of  a  peculiar  excellence.  The  northern  division  of  Ayr  participates  to  a  certain  extent 
in  the  flourishing  manufactures  of  Lanarkshire.  It  has  immense  beds  of  valuable  coal,  which 
not  only  serve  for  the  supply  of  the  inhabitants,  but  are  exported  to  Ireland  in  such  quanti- 
ties as  to  form  the  chief  trade  of  this  county.  To  facilitate  the  transport,  the  Duke  of  Port- 
land has  formed  a  fine  harbour  at  Troon,  and  has  connected  it  by  a  rail-road  with  Kilmar- 
nock. 

Ayr,  at  the  point  where  the  rivers  Doon  and  Ayr  fall  united  into  the  sea,  forms  a  sort  of 
capital  for  the  gentry  of  a  considerable  part  of  Scotland.  It  was  the  prmcipal  scene  of  some 
great  historical  events  in  the  time  of  Wallace  and  Bruce ;  and  was  carefiilly  fortified  by 
Oliver  Cromwell ;  but  the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  harbour  has  been  unfavourable  to  its 
progress.  It  exports,  however,  chiefly  to  Ireland,  a  considerable  quantity  of  coal,  brought 
by  railways.  The  town  is  irregularly  built,  but  has  one  handsome  principal  street.  Its 
theatre,  its  academy,  and  some  charitable  institutions,  are  on  a  greater  scale  than  the  size 
of  the  town  might  lead  us  to  expect.  The  ports  of  Troon,  Saltcoats,  and  Ardrossan  send 
large  quantities  of  coal  to  Ireland ;  whence  they  receive  grain  for  the  supply  of  the  great 
interior  towns.  Saltcoats,  which  has  sprung  up  within  the  last  century,  is  also  noted  for 
the  manufacture  of  salt ;  and  Ardrossan  is  now  a  watering-place  of  increasing  resort. 
Largs,  the  celebrated  scene  of  the  defeat  of  Haco,  the  last  Danish  invader,  attracts  many 
visiters  by  the  extreme  beauty  of  its  situation.  In  the  interior  of  Ayrshire  is  Kilmarnock, 
its  largest  and  most  thriving  town.  The  manufacture  of  various  woollen  stuffs,  and  fabrics 
of  leather ;  and  latterly  branches  of  the  cotton  weaving  from  Glasgow,  place  it  high  in  the 
list  of  Scottish  manufacturing  towns. 

Galloway  is  almost  entirely  a  rural  district.  Its  capitals,  Wigton  and  Kirkcudbright,  are 
pleasant  country  towns,  and  the  latter,  having  a  good  harbour,  has,  of  late,  considerably 
increased.  Portpatrick,  the  nearest  point  of  Great  Britain  to  the  Irish  coast,  is  the  main 
channel  of  communication  between  Scotland  and  Ireland ;  for  which  purpose  an  improved 
harbour  has  lately  been  constructed,  and  regular  packet-boats  are  established. 

The  counties  of  Lanark  and  Renfrew  constitute  the  valley  of  the  Clyde,  the  grand  thea- 
tre of  Scottish  commerce  and  industry.  Lanarkshire,  or  Clydesdale,  is  divided  into  three 
regions,  of  widely  different  character;  the  upper  valley  is  altogether  a  rude  pastoral  region. 
Below  Tinto,  the  banks  of  the  Clyde  assume  a  softer  and  gayer  character,  exhibiting  a  suc- 
cession of  gardens  and  orchards.  Below  Hamilton  comes  the  flat  district  aroimd  Glasgow, 
which  supplies  tliat  city  witli  inexhaustible  stores  of  excellent  coal. 

Glasgow  is  the  commercial  capital  of  Scotland,  and  in  population  ranks  as  the  third 
town  in  the  island.  Tradition  ascribes  its  origin  and  erection  into  a  bishopric  to  St. 
Mungo,  in  the  year  560.  Its  rapid  rise  commenced  with  the  union,  which  opened  to  it  the 
trade  with  America  and  the  West  Indies,  hitherto  monopolised  by  the  English  ports.  In  1718, 
for  the  first  time,  a  vessel  from  the  Clyde  sailed  across  the  Atlantic.  By  the  middle  of  the 
century,  the  merchants  of  Glasgow  imported  more  than  half  the  entire  amount  of  tobacco 
which  came  into  Great  Britain ;  and  to  them  the  French  farmers-general  chiefly  looked  for 
their  supply  of  this  important  article. 

Their  intercourse  also  with  the  West  Indies,  which  had  hitherto  been  very  limited,  was 
now  carried  on  to  a  vast  extent.  A  still  greater  source  of  wealth  was  opened  at  home. 
Glasgow  had,  in  the  course  of  the  century,  become  a  great  manufacturing  city,  employing 
her  indus-^ry  on  the  old  staple  of  linen  of  the  finer  descriptions,  as  cambrics,  lawns,  gauzes ; 
also  in  the  making  of  stockings  and  of  shoes  for  exportation ;  but  its  product  in  these 
branches  never  exceeded  400,000Z.  But  when  cotton  was  extensively  introduced  into 
Britain,  Glasgow  devoted  herself  entirely  to  this  new  manufacture.  She  became  tlie  rival 
of  Manchester ;  and,  if  circumstances  did  not  allow  her  to  obtain  so  great  a  share  of  the 
manufacture,  she  produced  some  finer  fabrics,  and  was  as  prompt  in  availing  herself  of 
every  improved  process ;  immense  fortunes  were  realized,  and  an  annual  value  of  nearly 
4,000,000^.  sterling  produced.  Glasgow  was  one  of  the  first  places  which  adopted  the  in- 
vention of  power  looms,  and  she  has  now  10,000  of  these,  and  32,000  worked  by  the  hand. 
In  1830,  the  number  of  persons  receiving  parochial  aid  was  only  5000,  not  quite  one-fortieth 
part  of.  the  inhabitants,  and  the  sum  expended  on  the  poor  was  only  17,2871.,  although 


420  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  P.uit  III. 

Glasgow  is  now  the  larg'est  town  in  Great  Britain,  London  and  Manchester  excepted.  The 
harbour  is  a  t  the  Broomielaw,  where  there  is  an  extensive  quay  along  the  Clyde ;  but  so 
great  are  the  obstructions  to  its  navigation,  that  Glasgow  depends  chiefly  for  imports  on 
Greenock  and  Liverpool.  In  1832  there  entered  its  port  only  79  vessels,  of  81.54  tons.  Glas- 
gow is  a  handsome  and  well-built  town.  Its  original  streets  of  Argyle  and  Trongate  are 
broad  and  spacious  ;  and  several  handsome  squares  have  been  built  within  the  Limits  of  the 
city ;  but  tiie  fasliionable  residences  arc  now  almost  exclusively  in  the  west,  where,  along  a 
range  of  somewhat  elevated  ground,  a  number  of  elegant  and  spacious  streets  have  been 
erected.     Gorbals,  Gallon,  Bridgeton,  Hutchesontown,  Tradeston,  and  Anderston,  arc  the 

principal  suburbs,  and  tbrm  the  manufacturing  part 
of  the  city.  The  public  edifices  deserve  admiration. 
The  cathedral  {fig.  193.),  one  of  the  finest  in  Scot- 
land, is  a  massive  structure,  with  a  wooded  hill  ad- 
joining, on  the  top  of  which  a  monument  has  been 
erected  to  the  memory  of  John  Knox.  The  modern 
edifices  are  also  handsome ;  the  Lunatic  Asylum,  the 
Assembly-rooms,  the  Infirmary,  the  Roman  Catholic 
chapel,  the  new  Exchange  Reading-rooms,  &c.  de- 
serve mention.  The  bridewell  is  esteemed  tlie  most 
perfect  in  Scotland,  both  in  point  of  construction  and 
Gijs:iuw  Caihedrai.  management.     Glasgow   is' not  a  mere  commercial 

town ;  its  university,  founded  in  1450  by  Bishop  TurnbuU,  has  been  adorned  by  a  long  suc- 
cession of  illustrious  teachers,  of  wiiom  Simson,  Ilutcheson,  Rcid,  Smith,  Millar,  are  suffi- 
cient to  ensure  its  celebrity.  It  is  at  present  attended  by  1400  students,  and  its  name  stands 
as  high  as  at  any  former  period.  The  library  contains  30,000  volumes.  The  ]\Iuseum  be- 
queathed by  the  late  Dr.  Hunter,  is  ricli  in  anatomical  preparations,  shells,  insects,  fossils,  as 
well  as  in  coins  and  medals.  An  elegant  Grecian  edifice  has  been  erected  for  its  reception. 
Auxiliary  to  the  University  is  the  Andersonian  Institution,  founded  with  the  view  of  com- 
nmnicating  to  the  commercial  classes  a  knov.'ledge  of  tlie  elements  of  physical  science  ; 
for  which  purpose  it  has  been  found  highly  efficacious.  Tlie  intellectual  spirit  of  the  citi- 
zens is  also  proved  by  three  libraries,  and  a  botanic  garden,  all  supported  by  public  sub- 
scription. 

Paisley,  though  in  Renfrewshire,  may  be  considered  next,  in  order  to  connect  together  the 
great  seats  of  manufacture.  This  town  anciently  derived  its  distinction  Irom  its  ecclesias- 
tical character.  The  abbey  founded  in  1160,  was  in  a  great  measure  demolished  at  the 
period  of  the  Reformation.  Several  of  the  windows,  however,  still  afford  fine  specipiens  of 
the  ornamented  Gothic ;  and  the  nave  was  left  so  far  entire,  that  it  has  since  served  as-  a  place 
of  worship.  Paisley  was  a  small  town  until  the  middle  of  the  last  centiu-y,  when  it  con- 
tained little  more  than  4000  inhabitants.  Soon  after,  its  manufactures,  which  were  already 
begun,  made  most  rapid  advances.  Down  to  the  year  1783,  they  consisted  chiefly  of  linen, 
fine  thread,  gauzes,  both  of  linen  and  silk,  and  other  delicate  and  elegant  fabrics.  On  the 
introduction  of  cotton,  the  manufacturers  of  Paisley,  like  those  of  Glasgow,  cultivated  this 
branch  almost  exclusively,  preferring  its  most  elegant  species.  Muslin,  the  finest  of  all  the 
productions  of  the  loom,  became  the  staple  of  Paisley.  In  1805,  there  were  20,500  persons 
employed  in  weaving  muslin,  the  entire  produce  of  whose  labours  was  rated  at  1,250,000?. 
Since  that  time,  the  population  having  increased  one-half,  the  productive  industiy  has  not, 
probably,  advanced  in  a  less  proportion.  By  the  improved  navigation  of  the  Cart  and  a  canal, 
this  town  has  communication  with  the  Clyde,  and  the  canal  from  Glasgov/  likewise,  destined 
for  Ardrossan,  has  been  carried  as  far  as  Paisley.  The  county  gaol  and  bridewell  form  one 
of  tlie  finest  structures  of  the  kind  in  the  kingdom  ;  the  town-hall  and  several  of  the  churches 
are  very  handsome.  The  operative  weavers  of  Paisley  are  equal  in  intelligence  to  any  class 
of  the  same  rank  elsewhere ;  and  this  spirit  has  led  to  the  formation  among  them  of  a  num- 
ber of  book  societies,  reading  rooms,  and  subscription  libraries. 

Greenock  is  entirely  a  commercial  and  maritime  station ;  it  is  the  only  great  western  port 
of  Scotland,  but  by  far  the  larger  proportion  of  the  vessels  belonsr  to  Glasgow.  The  prin- 
cipal trade  consists  in  importing  the  produce  of  tiie  West  Indies,  to  which  is  added  a  very 
extensive  herring  fishery,  and  a  share  of  the  cod  fisheries  of  Newfoundland  and  Cape  Breton. 
The  sum  of  90,000/.  has  been  lately  expended  in  the  improvement  of  the  harbour,  which 
can  now  contain  500  sail,  and  a  handsome  custom-house  has  been  built  by  government.  In 
1832  there  entered  this  port  282  vessels,  tonnage  78,131.  Greenock  is  not  an  elegant  town; 
but  the  hills  behind  it  command  a  noble  view  of  the  river,  and  of  tlie  mountains  of  Argyle 
on  the  opposite  coast. 

Port  Ghisgow,  about  three  miles  higher  than  Greenock,  and  a  much  smaller  port,  continues 
subservient  to  Glasgow,  receiving  such  vessels  belonging  to  that  city  as  are  too  bulky  to 
ascend  the  Clyde ;  in  this  capacity,  its  trade  is  very  considerable.  Here  was  built  the  first 
dock  in  Scotland,  in  front  of  which  a  spacious  quay  extends  along  the  Clyde,  for  the  accom- 
modation of  those  vessels  which  do  not  require  to  enter  the  basin.     Renfrew,  the  capital  of 


Book  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


421 


194 


the  county,  is  an  old  town,  which  has  not  shared  in  the  prosperity  of  its  neighbours.     The 
•nhabitants,  however,  receive  a  little  employment  from  the  manufacturers  of  Glasgow. 

The  banks  of  the  Clyde  above  Glasgow,  whose  vicinity  forms  only  a  small  part,  however 
important,  of  the  extensive  county  of  Lanark,  are  still  to  be  surveyed.  First  occurs  Both- 
well  (Jig.  191.),  one  of  the  principal  seats  of  the  Douglases.     Here  Edward  L  placed  the 

chief  garrison,  which  was  intended  to  hold  Scot- 
land in  subjection.  It  is  now  a  bold  and  striking 
ruin,  rising  above  the  river  banks.  A  little  above 
is  Bothwell  Bridge,  so  noted  as  the  disastrous 
scene  of  the  rout  of  the  covenanting  army.  Far- 
ther up  is  Hamilton,  a  pleasant  handsome  town  in 
a  fine  country  :  it  is  supported  by  the  residence  of 
the  family  of  Hamilton,  and  by  a  branch  of  the 
cotton  m.anufacture.  From  Hamilton  tlie  road 
leads  through  a  range  of  orchards,  and  the  most 
beautiful  scenery,  to  Lanark.  This  town,  though 
bearing  the  name  of  the  county,  is  only  a  large 
stragglmg  vjilage ;  but  about  a  mile  distant  is 
A^ew  I^anark,  noted  for  the  extensive  cotton  manu- 
factory established  by  the  late  Mr.  Dale,  and  lately  conducted,.by  Mr.  Owen.  Whatever 
may  bo  thought  of  the  speculative  tenets  of  the  latter  gentleman,  the  attention  paid  to  the 
behaviour  and  comforts  of  those  employed  presented,  certainly,  in  many  respects,  a  model 
worthy  of  imitation.  But  Lanark  has  a  still  greater  attraction  in  the  falls  of  the  Clyde, 
Boniton,  Corra,  Stonebyres,  situated  above  and  below  it,  at  about  two  miles'  distance  from 
each  other.  Their  height  docs  not  exceed  eighty  or  ninety  feet ;  but  the  mass  of  water, 
with  tlie  grandeur  of  the  rocky  walls  and  hanging  woods,  render  them'  one  of  tlie  finest 
examples  of  this  description  of  scenery. 

The  northern  Lowlands,  beyond  the  Forth,  form  a  belt  of  aliout  twenty  miles  in  breadth, 
reaching  the  shores  of  the  Moray  Frith.  The  coast  is  generally  level  and  fertile ;  but  a 
great  part  of  the  interior  is  bleak  and  moorish.  This  district  contains,  however,  several 
cities  and  seaports  of  considerable  magnitude  and  importance. 

Fife  was  formerly  distinguished  as  the  centre  of  Scottish  industry;  and  one  of  its  cities 
forms  the  ecclesiastical  capital  of  Scotland.  All  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  country  was 
carried  on  in  its  ports ;  and  less  than  two  centuries  ago  its  rental  amounted  to  a  tenth  part 
of  that  of  the  whole  kingdom.  Since  Scotland  has  ceased  to  be  agitated  by  war,  Edinburgh 
and  the  opposite  side  of  the  Forth  have  attracted  all  these  advantages ;  and  the  numerous 
seaports  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  Forth,  have  dwindled  into  fishing  villages.  Fife  is,  in 
general,  a  level  country,  yet  diversified  by  a  few  hills  of  considerable  elevation,  as  the 
Lomond  Hills,  and  Largo  Law.  A  great  part  of  the  interior  is  bleak  and  unproductive;  and 
farming  is  less  advanced  than  in  the  Lothians ;  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  flax  is  carried 
on  chiefly  for  domestic  use,  unless  at  Dunfermline,  where  there  is  a  large  fabric  of  fine  sheet- 
ing and  diaper.  The  western  coast  abounds  in  coal,  and  in  fine  limestone,  which  is  exported 
to  a  very  great  extent.  The  county  town  is  Cupar,  a  place  of  moderate  size,  neat,  with 
some  stir  of  gaiety.     A  greater  interest  attaches  to  St.  Andrew's  from  its  former  greatness, 

from  the  remarkable  scenes  there  acted,  and 
jgg  11  j^  from   its  splendid    edifices,  of  which  frag- 

ments still  remain.  It  is  seated  on  a  bold 
coast,  facing  a  wide  bay  of  the  German 
Ocean ;  and  has  two  fine,  broad,  parallel 
streets,  of  which  one  is  now  almost  deserted. 
The  castle  and  cathedral  (Jiff.  195.)  have 
been  demolished  ;  but  a  high  square  tower, 
and  a  gable  of  the  chapel  of  St.  Rule,  still 
attest  the  elegance  of  the  latter  structure. 
The  university  contains  a  school  of  theology 
and  philosophy,  but  has  no  classes  in  law 
or  medicine.  Founded  under  the  auspices 
of  Buchanan,  it  can  boast  many  eminent 
professors  and  pupils ;  though,  from  its  almost  insulated  situation,  it  does  not  attract  so  great 
a  concourse  as  Edinburgh.  Kirkaldy  has  some  foreign  trade,  and  a  considerable  linen  manu- 
facture. Dunfermline,  anciently  the  most  flourishing  town  in  Fife,  was  a  place  of  impor- 
tance, and  the  frequent  residence  of  royalty.  Malcolm  Canmore  founded  here  an  abbey, 
which  became  one  of  the  richest  and  most  spacious  in  the  kingdom ;  it  has  been  nearly 
demolisliod,  yet  its  ruins  evince  its  former  splendour ;  and  part  of  them  has  been  appropri- 
ated as  the  parish  church.  On  a  contiguous  spot,  the  tomb  of  Bruce  was  lately  discovered. 
Dunfermline  is  distinguished  by  an  extensive  manufactory  of  damask,  diaper,  and  other  fine 
linen  cambrics,  which  employ  1500  looms,  and  yield  an  estimated  annual  produce  of  120,000/. 
Kinross,  the  capital  of  the  county  of  the  same  name,  is  a  pleasant  little  town,  chiefly 
Vol.  I.  36 


422 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pakt  III. 


Lochlcven  Caslle. 


noted  for  its  situation  on  the  shores  of  Lochleven.      This  is  a  little  lake,  of  considerable 

beauty,  having,  on  an  island  in  its  cen- 
tre, a  castle,  {Jig.  196.),  anciently  of 
great  strength,  and  noted  in  liistory, 
even  before  it  acquired  the  romantic 
interest  derived  from  the  imprisonment 
of  Mary,  and  her  adventurous  escape. 
Only  a  square  turreted  building  and 
one  of  the  walls  of  the  chapel  now  re- 
main. On  another  island  are  the  traces 
of  a  very  ancient  and  considerable  priory. 
Clackmannanshire  is  a  pleasant  little 
county,  witii  a  considerable  extent  of 
fine  carse  land,  and  great  quautities  of 
coal  and  lime.  The  town  of  Clackmannan  is  distinguished  for  the  beauty  of  its  situation. 
Close  to  it  is  an  ancient  tower,  built  by  Robert  the  Bruce.  Alloa,  two  miles  farther  down, 
is  a  thriving  little  place,  in  whose  vicinity  are  mines  of  coal,  of  which  about  35,000  tons  are 
annually  exported. 

Forfar,  more  usually  termed  Angus,  is  of  somewhat  rough  aspect,  the  western  border 
being  encroached  upon  by  lower  branches  of  the  Grampians,  while  the  Sidlaw  Hills,  a  range 
of  considerable  height,  traverse  the  centre.  Between  those  is  a  portion  of  the  great  valley 
of  Strathmore,  which  is  here  fertile  and  beautiful,  as  is  also  the  plain  between  Sidlaw  and 
the  coast.    Its  prosperity  depends  chiefly  upon  manufactures,  commerce,  and  fishery. 

Dundee,  the  largest  town  in  Forfarshire,  ranks  fourth  in  Scotland  as  to  population  and 
wealth.  It  was  of  early  importance  and  strength,  deriving  its  origin  from  Malcolm  Camnore, 
and  it  obtained  a  fatal  celebrity  through  the  sieges,  by  Edward  I.  ;  by  the  Marquis  of  Mon- 
trose; and  by  Monk,  who  gave  it  up  to  indiscriminate  pillage.  Dundee,  however,  has  reco- 
vered from  these  disasters,  and  is  become  one  of  the  most  flourishing  commercial  towns  in 
Scotland.  Her  staple  employment  consists  in  the  importation  of  flax  and  hemp,  and  work- 
ing them  into  coarse  linens,  sailcloth,  &c.  There  have  been  exported  in  one  year  100,713 
pieces  of  Osnaburg,  148,377  of  sheeting,  81,754  of  sailcloth,  with  bagging,  sacking,  dowlas, 
and  other  fabrics,  of  the  entire  value  of  about  1,500,000/. ;  four-fifths  of  which  were  made 
in  Dundee  itself.  Dundee  has  belonging  to  her,  270  vessels  of  33,000  tons ;  and  in  a  single 
■year  a  tonnage  of  212,000  has  entered  the  port.  The  harbour  has  been  greatly  enlarged  by 
wet  docks  and  other  additions;  and  a  railway  opens  a  communication  into  the  valley  of 
Strathmore.  The  population,  exceeding  45,000,  shows  a  remarkable  increase  since  1821 
when  it  was  only  30,500.  Dundee  is  agreeably  situated"  on  an  eminence  above  the  Tay; 
the  old  streets  are  narrow  and  steep,  but  new  and  handsome  ones  are  built  and  building  in 
every  direction ;  and  the  vicinity  is  adorned  with  elegant  villas.  There  is  an  academy, 
distinguished  by  the  scientific  attainments  of  some  of  its  teachers. 

Arbroath  carries  on  upon  a  smaller  scale,  the  same  branches  as  Dundee;  and  is  adorned 
with  the  ruins  of  a  magnificent  abbey.     Montrose  is  prettily  situated  at  the  mouth  of  a 

river,  bearing,  in  common  with  many 
others,  the  name  of  Esk.  Its  trade 
and  industry  are  considerable ;  and  it 
has  a  safe  harbour.  A  number  of  the 
neighbouring  gentry  have  been  at- 
tracted by  its  agreeable  situation, 
which  renders  it  the  most  fashionable 
place  in  the  county.  Forfar,  the 
county  town,  situated  in  the  valley 
of  Strathmore,  is  chiefly  supported  by 
the  business  of  the  courts;  there  is 
also  a  manufacture  of  brown  linens. 
The  village  of  Glammis  is  distinguished  by  the  magnificent  castle  (^g.  197.)  in  its  vicinity. 
Kmcardine  is  closely  hemmed  in  by  the  Grampians  on  the  west:  it  contains,  however,  in 
..„2  its  southern  district,  the  termination  of 

^"  the  great  valley  of  Strathmore,  which  is 

here  called  the  "How  of  the  Meams;" 
and  forms  a  tract  equally  fertile  and  de- 
lightful. The  northern  part  consists 
chiefly  of  mountains  and  moors  of  the 
most  bleak  and  dreary  aspect.  The  coast 
is  of  great  extent,  and  very  bold,  pre- 
senting in  many  parts  high  precipitous 
cliffs,  covered  with  innumerable  flocks 
of  sea-birds;  on  one  of  these  are  the 
extensive  remains  of  the  castle  of  Dun- 


Glammis  Caslle. 


Dunnottar  Castle. 


Book  I.  SCOTLAND.  423 

nottar,  {fig.  198.),  considered  formerly  as  impre^able,  where  the  regalia  of  the  king'dom 
were  at  one  time  deposited.  Stonehaven,  tJie  county-town,  carries  on  some  trade,  and  has  a 
manufacture  of  brown  linen. 

Aberdeen  is  a  large  and  important  northern  county.  It  has  a  very  considerable  line  of 
coast,  both  to  the  east  and  to  tlie  north,  and  extends,  with  increasing  breadth,  far  into  the 
interior.  There  it  forms  Mar,  or  Braemar,  a  highland  district,  one  of  the  most  elev'ated  in 
the  kingdom,  some  of  the  mountains  rising  to  above  4000  feet,  and  containing  extensive 
forests  of  ancient  pines,  with  large  flocks  of  wild  deer,  in  the  deep  glens  or  valleys.  From 
the  heights  of  Braemar  descend  the  Dee  and  the  Don,  the  first  of  vvliich  forms  some  very 
picturesque  falls  in  its  early  course.  Even  the  Lowland  districts  are  in  general  bleak  and 
moorish,  adapted  only  to  the  cultivation  of  inferior  species  of  grain,  and  the  rearing  of  cattle. 
The  old  staple  fabric  of  knitting  worsted  .stockings  has  been  greatly  injured  by  the  cheap- 
ness with  which  these  are  now  produced  elsewhere  by  the  aid  of  machinery  ;  but  other 
woollen  branches,  together  with  those  of  linen  and  cotton,  the  latter  to  a  considerable 
extent,  have  been  introduced.  The  beautiful  rock  crystals  called  ca'nngorms,  and  also  the 
topaz  and  the  beryl,  are  found  in  the  mountains  of  Braemar ;  and  the  fine  granite  which 
abounds  near  Aberdeen,  yields  12,000  tons  to  be  annually  shipped  to  London  and  elsewhere. 
The  fisheries  also  constitute  a  leading  occupation.  That  of  salmon  in  the  Don  and  Dee,  and 
the  whale-fishery,  are  extensive  branches ;  and  from  the  German  Ocean,  haddocks,  cod,  ling, 
turbot,  and  shell-fish,  are  taken  in  great  quantities. 

Aberdeen,  "  the  Queen  of  the  North,"  and  the  largest  city  beyond  the  Forth,  is  situated 
between  the  Dee  and  the  Don.  Old  Aberdeen  is  situated  near  the  Don,  whose  entrance  is 
obstructed  by  a  natural  bar,  which  renders  this  harbour  inadequate  for  the  town.  The  mass 
of  population  has  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Dee,  the  narrow  entrance  of  which  opens  into 
a  basin,  forming  an  excellent  harbour.  It  had,  however,  a  bar  at  its  mouth,  liable  to  con- 
tinual increase  by  the  sand  blown  from  the  beach  which  extends  along  the  coast ;  a  mole  of 
1200  feet  in  length  has  been  carried  out  into  the  sea,  and  a  channel  has  been  formed,  by 
which  vessels  of  700  tons  may  enter.  New  Aberdeen  is  a  handsome  city,  especially  the 
principal  street,  composed  of  a  long  range  of  new  and  good  houses,  built  of  its  fine  granite. 
Its  commerce,  manufactures,  and  fishery  are  those  of  the  county,  all  these  branches  center- 
ing in  Aberdeen.  This  city  is  now  the  principal  ship-building  port  in  Scotland,  possessing, 
in  1832,  355  ships  of  41,671  tons  burden.  The  old  town  has  ratlier  the  aspect  of  a  village, 
if  we  except  the  detached  houses  of  the  professors  of  the  university,  and  a  range  of  villas, 
the  opulent  tenants  of  which  have  been  attracted  by  the  agreeable  situation.  It  is  adorned 
by  the  fine  old  edifice  of  King's  College,  firom  which  rises  a  square  tower,  with  a  light  and  ele- 
gant crown.  This  seminary  was  founded  in  1494;  tlie  salaries  are  moderate,  but  the  bur- 
saries for  poor  schools  are  very  extensive.  Attached  to  it  is  a  library  of  considerable  value. 
Marischal  College,  founded  by  the  Earl  Marischal,  nearly  a  century  later,  is  situated  in  the 
heart  of  New  Aberdeen.  It  is  not  so  well  endowed  as  King's  College  ;  but  has  an  excellent 
cabinet  of  natural  philosophy,  and  a  well-furnished  observatory. 

Peterhead,  an  improving  place,  much  frequented  for  sea-bathing  and  for  a  mineral  water 
in  its  vicinity,  has  two  natural  harbours.  It  sends  thirteen  ships  to  the  whale  fishery,  and 
carries  on  that  of  herrings  with  considerable  spirit.  To  the  south  is  a  range  of  precipitous 
cliffs,  called  the  Bullers  of  Buchan,  against  which  the  waves  dajh  with  perpetual  fiiry. 

Three  counties,  Banff,  Moray  or  Elgin,  and  Nairn,  occupy  the  southern  shore  of  the  Moray 
Frith.  The  interior  districts  border  on  the  loftiest  highlands ;  but  the  coast,  only  diversified 
by  gentle  hills,  constitutes  the  ancient  province  of  Moray,  which  the  early  Scottish  writers 
describe  with  admiration  as  the  most  fruitful  part  of  Scotland,  and  as  enjoying  fifteen  days 
more  of  summer  than  any  other  district.  Its  rivers  afford  ample  fisheries  of  salmon,  which 
is  exported  to  the  computed  amiual  value  of  25,000Z.  The  herring  fishery  also  is  prose- 
cuted with  considerable  success. 

Elgin  is  an  ancient  town,  situated  on  the  Lossie,  and  has  a  tolerable  harbour ;  but  its  chief 
distinction  rests  on  its  cathedral,  which,  even  in  ruin,  may  dispute  with  Melrose  the  glory 
of  being  the  finest  Gothic  edifice  in  Scotland  ;  in  1568  the  privy  council  ordered  its  leaden 
roof  to  be  taken  off  for  the  payment  of  the  army,  and  from  that  time  it  gradually  decayed. 
In  a  neighbouring  valley  are  also  the  remains  of  the  fine  priory  of  Pluscardine.  Banff'  is  a 
somewhat  larger  and  more  thriving  place,  situated  at  the  moutli  of  the  Deveron ;  carrying 
on  some  linen  manufactures,  and  a  considerable  herring  fishery.  Nairn  is  a  neat  little 
county  town,  possessing  some  mdustry,  and  frequented  for  sea-bathing. 

SuBSECT.  2. — The  Highland  Counties. 

The  Highlands  of  Scotland  comprise  somewhat  more  than  half  the  surface  of  the  king- 
dom. They  include  the  whole  region  north  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  except  the  belt  on  the 
eastern  coast,  between  the  friths  of  Forth  and  Moray,  which  has  just  been  described.  This 
region  consists  altogetlier  of  continuous  ranges  of  lofty  mountains,  which  on  the  borders, 


424  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

leave  between  them  some  of  the  fine  and  broad  valleys,  called  straths,  but  m  the  interior 
only  the  deep  and  often  rocky  intervals  called  glens.  They  are  peopled  by  a  race  totally 
distinct  from  the  Lovvlanders.  These  mountaineers  wear  a  costume,  already  described,  quite 
peculiar  to  themselves;  they  spouk  a  Celtic  dialect,  deep,  stronir,  and  guttural,  bearing  no 
resemblance  to  the  Teutonic  speech  of  the  Lowlands  and  of  England.  They  have  ever 
maintained  that  valour,  which,  under  Galgacus,  set  bounds  to  the  career  of  Roman  conquest, 
and  preserved  their  mountains  untouched  by  the  invader ;  and  tliey  have  since  been  con- 
verted from  formidable  foes  into  gallant  defenders  of  the  rest  of  the  empire.  Down  to  tlie 
year  1745,  they  acted  in  clans,  led  by  hereditary  chiefs,  to  whom  they  were  entirely  devoted, 
and  who  exercised  over  them  a  paternal  but  absolute  sway.  The  spirit  of  clanship  led  them 
to  attach  themselves  strongly  to  the  hereditary  right  of  tlie  Stuarts,  of  which,  under  Mont- 
rose, they  gave  powerftil  proofs,  which  had  nearly  turned  tlie  tide  of  war  in  its  favour. 
Afterwards,  in  1745,  they  suddenly  invaded  England ;  and,  in  the  absence  of  the  army  in 
Flanders,  struck  alarm  into  tlie  dynasty  of  Hanover.  The  issue  of  that  contest  broke 
entirely  the  independence  of  the  highland  chiefs.  A  number  were  either  brought  to  the 
scaffold,  or  sent  into  exile;  military  roads  were  made,  and  forts  erected  in  the  heart  of  their 
territory;  they  were  deprived  of  their  feudal  privileges;  even  the  national  dress  was  pro- 
hibited, on  account  of  the  recollections  it  was  calculated  to  excite.  After  the  first  alarms, 
however,  had  subsided,  the  British  government  adopted  the  plan  of  conciliation.  Pitt  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  forming  the  liiglilanders  into  national  regiments,  allowing  even  a  limited 
use  of  the  appropriate  dress ;  and  they  have  since  ranked  with  the  bravest  and  most  distin- 
guished troops  in  the  Britisli  army.  Out  of  the  forfeited  estates  and  other  funds  voted  by 
government,  vast  sums  have  been  expended  on  the  Caledonian  Canal,  roads,  bridges,  and 
other  great  works  for  the  improvement  of  this  rude  territory.  The  lairds,  deprived  of  their 
absolute  power,  and  attracted  by  the  gaieties  and  luxuries  of  cities,  soon  accustomed  them- 
selves to  view  their  estates  only  as  "  material  capitals,  to  be  worked  according  to  tlie  great 
principles  of  political  economy."  Tlie  multitude  of  little  spots,  divided  among  vassals,  in 
whose  numbers  they  placed  tlieir  strength,  were  thrown  into  large  sheep-farms;  and  the 
tenants  were  driven  out  to  seek  a  home  wherever  they  could  find  it.  Some  migrated  to  the 
lowland  cities,  and  a  great  proportion  went  to  America;  yet,  in  consequence  of  the  advance 
of  commerce  and  fisheries,  even  the  highland  counties  augmented  their  population  during 
this  period,  though  not  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  Lowlands.  Between  1801  and  1821, 
it  increased  from  434,000  to  512,000.  There  is  one  great  manufacture,  generally  diffiised 
throughout  this  region,  which  tends  ratlier  to  disturb  the  peace  tiian  to  improve  tlie  condition 
of  the  community ;  this  is  whiskey,  which  the  people  prepare  in  small  stills  from  their  here, 
or  coarse  barley,  and  give  it  a  flavour  superior  to  any  other  spirit  made  in  England  or  Scot- 
land. 

The  Highlands  are  composed  of  two  great  districts, — the  west  and  the  north.  The  formei 
comprehends  the  shires  of  Dumbarton,  Argyle,  Bute,  and  part  of  Perth ;  the  latter  embraces 
the  counties  of  Inverness,  Ross,  Sutherland,  &c.  The  Hebrides,  or  Western  Isles,  belong 
to  the  counties  of  Bute,  Argyle,  Ross,  and  Inverness. 

Perth  is  a  noble  and  extensive  county,  forming  the  link,  as  it  were,  between  the  Lowlands 
and  Highlands ;  in  its  different  parts  uniting  the  beauty  and  fertility  of  the  one  with  the_ 
grandeur  of  the  other.  The  former  qualities  are  conspicuous  in  the  carse  of  Gowrie  ;  a 
broad  sloping  plain,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Tay,  profusely  covered  with  orchards  and  cul- 
tivated fields.  The  upper  part  of  Strathearn,  also,  between  Perth  and  Crieff^  varied  with 
gentle  hills,  cultivated  valleys,  and  the  windings  of  two  great  rivers,  may  almost  be  called 
the  garden  of  Scotland.  As  we  proceed  to  the  nortli  and  west,  the  Grampians  gradually 
swell,  and  at  length  are  found  occupying  the  whole  interior  of  the  county,  in  a  line  Ixom 
north-east  to  south-west,  and  comprehending  the  mighty  summits  of  Ben  Lavvers,  Benmore, 
Bengloe,  Schehallion,  Ben  Voirlich,  Benledi,  Benvenue ;  all  fi-om  3000  to  upwards  of  4000 
feet  high.  Within  tlieir  recesses  they  enclose  the  three  large  lochs,  Tay,  Earn,  and  Katrine. 
These  lakes,  varied  with  woods  and  verdure,  exhibit  in  many  parts  scenes  of  great  grandeur 
and  beauty.  In  the  lowlands  of  Perth,  agriculture  is  carried  to  great  perfection ;  the  higli- 
land  tracts,  on  the  contrary,  are  in  general  fit  only  for  pasturage.  They  are,  however, 
covered  with  the  remains  of  ancient  forests,  to  which  the  great  proprietors  have  been 
making  very  extensive  additions.  The  towns  of  Perthshire  participate  in  the  diflferent 
national  manufactures :  the  bleachfields  and  printfields  are  numerous;  but  this  can  in  no 
view  be  generally  regarded  as  a  manufacturing  county. 

Perth  is  well  built,  and,  as  to  situation,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  cities  in  the  kingdom. 
The  view  of  it  from  the  north,  in  particular,  in  the  heart  of  a  finely  wooded  plain,  with  the 
Tay  winding  round  it,  and  the  Hill  of  Moncrieff"  rising  above,  is  almost  without  a  rival  in 
the  kingdom.  Pertli  might,  for  a  long  time,  be  considered  the  capital  of  Scotland.  It  was 
the  frequent  residence  of  the  kings.  Parliaments  and  General  Assemblies  met  there  oftener 
than  in  any  other  place ;  and,  in  the  civil  contests,  the  possession  of  Perth  was  considered 
of  vital  importance  by  the  contending  parties.     At  present  it  has  declined  to  a  rank  decidedly 


IJooK  I.  SCOTLAND.  425 

provincial ;  and  its  commerce,  once  considerable,  has  been  almost  wholly  transferred  to 
Dundee.  It  has  linen  and  other  manufactures,  which  produce  an  annual  value  of  about 
200,000Z. ;  while  its  advantageous  site,  and  the  excellent  education  aiforded  by  the  grammar 
school  and  academy,  attract  a  number  of  the  neighbouring  gentry,  and  render  it  gay  and 
fashionable. 

The  other  towns  of  Perthshire  are  small,  but  distinguished  for  the  grand  and  picturesque 
scenery  amid  which  they  are  situated.  Dunkeld,  in  this  respect,  is  generally  considered  the 
pride  of  Scotland ;  the  finely  wooded  and  rocky  hills  through  which  the  Tay  meanders,  with 

the  valleys  and  glens  opening  on  every  side,  produce 
a  diversity  of  landscape  scarcely  equalled  elsewhere. 
The  late  Duke  of  Athol,  whose  spacious  domains 
cover  this  part  of  Perthshire,  was  most  active  in 
respect  to  plantations,  since  those  of  Dunkeld  alone 
cover  11,000  acres;  and  the  whole  number  of  trees 
planted  by  the  duke  amount  to  30,000,000.  A  route 
of  twenty  miles,  directly  north,  passing  opposite  to 
the  fine  mountain  village  of  Logierait,  and  through 
the  bold  pass  of  Killikrankie,  leads  to  Blair,  also  part 
of  the  Atliol  territory,  and  one  of  the  most  picturesque 
spots  in  Scotland.  Its  striking  features  consist  in  the 
lofty  mountain  Bengloe,  the  glens  of  the  Tilt  and  the 
GaiTy,  and  the  picturesque  rocky  falls  of  the  Bruar 
{,fig.  199.).  Westward  is  Loch  Rannoch,  surrounded 
by  extensive  forests  of  fir,  and  overhung  by  Sche- 
hallion,  on  whose  lofty  summit  Dr.  Maskelyne  per- 
formed some  of  his  operations  for  the  measurement 
of  the  earth.  Out  of  it  flows  the  Tumel,  a  rapid 
stream,  which  forms  some  romantic  cascades.  From 
the  Tumel,  a  military  road  leads  to  Loch  Tay,  the  largest  of  the  lakes,  and  surrounded  by 
the  loftiest  mountains  of  Perthshire.  Ben  Lawers,  with  a  chain  of  attendant  .mountains, 
overhangs  it  fi"om  the  north ;  while  Benmore  shuts  it  in  on  the  west ;  and  perhaps  there  is 
no  lake  in  Britain  enclosed  by  so  grand  a  circuit.  The  sides  of  the  mountains  are  somewhat 
naked ;  but  the  grounds  of  Taymouth,  at  the  head  of  the  loch,  form  a  rich  foreground. 

Farther  south  is  the  vale  of  Strathearn,  at  one  end  of  which,  Crieff,  a  thriving  little  town, 
looks  up  on  the  windings  of  the  river,  and  the  vast  mountains  from  amid  which  it  issues. 
Loch  Earn,  a  small  lake,  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  grand  ranges  of  very  lofty  moun- 
tains. 

The  upper  valleys  of  the  Forth  and  the  Teith  have  some  very  remarkable  scenery.  On 
the  Allan,  is  Dumblane ;  a  pleasantly  situated  little  town,  with  the  remains  of  a  fine 
cathedral ;  Callender,  overhung  by  Benledi,  is  chiefly  frequented  as  the  key  of  Loch  Katrine, 
situated  about  ten  miles  to  the  westward,  and  approached  by  a  narrow  road  along  the  small 
lakes  of  Venachoir  and  Achray.  The  scenes  of  beauty  and  grandeur  which  adorn  the 
eastern  extremity  of  this  lake,  the  mighty  cliffs  of  Benvenue,  the  wild  wooded  glen  of  the 
Trosachs,  and  the  beautiful  little  island  in  the  centre  of  the  scene,  have  obtained  celebrity 
from  the  muse  of  Scott.  Farther  south,  the  Forth,  rising  from  Ben  Lomond,  rolls  through 
a  pastoral  mountain  valley,  once  the  seat  of  the  power  and  the  scene  of  the  adventures  of 
the  outlaw  Macgregor.  It  forms  several  little  lakes,  of  which  Loch  Ard  is  the  largest  and 
most  beautiful. 

The  county  of  Inverness  is  purely  highland,  presenting  range  after  range  of  mountains, 
of  which  Ben  Nevis,  Cairngorm,  and  several  others,  are  the  most  elevated  in  the  United 
Kingdom.  The  intervals  between  them  are  filled  either  by  long  lakes,  or  by  narrow  glens, 
the  level  space  of  which  does  not  usually  exceed  a  mile  in  breadth.  The  principal  one, 
called  the  Great  Caledonian  Glen,  reaches  from  Inverness  in  an  oblique  direction  across  the 
kingdom,  filled  with  an  almost  unbroken  chain  of  lakes, — Loch  Ness,  Loch  Oich,  Loch 
Lochj,  and  Loch  Linnhe ;  which  last  opens  by  the  Sound  of  Mull  into  the  western  sea;  a 
continuity  which  facilitated  the  formation  of  the  Caledonian  Canal.  In  the  east,  the  district 
along  the  upper  course  of  the  Spey,  bearing  the  name  of  Strathspey,  comprises  an  unusual 
extent  of  level  land.  Only  about  a  fortieth  part  of  the  county  is  capable  of  cultivation ;  but 
that  fortieth,  composed  of  haufrh  or  alluvial  land,  on  the  rivers,  or  the  lakes,  is  extremely 
fertile.  The  greatest  branch  of  industry  consists  in  the  rearing  of  black  cattle,  sheep,  and 
goats.  Game  of  all  kinds  abounds,  and  there  are  still  considerable  remains  of  the  great 
Caledonian  forest,  composed  chiefly  of  fir. 

Inverness,  the  gay  capital  of  the  Highlands,  is  of  a  very  different  character  from  that  of 

the  wild  region  over  which  it  holds  a  sort  of  dominion.     Seated  on  a  bay,  at  the  head  of  the 

Moray  Frith,  it  partakes  in  a  great  measure  of  tlie  mild  and  fertile  character  of  its  shores, 

and  stands  at  some  little  distance  from  the  awful  ranges  of  mountains  by  which  it  is  enclosed. 

Vol.  L  36*  3D 


426 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  111. 


200 


Fall  of  Fyers. 


After  suffering  a  considerable  decline  from  its  ancient  importance,  it  has,  witliin  tlie  last 
thirty  years,  nearly  trijiled  its  extent  and  population.  In  general,  a  considerable  polisli 
of  manners  is  observable ;  and  it  has  been  remarked  that  the  English  language  is  spoken 
in  greater  purity  than  in  any  other  part  of  Scotland ;  a  circumstance  which  has  been 
ascribed  to  the  residence  of  English  officers  atler  the  battle  of  Culhjden.  Inverness  has  a 
town  liouse,  infirmary,  assembly-rooms,  and  theatre.  Manufactures  of  hemp,  flax,  and  tartan 
have  been  established.  The  views,  both  of  sea  and  land,  in  its  vicinity,  are  almost  un- 
rivalled. 
Inverness-shire  has  scarcely  another  place  which  can  make  much  pretension  to  the  name 

even  of  a  village.  Ben  Nevis,  usually  considered 
the  loftiest  mountain  in  Scotland  and  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  is  4370  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea ;  the  view  from  the  summit  is  very  exten- 
sive, embracing  a  great  portion  of  the  Hebrides. 
To  the  east  of  l^och  Ness,  the  rivulet  of  Fyers  or 
Foyers  (fig.  200.)»  forms  the  greatest  waterfall  in 
Scotland;  the  lower  or  principal  fall  descends 
from  a  height  of  212  feet ;  but  the  stream  is  not 
very  copious. 

Argyle,  commonly  called  the  Western  High- 
lands, is  a  wide  and  irregular  territory,  stretch- 
mg  into  long  promontories,  and  mdcnted  by  deep 
arms  of  the  sea,  so  as  to  form  a  coast  of  very 
great  extent.  In  general  the  shore  is  bordered 
by  high  hills,  and  the  interior  covered  with  ranges 
of  rugged  mountains.  Its  industry  is  almost  en- 
tirely pastoral ;  herds  of  black  cattle  and  vast 
flocks  of  sheep  are  fed  on  the  sides  of  its  moun- 
tains. The  herring  of  the  west  coast,  and  especially  of  Loch  Fyne,  enjoys  a  liigh  reputa- 
tion. TJie  county  is  chiefly  tenanted  by  Campbells,  wlio  were  wont  to  rally  round  the  Mac- 
callummore,  a  designation  of  their  chief  the  Duke  of  Argyle,  with  all  the  ardour  of  kmdred 
and  national  attachment. 

Dumbarton  is  mostly  a  part  of  the  same  district; 
j'et  it  has  a  lowland  strip  extending  along  the  north- 
ern banks  of  the  Clyde.  In  the  western  part  are  the 
Great  Canal,  joining  the  Clyde  at  Dunglass;  and 
the  wall  of  Antoninus,  called  by  the  Scottish  vulgar 
"Graham's  dike."  The  approach  to  Dumbarton  af- 
fords one  of  the  most  striking  prospects  in  Scotland ; 
and  its  castle  ifg.  201.),  the  ancient  and  mighty 
hold  of  the  Britons,  towering  on  the  summit  of  a 
perpendicular  rock,  still  maintains  its  importance  as 
a  fortress.  Dumbarton  has  a  large  manufactory  of 
Dumbarioii  Castle.  crown  glass,  which  Is  exported  to  foreign  parts ;  and 

on  the  banks  of  the  Leven  there  are  extensive  printfields. 

Loch  Lomond  {Jig.  202.)  is  celebrated  for  the  expanse  of  its  waters,  and  the  many  beautiful 

^  islands  with  wliich  is  studded.  From  its  foot, 

-'~*^-"~>  '•^"'  .^^^         bordered  by  cultivated  hills  and  ornamented 

villas,  to  its  mountain  head,  there  is  a  con- 
tinued transition  from  beauty  to  grandeur, 
and  at  the  central  point  of  Luss  they  are 
remarkably  united.  The  numerous  and 
beautiful  islands,  and  the  long  wooded  pro- 
montories stretchmg  into  the  water,  with 
the  majestic  form  of  Ben  Lomond  in  the 
background,  produce  a  combination  of  land- 
scape which  perhaps  no  other  spot  in  Britain 
can  equal. 

On  turning  the  head  of  Loch  Long  at 
Arrochar,  the  view  opens  on  the  romantic  valley  of  Glencoe,  enclosed  between  two  ranges 
of  mountains  rising  almost  perpendicularly  to  an  amazing  height,  and  leaving  between  them 
only  a  narrow  vale,  through  which  a  rivulet  flows.  The  vale  of  Glenfinglas  is  then  passed, 
whose  high  sloping  sides  covered  with  innumerable  flocks  inspire  pleasing  pastoral  unages, 
and  at  the  termination  of  which  appears  the  grand  estuary  of  Loch  Fyne. 
Inverary,  the  capital  of  the  Western  Highlands,  is  situated  near  the  head  of  Loch  Fyne. 


201 


Loch  Lomond. 


Book  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


427 


203 


Inverary  Castle. 


Its  environs  arc  not  mountainous ;  but  its  noble  castle  {fig.  203.),  surrounded  by  wood- 
ed hills  and  wide  lawns,  with  the  lofty 
mountains  which  shut  in  the  distant  view, 
render  it  a  magnificent  and  delightful  spot. 
The  town  is  small  and  neat,  without  any 
employment,  except  the  herring  fishery. 
About  ten  miles  below  Inverary,  the  Crinan 
Canal  joins  Loch  Fyne  to  the  western  sea, 
and  has  made  Lochgilphead  a  place  of  some 
consequence. 

The  interior  and  the  western  coast  of 
Argyleshire  are  in  many  respects  interest- 
ing. Parallel  to  Loch  Fyne,  at  the  distance  of 
ten  or  twelve  miles,  is  the  long  line  of  Loch 
Awe;  an  interior  lake,  over  whose  head  towers  Ben  Cruachan,  the  loftiest  summit  in  Argyle. 
The  castle  of  Kilchurn,  rising  on  one  of  the  islands,  produces  a  highly  picturesque  eficct. 
Beyond  this,  Loch  Etive,  a  narrow  arm  of  the  sea,  stretches  far  into  the  interior.  Climbing 
the  high  mountains  at  the  head  of  Loch  Etive,  we  come  to  Glencoe,  which  in  terrific 
grandeur  surpasses  perhaps  every  other  spot  in  Great  Britain.  This  effect  is  produced  by 
its  bold  and  broken  mountain  forms,  its  spiry  rocks,  and  black  precipices ;  at  the  bottom  of 
which,  in  a  deep  chasm  or  ravine,  fiows  the  rivulet  of  Coe.  This  stream  is  the  Cona  of 
Ossian,  believed  the  favourite  haunt  of  that  celebrated  Caledonian  bard.  The  vale  has  also 
a  gloomy  recollection  attached  to  it,  from  the  massacre  of  1691.  Emerging  from  this  scene, 
the  traveller  is  cheered  with  the  gay  aspect  of  Loch  Leven,  which  presents  much  pleasing 
highland  scenery,  while  the  hills  round  the  feriy  of  Balachulish  afford  valuable  quarries  of 
slate.  From  Balachulish,  along  the  broad  expanse  of  the  Linnhe  Loch  with  which  the  great 
Caledonian  chain  terminates,  extends  Appin,  a  beautiful  district,  diversified  with  fine  woods, 
rich  pasturage,  and  more  culture  than  is  usual  in  Argyleshire.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the 
Linnhe  Loch  is  a  peninsular  district  called  Ardnamurchan,  separated  only  by  a  narrow 
sound  fi"om  the  Island  of  ]\Iull.  The  district  of  Strontian  contains  lead-mines  of  some  value. 
Crossing  the  Linnhe,  and  passing  Lismore,  a  long,  level,  and  fertile  island,  we  find  Lome, 
separated  by  Loch  Creran  from  Appin,  to  which  it  is  even  superior  in  beauty  and  fertility. 
Near  the  opening  of  Loch  Etive  into  the  sea,  tradition  places  Beregonium,  the  reported 
capital  of  the  Picts  in  the  third  century  ;  and  near  it  is  found  Dunstaffnage  {fig.  204.),  once 


204 


Dunstaffnage  Caslle. 


the  scene  of  Scottish  regal  pomp, 
now  a  ruin,  crowning  a  cliff  along 
the  western  sea.  The  long  pen- 
insula of  Cantyre  stretches  far 
out  into  the  sea,  being  visible 
from  the  Irish  coast  of  Antrim. 
The  Macdonalds,  lords  of  the 
Isles,  long  held  sway  over  it, 
till  they  were  driven  out  by  the 
earls  of  Argyle.  Campbelltown, 
near  its  southern  extremity,  is 
a  thriving  port,  now  the  largest  on  this  coast,  and  serving  in  particular  as  a  general  ren- 
dezvous for  the  herring  fishery. 

The  three  extreme  counties,  Ross,  Cromarty,  and  Sutherland,  form  the  most  remote  and 
northerly  portion  of  the  Highlands,  and,  Caithness  excepted,  of  all  the  mainland.  The  south- 
eastern border  of  the  friths  of  Moray,  Cromarty,  and  Dornoch  contains  some  fine  land,  and 
several  thriving  towns ;  the  rest  is  a  continued  range  of  rock,  mountain,  heath,  forest,  and 
loch,  similar  to  Inverness,  but  still  wilder.  The  lochs  which  indent  the  western  coast  are 
large  and  numerous,  particularly  Loch  Carron,  Loch  Terridon,  and  Loch  Broom ;  and  they 
have  generally  grand  mountain  boundaries.  Cape  Wrath,  the  north-western  point  of  Scot- 
land, is  a  lofty  pyramidal  rock,  standing  in  front  of  a  vast  range  of  broken  cliffs,  and  breasting 

the  whole  wide  expanse  of  the  ocean.     On 


205 


Dun  Dornadilla, 


the  northern  coast  is  Loch  Eribol,  a  wide 
inlet,  bordered  by  limestone  rocks,  per- 
forated by  caves  of  great  extent  and  re- 
markable form.  Sutherland  presents  numer- 
ous Duns,  or  ancient  forts  of  peculiar  struc- 
ture, of  which  the  most  remarkable  is  Dun 
Dornadilla  {fig.  205.),  situated  on  the  lofty 
sides  of  Ben  Hope,  not  far  from  Loch 
Eribol, 

Cromarty,  the  capital  of  the  little  county 
S)f  the  same  name,  stands  at  the  foot  of  its^ 


428  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III 

own  frith ;  while  Dingwall,  the  county  town  of  Ross,  is  situated  at  the  head.  Cromarty  is  a 
considerable  fishing  station.  On  the  south  side  of  the  Dornogh  Frith  is  Tain,  and  on  the 
north  is  Dornoch,  an  ancient  town,  of  wlioso  cathedral  some  part  still  remains. 

Caithness  forms  the  north-eastern  angle  of  Scotland  :  it  is  scarcely  a  highland  county,  only 
the  Paps  of  Caithness  rising  to  the  character  of  mountains.  Its  surface  is  moist,  bleak,  and 
bare,  filled  with  little  lakes,  and  covered  with  extensive  moors.  The  cliief  branch  of  industry 
is  the  herring  fishery.  Kelp  is  also  made  from  the  sea-weed  thrown  on  its  shores.  Thurso, 
the  county  town,  is  an  improving  place,  in  the  midst  of  a  cultivated  country.  Its  bay  affords 
a  safe  roadstead,  peculiarly  valuable  for  sliips,  which,  in  rounding  the  north  of  Scotland, 
must  pass  through  the  Pentland  Frith,  rendered  dangerous  by  its  violent  and  rapid  currents. 
Wick,  the  grand  rendezvous  of  the  herring  fishery,  owes  to  this  advantage  a  very  rapid 
increase.  The  north-eastern  point  of  Caithness  and  of  Scotland  bears  the  familiar  appellation 
of  John  o'Groat's  house;  though  there  is  not  the  vestige  of  a  house  to  correspond  to  this 
title,  which  is  founded  on  a  mere  traditionary  story. 

SuBSECT.  3. — Scottish  Islands. 

The  islands  appendent  on  Scotland,  form  one  of  its  most  conspicuous  features.  Though 
neither  rich  nor  fertile  in  proportion  to  their  extent,  they  exhibit  a  great  variety  of  bold  and 
Btriking  scenery,  and  are  peopled  by  a  race  whose  habits  of  life  and  forms  of  society  are 
peculiar  to  themselves.  They  may  be  divided  into  the  islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Clyde; 
the  Hebrides,  or  Western  Islands ;  and  the  Northern  Islands,  or  those  of  Orkney  and 
Shetland. 

The  islands  of  the  Clyde  are  chiefly  Bute  and  Arran,  with  the  smaller  ones  of  the  Cum- 
brays  and  Ailsa.  Bute  is  of  beautiful  aspect,  with  a  climate  accounted  the  mildest  in  Scot- 
land, and  for  that  reason  resorted  to  by  invalids ;  a  considerable  part  of  the  surface  is  arable 
and  well  cultivated.  Rothsay  is  a  pretty  town,  much  frequented  for  sea-bathing",  and  en- 
riched by  a  considerable  herring  fishery.  Arran  presents  much  bold  alpine  scenery,  the 
central  mountain  of  Goatfield  rising  to  nearly  the  height  of  3000  feet,  while  the  glen  of 
Sanox  at  its  base  has  the  highest  character  of  savage  and  romantic  grandeur.  Lamlash,  the 
principal  town,  possesses  an  excellent  harbour.  Ailsa,  off  the  Ayrshire  coast,  is  a  rock  900 
feet  high,  with  lofly  basaltic  clifl^s,  formed  into  columns  several  hundred  feet  in  height. 

The  Hebrides,  or  Western  Islands,  stretch  far  into  the  Atlantic.  Their  general  aspect  is 
highland,  with  rude  rocks  and  mountains,  deep  and  dark  valleys,  large  expanses  of  peat-moss, 
hill  pastures,  and  scanty  harvests;  the  mountains  ascend  rather  in  single  peaks  than  in  long 
ranges;  and  the  rocky  cliffs  which  face  the  sea  assume,  in  many  places,  columnar  forms  of 
peculiar  grandeur.  The  climate  is  moist ;  yet  milder  than  on  the  mainland.  The  earliest 
inhabitants  seem  to  have  been  Celtic.  About  the  eleventh  century,  they  were  conquered, 
together  with  Man,  by  Harold  Harfager,  and  were  governed  for  several  centuries  by  a  Nor- 
wegian dynasty,  after  which  they  owned  the  nominal  sovereignty  of  the  Scottish  kings,  but 
fell  really  under  the  sway  of  the  Macdonalds,  lords  of  the  Isles.  Their  territory  including  a 
great  part  of  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  formed  a  considerable  power,  till  it  fell  partly  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Scottish  crown,  and  was  partly  divided  among  a  number  of  petty  chiefs, 
whose  feuds  deform  the  subsequent  pages  of  Hebridean  history.  At  present  these  islands 
may  be  considered  as  retaining  more  of  highland  habits  and  feelings,  than  any  part  of  the 
mainland. 

The  Hebrides  may  be  divided  into  two  main  ranges.  One  of  them  consists  of  the  large 
islands  of  Islay,  Jura,  Mull,  and  Skye,  with  severd  minor  attendants,  which  are  nearly 
contiguous  to  the  west  coast,  and  separated  from  it  only  by  narrow  straits  and  sounds ;  the 
other  is  composed  of  North  and  South  Uist,  Harris,  Lewis,  which  are  considerably  out  at 
sea,  and  are  classed,  with  no  very  strict  propriety,  undei  the  general  appellation  of  Long 
Island. 

Islay  contains  a  good  deal  of  level  and  fertile  territory,  which  induced  the  lords  of  the 
Isles  to  make  it  their  residence ;  good  crops  of  barley,  oats,  and  even  wheat,  are  raised ;  and 
the  black  cattle,  which  form  the  main  export,  are  held  in  great  estimation.  Jura  is  separated 
from  Islay  only  by  a  sound,  the  opposite  sides  of  which  correspond  so  exactly  as  to  suggest 
the  idea  of  their  having  been  disjoined  by  some  violent  sliock  ;  it  is  one  continued  tract  of 
brown  and  rocky  mountain  pasture ;  all  the  inhabitants,  if  collected,  would  scarcely  people 
a  large  village.  Scarba  consists  of  a  single  conical  mountain  broken  into  rocky  precipices, 
and  forming  a  striking  object.  Between  Jura  and  Scarba  is  the  perilous  strait  of  Corryvre- 
kan,  a  whirlpool  noted  for  shipwreck.  Colonsny  and  Oronsay  form  one  long  island,  the 
channel  between  them  being  passable  at  low  water.  The  former  has  a  verdant  appearance ; 
at  Oronsay  are  the  remains  of  a  priory,  ranking  as  the  finest  in  the  Highlands  next  to  that 
of  Ion  a. 

Mull  is  a  large,  rough,  stormy  island,  with  winding  and  deeply  indented  shores,  separated 
by  a  long  narrow  sound  from  the  Argyleshire  coast.  The  shores  are  almost  everywhere 
rocky  and  precipitous  ;  tlie  two  once  mighty  holds  of  Duart  and  Aros  crown  rocky  cliffs  on  its 
eastern  shore.    The  great  keep  of  the  former,  with  its  walls  nine  feet  thick,  encloses  an  area 


lioOK  I. 


SCOTLAND, 


429 


206 


Fingal's  Cave. 


of  thirty-six  feet  by  twelve.   Black  cattle,  black-faced  sheep,  celebrated  for  their  delicate  mut- 
ton, kelp,  and  herrings,  are  exported. 

StafFa,  a  large  rock,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  round,  and  encircled  by  cliffs,  which  nowhere 

exceed  in  heiglit  144  feet,  contains  the 
Cave  of  Fingal  (.%.  206.)  Almost  all 
tlie  rocks  of  tlie  island  are  basaltic  and 
columnar ;  but  here  they  are  arranged 
so  as  to  produce  the  most  singular  and 
magnificent  effect.  An  opening,  sixty- 
six  feet  high  and  forty-two  u  ide,  formed 
by  perpendicular  walls  terminated  by  an 
arch  at  the  top,  admits  into  a  natural 
hall,  more  than  two  hundred  feet  long, 
and  bounded  on  each  side  by  basaltic 
columns  rising  in  regular  symmetrical 
succession.  Two  other  caves,  the  Cor- 
morants' Cave  and  the  Boat's  Cave, 
present  similar  scenes.  Of  the  columnar  rocks,  which  extend  over  a  great  part  of  the 
island,  many  are  bent  and  twisted  in  a  remarkable  manner. 

lona  {fig.  207),  a  small  island  near  Staffa,  excites  the  deepest  interest  by  the  venerable 

ruins  which  attest,  in  this  secluded 
corner,  tlie  early  existence  of  re- 
ligion and  learning,  at  a  time  when 
the  rest  of  tlie  kingdom  was  buried 
in  barbarism.  St.  Columba,  about 
5?^^J^^^m^^^^^^^^Sj^^^i§^^^?^^^'>\-'  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century, 
J-^^^^^^^^^^^^^^S''0^^^^^f^^^^^^^P'&  founded  here  a  monastery,  and 
i^^^^^^^^^^^— ^.^'i'^^^J^^og^^^^^^^^pi  made  it  a  centre  whence  he  en- 
5fii^^^^^^^^^£?^"^S2rfM^=£^i^^^^^^^^^Si^*3^  cleavoured  to  diffiise  the  light  of 
'^'^^-'Ti-^^&M^S^'^-.j>~J^:::~>i^^^^^l^^f^^wmji^^Ji'  Christianity.  This  religious  estab- 
lishment was  enriched  and  extend- 
ed, and  a  nunnery  was  afterwards 
instituted  under  the  same  auspices. 
The  Culdees,  or  followers  of  Co- 
lumba, appear  to  have  rendered  very  great  services  to  Britain,  and  even  to  the  whole  North. 
Teachers  were  often  drawn  from  among  them  for  seminaries  in  England ;  and  they  under- 
took' missionary  expeditions  to  ^'I'orway,  and  even  to  Russia.  They  taught,  in  a  great 
measure,  the  principles  of  primitive  Christianity,  rejecting  both  the  vows  of  celibacy,  and 
the  ceremonies  of  tiie  Romish  church.  lona,  however,  at  length  became  Roman  catholic, 
and  continued  to  flourish  till  the  Reformation,  when  its  monks  were  dispersed,  and  its  edi- 
fices demolished.  The  cemetery  also  remains,  in  which,  according  to  tradition,  were  buried 
forty-eight  kings  of  Scotland,  eight  of  Norway,  four  of  Ireland,  and  one  of  France.  Al- 
lowing the  scepticism  of  Dr.  Macculloch  as  to  this  magnificent  list,  it  appears  confirmed, 
from  the  ornaments  on  the  tombs,  that  many  of  the  West-Insular  chiefs  chose  this  as  a 
sacred  spot,  where  their  ashes  might  repose.  The  ruins  are  extensive.  The  cathedral  is 
164  feet  long  and  34  broad  ;  and  near  it  is  a  chapel  sixty  feet  long.  The  style  of  architecture 
is  early  and  rude ;  and  the  sculptures,  though  pretty  numerous,  are,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
grotesque  in  design  and  execution. 

Skye,  the  most  northerly  of  this  inner  chain,  is  the  largest  of  the  group.  It  is  forty- 
five  miles  long ;  but  its  shores  are  so  winding,  and  so  penetrated  by  lochs,  that  it  may  be 
said  to  form  a  cluster  of  peninsulas.  Ranges  of  rocky  mountains,  many  of  them  3000  feet 
high,  cover  almost  the  entire  Surface,  and  the  high  rocks  with  which  it  is  everywhere 
bordered,  display  objects  of  striking  and  romantic  grandeur.  In  Strathaird,  near  the 
southern  point,  is  the  celebrated  spar  cave ;  it  is  about  250  feet  from  the  entrance  to  the 
extremity;  but  a  great  part  of  the  passage  is  gloomy  and  rocky,  and  only  in  its  most  inte- 
rior part  do  the  stalactites  begin  to  branch  out  into  that  variety  of  intricate  and  brilliant 
ornaments  which  make  the  cave  so  beautiful.  Tlie  great  body  of  the  island  is  a  hilly  moor- 
land, barren,  brown,  and  rugged ;  the  peaks  being  generally  from  500  to  1000  feet  high ; 
but  some  points  are  level  and  arable.  The  exportation  of  cattle,  with  that  of  a  considerable 
quantity  of  kelp,  forms  the  cliief  trade  of  the  island ;  large  quantities  of  herrings  are  also 
taken,  and  cured  by  fishermen,  who  carry  on  this  branch  of  commerce  on  a  su'sall  scale.  The 
property  of  Skye  is  almost  shared  between  the  family  of  Lord  Macdonald  who  claims  descent 
from  the  ancient  lords  of  the  Isles,  and  that  of  Macleod.  Duntulm,  tiie  almost  ruined  seat  of 
the  Macdonalds,  and  the  Macleods'  castle  of  Dunvcgan,  a  magnificent  pile,  founded  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  are  on  the  north-west  coast.  On  the  east  is  Rasay,  masked  by  long 
lofty  cliffs  of  fine  sandstone,  which  have  on  their  tops  green  and  cultivated  farms.  To  the 
south-west  is  Rum,  a  wild  and  rugged  mass  of  mountains,  surrounded  by  shores  scarcely 


430 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


accessible,  and  involved  in  almost  perpetual  tempest.     On  the  east  of  Rum  is  Egg  or  Eigg, 
wliich  contains  several  largo  caves. 

Lonn-  Ifslaiid  is  tlie  general  name  given  to  the  exterior  chain  of  the  Hebrides,  which  con- 
sists of  live  large  and  many  smaller  islands;  so  closely  contiguous  that  the  whole  may  be 
considered  iis  one  ishuid.  It  is  a  strange  mixture  of  bogs,  rocks,  loclis,  and  sands;  its  pas- 
tures arc  cliiolly  occupied  with  cattle  destined  for  the  markets  of  the  mainland;  and  large 
quantities  of  kelp  are  producrd,  which  yield  considerable  profit. 

Lewis  is  the  largest  of  all  tlic  Hebrides,  being  upwards  of  eighty  miles  from  north-east 
to  souUi-\vcst,and,  at  some  points,  more  than  twenty  in  breadth.  Of  its  inhabitants,  those 
occupying  its  most  northern  point,  called  the  Butt  of  Lewis,  appear  to  be  Danish,  the  rem- 
nant of  that  colony  who  once  ruled  the  island.  The  people  are  industrious  in  cultivating 
their  rude  soil,  and  in  the  fisheries  which  have  rendered  Stornoway,  tiie  capital  of  Lewis,  a 
place  of  some  consideration.  Harris,  a  peninsula  on  the  southern  point  of  Lewis,  consists 
of  a  mass  of  rugged  rocks,  wliich  project  in  long  promontories  into  the  sea,  giving  to  the 
shore  a  very  picturesque  aspect.  'J'lie  arable  patches  are  small,  and  in  such  inaccessible 
sites  that  tliey  can  b(;  cultivated  only  by  the  spade.  Sheep  are  more  numerous  than  black 
cattle,  being  better  adapted  to  this  rugged  surtiice.  North  and  South  Uist,  with  Benbccida, 
exhibit  the  general  aspect  of  Long  Island,  of  whose  Icngtii  they  compose  about  eighty 
miles.  The  cattle  are  small,  and  not  exported  in  very  large  (juantities.  The  most  flourish- 
ing branch  of  industry  is  kelp,  of  which  they  yield  annually  about  2500  tons.  Barra  is 
distinguislied  for  the  industry  of  its  fishermen,  who  carry  their  cargoes  tiirough  the  Crinan 
canal  to  the  Greenock  market.  About  half  a  mile  from  the  southern  shore  is  Chisamil,  the 
castle  of  the  Macleans,  now  partly  in  ruin,  but  of  such  extent  as  to  have  been  capable  of - 
containing  .'iOO  men. 

St.  Kilda  is  the  remotest  point  of  the  Hebrides;  small  and  solitary,  far  out  in  the  Atlantic, 
whose  waves  dash  continually  against  its  perpendicular  cliffs.  It  is  about  three  miles  long, 
girt  on  all  sides  by  a  wall  of  rock,  which  at  one  point  is  about  1800  feet  high ;  Conoxlian, 

the  loftiest  hill  on  the  island,  being  tliore 
Fig.soo.   Map  of  the  Orkney  Islands.  cut  down  perpendicularly  trom  the  summit 

to  the  base.  "  Dizzy  heiglits,  from  which 
the  eye  looks  down  over  jutting  crags  ;  a 
boiling  sea  below,  without  a  boundary ; 
dark  clilfs  beaten  by  a  foaming  surge,  and 
lost  in  the  gloom  of  involving  clouds ;  the 
mixed  contest  of  rocks,  ocean,  and  sky," 
are  the  scenes  which  characterise  St. 
Kilda.  On  the  top  of  the  rocks  is  a  green 
and  somewhat  fertile  surface,  on  which  are 
fed  sheep  of  the  Norwegian  breed,  with 
short  tails  and  coarse  wool,  but  whose  mut- 
ton is  delicious;  tliere  are  a  few  cows,  and 
a  little  very  fine  bear  is  grown.  But  the 
favourite  food  of  the  natives  is  drawn  from 
the  face  of  the  perpendicular  clifl^s,  which 
in  fearful  and  dizzy  height  overhang  their 
shores.  Suspended  by  a  rope,  they  step 
fi-om  point  to  point,  and  take  the  eggs  or 
young  of  the  solan  goose,  puffin,  cormorant, 
petrel,  and  others  of  the  numerous  species 
which  breed  on  their  sides. 

The   Orkneys  form  a  group  of  about 
thirty  in  number;  but  Pomona  or  Main- 
land contains  nearly  as  much  ground  as  all 
the  rest  put  together.     Nothing   can   be 
more  irregular  than  their  form ;  the  deep 
sounds  by  which  they  are  penetrated,  and  the  narrow  straits  which  separate  them  from  each 
other,  (jause  a  complete  intermixture  of  land  and  sea.     These  straits  are  rendered  dangerous 
by  numerous  currents  and  eddies  from  the  two  oceans  which  rush  in  from  opposite  sides. 


"1  '■W<'^^'    S«"""""'  fe)*'""'..,  V 

Noup  Ud.  f?^Mm  ^.  Ronalilsav  Htll.        ''e 


Broiijrli         "''..,  I 


Hoy  lllll 


^    '"«<■/, T'^^^"!-?  jJi-* /South  RonaliUlu 


^■'"caiisl.j  Ucl. 


Kaiilj»h  Mires 


Reference  to  the  Map  of  the  Orkney 

Islands. 

NORTH  RO\- 

WESTRAY. 

2.  Kirkbiiater 

6.  Sabo 

16.  Biirgar 

2.  Bring 

ALDSHAY. 

1.  Newark 

3.  Ilulbiid. 

7.  Kirkwall 

17.  Birsa 

3.  Afr. 

1.  Hulland. 

2.  Spnon^say 

3.  I'yrawiill. 

P.  F.rlh 

18.  Mnrwick 

4.  St.  Walby. 

POMOXA  or 

9.  .>^rapa 

19.  Kirkness 

SANDAY. 

ROWS.\Y. 

MAINLAND. 

10.  VV»nk 

20.  Holoniw 

SOUTH  RON- 

1.  Tal>sm'ss 

1.  St.  Andrew's 

11.  Orphir 

21.  Pnndwick 

ALDSHAY. 

2.  Wesiside. 

2.  Sandside 

12.  Chesiron 

22.  Siromncss. 

1.  Cara 

3.  Maykirk 

3.  Mc.lm 

13.  Tnrnston 

2.  Kirk 

4.  Cross  and  Burnesa 

SIIXPIXSHAY. 

4.  Poplay 

14.  Rendall 

HOY. 

3.  Berwick 

5.  Stove. 

1.  Walliieea 

5.  GaJnip 

15.  Woodwick 

1.  Hoy 

4.  Brougli. 

Book  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


431 


Fig.  210.     Map  of  the  Shetland  Islands. 


§g^,  Lomb«  Nei 
•■'■^"Xll^rolJ.witl 


"S-'i-      t?.,  '""I/O 


ucUUSUetry 


The  Pcntland  Frith,  in  particular,  between  Orkney  and  tiie  Mainland,  is  a  most  forniidablo 
passage.  The  opposing  currents  keep  the  phannel  in  a  state  of  perpt'tual  el)ul!iti(jn,  and  produce 
at  several  points,  violent  whirlpools.  Orkney  is  in  general  low,  l)lcak,  boggy,  and  bare ;  tliougli 
its  western  islands  face  the  Atlantic  with  some  very  bold  and  rugged  elills.  About  a  twelHIi 
part  is  cultivated  in  a  rude  manner  witli  tJic  plougii;  a  somewliat  larger  portion  is  under 
regular  pasture ;  the  rest  is  moor  and  waste.  The  cattle,  thougii  small,  are  of  a  good 
breed ;  and  about  .50,000  sheep,  almost  in  a  wild  state,  roam  through  the  commons.  Tiie 
fisheries  are  not  extensive;  kelp  is  the  staple  commodity  for  export:  it  has  averaged  annu- 
ally 2500  tons,  employing  3000  men.  There  is  some  coarse  woollen,  and  of  late  there  has 
been  some  linen  manufacture.  As  most  of  the  vessels  destined  l()r  Hudson's  Bay  and  tlie 
whale  fishery,  and  many  of  tliose  which,  from  the  east  coast,  sail  to  all  parts  of  the  world, 
l)ass  by  tiie  north  of  Scotland,  the  ports  of  the  Orkneys  are  frequented,  and  u  market  is 
atlbrded  for  their  provisions. 

The  topographical  details  of  Orkney  do  not  possess  any  peculiar  attraction.     Kirkwall, 
however,  bears  marks  of  the  periods  when  it  was  a  Danisii  capital,  and  a  residence  of  the 

sovereign  Earls  of  f)rkney.  There  is 
a  large  and  massive  catiiedral,  in  some 
piirts  very  eli^gantly  onuuuented  ;  also 
ruins  of  a  king's  palace,  an  earl's  castle, 
and  a  bishop's  ])alace.  'J'ho  town  lias 
of  late  been  considerably  extended  and 
improved,  and  it  has  a  good  natural  har- 
bour. Strcjmiujss  has  one  of  the  best 
harbours  in  the  kingdom,  and  is  the 
favourite  resort  of  vessels  which  seek 
on  this  coast  fijr  shelter  and  refreshm(;nt. 
Near  Stromness  is  that  remarkable 
remnant  of  antiquity  the  "standinj'' 
stones  of  Stennis,"  wliich  in  magnitude 
and  singular  character  almost  rivals 
Stonehenge.  Shapinshay,  StroiiKay, 
Rowsay,  Eday,  Westray,  I'apa,  and 
Sanday,  are  small  islaiuls  stretching  to 
the  nortli-(!ast.  Jlurra.  a,n<l  South  U,o- 
naldshay  are  towards  (Jaithness;  and 
to  the  west  the  long  island  of  Iloy, 
which  presents  a  series  of  bold  and 
rugged  promontories. 

The  Zetland  or  Shetland  islands, 
called  by  the  natives  lliallland,  form 
one  of  the  extremities  of  l']urope,  en- 
circled by  the  illimitahle  extent  of 
the  Arctic  and  Atlantic  oceans.  Placed 
thus  far  north,  and  amid  so  wide  a 
waste  of  waters,  the  climnto  of  Zet- 
land is  cold,  bleak,  swept  by  furious 
winds,  and  deluged  by  torrents  of  rain. 
The  surface  is  rugged,  without  being 
mountainous;  it  is  everywhere  pene-_ 
trated  by  long  lagoons  witli  flat  shores, 
called  voes,  by  which  even  the  largest 
islands  are  so  inters(;cted,  that  tliore  is 
scarcely  a  spot  in  them  two  miles  distant  from  the  sea.  The  extensive  mosses,  and  the 
trunks  of  trees  dug  out  of  them,  prove  that  a  vast  expanse  was  once  covered  with  natural 
forests;  but  these  are  now  totally  eradicated,  and  the  violtmce  of  the  winds  and  sea-spray 
has  rendered  abortive  every  attempt  to  replace  them,  so  that  the  aspf;ct  of  the  country  is 
now  completely  naked,  scarcely  producing  even  a  shrub.  The  coasts  ani  peculiarly  steep, 
rocky,  and  bold,  the  rocks  being  hollowed  into  deep  caverns,  and  broken  into  precipices  and 
cliffs  of  the  most  varied  forms.  The  aspect  of  these  shores,  against  which  the  waves  of  the 
great  surrounding  ocean  dash  with  almost  perpetual  fury,  is  equally  grand  and  terrible.    Tlie 


Km  ray 
"•"'y  I. 

SAY  I. 


astov.li  !ir^j    ,ori„VjO       p,v?;.v,  . 

mi'ovi.A  .v>.* v:.. '<--•' •:  'ijir^fMr^ >i...i. 

3  Ilaveray  li.  •'^i- 


Vol"-"""  "''■  ^Shecp  Cray 


Icy  No«i 

lOl 


UNST. 
1.  Norwick 
ii.  Vi^SKiirth 
3.  New  Kirk. 

YELL. 
1  Windliouse 


References  to  tlie  Map  of  Ote  Shetland  Islands. 


2.  Olalinrry 

P.  .Iiienn 

M   Brak 

20.  Ciucndul. 

:t.  H.iiidwick 

3.  Orhilrflil 

!l.  HiTllid 

l.l.  Dim; wall 

4.  .Sli;rilir-,'M 

10.  M.ll.y 

Ifi.  I.«rwi<;k 

nimssAV 

5.  HiiiIiitIioubo 

11.  Miii-khiro 

17.  Ht.  raiil'a 

^.C.^\Xl\m 

MAINLAND. 

fi.  Deal 

1^2.  Culawick 

18.  Muywick 

2.  St.  Audrowi 

1.  Sktta 

7.  Brougb 

13.  ijundbtcnt: 

I'J  Biftuwa. 

432 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


-   Part  III. 


author  of  "  The  Pirate"  draws  a  most  lively  picture  of  these  "  deep  and  dangerous  seas  of 
the  north,  their  precipices  and  headlands,  many  hundred  feet  in  heiglit — tlieir  perilous 
straits,  and  currents,  and  eddies — long  sunken  reefs  of  rock,  over  wliich  the  vivid  ocean 
foams  and  boils, — dark  caverns,  to  whose  extremities  neitlier  man  nor  skiff  has  ever  ven- 
tured,— lonely  and  often  uninhabited  isles,  and  occasionally  the  riiins  of  ancient  northern  fast- 
nesses, dimly  seen  by  the  feeble  light  of  the  arctic  winter."  The  dangers  of  the  navigation, 
however,  are  considerably  mitigated  by  the  spacious  and  commodious  havens,  formed  by  the 
deep  bays  and  voes,  or  by  the  sounds  and  channels,  between  different  islands. 

The  Shetland  Islands  contain  about  20,000  acres  of  arable  land,  and  nearly  as  many  of 
good  meadow ;  but  this  comprises  little  more  than  a  twentieth  part  of  the  surface,  all  the 
rest  consisting  of  waste  or  common,  on  which  the  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  are  turned  out, 
to  find  pastures  as  best  they  may.  The  horses  are  of  a  very  small  size,  witli  a  huge  mane, 
but  active  and  hardy.  The  cows  are  equally  diminutive,  and  give  very  little  milk,  but  both 
the  milk  and  the  flesh  are  of  good  quality.  The  sheep  are  most  numerous  of  all,  being 
reckoned  at  seventy  or  eighty  tliousand ;  tliey  are  stunted,  like  the  other  animals,  and  tlieir 
wool  is  very  scanty  ;  but  some  of  it  is  peculiarly  fine,  affording  the  material  of  almost  tlie  only 
manufacture  of  Shetland, — tliat  of  knit  hosiery,  of  a  texture  close,  soil,  and  warm.  The 
greatest  branch  of  Shetland  industry,  however,  is  the  cod  and  ling  fishery.  All  the  coasts 
abound  with  these  fish ;  and,  within  the  last  few  years,  a  particularly  rich  and  extensive 
bank  has  been  discovered  to  the  westward.  At  the  proper  season,  fleets  of  boats  issue  from 
all  the  bays  and  voes,  to  the  haaf  or  deep  sea-fishery,  wiiicli  is  carried  on,  not  without  peril, 
at  the  distance  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  miles  from  the  coast.  The  fishermen  are  supplied 
by  the  landlords  with  boats  and  implements,  on  condition  of  their  delivering  to  them  the  fish 
at  a  stipulated  rate ;  and  as  their  farms  are  held  at  will,  they  are  in  a  state  of  vassalage 
more  complete,  perhaps,  than  any  other  class  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  annals  of  Shetland  are  Norwegian.  These  islands,  according  to  the  earliest  tradition, 
were  peopled  from  Norway.  In  the  ninth  century  they  were  conquered  by  Harold  Harfa- 
ger,  or  the  Fair-haired,  the  most  powerful  and  formidable  of  all  the  sea-kings  of  the  north. 
The  Norwegian  sway  extended  for  several  centuries  over  all  the  Scottish  islands ;  but  in 
the  Shetiands  it  was  undisputed,  till  the  cession  of  them,  along  with  those  of  Orkney,  as 
the  dowry  of  a  princess  of  Norway  married  to  James  III.,  in  the  end  of  tlie  fifteenth  century. 
Lerwick,  the  capital,  is  a  thriving  village,  ill  and  irregularly  built,  but  improving. 
„.  ^  The  opposite  island  of  Bressay  forms  Bressay 

Sound,  one  of  the  finest  harbours  in  the 
world,  and  the  rendezvous  of  all  the  vessels 
destined  for  the -north  and  the  whale  fishery 
Off  Bressay  is  the  Noss  (Jiff.  210.),  a  small 
high  island,  with  a  flat  summit,  girt  on  all 
sides  by  perpendicular  walls  of  rock.  The 
communication  with  Bressay  itself  is  main- 
tained by  strong  ropes  stretched  across,  along 
which  a  cradle  is  run,  in  which  the  pas- 
senger is  seated.  The  promontories  of  Sum- 
burgh  and  Fitfiil  Head,  at  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  Mainland,  are  also  distin- 
guished by  the  boldness  of  their  aspect  and 
the  perils  with  which  they  threaten  the  ma- 
riner. The  number  of  the  Shetiands  has 
been  variously  estimated,  according  to  the  gradations  of  islets  and  rocks  included ;  but  only 
about  forty  are  inhabited.  Of  these,  Yell,  and  Unst,  stretching  northwards  from  the  Main- 
land, are  alone  of  any  magnitude.  The  last,  though  the  most  northerly,  is  rather  the  most 
fertile  of  any,  and  distinguished  by  its  numerous  caves.  Adjacent  to  Yell  is  Fetlar ;  on  the 
east  of  the  Mainland  are  Whalsay  and  Bressay,  to  the  west,  Burray,  Housa,  Frondray,  Papa 
Stour,  Muckle  and  Little  Rooe,  all  so  close  as  to  be  little  more  than  peninsulas.  Considera- 
bly out  at  sea,  Foula,  a  small  rocky  islet,  faces  the  Atlantic,  with  high  cliffs  covered  with 
numberless  flocks  of  sea-fowl. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


Ireland  is  a  fine  extensive  island,  situated  to  the  west  of  England,  and  forming  one  of 
the  three  grand  portions  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

Sect.  1. —  General  Outline  and  Aspect. 
The  greatest  dimension  of  Ireland  is  from  Cape  Clear,  in  51°  19',  to  Malin  Head,  in  55° 
23'  N.  latitude ;  makLng  about  280  miles.     The  utmost  breadth,  if  reckoned  from  the  mos* 


Book  I.  IRELAND  433 

easterly  point  of  the  county  of  Down  (opposite  Bur  Island)  to  Dunmore  Head  in  Kerry,  will 
be  218  miles ;  but  it  is  nowhere  so  broad  under  tiie  same  parallel  of  latitude.  The  island, 
according  to  Beaufort,  contains  more  than  30,000  English  square  miles,  or  nearly  20,000,000 
acres ;  but,  till  the  survey  be  completed,  precision  on  this  subject  cannot  be  attained. 

The  surface  of  Ireland  cannot  on  the  whole  be  called  mountainous ;  its  central  districts 
composing  one  vast  plain,  which  crosses  the  kingdom  from  east  to  west.  It  is,  however, 
diversified  by  ranges  of  mountains,  superior  in  extent,  and,  with  the  exception  of  those  of 
Wales,  equal  in  elevation,  to  any  in  England.  Wicklow,  in  the  vicinity  of  Dublin,  may  be 
classed  as  an  alpine  region.  On  the  borders  of  Leinster  and  Munster,  the  Slieve-Bloom, 
the  Knockmele  Down,  and  the  Galties,  form  long  and  lofty  ranges,  commanding  an  exten- 
sive view  over  the  wide  plains  that  stretch  beneath  them.  All  these,  however,  are  much 
surpassed  by  the  extreme  south-west  county  of  Kerry,  which  presents  a  complete  chaos  of 
lofty  and.  rocky  summits.  The  most  elevated  are  those  which  enclose  the  beautiful  and 
finely  wooded  lakes  of  Killarney,  Mangerton  and  Macgillicuddy's  Reeks,  the  last  of  which 
is  considerably  more  than  3000  feet  high.  At  the  opposite  or  north-eastern  extremity  of 
Iieland,  Antrim  presents  to  the  Scottish  seas  a  barrier  of  rocky  cliffs,  less  lofty,  but  of  a 
very  bold  and  peculiar  character ;  precipitous,  and  formed  into  long  columnar  ranges ;  a 
phenomenon  which  the  Giant's  Causeway  exhibits  on  a  greater  scale  than  any  other  spot  in 
the  known  v.orld.  The  Mourne  mountains,  a  lofty  granite  range  in  the  south  of  the  county 
of  Down;  those  of  Carlingford,  which  extend  into  the  county  of  Armagh;  with  considerable 
ranges  in  Tyrone,  Derry,  and  Donegal,  may  dispute  the  pre-eminence  with  those  of  the 
south.  In  Connaught  there  are  also  some  considerable  detached  mountains,  of  which  Croagh- 
patrick  in  Mayo  has  been  reckoned  by  some  to  exceed  even  Macgillicuddy's  Reeks ;  but  Ire- 
land has  no  extended  table-lands,  like  tliose  which  cover  a  considerable  part  of  England. 
The  most  elevated  part  of  the  Bog  of  Allen,  in  that  central  point  where  the  rivers  divide, 
is  not  more  than  270  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  Sliannon  is  without  a  rival  in  the  three  kingdoms.  It  rises  far  in  the  north,  from 
Lough  Allen  in  the  province  of  Connaught,  and  has  a  course  of  170  miles,  throughout  the 
whole  of  which  it  is  more  or  less  navigable,  the  only  obstruction  which  existed  having  been 
removed.  Below  Limerick  it  expands  into  an  estuary  about  sixty  miles  in  length,  by  which 
the  largest  vessels  have  access  to  that  city.  The  Barrow  is  also  an  important  river,  which 
runs  southward  through  the  greater  part  of  Leinster,  receives  from  the  west  the  Nore  and 
the  Suire,  and  finally  forms  the  harbour  of  Waterford.  The  Boyne,  so  celebrated  for  the 
victory  gained  on  its  banks;  the  Foyle,  which,  after  passing  Londonderry,  forms  Lough 
Foyle ;  the  Bann,  wliich  passes  through  Lough  Neagh,  and  affords  a  flourishing  salmon 
fishery ;  and  the  Blackwater,  which  terminates  in  the  bay  and  port  of  Youghal,  are  also  de- 
serving of  mention.  The  other  rivers  are  rather  numerous  than  of  long  course  ;  but  they 
almost  all  terminate  in  wide  estuaries  and  loughs,  which  diffuse  through  Ireland  the  means 
of  water  communication,  and  afford  a  multiplicity  of  spacious  and  secure  harbours. 

Lakes  or  loughs  are  a  conspicuous  feature  in  Ireland,  where  this  last  name,  like  the 
similar  one  used  in  Scotland,  is  in  many  instances  applied  to  arms  of  the  sea.  Lough  Neagh 
is  the  largest  lake  in  the  United  Kingdom,  covering  nearly  100,000  acres.  Its  banks  are 
flat,  tame,  and  in  many  places  marshy  and  inundated.  Lough  Erne,  also  in  Ulster,  is 
divided  into  two  reaches,  the  united  length  of  which  is  about  thirty  miles,  while  its  circuit 
includes  a  great  variety  of  rich  and  ornamented  scenery.  Lough  Foyle,  Lough  Swilly,  and 
Belfast  Lough,  are  properly  bays.  The  Shannon  forms  several  lakes,  of  which  Lough  Ree 
is  the  principal ;  and  the  whole  of  its  course  downwards  from  Limerick  resembles  more  a 
lough  or  bay  than  a  river.  Connaught  has  several  extensive  lakes.  That  of  Killarney,  in 
tlie  south,  is  famed,  not  for  its  extent,  but  for  the  singular  grandeur  and  beauty  of  its 
shores.  A  fuller  description  of  this  and  some  others  now  mentioned  will  be  found  under  the 
local  section. 

Sect.  II. — Natural  Geography. 

The  Botany  and  Zoology  of  Ireland,  having  been  treated  under  the  head  of  England,  this 
section  ivill  be  confined  to  Geology. 

SuBSECT.  1. —  Geology  of  Ireland. 

The  geology  of  this  part  of  the  empire  is  not  so  well  known  as  that  of  Great  Britain. 
The  following  sketch  will  enable  our  readers  to  form  a  general  conception  of  the  geognos- 
ticnl  structure  of  those  parts  of  the  island  which  liave  been  already  surveyed;  viz. — 1.  North 
of  Ireland  ;  2.  Connaught  coal  district ;  3.  East  of  Ireland  ;  4.  South,  and  part  of  the  west 
of  Ireland. 

(1.)  North  of  Ireland.  This  district,  limited  by  Dundalk  Bay  on  the  south-east,  and  by  Lough 
Foyle  on  the  nortii-west,  is  marked  by  three  distinct  systems  or  groups  of  mountains,  one  of 
which  occupies  the  more  southern  counties ,  while  the  more  northern  are  divided  between 
the  two  others. 

1st  system.  Tlie  Mourne  mountains. — The  Mourne  mountains  form  a  well-defined 
Vol,  I.  37  3  E 


4dl 


MAP  OF  IRELAND. 


Fig.  211 


10        M       30        40       M       «» 
'  '  ■ 1 I  I  I 

EoglutrMilei 


^- 


9  Longitude  Weal     8     from  GreeawicU  7 


Book  I. 


IRELAND. 


4db 


group,  extending  from  Dundrum  Bay  to  Carlingford  Bay,  in  the  southern  extremity  of  Down. 
Slieve  Donard  is  the  highest  summit  of  this  group,  and  rises  about  2654  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  The  north-west  of  the  main  group,  the  Fathom  Hill,  Slieve  Girken,  or  the 
Newry  mountains,  and  Slieve  Gullen,  are  situated  in  the  south-east  of  Armagh ;  and  the 
Ravensdale  and  Carlingford  mountains,  in  the  north  of  Louth,  may  be  considered  as  its  ap- 
pendages. Granite,  which  is  the  prevailing  rock  of  these  mountains,  contains  beautiful 
rock  crystals,  also  felspar  and  mica  crystals,  topaz  and  beryl.  To  the  north  of  the  Mourne 
mountains  Slieve  Croob,  composed  of  syenite,  and  Slieve  Anisky,  of  hornblende  rock,  form 
an  elevated  tract,  dependent  upon,  but  placed  at  some  distance  from,  the  main  group.  Horn- 
blende rock,  greenstone,  and  porphyry  are  said  to  be  abundant  on  the  skirts  of  this  granite  dis- 
trict. The  Plutonian  granite  and  syenite  hills  rise  through  strata  of  transition  rocks,  which 
are  greywacke,  greywacke  slate,  transition  clay  slate,  and  transition  limestone.  The  Plu- 
tonian rocks  bear  but  a  small  proportion  in  superficial  extent  to  those  of  the  transition  class, 
the  latter  advancing  west  and  north  into  Cavan,  and  to  Belfast  Lough  and  the  peninsula  of 
Ards.  The  points  of  the  coast  of  Scotland,  directly  opposite  the  peninsula  of  Ards,  present  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Portpatrick,  and  through  the  great  alpine  band  which  traverses  the 
south  of  Scotland,  and  terminates  on  the  east  coast  of  St.  Abb's  Head,  the  same  transition 
rocks.  Hence  it  is  probable  that  the  great  southern  high  land  of  Scotland  was  formerly 
joined  with  the  transition  hills  of  the  Mourne  mountain  group  by  a  ridge  of  land  extending 
across  the  Channel  from  Scotland  to  Ireland.  In  this  district,  there  are  some  patches  of 
mountain  limestone  and  of  old  red  sandstone. 

2d  system.  Primitive  chain  of  Londonderry. — This  mountain  group  rises  at  the  distance 
of  about  30  miles  to  the  north-north-west  of  the  external  chains  of  the  first  system,  including 
the  counties  of  Londonderry  and  Donegal.  One  of  the  highest  points  in  this  district  is  Sawell, 
said  to  be  2257  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  This  great  tract  of  country  is  principally 
composed  of  mica  slate,  with  various  subordinate  beds,  as  limestone,  quartz,  &c.  On  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  Roe,  these  mica  slate  hills  and  mountains  are  succeeded  by  a  range  of 
secondary  hills  covered  by  a  great  platform  of  secondary  trap,  and  forming  a  part  of  the 
third  system  of  hills,  afterwards  to  be  described.     These  newer  rocks  repose  upon  and  con- 


References  to  the  Map  of  Ireland. 


NORTH  PART. 

1.  Nuwlonglens 

2.  BnllycasUe 

3.  Clough 

4.  Rasharkan 

5.  Ballymany 
C.  Oileraine 

7.  Garvagli 

8.  Giant's  Sconce 

9.  Rallvkelly 

10.  McifT 

11.  Ballynally 

12.  Malm 

13.  Cam 

14.  Burnfoot 

15.  Osnakill 

16.  Raihtnull'm 
1";  nortyhuck 

18.  Duimlrje 

19.  Convoy 

20.  Siranorlan 

21.  Raphoe 

2i.  Londonderry 

23.  I,iff..nl 

24.  S>ral.ane 

25.  Clarty 

26.  Maghera 

27.  Swatteragh 

28.  Kella 

29.  Glenarm 

30.  Ballycorry 

31.  Carrickfergua 

32.  Crumlln 

33.  Antrim 

34.  Randaistown 
3.5.  Monpymore 

36.  Cookslown 

37.  Frederickstown 

38.  Newton  Stewart 

39.  Be.sebpll 

40.  Vers  Bridge 

41.  Ardrca 

42.  Tillen 

43.  Killybega 

44.  I  liver 

45.  Donegal 

46.  Ballyshannon 

47.  Garrison 

48.  Churchill 

49.  Ca.ssidy 

50.  Kpsh 

51.  Omagh 

52.  Glr.ghemy 

53.  Ballygawley 

54.  Klackwaler 

55.  Dungannon 

56.  Kingijmills 
.57.  Mazo 

58.  Belfast 
5D.  Holywood 


60.  Donaghadee 

61.  Gray  Abbey 

62.  Portaferry 

63.  Downpatrick 

64.  Killinchy 
6.5.  Hillsborough 

66.  Dundrum 

67.  Rathl'nland    • 

68.  Loughbrick- 

land 

69.  Lurgan 

70.  Armagh 

71.  Newtown  Ha- 

milion 

72.  Monaghan 

73.  Augher 

74.  (^logher 

75.  Five  Mile 

Town 

76.  Donough 

77.  Lisnaskea 

78.  Callowhill 

79.  Enniskillen 

80.  Largay 

81.  Stridock 

82.  Sligo 

83.  Dunatra 

84.  Bunro 
8.5.  Killala 

86.  Balliglass 

87.  Inver 

88.  Clogan 

89.  Ballina 

90.  Foxford 

91.  Swineford 

92.  Balcarra 

93.  Ballymote 

94.  Leitrim 

95.  Ballingmore 

96.  Belturbet 

97.  Cavan 

98.  Drum 

99.  Ballybav 

100.  Castle  Blaney 

101.  .Innesboro 

102.  Newry 

103.  Narrow  Water 

104.  Kilkeel 
10.5.  Carlingford 
lOR.  Dundalk 

107.  Louth 

108.  Lurgan 

109.  Ciogher 

110.  T.advrath 

111.  Nobber 

112.  Moynally 

113.  Ballyborough 

114.  Plradone 

115.  Bally  Jamesdu 

116.  Roesduff 


117.  .lameslown 

118.  Elphin 

119.  Carrickon 

Shannon 

120.  Tulsk 

121.  Ballyhadireen 

122.  Ballihaunts 

123.  Kilkelly 

124.  Kilcolman 
125   Beartree 

126.  Ballinvary 

127.  Newport 

128.  Castlebar 

129.  Weslport 
IHO.  Killery 
131.  Claggan 
V.fi.  Bunowen 

133.  Cong 

134.  Bailinrobe 

135.  Hollymount 

136.  Kilmainmore 

137.  Blenwell 

138.  Dunmore 

139.  Glanamoddy 

140.  Ballintober 

141.  Roscommon 

142.  Tarmanbarry 

143.  Longford 

144.  Kenagh 

145.  Edgsworlhs- 

town 

146.  .Johnstown 

147.  Miillingar 

148.  Clonmellon 

149.  Trim 

1.50.  Summerhill   • 

151.  Navan 

152.  Skryno 

1.53.  Drogheda 

1.54.  Naut 
155.  Sword3 

SOUTH  PART. 

1.  Kilkerran 

2.  Inveran 

3.  Sunna 

4.  Killameen 

5.  Gal  way 

6.  Headford 

7.  Beldare 

8.  Athenry 

9.  Monivia 

10.  Tuam 

11.  Castle  Blackncy 

12.  Rallinasloe 

13.  Ballinamore 

14.  Knockroughry 

15.  Alhlone 

16.  Mayalown 


17.  Moat  aGrenogue 

18.  Ballimore 

19.  Philipslown 

20.  Tyrrel's  Pass 

21.  Ballydemot 

22.  Longwood 

23.  Cloncurry 

24.  Clane 

25.  Maynooth 

26.  Raloath 

27.  Rathcoole 

28.  Dublin 

29.  Killgobbin 

30.  Inniskerry 
31.\Vicklow 

32.  Donard 

33.  Blessington 

34.  Naas 

3.5.  Old  Kilcullen 

36.  Kildare 

37.  Portarlineton 

38.  Mountmelick 

39.  Birr 

40.  BaiiL'hpr 

41.  Eyr,-  Curt 

42.  Potlumnu 

43.  Aughrim 

44.  Loughrea 

45.  Carnamart 

46.  Gort 

47.  Killany 

48.  Killfenora 

49.  Innislyraon 

50.  Knnia 

51.  Clare 

52.  Talla 

53.  Scarriff 

54.  Killaloe 

55.  Nenagh 

56.  Burresakan 
.57.  Roscrea 

58.  Raihdowny 

59.  BallynakiU 

60.  Maryborough 
61.y\thy 

62.  Carlow 

63.  Stratford 

64.  Baltinelass 
6.5.  Ralhville 

66.  Tinchely 

67.  Ralhdiura 
fy'.  Arklow 

69.  Gorey 

70.  P"erns 

71.  rionegall 

72.  Burris 

73.  Old  Leighhn 

74.  Kilkenny 

75.  Urlingford 


Killenaule 

Burrisleagh 

Toomevara 

Silver  Mine 

Newport 

Limerick 

Bridgetown 

Six  Mile  Bridge 

Paradise 

Clanderlagh 

Kilrush 

Dnnbegg 

Ballyheigh 

Lixnaw 

Millstreet 

Ballylongford 

Listowell 

Ahbyreale 

Glynn 

Ardagh 

Askiaton 

Kiddogh 

Brures 

Patrick's  Well 

Bruft 

Cullcn 

Tipperary 

Cappagh 

Golden  Bridge 

Cashel 

Feihard 

Ballypatrick 

Knocktopher 

Tnnittioge 

Thomaslon 

New  Ross 

Enniscorthy 

Killane 

Rallymartin 

Tagnmon 

Wexford 

Duncornuck 

CInnmines 

Whitcchurch 

Walerford 

Kilmacow 

Kilmacthomas 

Clonmel 

Ballynamult 

Cahir 

Ballypnreen 

Aragiin 

Kilwnrth 

Ballyhooly 

Doneraile 

Mallow 

Liscarrol 

Newmarket 

Caa  Island 


135.  Abbey  Odorne 

136.  Tralee 
337.  Lispole 

138.  Dingle 

139.  Cahir 

140.  Aghart 

141.  Glanliagh 

142.  Milltown 

143.  Kenmare 

144.  Killarney 

145.  Shinagh 

146.  Mill  Street 

147.  Macromp 

148.  Cork 

149.  Fermoy 

150.  R.atcormuck 

151.  Lismore 

1.52.  Dungarvan 

1.53.  Agliah 
154.  Youghal 
1.55.  Clnyne 

156.  Carlisle  Fort 

1.57.  Passage 

1.58.  Camden  Fort 
159.  Kinsale 

ifiO.  Innishannon 

161.  Inchigeelagh 

162.  Dunmanaway 

163.  Glengarr 

164.  Gariiiisb 
16.5.  Banlry 

166.  Dunmanus 

167.  Ballimore 

168.  Skibbereen 

169.  Leap 

170.  Timoleague 

Rivers,  cj-e. 
a  Foyle,  R. 
b  Bann,  R. 
c  Mayola,  R. 
d  Newry  Canal 
e  Boyne,  R. 
f  Liffcy,  R. 
g  Slaney,  R. 
h  Barrow,  R. 
i    Nore,  R. 
i  Suire.  R. 
k  Blackwater,  R 
1    Lee,  R. 
mBandon.  R. 
n  Flesk,  R. 
o  Shannon,  R. 
p  Carnamart,  R. 
q  Moync,  R. 
r   Suck,  R. 
B  Moy,  R. 
t   Deel,  R. 
u  Munree,  R. 


436  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

ceal  the  mica  slate  in  the  eastern  part  of  Derry,  but  the  mica  slate  again  emerges  from 
beneath  this  covering,  after  an  interval  of  about  30  miles,  on  the  north-cast  coast  of  Antrim, 
and  rises  into  hills,  which  break  down  abruptly  towards  the  coast  between  Tor  Pomt  and 
Cushenden  Bay.  The  mica  slate  rocks  on  this,  part  of  the  Irish  coast  may  be  considered  a 
continuation  of  those  that  occur  on  the  opposite  coast  of  Scotland  at  the  Mull  of  Cantyre, 
or,  on  a  more  general  view,  as  a  continuation  of  the  great  Grampian  range,  which  may,  in 
this  way,  be  said  to  extend  from  the  north-east  coast  of  Scotland  to  the  western  shores  of 
Ireland,  on  the  coasts  of  Donegal.  In  the  eastern  part  of  Tyrone,  which  intervenes 
between  the  transition  mountains  and  the  mica  slate  mountains,  a  coal  formation  occurs 
associated  with  that  kind  of  limestone  which  is  usually  found  below  coal  in  Great  Britain. 
The  position  of  this  coalfield  offers  another  analogy  with  Scotland,  where  the  space  between 
the  southern  and  northern  mountains  is  principally  occupied  by  rocks  of  the  coal  formation. 

3d  system  of  mountains.  The  Trap  group. — This  group  may  be  described  as  separated 
into  two  chains,  bounding  on  the  east  and  west  the  trough  or  valley  through  which  the  river 
Bann  flows  from  Lough  Neagh  to  the  ocean.  The  eastern  chain  lies  in  the  county  of  An- 
trim, being  comprehended  between  the  valley  of  the  Bann  and  the  North  channel.  It  pre- 
sents an  abrupt  declivity  towards  the  sea,  falling  with  a  gentle  slope  towards  the  west,  in 
which  direction  the  beds  composing  its  mass  incline.  Knock-lead,  in  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  chain,  is  the  highest  summit :  it  rises  1820  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  but  the 
basis  of  this  hill  is  occupied  to  the  height  of  500  feet  by  primitive  mica  slate  rock,  leaving 
only  1320  feet  for  the  thickness  of  the  secondary  strata  peculiar  to  this  system.  Diris  Hill, 
near  the  southern  extremity  of  the  chain,  is  wholly  composed  of  secondary  strata,  and 
attains  an  elevation  of  1475  feet.  The  western  part  of  the  chain  included  between  the 
Roe  and  the  Bann  forms  the  e.xact  counterpart  of  the  former ;  but  the  strata  here  dip  nearly 
in  a  contrary  direction,  viz.  towards  the  north-east;  the  fall  of  the  hills  being  gradually  in 
this  direction,  while  they  front  the  west  and  south  with  abrupt  and  precipitous  cliffs.  Crag- 
nashoack,  at  the  southern  extremity,  rises  1864  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  the  highest  sum- 
mit of  the  group.  The  geological  nature  of  this  third  system  is  very  different  from  that  of 
the  two  former;  all  the  principal  formations  belonging  to  the  secondary  class  of  rocks. 
These  rocks  are  partly  Plutonian  and  partly  JVeptunian.  The  Neptunian  rocks  are  gene- 
rally covered  with  an  enormous  mass  of  secondary  trap,  which  appears  to  attain  its  greatest 
thickness  on  the  north ;  the  trap  cap  of  Beny-Avenagh,  the  most  northern  summit  of  the 
western  chain.  Tneasuring  more  than  900  feet :  the  average  depth  of  this  superimposed  mass 
may  therefore  be  "estimated  at  545  feet,  and  its  superficial  extent  at  800  square  miles.  The 
trap  rocks  are  greenstone,  basalt,  amygdaloid,  wacke,  and  red  bole  ;  occasionally  associated 
with  them,  forming  isolated  tracts,  as  in  the  Sandybrea  district,  there  are  porphyries  of  dif- 
ferent kinds,  as  pitchstone  and  pearl-stone  porphyries.  The  amygdaloid  and  also  some  of 
the  other  rocks  of  this  series  contain  calc  spar  and  white  calcedony,  semiopal,  felspar,  and 
steatite,  or  serpentine.  The  basalt  contains  olivine.  Iron  pyrites  is  a  mineral  frequently 
disseminated  in  the  greenstone.  Wood  coal  occurs  in  seams  varying  from  two  inches  to 
four  or  five  feet  in  thickness,  alternating  with  trap  rocks,  near  Ballentoy ;  also  in  the  cliffs 
of  Fortnofler  on  the  east  of  the  Giant's  Causeway,  at  Killymoris  near  the  centre  of  the  trap 
area,  and  at  Portmaoc,  and  other  places  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Lough  Neagh. 

Veins  of  trap.  Trap  veins  exhibit  many  interesting  phenomena,  particularly  in  their  pas- 
sage through  chalk,  which  they  sometimes  convert  into  a  kind  of  marble.  They  traverse 
not  only  the  Neptunian  strata,  as  chalk,  lias,  and  coal  formation,  but  also  trap  itself  The 
most  interesting  and  splendid  displays  of  the  trap  rocks  occur  at  the  Giant's  Causeway  and 
Fairhead,  so  well  known  to  travellers ;  and  the  cliffs  of  Kenbaan  exhibit  very  interesting 
displays  of  the  commingling  of  the  trap  and  chalk. 

Underneath  and  sometimes  intermingled  with  this  vast  mass  of  trap  are  the  following 
Neptunian  formations : — Chalk,  which  is  frequently  very  compact,  and  sometimes,  as  where 
in  immediate  contact  with  the  Plutonian  rocks,  changed  into  a  granular  limestone  resem- 
bling marble :  the  average  thickness  does  not  amount  to  more  than  200  feet.  Underneath 
the  chalk  occurs  the  deposit  known  under  the  name  mulatto  stone,  the  green  sand  of  Eng- 
lish geologists,  lying  upon  the  lias  limestone.  Underneath  the  lias  occur  beds  of  red  and 
variegated  marl,  variegated  sandstone  with  gypsum,  and  from  these  issue  salt  springs. 
These  four  formations,  which,  together  with  the  trap,  form  the  whole  mass  of  the  hills 
belonging  to  the  third  system,  cannot  be  estimated  as  possessing  a  less  average  thickness 
than  from  800  to  1000  feet.  The  whole  system  appears  at  the  north-eastern  and  south- 
western extremities  to  repose  upon  the  coal  formation  and  its  accompanying  rocks,  and 
these  on  the  transition  or  primitive  rocks.*  Coal  occurs  in  Tyrone,  at  Coal  Island  and  i)un- 
gannon,  and  in  Antrim,  near  Ballycastle.  Of  these,  the  collieries  at  Ballycastle,  which 
occupy  an  extent  of  not  less  than  one  English  mile  along  the  coast,  are  the  most  considerable. 
They  have  been  long  wrought,  and  were  once  in  a  more  prosperous  state  than  at  present,  as 

*  Patches  of  old  red  sandstone  occur  on  the  east  coast  between  Ballygelly  and  Glenarm  Bay;  and  also  on  tlj* 
same  coast  to  the  southward  of  Gerron  Point. 


Book  I.  IRELAND.  437 

they  used  formerly  to  send  from  10,000  to  15,000  tons  of  coal  to  the  market  yearly ;  whereas 
now  the  quantity  exported  does  not  amount  to  more  than  1500  or  2000  tons.  The  coal  of 
these  districts  is  almost  entirely  what  Berger  calls  slate  coal.  In  one  of  the  works,  how- 
ever, in  Coal  Island,  a  bed  of  cannel  coal,  six  feet  thick,  is  said  to  have  been  wrought. 

The  most  remarkable  minerals  of  the  alluvial  kind  found  in  this  part  of  Ireland  are  the 
fossil  woods  of  Lough  Neagh,  a  sheet  of  water  132  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  about 
nineteen  miles  six  furlongs  long  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.,  and  forty-five  feet  deep  at  its  centre. 
The  wood  is  silicified,  and  in  some  specimens  one  extremity  will  be  petrified,  while  the  other 
remains  in  a  ligneous  state.  The  oak,  the  holly,  and  the  hazel  appear  to  have  been  the 
trees  thus  aifected.     It  occurs  in  alluvium  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  lake. 

(2.)  Connaught  Coal  District.  This  district  occupies  a  portion  of  the  counties  of  Ros- 
common, Sligo,  and  Leitrim,  in  the  province  of  Connaught,  and  part  of  the  county  Cavan  in 
the  province  of  Ulster.  Lough  Allen,  situated  near  the  head  of  the  river  Shaimon,  forms  a 
basin  in  the  centre  of  the  district. 

A  range  of  primary  mountains,  varying  in  breadth  from  three  miles  to  a  quarter  of  a  mile, 
extends  from  Foxford  in  the  county  of  Slayo,  to  Colooney  in  the  county  of  Sligo,  and  ter- 
minates two  miles  to  the  north-east  of  Manor-Hamilton,  which  may  be  viewed  as  the  base 
on  which  the  newer  formation  of  this  part  of  Ireland  rests.  This  range  of  country  is  prin- 
cipally composed  of  mica  elate,  with  some  subordinate  rocks.  Benbo  Mountain,  near  Manor- 
Hamilton,  1403  feet  above  the  sea,  may  be  cited  as  exhibiting  an  interesting  display  of  the 
various  primitive  rocks.  The  summit,  and  about  800  feet  immediately  below  it,  are  com- 
posed of  a  fine  granular  granite :  the  granite  is  covered  on  both  sides  of  the  mountain  with 
gneiss,  dipping  in  the  direction  of  its  declivity  at  an  angle  of  50°.  At  the  base  of  the 
mountain,  mica  slate,  with  garnets,  hornblende  rock  and  hornblende  slate,  are  seen.  Large 
blocks  of  beautiful  syenite,  also  of  serpentine  with  embedded  garnets,  were  found  in  a  stream 
at  tJic  base  of  the  mountain  near  Lurganboy.  The  western  side  of  Benbo  is  traversed  by  a 
vein  of  copper  pyrites,  which  was  formerly  wrought,  but  apparently  to  no  great  extent. 
Veins  of  iron  pyrites  also  occur  there. 

Resting  upon  these  old  rocks  in  many  places,  we  observe  the  first  or  old  red  sandstone 
formation.  A  tract  of  this  sandstone  extends  in  Roscommon  from  west  to  east,  from  Derry- 
naslieve  to  Cashcarrigans,  and  in  greatest  breadth  in  a  southerly  and  northerly  direction, 
from  Leitrim  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Drumshambo.  Resting  upon  this  sandstone,  forming 
the  base  of  the  coal  district,  and  encircling  it,  is  the  mountain  or  carboniferous  limestone. 
This  limestone  exhibits  the  usual  character  of  the  formations.  The  coal  formation  rests 
upon  the  limestone,  and  is  the  uppermost  or  newest  of  the  secondary  deposits  met  with  in 
this  part  of  Ireland.  The  external  aspect  of  this  coal  district  is  described  as  being  hilly 
and  dreary,  and  as  extending  in  greatest  length  in  a  north  and  south  direction,  from  Down 
Mountain  to  Keddue,  about  sixteen  miles,  and  in  greatest  breadth  from  the  hills  above  Svvad- 
linbar  to  Killargy,  sixteen  miles.  The  area  of  the  whole  coal  country  within  the  edge  of 
the  limestone  is  about  114,000  Irish  acres;  exclusive  of  Slieve  Russel,  which  is  detached 
from  the  great  district  by  the  limestone  valley  of  Swadlinbar.  The  rocks  which  form  the 
coral  series  in  the  Connaught  coal  district  are  similar  to  those  met  with  in  other  coalfields. 
Besides  coal,  which  is  the  black  hiluminoiis  species,  the  formation  contains  sandstone  flag, 
elate  clay,  bituminous  slate,  clay  ironstone,  and  fire  clay.  Some  kinds  of  the  coal  afford  in 
the  100  parts,  71.42  carbon,  23.37  bitumen,  and  5.21  gray  ashes.  Iron-works.  The  beds 
of  clay  ironstone  that  occur  in  all  parts  of  the  Connaught  coal  district  appear,  at  an  early 
period,  to  have  attracted  the  attention  of  miners ;  and  works,  on  a  small  scale,  called 
bloomeries,  were  carried  on  in  various  parts  of  the  adjoining  country,  as  long  as  any  wood 
remained  to  supply  them  with  charcoal,  but  they  have  since  been  given  up. 

(3.)  East  of  Ireland.  This  district  extends  nearly  100  miles  from  north  to  south,  and 
between  sixty  and  ninety  miles  from  east  to  west,  comprehending  about  a  third  part  of  the 
island.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Irish  Channel,  on  the  south  and  west  by  the  moun- 
tains which  confine  the  Suire  and  the  Shannon,  and  on  the  north  by  the  clay  slate  hills  of 
Louth  and  the  mountain  limestone  hills  of  Meath,  the  clay  slate  hills  of  Cavan  and  the 
mountain  limestone  of  Longford,  and  by  a  line  produced  from  thence  to  tlie  bay  of  Galway. 
In  the  landscape  of  Ireland  there  is  one  very  remarkable  feature,  which  cannot  fail  to  strike 
every  observer :  in  traversing  most  parts  of  the  island,  we  meet  with  ranges  and  groups  of 
bold  mountainous  and  hilly  tracts,  in  some  degree  isolated,  while  the  interval  between  them 
is  generally  occupied  by  a  surface  that  appears  nearly  level,  when  viewed  on  the  great  scale, 
but  which  is  found,  on  a  nearer  view,  to  present  a  gently  waved  outline :  a  considerable 
expansion  of  the  plain  occupies  the  central  counties  of  Ireland,  and  extends  across  the  island 
from  Dublin  Bay  on  the  east,  to  Galway  Bay  on  tlie  west;  and  in  genera],  where  a  similar 
plain  surface  occurs,  the  immediately  subjacent  rock  is  mountain  limestone ;  to  the  abund- 
ance of  which  mineral,  next  to  the  mild  temperature  and  general  moisture  of  the  climate, 
the  soil  of  Ireland  is  probably  more  indebted  for  its  superior  fertility  than  to  any  other  cause 

In  this  district  mountainous  and  hilly  tracts  arise  above  the  surface  of  the  limestone  plain, 
on  the  east,  the  south,  the  west,  the  centre,  and  the  north.     The  eastern  chain  extends  from 

37* 


438  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

the  north  side  of  Dublin  Bay  to  tlie  confluence  of  the  Barrow  with  the  Suire  on  the  south. 
The  highest  point  is  Lugnaquilla,  which  is  3070  feet  above  low-water-mark  in  Dublin  Bay. 
It  consists  almost  wholly  of  primitive  and  transition  rocks,  of  which  the  following  species 
occur:  granite,  mica  slate,  quartz  rock,  clay  slate,  greywacke,  trap  and  porpiiyry.  Metalli- 
ferous minerals  are  wanting  on  the  west  side  of  the  granite  cliain,  but  abound  on  the  east 
side.  In  the  granite  and  mica  slate  districts  there  are  veins  of  galena  or  lead  glance  ;  of 
these  the  most  considerable  are  in  Glenmalur;  in  the  clay  slate  tract  eleven  different 
metallic  substances  have  been  met  with,  viz.  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  lead,  zinc,  tin,  tung- 
sten, manganese,  arsenic,  and  antimony. 

Native  gold  occurs  in  the  Ballinvalley  streams  at  Croghan  Kinshela:  and  in  1801,  regular 
mining  was  commenced,  but  did  not  lead  to  any  important  results;  and  after  a  time  the  working 
was  given  up.  The  gold  of  Croghan  Kinshela  occurred  in  grains  and  masses  from  the  smallest 
size  to  lumps  of  considerable  weight;  one  piece  weighed  twenty-two  ounces.  The  gold  was 
found  in  alluvium,  accompanied  with  other  metallic  substances,  as  magnetic  iron  ore,  iron 
glance,  red  iron  ore,  brown  iron  ore,  iron  pyrites,  tinstone,  wolfram,  gray  manganese  ore,  and 
fragments  of  quartz  and  chlorite.  In  some  specimens  the  gold  was  observed  ramilied  in  slen- 
der threads  through  the  wolfram,  and  in  others  incorporated  with  iron  ochre:  some  of  the  gold 
was  crystallized  in  octaliedrons,  and  also  in  the  elongated  garnet  dodecahedral  form.  Native 
gold  was  also  found  in  Croghan  Moira  mine,  about  seven  miles  distant  from  the  former 
mountain,  but  in  small  quantity. 

The  copper  mines  of  Cronbane  and  Tigrony,  in  this  district,  are  situated  in  clay  slate  and 
quartzose  clay  slate.  The  ores,  which  are  copper  pyrites  and  black  copper  ore,  are  asso- 
ciated with  iron  pyrites,  and  rarely  with  galena ;  and  auriferous  silver  occurs  in  beds  in  the 
slaty  strata.  In  the  twelve  years  ending  in  1811,  the  produce  of  the  mines  was  19,342  tons 
13  cwt.  of  ore;  yielding  1046  tons  10  cwt.  of  copper.  The  mineral  waters  flowing  from 
the  mines  are  impregnated  with  blue  vitriol  or  sulphate  of  copper.  These  waters  are  re- 
ceived into  tanks,  in  which  the  muddy  particles  are  allowed  to  subside.  The  clear  waters 
are  then  passed  into  pits  filled  with  plate  and  scrap  iron,  which  occasions  a  precipitation  of 
the  copper. 

The  other  tracts  of  this  district  are  composed  of  secondary  rocks,  more  or  less  deeply 
covered  with  diluvial  and  alluvial  deposits.  The  secondary  rocks  are  old  red  sandstone, 
mountain  limestone,  (or  as  it  is  called  in  Ireland,  Irish  limestone,)  and  the  coal  formation. 
Of  these  formations  the  mountain  limestone  is  by  far  the  most  abundant;  indeed",  with  the 
exception  of  the  counties  of  Derry  and  Antrim  in  the  north,  and  Wicklow  in  the  east,  there 
is  no  county  in  the  island  in  which  it  does  not  prevail  more  or  less.  The  coal  formation 
occurs  in  the  Leinster  coal  district.  The  sandstone,  slate,  ironstone,  clay,  and  coal,  which 
constitute  the  series,  alternate  with  each  other,  and  the  whole  rests  on  the  mountain  lime- 
stone, and  is  frequently  disposed  in  the  basin  shape.  The  coal  of  this  district  is  glance  coal, 
the  blind  coal  of  miners,  the  anthracite  of  French  geologists,  the  Kilkenny  coal  of  some 
authors  (so  named  because  the  town  of  Kilkenny  is  situated  in  this  coalfield). 

The  most  interesting  alluvial  phenomena  are  those  exhibited  by  the  limestone  gravel,  the 
granite  blocks,  and  the  vast  peat  bogs.  The  great  limestone  field  abounds  in  hillocks  and  ridges 
of  limestone  gravel.  Sometimes  these  ridges  appear  like  regular  mounds,  the  work  of  art, 
formmg  a  continued  line  of  several  miles  in  e.xtent.  That  which  passes  by  Maryborough, 
in  the  Queen's  County,  is  a  remarkable  instance  of  this  kind ;  and  similar  mounds,  hillocks, 
and  ridges  occur  also  in  the  counties  of  Meath,  Westmeath,  Kildare,  Carlow,  and  other  por- 
tions of  the  limestone  field,  in  which  the  limestone  gravel  and  sand  frequently  exhibit  a 
stratified  arrangement,  the  alternate  beds  being  very  distinct  from  each  other.  The  in- 
equality of  surface  thus  produced,  seems  to  have  occasioned  the  formation  of  those  extensive 
tracts  of  peat  bog  which  cover  so  considerable  a  portion  of  the  limestone  plain  of  Ireland.* 
The  natural  course  of  springs  and  streams  being  obstructed,  stagnant  lakes  and  pools  of 
water  were  formed ;  thus  promoting  the  growth  of  those  aquatic  reeds,  grasses,  and  rushes, 
which,  by  their  constant  increase  and  decay,  appear  to  compose  the  mass  of  the  bogs  of  Ire- 
land. In  this  manner  it  is  conceivable  that  shallow  lakes  may  in  process  of  time  have 
become  entirely  filled  with  peat ;  and  that  peat  bogs  may  thus  have  gradually  acquired  a 
convexity  of  surface,  or  at  least  that  greater  declivity  by  which  their  borders  are  dis- 
tinguished. The  average  depth  of  these  bogs  is  commonly  from  sixteen  to  twenty -five  feet, 
but  the  extreme  depth  observed  is  forty-seven  feet.  In  the  same  manner  we  may  conceive 
the  gradual  growth  of  peat  bog  to  have  successively  extended  from  the  higher  regions  to 
the  flanks,  and  thence  to  the  feet,  of  mountains.  That  fallen  forests  were  not  the  primary 
origin  of  these  peat  bogs  seems  evident  from  the  circumstance  that  two  and  even  three  suc- 
ce.ssive  growths  of  trees  have  been  observed  at  diflerent  depths  in  a  section  of  the  same  bog. 
In  these  instances,  the  trees  lie  horizontally,  frequently  crossing  each  other,  and  either 
attached  to  their  roots  or  broken  over ;  and  in  the  latter  case  the  stumps  usually  stand  erect 
where  they  grew.     The  prostration  of  trees,  however,  may  to  a  certain  extent  have  acted 

*Peat  is  estimated  to  extend  over  a  tenth  of  the  whole  island. 


Book  1.  IRELAND  439 

as  an  auxiliary  in  promoting'  the  growth  of  peat  bogs ;  and  this  prostration  appears  in  general 
to  have  taken  place  either  from  natural  decay,  or  from  trees  possessing  little  hold  of  a  wet 
spongy  soil  having  been  overturned  by  storms.  This  may  partly  account  for  trees  of  all  ages 
being  found  in  the  bogs  of  Ireland,  whether  these  bogs  be  situated  in  plains,  or  form  the  im- 
mediate cover  of  high  mountain  tracts.  The  universal  destruction  of  the  forests  of  Ireland 
is  principally  to  be  attributed  to  the  general  introduction  of  iron  furnaces,  as  the  most  profit- 
able mode  of  consuming  the  timber,  then  a  material  esteemed  of  little  value  ;  and  hence  the 
almost  total  neglect  of  copsing  those  tracts  in  which  the  woods  had  been  felled.  Tlie  marl 
beds,  so  frequently  met  with  in  these  peat  bogs,  are  curious  in  a  zoological  view,  from  their 
occasionally  containing  remains  of  that  splendid  animal  the  fossil  elk.  But  the  remains  of 
the  extinct  species  occur  also  in  the  gravel ;  and  the  late  Mr.  Edgeworth  observed  the  re- 
mains of  the  red  deer  in  the  same  marl  as  that  which  contained  the  extinct  species. 

(4.)  South  of  Ireland.  Under  this  division  we  comprise  the  counties  of  Cork,  Kerry, 
Clare,  Waterford,  Tipperary,  and  part  of  Galway. 

This  mountainous,  hilly,  and  diversified  region  is  chiefly  composed  of  chains  having 
generally  a  direction  from  east  to  west,  and  attaining  their  greatest  elevation  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Kerry,  where  Gurrane  Tual,  one  of  Macgillicuddy's  Reeks,  near  Killarney  (the 
highest  land  in  Ireland),  is  3410  feet  above  the  sea.  The  rocks  in  this  elevated  county  are 
chiefly  of  the  transition  class :  they  decline  gradually  towards  the  north,  and  finally  pass 
under  the  old  red  sandstone  and  mountain  limestone  of  the  midland  counties.  The  follow- 
ing may  be  considered  a  general  estimate  of  the  geognostical  relations  of  the  south  of 
Ireland : — 

Transition  rocks.  In  Kerry,  the  transition  strata  range  from  east  to  west,  and  dip  to  the 
north  and  south,  with  vertical  beds  in  the  axes  of  the  ranges :  the  strata,  as  they  diminish 
in  inclination  on  each  side,  form  a  succession  of  troughs.  The  rocks  are  chiefly  Neptunian, 
the  Plutonian  being  comparatively  rare.  The  Neptunian  are  either  simple  or  compound ; 
the  simple  are  clay  slate,  quartz  rock,  hornstone,  Lydian  stone,  and  limestone :  the  com- 
pound are,  greywacke,  greywacke  slate,  sandstone.  The  Plutonian  rocks  are  greenstone 
and  porphyry.  Organic  remains  occur  in  the  limestone,  slate,  and  greywacke,  but  more 
frequently  and  abundantly  in  the  limestone  than  in  the  other  rocks.  In  Kenmare  these 
fossils  consist  of  a  few  bivalves,  and  some  crinoidal  remains;  and  these  also  are  most 
numerous  in  the  Mucruss  and  Killarney  limestones.  At  the  foot  of  the  Slievemeesh  range 
this  limestone  includes  asaphus  caudatus,  calamine  macrophthalma,  with  orthoceratites, 
ellipsolites  ovatus,  ammonites,  euomphalites,  turbinites,  neritites,  melanites,  and  several 
species  of  terebratula,  spirifer,  and  producta.  Near  Smerwick  harbour  similar  organic  re- 
mains are  abundant  in  slate  and  greywacke,  together  with  hysterolites,  and  many  genera  of 
polyparia. 

Transition  coal.  All  the  coal  of  the  province  of  Munster,  except  that  of  the  county  of 
Clare,  is  referable  to  the  transition  class.  At  Knockasartnet,  near  Killarney,  and  on  the 
north  of  Tralee,  there  are  three  beds  of  glance  coal,  alternating  with  strata  of  greywacke 
and  slate.  In  the  county  of  Cork  this  glance  coal  is  more  abundant,  particularly  near 
Kanturk,  extending  from  the  north  of  the  Blackwater  to  the  AUord.  The  ravines  of  the 
latter  river,  and  various  other  defiles,  expose  clay  slate,  greywacke,  talc,  and  sandstone,  in 
nearly  vertical  strata  ranging  from  west  to  east;  This  transition  tract  extends  to  the  river 
Shannon  on  the  north-west.  As  the  strata  range  from  west  to  east,  in  a  series  of  parallel 
narrow  troughs,  they  exhibit  great  variety  of  inclination,  dipping  rapidly  either  to  the  north 
or  south,  and  becoming  horizontal  between  the  ridges.  The  glance  coal  is  raised  in  sufficient 
quantities  for  the  purpose  of  burning  the  limestone  of  the  adjacent  districts. 

The  coal  and  the  strata  with  which  it  is  accompanied  abound  with  impressions  of  equi- 
setae  and  calamites,  and  aflbrd  some  traces  of  fucoides.  Beds  of  glance  coal  also  occur  in  the 
county  of  Limerick,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Shannon,  north  of  Abbeyfeale,  and  at  Longhill ; 
and  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  at  Labbasheada.  The  transition  rocks  of  Kerry  and  Lime- 
rick extend  into  Cork  and  Waterford. 

Mines.  Copper  mines  occur  in  limestone  in  Ross  Island  in  the  lake  of  Killarney.  In  the 
county  of  Cork,  there  are  copper  mines  at  AUihies,  Audley,  and  Ballydehol ;  and  others, 
producing  lead,  at  Doneen  and  Rinabelly.  The  mine  at  Allihies  is  one  of  the  richest  mines 
in  Ireland  ;  it  was  discovered  in  1812,  and  yields  more  than  2000  tons  of  copper  ore  annually. 
The  ore  occurs  in  a  large  quartz  vein,  which  generally  intersects  the  slaty  rocks  of  the 
country  from  north  to  south,  but  in  somie  places  runs  parallel  to  the  strata.  It  is  remarked 
that  all  this  portion  of  the  county  of  Cork  indicates  a  very  general  diffusion  of  cupreous  par- 
ticles, so  much  so  that  in  the  year  1812,  there  existed  a  cupriferous  peat-bog  on  the  east  side 
of  Glandore  harbour,  forty  or  fifty  tons  of  the  dried  peat  producing  when  burnt  one  ton  of 
ashes,  containing  from  ten  to  fifteen  per  cent,  of  copper.  The  lead-mines  of  Doneen  and 
Rinabelly  are  in  slate. 

Coal  formation  of  Clare.  Tlie  transition  clay  slate  of  this  county  is  bordered  by  a  zone 
of  old  red  sandstone,  to  which  succeeds,  in  ascending  order  and  conformable  position,  the 
mountain  limestone  and  coal  formation,  both  of  which  occupy  flat  and  undulatmg  hills,  and 


440  ■  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  HI. 

the  strata  are  nearly  horizontal.  The  best  sections  are  seen  in  the  cliffs  on  the  west  coast, 
where  bituminous  shale,  slate  clay,  sandstone,  and  sandstone  flag,  rest  upon  limestone.  Coal, 
however,  is  of  rare  occurrence,  and  when  fovmd,  is  of  inditferent  quality. 

As  in  every  other  part  of  Ireland,  the  district  abounds  with  alluvial  deposits.  In  regard 
to  the  distributionof  the  older  of  these,  or  the  diluvium  in  thesoutli  of  Ireland,  it  is  remarked, 
— 1.  That  boulders,  gravel,  and  sand,  derived  from  the  transition  rocks,  are  distributed  along 
the  borders  and  sides  of  the  mountains  in  Kerry.  2.  In  a  small  district  of  Limerick  and 
Tipperary,  situated  between  the  Gaultees  and  Slieve-na-muck,  the  rolled  masses  consist  not 
only  of  portions  of  contiguous  rocks,  but  contain  also  porphyry,  which  is  not  to  be  found  in 
situ  near  the  vicinity  of  Pallis  Hill.  3.  In  the  peninsula  of  Nenville,  near  Gahvay,  the  sur- 
face of  the  mountain  limestone  is  strewed  over  with  numerous  boulders  of  red  and  gray 
granite,  syenite,  greenstone,  and  sandstone,  which  must  apparently  have  been  conveyed  from 
the  opposite  side  of  the  bay  of  Gahvay. 

Sect.  III. — Historical  Geography. 

The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Ireland,  from  which  tlie  native  race  now  existing  has  .sprung, 
appear,  by  the  language  still  spoken,  to  liave  been  Celtic.  The  Romans,  in  occupying 
Britain,  could  not  fail  to  acquire  much  information  relative  to  lerne,  Hibernia,  or  Ireland  ; 
and  accordingly  we  find  tliat  the  map  of  that  country  by  Ptolemy  is  less  defective  than  the 
one  wliich  he  gives  of  Scotland.  About  the  fourth  century,  we  find  Ireland  bearing  the 
name  of  Scotland,  from  the  leading  people  on  its  eastern  shore,  who  afterwards  passing  into 
Argyle,  and  making  themselves  masters  of  all  Caledonia,  communicated  to  it  the  name  of 
Scotland,  finally  withdrawn  from  the  country  to  which  it  originally  belonged. 

The  Danes,  during  the  height  of  their  power,  from  the  ninth  to  tlie  twelfth  centuries, 
possessed  almost  the  whole  eastern  coast  of  Ireland,  making  Dublin  their  capital.  Before 
this  time  Ireland  had  been  converted  to  Christianity,  and  a  number  of  celebrated  monasteries 
had  been  founded,  the  tenants  of  which  were  distinguished,  even  over  Europe,  for  their  piety 
and  learning. 

The  English  sway  commenced  in  1170.  Richard  Strongbow,  earl  of  Pembroke,  as  a  pri- 
vate individual,  formed  the  first  settlement ;  but  Henry  II.  soon  assumed  the  title  of  "  lord  of 
Ireland."  The  range  of  dominion  was  long  restricted  to  a  portion  of  the  kingdom  enclosed 
within  what  is  called  the  English  pale,  without  which  the  Irish  remained  still  under  the  rule 
of  their  native  chieftains.  Henry  VIII.  assumed  the  title  of"  king  of  Ireland,"  but  without 
any  material  extension  of  his  authority  over  that  kingdom. 

The  Irish  massacre  was  a  dreadful  outrage,  to  which  attachment  to  popery  and  zeal  foi 
national  independence  united  in  impelling  a  proud  and  fierce  people.  Forty  thousand 
English  settlers  are  supposed  to  have  perished,  and  the  rest  were  driven  into  Dublin. 
Cromwell,  however,  afterwards  crossed  the  Channel,  and  made  cruel  reprisals ;  he  took  the 
principal  fortified  towns,  and  reduced  Ireland  under  more  full  subjection  than  ever.  Yet 
the  disposition  of  the  people  remained  the  same;  and  when  James  II.  was  driven  from  the 
English  throne,  he  was  received  with  enthusiasm  in  Ireland,  and  became  for  some  time  its 
master.  The  battle  of  the  Boyne,  followed  next  year  by  that  of  Aughrim,  decided  the  fate 
of  the  empire,  and  more  especially  of  Ireland,  which  then  felt  for  the  first  time  the  miseries 
of  a  conquered  country.  The  estixtes  of  many  principal  native  proprietors  were  confiscated; 
the  Catholics  were  deprived  of  all  political  privileges  ;  they  were  rendered  incapable  of 
holding  any  office  or  employment  in  the  state ;  they  were  debarred  even  from  holding  land, 
from  devising  property,  and  from  exercising  other  important  functions  of  civil  society.  Under 
these  severities  they  pertinaciously  retained  their  political  attachments  together  with  their 
religious  creed ;  and  a  continual  ferment  prevailed,  which  broke  out  from  time  to  time  into 
partial  rebellions. 

The  gradual  emancipation  of  Ireland  commenced  at  the  period  of  the  American  war.  Till 
that  era  England  had  denied  to  her  the  right  of  trading  directly  with  any  foreign  nation  ;  and 
had  compelled  her  to  export  and  import  every  commodity  through  the  channel  of  Great 
Britain.  The  extremity,  however,  to  which  Britain  was  reduced  enabled  the  Irish  to  place 
themselves  in  a  formidable  attitude ;  and  by  forming  armed  associations,  and  adopting  other 
threatening  measures,  they  induced  parliament  to  grant  them  free  trade  with  all  nations. 
From  this  time  also  the  most  obnoxious  of  the  restrictions  on  the  Catholics  were  gradually 
repealed  or  fell  into  disuse ;  and  before  the  end  of  last  century,  they  had  obtained  almost 
every  political  privilege,  except  that  of  sitting  in  parliament,  and  of  holding  the  very  highest 
offices  of  state.  The  propriety  of  conceding  these  also  became  one  of  the  leading  questions 
which  long  divided  the  public  mind. 

A  very  formidable  rebellion  broke  forth  in  spite  of  these  concessions.  The  French 
revolution,  which  caused  a  general  ferment  in  Europe,  was  intensely  felt  throughout 
Ireland.  A  society  was  formed  of  "  United  Irishmen ;"  and  secret  meetings  were  held, 
having  in  view  the  entire  separation  from  England,  and  the  formation  of  the  kingdom  into 
an  independent  republic.  The  vigilance  of  government,  and  the  failure  of  the  French  in 
their  attempts  to  land  a  force  of  any  magnitude,  prevented  matters  from  coming  to  the  las* 


Boor  I.  IRELAND.  441 

extremity  till  1T9S,  when  a  violent  insurrection  arose  in  four  of  the  counties  nearest 
Dublin.  The  rebels,  though  zealous  and  brave,  being  without  discipline,  were  routed  in 
successive  encounters  with  much  inferior  bodies  of  regulars  and  militia  ;  and  being  unsup- 
ported by  French  aid  were  completely  put  down  in  a  few  months.  The  exasperation, 
however,  produced  by  the  tragical  events  of  this  short  period  continued  long  to  rankle  in 
the  minds  of  the  lri:5h,  and  to  aggravate  the  evils  under  which  they  laboured.  To  soothe 
tliis  irritation,  another  expedient  was  employed,  which  materially  affected  the  situation  of 
Ireland. 

The  difficult  and  reluctant  union  of  the  two  kingdoms  was  effected  in  1800  by  Mr.  Pitt. 
Ireland  gained  thus  considerable  commercial  advantages ;  and,  from  the  example  of  Scot- 
land, it  was  lioped  that  a  gradual  tranquillity  would  be  the  result.  This  expectation  has  not 
yet  been  fulfilled.  The  peasantry  of  the  south,  inflamed  by  national  jealousy,  by  religious 
animosity,  and  by  the  severe  privations  under  which  they  labour,  have  continued,  if  not  in 
open  rebellion,  at  least  in  a  state  of  turbulence  constantly  tending  towards  it;  and  their  dis- 
contents have  been  increased  by  the  indiscreet  zeal  of  the  Protestant  party. 

The  bill  for  Catholic  emancipation,  so  unexpectedly  introduced,  in  1828,  by  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,  and  carried  after  such  a  violent  ferment  of  parties,  has  made  a  remarkable 
cliange  in  the  political  constitution  of  Ireland.  The  political  disabilities  under  which  the 
Catholics  had  hitherto  laboured  have  been  finally  removed.  They  are  made  admissible  to 
the  highest  ofhces  of  state,  with  the  exception  of  that  of  lord  chancellor ;  an  exclusion 
decided  upon,  not  so  much  on  account  of  the  dignity  of  that  office,  as  the  extensive  church 
patronage  attached  to  it.  Roman  Catholics  are  also  made  admissible  to  sit  in  both  houses 
of  parliament,  and  to  every  other  political  privilege  enjoyed  by  their  fellow  countrymen. 

Sect.  IV. — Political  Geography. 

The  political  evils  under  which  Ireland  labours  will  sufficiently  appear  from  the  foregoing 
survey  of  her  history.  From  the  earliest  times  she  has  been  in  tlie  situation  of  a  conquered 
country,  without  ever  becoming  reconciled  to  the  yoke,  or  assimilated  to  the  ruling  nation. 
Within  the  last  two  centuries,  her  devoted  adherence  to  a  religion  which  had  been  renounced 
by  her  rulers,  has  iiad  a  most  fatal  tendency,  which  we  may  however  hope  to  see  much  miti- 
gated by  the  healing  measures  that  have  now  been  adopted.  In  consequence,  also,  of 
repeated  scenes  of  rebellion  and  forfeiture,  by  much  the  greater  part  of  the  lands  are  in  the 
possession  of  English  and  Protestant  proprietors,  who,  having  no  natural  influence  over  the 
occupiers  of  their  estates,  hold  their  place  only  by  the  hated  tenure  of  dominion  and  law. 
Being  connected  with  the  country  by  no  natural  ties,  and  attracted  by  the  superior  brilliancy 
of  the  English  and  French  capitals,  most  of  them  quit  Ireland,  and  become  habitual  absentees. 
When  the  Scottish  Highlanders  arrayed  themselves  against  the  government,  they  acted 
under  the  influence  of  a  few  leading  chiefs,  whose  interests  and  passions  afforded  a  lever  by 
which  the  people  could  be  moved.  But  tlie  Irish  people,  deprived  of  any  such  guidance, 
chose  their  leaders  from  among  themselves,  or  from  those  who  courted  their  favour  by  fos- 
tering all  their  national  propensities.  Secret  associations,  party  badges,  mysterious  names, 
have  exerted  an  influence  over  their  rninds,  the  extent  and  nature  of  which  it  is  impossible 
to  calculate. 

Ireland,  like  Scotland,  has  been  imited  to  England  ;  yet  it  retains  somewhat  more  of  the 
aspect  of  a  separate  kingdom.  A  lord  lieutenant  still  displays  a  portion  of  the  state  and 
exercises  some  of  the  functions  of  royalty.  He  has  not  only  a  household  establishment,  but 
a  chancellor,  a  secretary,  and  other  ministers  of  state.  The  courts  of  justice,  and  the  dif- 
ferent orders  of  magistracy,  are  nearly  on  the  same  footing  as  in  England ;  yet  they  have 
not  the  reputation  of  exercising  their  functions  with  quite  tlie  same  dignity  and  impartiality. 
The  violence  of  party  spirit  acts  upon  judges,  and  still  more  upon  juries;  and  in  the  country, 
the  absence  of  great  proprietors,  and  the  want  of  any  middling  class,  render  it  difficult  to 
find  materials  for  a  respectable  and  effective  magistracy.  Ireland  sent  to  the  Imperial  par- 
liament 100  members  of  the  House  of  Commons,  of  whom  36  were  for  cities  and  boroughs, 
and  64  for  counties,  which  latter  sent  two  members  each.  The  large  proportion  of  this 
latter  class  was  expected  to  render  the  representation  more  respectable;  but,  unfortunately, 
the  low  qualification  required,  amounting  only  to  40s.,  enabled  the  great  proprietors  to  split 
votes  among  their  numerous  little  tenantry  to  such  an  extent  as  almost  to  produce  universal 
suffrage.  The  very  system  of  letting  farms  on  leases  for  lives,  which  confers  the  right  of 
voting,  extended  that  right  to  almost  every  tenant.  This  could  scarcely  be  said  to  confer 
the  real  right  of  suffrage,  as  the  dependence  of  the  tenants  was  almost  always  such  as  to 
enable  the  landlord  to  dictate  their  vote  ;  though  in  late  elections,  the  influence  of  the  priests 
was  in  several  counties  successfully  exerted.  To  remedy  these  evils,  the  same  act  which 
removed  the  disabilities  of  the  Catliolics,  raised  the  qualification  of  freeholders  in  Ireland 
from  40s.  to  lOZ.  a  year,  and  thus  reduced  them  to  less  than  a  third  of  their  former  number. 
Many  also  of  the  principal  boroughs,  as  Belfast,  Wexford,  Cashel,  Sligo,  Dundalk,  Ennis- 
killen,  vrere  entirely  close,  the  members  being  chosen  by  twelve  self-elected  burgesses ; 
while,  in  others,  the  whole  ground  on  which  a  borough  stood  belonged  to  the  nearest  great 

Vol..  I.  3  F 


442  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

proprietor.  The  consequence  was,  that  an  oligarchy,  formed  by  the  possessors  of  those  vast 
properties  into  which  the  greater  part  of  Ireland  is  divided,  held  an  almost  unlimited  sway 
over  the  country.  Previous  to  the  union,  the  influence  of  the  tliree  liouses  of  Beresford, 
Ponsonby,  and  Foster  was  such,  that  the  aid  of  one,  and,  if  possible,  two  of  tliem,  was  neces- 
sary for  carrying  on  tlie  measures  of  government.  That  influence,  however,  has  been  on 
the  decline,  and  there  is  no  prospect  of  its  renewal. 

The  Reform  Bill  gave  to  Ireland  only  five  additional  members,  and  it  made  no  material 
change  in  the  returning  boroughs ;  but,  by  placing  the  election  in  the  hands  of  all  house- 
holders paying  10/.  annually,  it  rendered  those  nominations  jpen  which  had  formerly  been 
made  by  the  small  number  of  individuals  composing  the  corporation. 

The  naval  and  military  force  of  the  empire  iii  general  defends  Ireland.  There  is  a  com- 
mander of  the  forces  resident  in  Dublin  ;  acting,  however,  under  the  orders,  not  of  the  lord 
lieutenant,  but  of  the  British  commander-in-chief.  The  number  of  regular  troops  stationed 
at  different  points  is  always  considerable. 

The  revenue  levied  in  Ireland  has  never  borne  the  same  proportion  to  her  natural  resources 
as  that  of  England.  The  rates  in  all  the  principal  articles  of  consumption  have  been  lower. 
The  tax  on  hearths,  however,  was  found  verj'  oppressive ;  as  it  required  inquisitorial  visits, 
and  affected  the  lowest  of  the  people.  This  and  all  the  other  assessed  taxes  were  so  irregu- 
larly levied,  that,  notwithstanding  the  discontent  excited  by  them,  they  did  little  more  than 
cover  the  expenses  of  collection.  For  this  reason,  by  a  motion  of  the  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer,  they  were  entirely  remitted.  In  1800  the  revenue  was  2,684,000/.  and  the  debt 
25,662,000/.  At  the  union,  the  stipulation  was  made  that  Ireland  should  pay  two-seventeenths 
of  the  w'hole  expenditure  of  the  empire ;  this  arrangement  has  led  to  a  continual  increase 
both  of  debt  and  revenue.  In  1811  the  former  amounted  to  77,382,000/.,  and  the  latter  to 
3,906,900/.  In  1830  the  revenue  waa  3,548,822/.,  and  in  1835  it  amounted  to  4,400,953/. 
The  particulars  for  the  latter  ye^-i^efe : — 

Customs ..."   X1,744,7G4      I      Stamps j£:470,286 

Excise .V-....       1,906,531      |      Postage,  &c 219,372      ' 

The  public  expenditure ^ifi'1830  was  as  follows: — 

Charees  of  funded  debt...:.. i;i,178,454     I      Army je986,209 

Civillist,&c 584,SH)9      |      Miscellaneous 747,689 

The  national  debt  of  Ireland  in  1817,  when  it  ceased  to  form  a  separate  item  in  the  public 
accounts  in  consequence  of  the  consolidation  of  the  British  and  Irish  exchequers,  was 
134,602,769/. 

For  local  and  patriotic  objects  in  Ireland,  very  considerable  sums  are  allowed  out  of  the 
public  revenue.     Of  these,  for  the  year  1832,  there  appear  the  following : — 

Schools  and  Education £30,000      I      Female  Orphan  House Xl,833 

Protestant  Charity  Schools 3,000  Roman  Catholic  College 8.028 

FoundUng  Hospital 26.314      i      Royal  Dublin  Society 5,300 

Four  other  Hospitals 10.045  Belfast  Academical  Institution 1,500 

House  of  Industry 21,192      |      Nonconforming  and  other  Ministers 24,224 

Richmond  Lunatic  Asylum 1,3.S8      |      Public  Works 33,564 

Hibernian  Marine  Society 050     {      Dunmore  Harbour 7,500 

Sect.  V. — Productive  Industry, 

Ireland,  in  this  respect,  has  long  presented  a  painful  spectacle ;  a  great  proportion  of  her 
people  being  involved  in  extreme  and  squalid  poverty.  The  Irish  do  not  want  enterprise,  or 
even  industry ;  but  various  causes  have  combined  to  degrade  them  in  the  scale  of  improve- 
ment. Among  these  the  conduct  long  held  by  Britain  must  be  considered  as  prominent ; 
thus,  after  other  expedients  had  proved  ineffectual,  it  was  prohibited  to  export  woollens  to 
foreign  countries.  Similar  measures  were  taken  with  regard  to  glass,  hops,  and  every 
branch  in  respect  to  which  any  rivalry  was  apprehended.  There  was  one  article,  however, 
the  production  of  a  large  surplus  of  which  could  by  no  means  be  avoided.  This  was  black 
cattle  and  sheep ;  but  the  value  of  these  was  effectually  cut  down  by  the  prohibition  to 
import  them  into  England,  the  only  accessible  market.  Under  these  regulations,  all  the 
exertions  of  Ireland  to  better  her  condition  were  cramped,  and  while  Britain  was  making 
the  most  rapid  advances,  Ireland  continued  in  the  same  state  of  depression.  However,  in 
consequence  of  her  spirited  efforts  at  the  end  of  the  American  war,  and  of  the  embarrass- 
ments of  the  British  government,  the  most  odious  and  pernicious  of  these  restrictions  were 
repealed.  Further  advantages  were  obtained  at  the  time  of  the  Union ;  and  at  present, 
every  exertion  is  making  to  place  the  two  coimtries  in  a  state  of  perfect  reciprocity.  The 
consequence  has  been,  that  in  the  course  of  forty  years,  Ireland  has  made  a  rapid  progress 
in  industry  and  commerce ;  yet  some  of  her  greatest  evils  are  so  deeply  seated,  that  they 
have  scarcely  yet  begun  to  give  way  to  the  influence  of  a  more  auspicious  system. 

Agriculture  has  been  long  in  a  backward  and  very  depressed  state.  The  farms  were,  for 
the  most  part,  small,  managed  by  the  farmer  himself  and  his  family,  destitute  of  capital, 
with  wretched  implements,  and  with  a  pertinacious  adherence  to  all  the  obsolete  practices 
of  a  rude  ago.  The  best  soils  exhausted  a  great  portion  of  their  strength  in  throwing  up 
weeds,  which  no  effective  measures  were  taken  to  extirpate.    The  system  also  of  infield  and 


Book  I.  IRELAND.  443 

outfield  was  strictly  adhered  to,  the  ground  bemg  heavily  cropped  as  long  as  it  would  yield 
any  thing,  and  afterwards  of  necessity  allowed  two  or  three  years  to  recruit.  Although 
these  defects  still  exist  to  a  considerable  extent,  yet  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  but  particu- 
larly in  the  east  and  north,  improved  practices  and  implements  are  beginning  to  be  intro- 
duced. 

The  Irish  tenures  are  long,  some  of  them  perpetual,  in  which  case  they  maybe  considered 
as  property,  the  rent  being  a  mere  trifle ;  a  lease  of  thirty-one  years  and  three  lives  is  very 
common.  These  long  leases  are  attended  with  scarcely  any  of  the  benefits  which  might 
be  naturally  expected.  As  the  farmer  commences  usually  without  any  capital,  trusting  for 
the  payment  of  the  first  year's  rent  to  the  produce  of  his  farm,  he  almost  always  falls  more 
or  less  into  arrear,  and  thus  lies  at  the  mercy  of  his  landlord.  This  would  be  less  pernicious, 
were  it  the  landlord  himself  with  whom  he  had  to  deal ;  but  the  landlords  of  Ireland,  hold- 
ing usually  properties  of  immense  extent,  and  being  mostly  resident  out  of  the  country, 
cannot  or  will  not  undertake  the  task  of  dealing  with  this  impoverished  multitude  of  small 
tenants.  They  devolve  it  upon  the  intermediate  agents  and  middlemen.  The  latter,  a  class 
peculiar  to  Ireland,  take  a  large  extent  of  ground,  which  they  let  out  in  small  portions  to 
the  real  cultivator.  They  grant  leases,  indeed ;  but  as  the  tenant,  from  the  circumstances 
above  mentioned,  soon  comes  under  their  power,  they  and  the  agents  treat  him  with  the 
greatest  harshness,  exact  personal  services,  presents,  bribes;  and  draw  from  the  land  aa 
much  as  they  possibly  can,  without  the  least  regard  to  its  permanent  welfare.  This  system, 
while  it  crushes  the  tenant,  is  not  less  injurious  to  the  landlord,  into  whose  coffers  there 
often  passes  less  than  one-half  of  the  sum  paid  by  the  tenant.  The  only  use  to  wliich  the 
latter  turns  his  long  lease  is  to  divide  and  subdivide  the  lands  among  his  children,  till  the 
share  of  each  affords  only  the  most  miserable  aliment,  and  an  overgrown  population  is  fixed 
upon  the  farm.  An  attempt  to  let  land  on  a  different  footing  can  only  be  effected  by  the 
ejection  of  more  than  half  its  existing  occupants,  who  in  that  case  are  apt  to  fly  to  violent 
and  revengeful  courses,  so  that  even  a  partial  endeavour  to  introduce  such  improvements 
has  been  a  main  cause  of  the  existing  disturbed  state.  Another  injurious  mode  is  that  of  part- 
nership leases,  in  which  a  number  of  persons  take  a  farm  jointly,  and  make  it  a  sort  of  common 
property.  Each  is  allowed  to  put  upon  it  a  certain  number  of  collops ;  the  collop  consisting 
of  one  horse,  two  cows,  or  twelve  goats.  A  degrading  stipulation  is  often  introduced  into 
leases,  by  which  the  occupant  is  bound  to  work  for  his  landlord  either  without  wages,  or  at 
a  rate  lower  than  ordinary. 

Tithe  is  one  of  the  evils  of  which  the  Irish  cultivator  most  grievously  complains.  Al- 
though it  must  in  all  cases  fall  ultimately  on  the  landlord,  yet  to  take  from  the  cabin  of  the 
peasant  the  pig  which  he  has  reared,  or  the  handful  of  potatoes  which  he  has  raised  for  the 
support  of  his  family,  is  an  act  peculiarly  discouraging  and  irritating.  The  exemption  of 
grass  lands  tends  also  to  discourage  tillage.  Measures  taken  by  parliament  to  promote  the 
commutation  of  titlies,  have  been  attended  With  considerable  success;  and  by  a  late  act 
arrangements  are  made  by  which  the  church  rates,  instead  of  being  taken  out  of  the  farmer's 
produce,  are  paid  by  the  landlord  out  of  his  rent. 

The  extent  of  country,  and  the  objects  of  culture  in  Ireland,  vary  consideralily  from  those 
of  the  sister  kingdom.  Its  superficial  extent  is  computed  at  12,000,000  Irish,  or  19,278,760 
English  acres.  Of  tliis,  notwithstanding  the  considerable  amount  to  be  deducted  for  moun- 
tain, lakes,  and  bogs,  Mr.  Young  calculates  that  there  is  a  greater  proportion  of  productive 
land  than  in  England.  The  soil  of  Ireland  is  shallow,  consisting  most  generally  of  a  thin 
sprinkling  of  earth  over  a  rocky  ground ;  but  the  copious  moisture  wafted  from  the  sea, 
by  which  it  is  everywhere  surrounded,  produces  a  quick  and  rapid  vegetation,  and  in  par- 
ticular a  brilliancy  of  verdure,  not  equalled  perhaps  in  any  other  region  of  Europe.  Such 
a  country  is  of  course  highly  favourable  to  pasturage ;  and  as  this  pursuit  is  suited  to  the  im- 
perfect stages  of  culture,  the  rearing  of  live  stock  has  been  long  the  main  staple  of  Irish 
husbandry.  Its  luxuriant  plains  are  depastured  by  vast  herds  of  black  cattle ;  and  from  this 
source  is  derived  the  very  large  quantity  of  salted  provisions  shipped  from  the  southern 
ports.  The  number  of  oxen  and  cows  annually  killed  for  this  purpose  was  reckoned  at 
18,000.  This  trade  has  considerably  decreased  since  the  peace ;  but  the  export  of  live 
cattle  is  extensively  carried  on.  Great  facilities  have  been  lately  afforded  for  it  by  the 
steam  packets.  The  dairy  is  also  a  great  branch  of  industry  in  Ireland.  None  of  its 
cheeses,  indeed,  have  acquired  a  reputation ;  but  butter  of  excellent  quality  is  made  and 
largely  exported.  Another  species  of  live  stock  is  an  essential  article  to  the  economy  of  an 
Irish  cultivator.  The  pig  usually  shares  his  cabin,  and  is  fed,  like  himself,  on  potatoes.  It 
is  too  great  a  luxury  to  be  killed  for  his  own  consumption ;  but  is  sold  and  driven  to  the  ports 
to  be  salted  for  exportation.  Sheep  are  bred  extensively  on  the  mountain  tracts,  which  are 
unfit  for  rearing  any  other  stock.  In  many  places  they  are  bred  for  the  wool  and  milk.  In 
this  last  respect,  however,  goats  are  more  productive  ;  and  they  are  reared  in  immense  quan 
titles  in  the  mountain  districts  in  the  north.  The  Irish  horses  are  small,  hardy,  and  capable 
of  doing  much  work  upon  little  food.  Poultry  are  fed  in  great  numbers  in  and  around  all  the 
cabins,  the  interior  of  which  they  are  admitted  to  share ;  a  practice  extremely  favourable  to 


444  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

Uieir  increase.  Great  quantities  of  geese  are  kept  for  the  sake  of  tlie  feathers,  which  are 
cruelly  plucked  from  the  animals  alive.  The  produce  of  grain  is  also  large,  notwitlistanding 
the  imperfect  proces^ses  employed  in  cultivating  it.  Wheat  and  barley  were  little  raised  till 
of  late,  n-lien  both  the  culture  and  e.xport  of  the  fomier  have  been  greatly  extended.  Still 
the  main  objects  are  oats  and  potatoes;  the  former  as  the  subject  of  a  large  export,  the 
latter  as  the  staple  food  of  a  considerable  body  of  the  people.  The  Irish  boast  of  the  potaloe, 
as  if  it  were  nowhere  else  produced  in  equal  perfection.  Compared  with  grain  of  any  kind, 
it  certainly  affords  the  means  of  supporting  a  greater  population  upon  a  given  extent  of 
ground.  The  scope,  however,  which  it  affords  for  the  multiplication  of  the  people  in  miser- 
able circumstances,  is  generally  considered  by  the  political  economists  as  one  of  the  causes 
of  the  present  distress  in  Ireland.  Flax  is  also  a  valuable  product  of  Irish  husbandry,  aff'ord- 
ing  the  material  of  the  linen  manufacture.  According  to  a  return  made  to  the  trustees  in 
1809,  the  extent  sown  was  76,749  acres ;  in  addition  to  which,  the  various  little  scattered 
patches  raise  the  number  probably  to  about  100,000  acres,  supposed  to  produce  at  an  average 
about  30  stones  per  acre ;  which,  at  10s.  Gd.  per  stone,  would  make  the  entire  value  about 
1,500,000/. 

There  is  a  want  of  trees  in  Ireland.  The  immense  forests  which  some  centuries  age 
covered  a  great  proportion  of  its  surface,  have  fallen  and  been  converted  in  a  great  measure 
into  moss  or  bog.  The  bogs  of  Ireland  present  an  extensive  obstacle  to  cultivation.  They 
are  estimated  by  the  parliamentary  commissioners  at  2,330,000  English  acres.  From  them, 
indeed,  fuel  is  supplied  to  many  districts,  yet  the  draining  of  a  large  portion  would  be  cer- 
tainly desirable;  and  the  commissioners  seem  to  think  that,  from  their  generally  elevated 
position,  this  might  be  done  with  great  facility  and  advantage.  The  great  quantity  of  water 
beneath  these  bogs  causes  ofl;en  a  singular  plienomenon,  that  of  moving  bogs.  Bursting  the 
surface,  the  bog  inundates  the  surrounding  lands,  spreading  desolation  and  barrenness 
through  its  wliole  course,  which  in  one  instance  extended  no  less  than  twenty  miles. 

In  respect  to  manufactures,  the  state  of  Ireland  cannot  be  described  as  flourishing  ;  a  mis- 
fortune for  which  she  may  accuse  the  oppressive  policy  of  England.  One  species  of  fabric, 
however,  she  has  been  allowed  and  even  encouraged  to  cultivate,  and  it  has  attained  to  a 
very  considerable  magnitude. 

The  linen  manufacture  was  first  introduced  by  the  Earl  of  Strafford,  who  brought  fla.x- 
seed  from  Holland,  and  workmen  from  France  and  the  Netherlands.  His  att<iinder,  and  the 
subsequent  troubles,  suspended  the  undertaking;  but  it  was  revived  by  the  Duke  of  Ormond, 
who  established  near  Dublin  a  colony  from  Brussels,  Jersey,  and  Rochelle,  and  gave  lands 
on  advantageous  terms  to  those  willing  to  embark  in  the  business.  After  the  Revolution, 
the  English  parliament  created  a  board  for  the  promotion  of  the  linen  manufacture,  and 
granted  bounties  both  on  the  raising  of  flax  and  the  export  of  linen.  These  exertions  met 
with  great  success ;  and  the  manufacture  has  become  general  throughout  Ireland,  and  par- 
ticularly in  Ulster.  The  following,  according  to  a  late  parliamentary  report,  was  the 
reputed  value  of  brown  or  unbleached  linens  sold  in  the  markets  of  Ireland  in  the  year 
1824:— 

Ulster £2,109,309 

Leinster      - 192,888 

Munster -     -     -  110,421 

Connaught       .     -     -  - 108,090 

Total       £2,580,708 

The  mode  of  conducting  this  manufacture  is,  however,  in  several  respects,  very  rude  and 
imperfect.  It  is  generally  practised  by  individuals  holding  little  spots  of  ground,  the  culture 
of  which  they  combine  with  that  of  weaving.  The  same  person,  or  at  least  the  same  family, 
in  many  cases  raises  the  flax,  dresses  it,  spins  it  into  yarn,  and  weaves  it  into  cloth.  There 
is  too  much  anxiety  to  obtain  the  greatest  possible  quantity  of  yarn  out  of  a  given  quantity 
of  flax,  without  regard  to  the  quality ;  and  the  sorting  of  the  yarn,  so  that  it  may  be  of  an 
uniform  texture,  suited  to  the  kind  of  linen  intended  to  be  woven,  is  almost  wholly  neglected. 
In  some  instances,  however,  it  is  worked  to  a  most  extraordinary  degree  of  fineness.  Anne 
M'Quillin,  in  the  county  of  Down,  could  spin  105  hanks  to  the  pound,  which  would  reach 
214  English  miles.  Exertions  have  lately  been  made  to  introduce  mill-spinning,  which,  it 
is  supposed,  would  generally  improve  the  quality  of  yarn,  though  it  could  not  produce  it  of 
such  extreme  fineness  as  some  of  that  spun  by  the  hand.  Twenty  years  ago  the  mill  could 
not  produce  above  fifteen  cuts  to  a  pound ;  now  it  can  make  nearly  fifty. 

The  export  of  linen  from  Ireland,  in  the  year  1824,  amounted  in  all  to  49,491,037  yards, 
of  which  46,466,9.50  were  to  Great  Britain ;  and  3,024.087  to  foreign  parts.  The  real  value 
of  the  whole  was  2,412,858/.  Of  tliat  sent  to  Great  Britain,  31,314,533  yards  were  retained 
for  home  consumption ;  the  rest  were  re-exported  to  tlie  same  quarters  as  Scotch  linen.  This 
great  manufacture  is  chiefly  supported  by  its  own  growth  of  flax.  Ireland,  however,  im- 
ports 25,000  tons  of  hemp  from  abroad,  and  3300  from  Britain ;  also  about  7500  tons  of 
linen  yarn ;  of  all  which  materials  the  value  falls  short  of  45,0007. 


Book  I.  IRELAND.  445 

Distillation  is  another  branch  of  industry  characteristic  of  Ireland,  but  by  no  means 
attended  with  the  same  happy  effects.  It  has  hitherto  been  carried  on  chiefly  in  defiance 
of  the  revenue  and  government,  and  has  given  birtli  to  a  vast  system  of  contraband,  equally 
destructive  of  morals  and  of  public  order.  All  the  mountains,  bogs,  and  deep  valleys  of  the 
north  and  west  abound  with  illicit  stills,  in  spots  where  the  most  diligent  search  can  scarcely 
discover  them;  and  where  detected,  they  can  scarcely  be  seized  without  the  aid  of  an 
armed  force.  When  the  troops  are  seen  advancing,  concerted  signals  are  made,  and  the 
small  light  stills  are  soon  conveyed  to  a  distant  quarter.  The  farmers  and  proprietors  en- 
courage illicit  distillation  as  the  most  ready  mode  of  affording  a  market  for  their  grain.  The 
quality  of  the  spirit  was  long  much  superior  to  that  produced  by  the  legal  distillers,  owing 
to  restrictions  imposed  on  the  latter ;  so  that,  in  selling,  it  was  considered  the  highest  re- 
connnendation  that  it  "  never  paid  duty."  The  most  rigorous  laws  were  enacted  in  vain,  for 
they  only  rendered  the  people  concerned  in  this  practice  more  desperate  and  determined. 
Of  late,  however,  the  duty,  as  in  Scotland,  has  been  reduced  and  free  exportation  permitted. 

The  effect  has  been  remarkable ;  the  quantity  of  spirits  paying  duty,  which  from  1818  to 
1822  varied  from  3,000,000  to  4,000,000,  rose  in  1824  to  7,800,000,  and  in  1832  to  8,6.57,000 ; 
thus  warranting  a  presumption,  that  the  contraband  fabrication  of  this  article  has  been 
greatly  diminished. 

The  killing  and  salting  of  beef  and  pork  for  sale  forms  a  great  branch  of  Irish  commerce. 
The  beef  is  packed  in  three  different  forms,  called  planter's  beef,  India  beef,  and  common 
beef;"  the  first  two,  having  the  coarse  pieces  taken  out,  and  charged  4s.  additional 
per  cwt.  While  the  export  of  salt  beef  has  diminished,  that  of  pork  has  of  late  been  much 
extended. 

The  cotton  manufacture,  since  1822,  has  spread  through  Ireland  in  a  very  surprising 
manner,  particularly  in  the  counties  of  Antrim,  Down,  I^outli,  and  part  of  Dublin.  The 
coarser  linen  fabrics  are  disappearing  before  it,  and  proceeding  to  the  westward  and  south- 
ward, retaining  still  an  equal  hold  of  the  kingdom  in  general.  More  recently  this  fabric 
has  rather  declined,  and  linen  has  regained  the  ascendency. 

The  other  manufactures  are  not  of  primary  importance.  A  great  quantity  of  wool  is,  in- 
deed, worked  up  by  the  peasantry  into  firieze,  linseys,  and  flannels,  for  their  domestic  use  ; 
but  the  only  fabrics  on  a  great  scale,  which  are  those  of  broadcloth  at  Carrick-on-Shannon, 
and  of  flannels  at  Kilkenny,  are  on  the  decline.  Breweries  have  been  established  in  the 
principal  towns,  and  are  rather  in  a  flourishing  state. 

In  the  distribution  of  minerals,  Ireland  has  by  no  means  been  neglected ;  but  some  unpro- 
pitious  circumstances  have  prevented  any  of  them  from  being  turned  to  great  account.  Of 
these  impediments  the  most  material  is  the  want  of  a  suflficient  supply  of  good  coal.  The 
fuel  of  Ireland  is  in  general  either  coal  imported  from  England  and  Scotland,  or  the  turf 
dug  out  of  its  immense'  bogs ;  but  the  latter  has  not  yet  been  found  applicable  to  the  fusion 
of  metals.  From  these  causes  the  veins  of  iron  ore,  which  are  very  extensively  diffused 
through  the  island,  have  not  yet  been  turned  to  any  important  use.  The  copper,  also  of 
fine  quality,  which  is  found  in  the  counties  of  Wicklow  and  Cork,  must  be  sent  over  to 
Swansea  to  be  smelted.  The  lead,  however  of  Wicklow  is  worked  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent with  imported  coal. 

Fishery  is  a  branch  of  industry  for  which  the  extended  shores  and  deep  bays  of  Ireland 
would  be  peculiarly  adapted.  Nor  do  the  inland  waters,  the  rivers  and  lakes,  less  abound  in 
the  species  of  fish  appropriate  to  them.  The  diligence  of  the  Irish  in  taking  fish  for  im- 
mediate consumption  is  considerable,  being  urged  on  by  the  frequent  abstinence  from  other 
food  which  their  Catholic  profession  enjoins.  Their  trout  and  salmon  are  distinguished 
both  for  size  and  taste:  the  salmon  are  caught  by  weirs,  stake-nets,  and  other  contrivances, 
but  with  so  little  precaution  that  their  number  has  been  sensibly  diminished.  The  curing 
of  fish  has  made  very  little  progress,  when  compared  with  tlie  opportunities  which  the 
coasts  of  Ireland  afford ;  and  Ireland  cannot  come  into  competition  with  Scotland. 

Commerce. — The  manufactured  products  of  Ireland  are  quite  inconsiderable;  she  has,  how- 
ever, great  facilities  for  the  production  of  raw  materials;  and  it  is  in  all  respects  more  suit- 
able for  her,  as  well  as  for  England,  that  she  should  direct  her  efforts  to  tiiis  department, 
and  import  manufactured  articles  from  Britain,  than  that  she  should  attempt  to  enter  into  an 
unequal  competition  with  the  latter  in  manufacturing  industry.  In  1825  the  restraints  on 
the  intercourse  between  Ireland  and  Great  Britain  were  mostly  abolished ;  and  owing  to  this 
circumstance,  and  to  the  establishment  of  a  regular  intercourse  by  steam  packets  between 
Liverpool,  Glasgow,  Bristol,  and  the  principal  towns  on  the  east  and  south  coasts  of  Ireland, 
the  trade  between  the  two  countries  has  been  vastly  increased.  Owing  to  the  circumstance 
ot  this  intercourse  being  now  placed  on  the  footing  of  a  coasting  trade,  no  account  has  been 
kept  later  than  1825,  of  the  reciprocal  imports  and  exports  of  each,  except  in  the  case  of 
corn. 

In  1829,  the  imports  from  foreign  parts  were  valued  at  1,669,406/. ;  in  1831,  tliey  were 
1,552,228/. ;  in  1832,  they  were  1,348,828/.  The  exports  in  1831  were  608,938/. ;  in  1832 
tliey  were  452,775/.     Within  the  last  few  years  there  has  been  a  most  extraordinary  ia- 

VoL.  I.  38 


446 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


crease  in  the  quantity  of  grain  and  live  stock  imported  from  Ireland  into  Great  Britain.  The 
former  on  an  average  of  1830  and  1831,  amounted  to  543,618  quarters  of  wheat,  and 
1,563,593  quarters  of  oats  and  oatmeal.  In  1832,  there  were  imported  into  Liverpool  alone, 
3i38  649  quarters  of  wheat,  value  948,217Z. ;  325,720  quarters  of  oats,  309,434/. ;  14,486 
quarters  of  barley,  24,626/. ;  69,624  cows,  765,864/. ;  149,090  pigs,  484,542/. ;  74,260  sheep, 
129  955/  •  24,077  lambs,  24,077/. ;  169,817  loads  of  meal,  203,780/. ;  177,252  saciis  of  flour, 
4071679/! ;'  10,771  bales  of  bacon,  64,626/. ;  292,830  firkins,  15,861  half  firkins,  and  10,348 
coolies  of  butter,  819,141/.  These,  with  some  minor  articles,  made  up  a  value  of  4,444,-500/. 
The  imports  into  London,  Bristol,  and  other  ports,  may  be  presumed  to  be  as  much  more, 
and  perhaps  the  whole  may  not  fall  short  of  10,000,000/.  sterling.^ 

The  following  table  exiiibits  the  relative  foreign  commerce  of  the  principal  ports  of  Ire- 
land in  the  year  1824.  We  add  the  ships  and  tonnage  belonging  to  and  the  amount  of  cus- 
toms on  each,  which  a  recent  report  enables  us  to  bring  down  to  1829 : — 


Entered  at 

Tonnage 

Entered. 

Belonging. 

Paid. 

British. 

Foreign. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Ships.     Tonnage. 

Customs. 

19,12.3 

15,025 

8!I0 

24,:{06 

546 

5,22.'? 

.3,293 

6,705 

1,085 

7,000 

1,409 

11,992 
13,976 
420 
10,407 
2,020 
3,489 
5,479 
7,612 
2,4()3 
3,137 
232 

247 

256 
30 

289 
19 
39 
32 

161 
20 
76 

135 

25,000 

17,000 

2,300 

24.000 

800 

1,800 

4,300 

8,000 

1.200 

7,000 

6,700 

259,000 

196,000 

12  000 

669,000 

4,800 

85.700 

74,000 

55,000 

],i;oo 

116,000 
4,800 

T    ■         n!-i\>L- 

Nfwry 

t 

The  shipping  of  Ireland  is  small,  compared  with  that  of  the  sister  island.  On  the  31st 
December,  1830,  she  had  1424  vessels ;  the  tonnage  of  which  was  101,820,  navigated  by 
7794  men  and  boys.  In  1832  there  were  built  twenty-five  ships,  of  1909  tons.  There  were 
entered  inwards,"in  1831,  14,499  ships,  of  1,420,382  tons;  outwards,  9801  ships,  1,073,545 
tons.  Of  this  were  employed  in  trade  with  Great  Britain,  13,584  ships,  and  1,262,221  tons, 
inwards;  9029  ships,  921,128  tons,  outwards;  in  foreign  trade,  915  ships,  158,161  tons, 
inwards ;  772  ships,  152,417  tons  outwards. 

Canals  have  been  undertaken  in  Ireland  on  an  extensive  scale,  but  with  only  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  expected  benefit.  This  seems  partly  owing  to  the  excessive  magnitude  of  the 
plans,  and  partly  to  tbe  prevalence  of  jobbing.  The  two  chief  undertakings  are  the  Grand 
and  the  RoVal  canals,  both  proceeding  from  Dublin  into  the  interior.  The  former,  com- 
menced in  1756,  has,  by  large  advances  from  government,  been  completed,  at  an  expense  of 
upwards  of  2,000,000/.  It  is  carried  across  Kildare  and  King's  County  to  the  Shannon,  near 
Clonfert.  This  distance  is  eighty-seven  miles,  which,  with  a  branch  to  the  Barrow  at  Athy, 
one  westward  to  Ballinasloe,  and  several  others,  makes  an  entire  length  of  156  miles.  The 
Royal  Canal,  of  nearly  the  same  dimensions,  reaches  from  Dublin  through  Meath  and  Long- 
ford, nearly  eisrhty-three  miles,  to  Tarmonbarry,  on  the  Shannon.  The  expense  was 
1,420,000/.,  while  the  tolls,  in  1831,  amounted  only  to  12,700/. 

The  roads  of  Ireland  have  long  been  excellent.  Any  person  may  present  a  memorial  to 
the  grand  jury  of  the  county,  showing  tiie  necessity  of  a  new  road,  and  if  this  presentment 
be  approved,  the  work  immediately  proceeds.  Government  has  established  mail-coaches  to 
all  the  principal  towns,  and,  since  the  rebellion,  has  made  fine  military  roads  into  the  interior 
of  Wicklow;  but  stage-coaches  and  other  means  of  conveyance  are  indifferent. 

Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State. 

The  population  of  Ireland,  from  its  great  amount  and  rapid  increase  is  considered  as  one 
of  the  chief  causes  of  the  severe  poverty  w'hich  presses  upon  the  body  of  the  people.  Till 
the  census  of  1821,  the  data  upon  which  it  was  calculated  were  conjectural.  Between  1712 
and  1726,  upon  a  calculation  from  the  number  of  houses,  at  six  to  a  house,  it  was  represented 
as  varying  from  2,000,000  to  2,300,000.  Calculations  founded  on  the  produce  of  the  hearth 
duty  gave  in  1754, 2.372,000 ;  and  in  1788, 4,040,040.  In  1812,  it  was  estimated  at  5,937,000. 
In  1821,  a  census  gave  6,801,000.  That  of  1831  amounted  to  7,767,401,  of  whom  3,794,880 
are  male,  and  3,972,521  female. 

The  Irish  character  presents  very  marked  features,  many  of  which  are  amiable,  and  even 
admirable.  Hospitality  is  an  universal  trait,  and  is  enhanced  by  the  scantiness  of  the  portion 
which  is  liberally  shared  with  the  stranger.  The  Irish  are  brave,  lively,  merry,  and  witty; 
and  even  the  lowest  ranks  have  a  courteous  and  polite  addres.s.  They  are  celebrated  for 
warmth  of  heart,  and  for  strong  attachments  of  kindred  and  friendship,  which  leads  them,  out 
of  their  scanty  means,  to  support  their  aged  relations  with  the  purest  kindness.  Benevo- 
lence is  a  distinguishing  feature  of  the  higher  ranks.     They  are  curious,  intelligent,  and 


Book  I.  IRELAND.  447 

eager  for  information.  With  so  many  good  qualities,  it  were  too  much  to  expect  that  there 
should  not  be  some  faults.  They  are  deficient  in  cleanliness ;  have  little  taste  for  conve- 
niences or  luxuries ;  and  are  destitute  of  that  sober  and  steady  spirit  of  enterprise  which 
distinguishes  tlie  English.  The  love  of  fighting  seems  to  be  a  general  infirmity.  The  fairs, 
which,  in  every  towu  and  village  of  Ireland,  are  regular  and  of  long  duration,  afford  the 
grand  theatres,  first  of  unbounded  mirth,  and  ultimately  of  bloody  conflict.  The  Irish  do  not 
fight  single-handed,  but  in  bands,  and  on  a  great  scale.  On  receiving  a  supposed  injury, 
they  go  round  to  their  companions,  friends,  and  townsmen,  and  collect  a  multitude,  with 
which  they  make  a  joint  attack  on  the  objects  of  their  wrath.  The  other  blemishes  of  the 
Irish  are  rather  frailties  than  sins.  They  are  represented  as  vain,  talkative,  prompt  to  speak 
as  well  as  act  without  deliberation;  this  disposition,  with  their  thoughtless  gaiety,  betrays 
them  into  that  peculiar  blunder  called  a  bull,  which  their  neighbours  have  so  long  held  forth 
as  a  national  characteristic. 

The  ecclesiastical  state  of  Ireland  has  been  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  its  unsettled  con- 
dition. The  native  Irish  did  not  share  in  any  degree  the  reformation  so  unanimously  adopted 
in  England  and  Scotland.  When,  therefore,  the  English  church  was  introduced  as  the 
established  religion,  it  threw  out,  as  dissenters,  the  bulk  of  the  Irish  population.  Even  of 
the  protestant  part,  a  large  proportion  introduced  as  colonists  from  Scotland,  were  attached 
to  the  presbyterian  form. 
[From  a  parliamentary  paper,  it  appears  that,  in  1835,  there  were, — 

per  cent. 

Roman  Catholics,       .-.--- 6,427,712  -  -  80^ 

Members  of  Established  Church,        ..-.--  852,064  -  -  10^ 

Presbyterians, 642,356  -  -  8 

Other  Protestants,      ---.----.--  21,808  -  -  i 

7,943,940. 


Although  there  is  here  some  slight  inaccuracy,  yet  this  statement  serves  to  .show  very 
nearly  the  proportion  of  the  different  sects.  The  places  of  worship  are  stated  in  the  same 
paper  to  be, — 

Roman  Catholics,    ....--....-.-----  2105 

Established  Church, 1544 

Presbyterians,     ..---..------.-.--  452 

Others,      - -    -  403 

In  41  benefices  there  was  no  member  of  the  Established  Church. — Am.  Ed.] 
The  Roman  Catholic  clergy  receive  no  stipend  from  government,  but  are  entirely  sup- 
ported by  their  flocks.  They  are  formed,  however,  into  a  regular  hierarchy,  at  the  head  of 
which  are  four  archbishops ;  Armagh  (the  primate),  Tuam,  Cashel,  and  Dublin.  Under 
them  are  twenty-two  bishops,  with  a  vicar-general,  dean,  and  archdeacon  in  each  diocese. 
The  number  of  Catholic  priests  has  been  stated  at  1400,  besides  several  hundred  friars. 
Their  income  arises  less  from  any  fixed  allowance,  than  from  dues,  offerings,  and  presents; 
and  the  bishops,  to  make  up  their  incomes,  receive  from  the  parish  priests  a  portion  of  what 
they  have  collected.  Mr.  Wakefield  has  attempted  an  estimate,  according  to  which, 
Christmas  and  Easter  offerings  amount  to  337,000Z. ;  marriages  produce,  in  licenses,  fees, 
and  collections,  78,500Z. ;  christenings,  12,500Z. ;  burials,  12,500Z. ;  in  all,  440,500Z.  Ac- 
cording to  Archbishop  Curteis,  the  income  of  a  bishop  is  about  500Z.  a  year;  that  of  a  priest 
varies  from  100/.  to  400/.  Although  a  conge  is  asked  from  the  pope,  the  real  election  to 
vacant  places  rests  with  the  clergy  themselves ;  but  as  their  incomes  depend  entirely  on  the 
favour  of  their  hearers,  they  are  subject  to  a  necessity  of  choosing  popular  priests,  which  is 
no't  felt  by  the  established  Catholic  churches.  Hence  the  influence  of  the  priests,  always  so 
nsmarkable  under  the  Catholic  system,  exists  in  Ireland  to  an  extent  perhaps  unequalled. 
On  the  other  hand,  many,  especially  among  the  bishops,  are  remarked  for  their  exemplary 
life,  and  for  the  diligent  discharge  of  their  functions.  They  are  even  sometimes  instru- 
mental in  preventing  riot,  in  discovering  thefl,  and  procuring  restitution.  The  recent 
admission  of  Roman  Catholics  to  all  political  privileges,  though  it  does  not  make  any  change 
in  the  condition  of  the  clergy,  has  been  hailed  by  the  body  in  general  with  peculiar  satisfac- 
tion. It  is  hoped  that  it  will  either  make  them  more  friendly  to  the  established  government, 
or  diminish  their  influence  in  estranging  from  it  the  minds  of  the  people. 

The  Presbyterians,  as  already  observed,  are  nearly  confined  to  Ulster,  where  they  are  the 
most  numerous  sect.  The  synod  of  Ulster  is  formed  into  a  sort  of  establishment,  consisting 
of  201  congregations,  besides  which  there  are  110  congregations  in  communion  with  the 
Scottish  seceders.  The  ministers  receive  a  royal  gift  of  14,000Z.  annually,  which  aflfbrds 
from  50/.  to  100/.  to  each.  The  Presbyterians  form  the  most  industrious,  thriving,  and 
intelligent  portion  of  the  people;  yet  a  great  proportion  have  imbibed  republican  ideas,  and 
thoy  emigrate  to  America  more  readily  than  any  other  class. 


448  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  Ul. 

The  Established  Church  of  Ireland  is  in  union  with  that  of  England,  and  every  way  simi- 
lar. It  consists  of  four  archbishoprics  and  eigiitcen  bishoprics ;  but  by  an  act  recently  passed, 
two  archbishoprics  are  to  be  converted  into  bishoprics ;  and  ten  bishoprics  are  to  be  abolished.* 
The  entire  revenue  of  the  Irish  clnirch  has  been  ascertained  to  exceed  150,000/.  tor  the 
bishoprics,  and  715,200/.  for  other  benefices.  The  lands  belonging  to  tlie  bisliops  are  of  far 
greater  value;  but  in  consequence  of  being  let  on  old  leases  renewed  from  time  to  time  on 
payment  of  fines,  and  never  coming  to  a  termination,  the  rent  derived  from  them  was  greatly 
under  the  real  value.  It  is  proposed  now  to  ofler  these  leases  to  the  present  incumbent,  in 
perpetuity,  on  payment  of  six  years'  purchase  of  tlieir  estimated  value,  wliich,  it  is  calculated, 
will  produce  about  3,000,000/.  A  tax,  moreover,  varying,  according  to  the  amount  of  income, 
from  five  to  fifteen  per  cent.,  is  to  be  laid  on  all  livings  above  200/. ;  and  its  produce  to  be 
applied  to  the  augmentation  of  the  poorer  livings,  and  the  building  of  glebe  houses  and  of 
new  churches.  Hence  the  paroclual  tax,  called  the  vestry  cess,  or  church  rate,  amounting 
to  about  90,000/.  a  year,  is  no  longer  to  be  levied. 

Tlie  literature  of  Ireland  in  modern  times,  cannot  boast  any  very  distinguished  pre-emi- 
nence ;  yet  she  has  maintained  )ier  station  in  the  literary  world.  In  wit  and  eloquence, 
indeed,  she  lias  excelled  both  the  sister  kingdoms.  In  the  former  quality,  Swift  and  Sheridan 
shine  unrivalled ;  and  in  the  latter,  Burke,  Grattan,  and  Curran  have  displayed  daring  and 
brilliant  flights.  In  her  graver  pursuits,  Ireland  has  not  been  so  happy ;  though  Usher 
attained  the  first  eminence  in  theological  learning,  and  Berkeley  was  the  author  of  a  highly 
ingenious  system  of  philosophy. 

The  Irish  establishments  for  education  are  scarcely  adequate  to  the  magnitude  of  the  coun- 
try. There  is  only  one  university,  that  of  Dublin,  founded  by  Elizabeth  on  the  model  of 
those  of  England,  but  not  on  so  great  a  scale.  Of  it  and  of  other  Irish  literary  institutions, 
an  account  will  be  found  under  the  head  of  Dublin.  As  the  constitution  of  this  university 
is  strictly  Protestant,  and  does  not  allow  the  teaching  of  Catholic  theology,  tlie  students  of 
that  faith  must  have  been  all  educated  abroad,  had  not  government  endowed  for  their  use 
the  College  of  JMaynooth.  It  is  supported  by  a  revenue  of  about  9000/.  a  year,  and  contains 
a  president,  vice-president,  and  eleven  professors,  all  with  moderate  appointments.  The 
students  receive  board  and  education;  and  the  whole  annual  expense  of  each  is  not  supposed 
to  exceed  20/.  The  students  of  the  north  resort  chiefly  to  Glasgow  for  theology,  and  to 
Edinburgh  for  medicine ;  though  there  has  been  an  attempt  to  obviate  this  necessity  by  the 
formation  of  an  institution  at  Belfast. 

The  education  of  the  poor  in  Ireland  is  a  subject  which  excites  the  deepest  interest  in  all 
the  friends  of  that  country.  It  appears  that  by  the  8th  of  Henry  VIII.,  every  clergyman,  on 
his  induction,  becomes  bound  to  keep  or  cause  to  be  kept  an  English  school.  This  act, 
however,  is  either  obsolete,  or  so  far  evaded  that  only  23,000  children  are  now  taught  in 
these  parochial  schools.  The  greatest  effort  at  Irish  education,  however,  is  that  made  by 
the  Charter  Schools,  instituted  in  1733,  which,  by  parliamentary  grants  and  private  bene- 
factions, have  enjoyed  an  income  of  30,000/.  a  year.  But  this  sum,  which  might  almost 
furnish  schools  to  the  half  of  Ireland,  is  spent  upon  2000  boys,  who  receive  board  as  well  as 
instruction.  Although  the  act  recites  no  other  object  than  instruction  in  the  English 
tongue,  proselytism  has  become  almost  the  sole  aim.  The  Hibernian  Society,  the  Baptist 
Society,  and  tlla^  for  discountenancing  vice,  support  schools  to  a  very  considerable  extent. 
The  Kildare  Street  Society,  established  in  1812,  founded  numerous  schools,  in  which  they 
endeavoured  to  induce  the  Catholics  to  attend  by  renouncing  all  attempts  to  gain  prose- 
lytes; but  from  the  entire  Scriptures  being  read  in  these  schools,  and  other  alleged  causes, 
the  Catholics  were  supposed  to  view  them  with  jealousy.  The  allowance  made  to  this 
society  was  therefore  withdrawn,  and  a  new  plan  instituted,  in  which  the  moral  and  literary 
is  separated  from  the  religious  education,  and  is  communicated  to  the  youth  of  both  religions 
during  four  or  five  days  in  the  week,  while,  in  the  remaining  period,  religious  instruction 
is  expected  to  be  administered  by  the  clergy  of  the  respective  churches.  Extracts  only 
from   the  Scripture,  approved  by  the  leading  Catholic  clergy,  are  read  in  the  common 

*  The  new  arrangement,  when  completed,  will  be  as  follows: 

Inconie. 

Armagh  (with  Clogher,  Archb.) X13, 170 

Meath 5,221 

Derry  (with  Raphoe) 8,033 

Down  (with  Connor  and  Dromore) 5,890 

Kilniore  (with  Ardagh  and  Elphin^ 7.473 

Tuam  (with  Killala  and  Achonry) 5,020 

DoBLiN  (with  Glandilach  and  Kildare) 9,:K2I 

Ossory  (with  Leishlin  and  Ferns) 6,550 

Cashel  (with  Enily,  Waterford,  and  Lismore) 7.3.34 

Cloyne  (with  Cork  and  Ross) 5,009 

Killalo  fwjlh  Kilfenora,  Clonfert,and  Kilraacduagh) 4,.532 

Limerick  (with  Ardfert  and  Aghadoe) 5,369 

Total 82,953 

[Am.  Ed.] 


Book  I.  IRELAND.  449 

schools.  Local  funds,  to  a  certain  extent,  arc  required  to  be  contributed.  Although  this 
system  has  met  with  many  opponents,  yet,  in  the  beginning  of  1833  there  had  been  estab- 
lished under  it  between  500  and  600  schools,  calculated  for  the  education  of  about  90,000 
scholars.  In  1824,  the  number  of  schools  in  Ireland  was  11,823,  and  scholars  560,549. 
Of  these  scholars  394,742  paid  for  their  own  instruction,  and  among  this  number  were 
807,000  Catholics,  who  thus  showed  no  small  ardour  in  obtaining  the  benefits  of  knowledge. 
The  following  table,  from  parliamentary  documents,  shows  the  number  of  pupils  receiving 
public  instruction  in  the  years  specified. 

Males.  Females.  Total. 

1821 205,606 129,207 394,813 

1826 3-t9,912 209,927 568,904* 

1834 84,645 60,876 145,521 

The  fine  arts  do  not  appear  to  have  attained  any  great  excellence  in  Ireland.  Her  best 
painters  have  sought  for  patronage  in  the  British  metropolis;  and  the  attempts  to  establish 
an  annual  exhibition  in  Dublin  have  not  succeeded.  The  Irish  harp  and  native  Irish  melo- 
dies enjoy  considerable  reputation.  The  ecclesiastical  structures  have  not  that  splendour 
and  richness  which  so  strongly  mark  many  of  those  in  England  ;  but  the  modern  edifices, 
especially  in  Dublin,  display  a  taste  as  well  as  magnificence  which  render  that  capital 
almost  pre-eminent. 

In  finierals,  marriages,  and  similar  solemnities,  the  Irish  retain  several  old  national  cus- 
toms. The  practice  of  hired  howling  women  at  funerals,  called  ululates,  is  very  prevalent ; 
a  considerable  sum  is  paid  to  tliose  employed,  tliough,  in  cases  of  necessity,  they  howl  gratis. 
A  still  more  unfortunate  custom  is  that  of  the  wakes,  where  thirty  or  forty  neighbours 
assemble,  are  entertained  with  meat  and  drink,  and  indulge  in  every  sort  of  fun.  Marriages 
in  many  parts  of  the  country  are  marked  by  some  real,  or  at  least  apparent,  violence  ;  the 
bridegroom  collects  a  large  party  of  friends,  seizes  and  carries  off"  the  seemingly  reluctant  bride. 
Alluding  to  this  custom,  her  going  to  her  husband's  house,  even  in  ordinary  cases,  is  called 
the  "  hauling  home."  This  is  not  prompted  by  any  peculiar  shyness  on  the  part  of  the  fair 
sex ;  on  tlie  contrary,  the  mothers,  with  whom  the  afl^air  chiefly  rests,  display  even  a  fever- 
ish anxiety  that  their  offspring  should  not  remain  long  in  a  state  of  single  blessedness.  The 
fair  sex  are  treated  among  the  higher  ranks  with  a  gay  and  romantic  gallantry ;  among  the 
lower  almost  as  slaves,  being  subjected  to  the  most  degrading  labour. 

Amusement  fonns  a  copious  element  in  the  existence  of  an  Irishman.  Ample  scope  is 
afforded  to  the  Catholics  by  their  numerous  holidays,  and  the  Protestants  vie  with  them  in 
this  particular.  The  fairs  afford  a  grand  theatre  for  fun  of  every  description.  The  chief 
bodily  exercise  is  hurling,  which  consists  in  driving  a  ball  to  opposite  goals ;  to  this  are 
added  horse-racing,  cock-fighting,  cudgelling,  leaping,  and  dancing;  to  say  nothing  of  drink- 
ing and  figliting.  The  conversation  of  the  Irish  is  distinguished  by  loud  mirth,  seasoned 
with  a  good  deal  of  humour,  by  singing,  and  telling  long  stories.  Thus  employed,  even  the 
poor  will  often  sit  up  to  a  late  hour. 

The  houses  of  the  Irish,  if  we  except  those  of  the  rich,  or  in  towns,  which  are  formed 
after  the  English  model,  are  mere  hovels  formed  of  earth,  taken  out  of  the  ground  on  which 
they  stand ;  whence  the  floor  is  reduced  at  least  a  foot  below  the  outer  level,  and  becomes  a 
receptacle  for  all  the  superfluous  moisture.  This  is  the  more  incommodious  as  it  has  no 
boards,  and  the  bed  no  frame ;  nor  is  the  latter  raised  from  the  ground,  being  merely  straw 
spread  upon  the  floor.  This  humble  mansion  is  shared  by  all  the  living  creatures,  which  the 
family  are  able  to  muster ;  cow^s,  pigs,  geese,  and  fowls ;  which  are  rarely  separated  by  any 
partition  from  the  other  tenants. 

No  compulsory  provision  exists  in  Ireland  for  the  support  of  the  poor  ;  a  circumstance  to 
which  we  are  inclined  to  ascribe  much  of  their  distressed  state,  as  well  as  of  the  backward 
state  of  the  country  in  general.  Not  being  obliged  to  contribute  any  thing  to  their  support, 
the  landlords  and  occupiers  have,  generally  speaking,  manifested  great  indifference  to  the 
condition  of  tiie  peasantry.  Few  among  them  have  hesitated  to  allow  their  estates  to  be 
subdivided  into  minute  portions  to  advance  their  political  interests,  or  to  obtain  an  increase 
of  rent.  But  it  is  abundantly  certain  tliat  they  would  have  paused  before  venturing  on  such 
a  course  of  procecdincr,  had  they  been  made  responsible,  in  all  time  to  come,  for  the  paupers 
they  were  thus  introducing  upon  their  properties. 

The  dress  of  the  Irish  peasantry  consists  chiefly  of  the  native  wool,  worked  rudely  up 
into  frieze  or  linsey ;  for  they  seldom  can  afford  to  wear  tlie  fine  linen  which  they  fabricate. 
But  the  most  prominent  feature  of  this  attire  among  the  lowest  class,  is  its  lamentable  de- 
ficiency; in  many  instances  it  covers  little  more  than  half  of  the  person,  and  presents  an 
image  of  extreme  poverty.  When  this  deficiency  does  not  exist,  the  Irishman  loves  to  dis- 
play the  extent  of  his  wardrobe  ;  when  going  to  a  fair,  lie  puts  on  all  the  coats  he  has,  though 
the  season  be  midsummei*. 

The  food  of  the  Irish  peasant  is  no  less  scanty  than  his  dress  and  habitation.     It  is  almost 

*  Including  9,125  not  ascertained. 

Vol.  L  38*  3G 


450 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


Part  III. 


wholly  comprised  in  the  potato,  without  any  other  vegetable  (for  he  is  a  stranger  to  the 
luxury  of  a  garden),  and  only  in  favourable  circumstances  is  it  accompanied  with  milk.  This 
food,  however,  is  sufficient  to  preserve  him  in  full  health  and  vigour.  In  the  north,  the  use 
of  oatmeal  m  the  form  of  cakes  and  pottage  has  been  derived  from  Scotland. 

Sect.  \^I. — Local  Geography. 

Ireland  is  divided  into  four  provinces,  or  rather  regions :  Leinster  in  the  east,  Munster  m 
the  south,  Connaught  in  the  west,  and  Ulster  in  the  north.  This  is  independent  of  the 
minuter  English  division  into  counties,  a  number  of  which  are  comprised  in  each  of  the 
four  provinces.  These  last,  indeed,  when  Ireland  was  ruled  by  native  governments,  formed 
separate  kingdoms.  They  are  still  distinguished  by  marked  boundaries,  by  a  different  aspect 
of  nature,  and  by  a  considerable  variation  of  manners  and  customs. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  leading  provincial  statistics  of  Ireland.  The  population 
statements  differ  considerably  from  those  hitherto  published ;  but  they  have  been  furnished 
by  Mr.  Porter,  of  the  Board  of  Trade  as  the  result  of  tlie  latest  and  most  accurate  digest  of 
the  returns  for  1831. 


Provinces 

and 
Counlies. 

Squire 
Miles. 

Improved 
Acres. 

Unim. 
proved 
Acres. 

Estimated 
Annual 
Value. 

Houses 
in  1S2I. 

Popula- 
1S31. 

Cities  and  Towns,  with  their  Population. 

Leinster. 

£ 

Dublin 

221 

237,819 

10,812 

250,211 

35,740 

380,167 

Dublin 

204.155 

Louth 

173 

191,345 

14,916 

104,76o 

21,302 

124,846 

Drogheda  .... 

17,.305  Dundalk 

9,256 

Meath 

512 

561,527 

5.600 

5;0.414 

27,942 

170,820 

Trim 

2,470 

VVicklow.  .. 

486 

400,704 

94,000 

296,822 

17,289 

121,557 

VVicklow  .... 

2,046  Arklow 

3,808 

Wexford  . . . 

5.To 

545,079 

18,500 

39,5,1:54 

29,159 

182,713 

Wexford 

8,326 

Longford... 

209 

192,506 

55,247 

151,595 

18,987 

112,558 

Longford  .... 
Enniscorthy  . 

3,783  New  Ross  . . . 
3,557 

4,475 

Westmeath 

361 

313,935 

55,982 

251,063 

23,015 

1.30,872 

Mullingar  . . . 

4,100  Athlone 

11,362 

440 

394,569 

133,349 

317  019 

22  504 

144,225 

Philipstown  . 
Tullamore  . . . 

1  931  Birr  

5,406 

5,517 

Queen's  Co. 

367 

335,838 

60,972 

277.767 

23,105 

145,851 

Portarlington 

2.877  Maryborough 

2,677 

Kildare 

369 

325,988 

66.447 

255,0^ 

10,478 

108,424 

Athv 

Kildare 

3,693  Naas 

1,516 

3,073 

Kilkenny  . . 

469 

417,117 

96,569 

437,093 

29,789 

193,686 

Kilkenny .... 

23,741 

Carlow 

214 

196,833 

23,030 

164,895 

13,028 

81,988 

Carlow 

8,035 

4,35G 

4,113,260 

635,424 

3,472,460 

278,398 

1,909,713 

Ulster. 
Down 

544 

502,677 

108,569 

489,123 

59,747 

352,012 

Newry 

10,013  Downpatrick 

4,123 

Donnaghadee 

2,795 

Antrim 

005 

483,106 

225,970 

569,159 

48,028 

:«5,615 

Belfast 

Antrim 

53,000  Carrickfergus 
2,485  Lisburn'' 

8,700 
4,084 

Londonderr. 

479 

372,667 

136,038 

310,962 

34,091 

222,012 

Londonderry. 

9,313  Colerain 

4,851 

Donegal  . . . 

1,061 

520,7.30 

644,371 

349,50) 

44.800 

2>'9,149 

Ballvfhannon 

3,831  Lifford 

976 

Fermanagh 

440 

320,599 

101,952 

259,291 

22,585 

149,703 

Eiiniskillen. . 

2,399 

Cavan  

478 

421,462 

30,000 

.307,741 

34,148 

227  933 

Cavan 

2,322 

Monashan  . 

280 

309,968 

9,236 

212,581 

32,378 

195,530 

Monaghan. .. 

3,738 

Armagh 

283 

267,317 

42,472 

178,955 

36,260 

220,134 

Armagh 

8,493 

Tyrone  .... 

724 

550,820 

171,314 

528,005 

47,164 

304,408 

Omagh  ....*.. 

2,095  Dungammon. 

3,243 

4,894 

3,749,352 

1,469,922 

3,205,378 

359,801 

2,280,022 

Munster. 
Clare  

744 

524,113 

259,584 

441,293 

35,373 

258,322 

Ennis 

6,701 

Kerry 

1,012 

581,189 

552,862 

344,616 

35,597 

263,120 

Tralee 

Dingle 

7,547  Killarney 

4,988 

7,014 

Cork 

1,638 

1,068.803 

700,760 

1,203,926 

114,459 

810,732 

Cork 

Kinsale 

Fermov 

107,016  Bandon 

7,068  Youffhal 

6,702  Mallow 

10,179 
8,909 
4,114 

Waterford  . 

410 

353,247 

118,034 

295,304 

23,800 

177,054 

Waterford  . . . 

28,821  Lismore 

2,3.30 

Tipperary. . 

867 

819,658 

182,147 

880,539 

55,297 

402,503 

Clonmel 

Ti|iperary  . ._. 
Roscrea '. 

15,590  Cashcl 

0,348  Carr.-on-Suir 
5,239 

0,548 
7,400 

Limerick. .. 

004 

588,842 

91,981 

029,932 

42,409 

315,355 

Limerick  .  • .  • 

66,554 

5,275 

3,935,852 

1,905,308 

3,801,670 

306,995 

2,iS7,152 

Connaught 

Leitrim  . .  .. 

400 

266,640 

128,167 

210,137 

21,762 

14],.524Carrick-on-Sh. 

1,673 

Sligo 

386 

257,217 

168,711 

227,443 

27,059 

171,765  Sligo 

9,283 

Mayo 

1,2.'W 

871 ,984 

425,124 

550,018 

53,051 

300,3a-^|Castlcbar 

5,404 

Gal  way . .. . 

1,546 

955,713 

476,957 

868,794 

58,137 

414,084,Galwav 

33,120  Tuam 

4,571 

liallinasloe  . . 

1,811 

Roscommon 

541 

453,455 

131,063 

379,028 

37,399 

219,013 

Roscommon  . 

3,015 

4,108 

2,805,009 

1,330,022 

2,230,070 

197,408 

1,343,914 

♦18,633 

14,003,473 

5,310,730 

12,715,578 

1,142,602 

7,767,40] 

SuBSECT.  1. — Leinster. 
Leinster  is  the  richest  and  most  cultivated  of  the  four  great  division.?,  and,  as  containing 
the  seat  of  government,  the  most  important  theatre  of  political  events.     Though  the  sur- 
face be  level  to  a  great  extent,  it  is  not  destitute  of  considerable  ranges  of  mountains.  These 


[*  This  is  the  Irish  mile  of  40  to  a  degree.    The  area  has  already  been  stated  to  be  30,000  English  square  miles 
-Am.  Ec.] 


Book  I. 


IRELAND 


451 


include  almost  the  whole  county  of  Wicklow,  whose  bold  and  picturesque  summits  are  seen 
even  from  Dublin.  In  the  interior,  the  long  range  of  Slieve-Bloom  stretches  towards  the 
borders  of  Munster.  A' considerable  part  also  of  the  midland  counties  is  covered  by  the 
great  bog,  which  crosses  the  whole  centre  of  Ireland.  After  all  deductions,  however,  there 
remains  a  large  extent  of  level  land,  fit  either  for  tillage  or  pasturage.  This  is  the  part  of 
Ireland  where  wheat  is  grown  to  the  greatest  extent,  oats  being  elsewhere  almost  the  only 
grain ;  and  its  rich  pastures  supply  the  capital  with  cattle  and  the  products  of  the  dairy. 

Leinster  comprises  the  counties  of  Dublin,  Kildare,  King's  county,  Queen's  County, 
Wicklow,  Carlow,  Kilkenny,  Wexford,  Meath,  Westmeath,  Longford,  and  Louth. 

The  county  of  Dublin  owes  its  distinction  almost  exclusively  to  its  contaming  the  capital 
of  Ireland.  The  city  of  Dublin  disputes  with  Edinburgh  and  Bath  the  reputation  of  being 
the  most  beautiful  city  m  the  empire.  If  the  brick  of  which  the  houses  are  built  impair  the 
effect  of  the  general  range  of  its  streets  and  squares,  its  public  buildings,  composed  of  stone, 
surpass  in  grandeur  and  taste  those  of  any  of  its  rivals.  There  is  no  period  of  Irish  record 
in  which  Dublin  was  not  an  important  place.  It  is  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  under  the  name 
of  Eblana.  The  Danes,  in  the  ninth  century,  made  it  their  capital,  and  enclosed  it  with  a 
wall  about  a  mile  in  length,  the  course  of  which  may  still  be  traced.  As  soon  as  the  Eng- 
lish began  to  establish  themselves  in  Ireland,  its  proximity  induced  them  to  make  it  their 
head-quarters ;  it  grew  with  the  improvement  of  Ireland  and  the  extension  of  the  English 
sway,  but  all  its  splendour  has  arisen  within  the  last  sixty  or  seventy  years.  The  numerous 
streets  and  squares  formed  during  that  period  have  been  built  on  a  regular  plan,  and  contain 
several  superb  mansions,  which  once  belonged  to  the  principal  nobles.  The  squares  are  par- 
ticularly admired;  that  of  St.  Steplien's  Green  is  nearly  seven  furlongs  in  ciicuit;  Merrion 
Square,  which  contains  the  splendid  mansion  of  Leinster  House ;  Rutland  Square,  in  the 
interior  of  which  are  the  gardens  of  the  Lying-in  Hospital ;  and  Mountjoy  Square,  are  also 
spacious  and  finely  laid  out.  Of  the  streets,  the  finest  is  Sackville  Street,  170  feet  wide, 
and  adorned  with  many  splendid  mansions.  To  the  west  is  the  old  town,  now  bearing  marks 
of  decay,  and  still  farther  west  is  the  tract  called  "  the  Liberfy,"  as  being  out  of  the  juris- 
diction of  the  magistrates.  It  is  inhabited  only  by  the  lowest  orders,  and  exhibits  scenes  of 
filth  and  wretchedness  not  to  be  paralleled  in  any  city  of  the  sister  island.  A  room  fifteen 
feet  square  is  frequently  let  to  three  or  four  families ;  and  one  house  was  ascertained  to  have 
lodged  108  persons.  Dublin  has  been  "  shorn  of  its  beams"  since  the  Union ;  when  the 
nobles  and  gentry,  no  longer  called  to  attend  parliament,  transferred  their  own  residence  to 
the  metropolis  of  the  empire,  and  their  Dublin  mansions  have  been  converted  to  humbler  pur- 
poses. The  Castle,  the  residence  of  the  lord  lieutenant,  is  extensive ;  but  its  architectural 
beauty  is  almost  confined  to  a  modern  Gothic  chapel.  The  cathedral  of  St.  Patrick  {fig.  212.), 
and  Christ  Church  have  a  venerable  aspect ;  but  they  can  rank  only  secondary  to  the  fine 
212  structures  in  the  English  cities.    The  splendid 

structure,  formerly  the  parliament-house  of  Ire- 
land, and  now  the  national  bank  {fig.  213.), 

J^:^^  ^^--^  ^^m^^     ,  •%  „    213 


St.  Patrick's  Callicclral.  Bank  of  Ireland,  Dublin. 

was  built  between  1729  and  1739 ;  but  an  eastern  front  was  added  in  1785,  and  a  western 
front  shortly  after.  The  portico  is  147  feet  in  lengtli,  supported  by  lofty  Ionic  columns ;  the 
whole  covering  an  acre  and  a  half  of  ground.  The  Royal  Exchange  {fig.  214.),  forms  a 
square  of  100  feet,  and  its  principal  front  has  a  richly  decorated  portico  of  six  Corinthian 
columns.     The. Four  Law  Courts,  situated  oa  the  north  bank  of  the  river  {fig.  215.),  form 

214  ~  '''" 


Eiciiango,  Dublin. 


Four  Courts,  Duulin. 


452  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

also  one  of  the  noblest  structures  in  Dublin :  it  consists  of  a  square  of  140  feet,  presenting  a 
front  of  six  Corinthian  pillars,  supporting  a  circular  lantern  and  magnificent  dome.  The 
quay  is  ornamented  by  the  Custom-house,  of  which  the  front  is  entirely  of  Portland  stone, 
embellished  with  a  Doric  colonnade,  and  extending  375  feet.  The  Post  Office,  in  Sackville 
Street,  is  extensive  and  magnificent,  with  a  front  of  223  feet,  adorned  with  an  Ionic  portico 
of  Portland  stone ;  the  main  structure  is  of  granite.  In  the  centre  of  Sackville  Street,  is 
the  moniuncnt  erected  to  Nelson ;  an  object  by  no  means  ornamental.  The  inns  of  court, 
the  theatre,  the  half-finished  Roman  Catholic  metropolitan  chapel,  and  several  other  churches 
and  chapels,  with  many  of  the  hospitals,  may  be  mentioned  as  adding  to  the  architectural 
splendour  of  Dublin.  All  the  usual  associations  for  the  relief  of  distress  are  supported  on  a 
liberal  scale,  and  great  zeal  is  shown  in  favour  of  all  institutions  for  the  promotion  of  know- 
ledge. Trinity  College  was  founded  in  1593 ;  and  its  students  ainotmt  to  1600.  There  are 
25  fellowships,  and  the  livings  in  the  gift  of  the  university,  which  are  considerable  in  num- 
ber and  value,  are  offered  to  the  fellows  in  tlic  order  of  .seniority.  The  gradations  of 
rank,  amongst  the  fellows  in  Trinity  College,  are  indicated  by  a  di'iibrent  dress  and  table. 
The  library  contains  100,000  volumes ;  but  its  other  collections  arc  not  equal  to  those  of  the 
Dublin  Society.  Usher,  Swill,  Berkeley,  Chandler,  Leland,  Parnell,  Burke,  Grattan,  Curran, 
with  other  distinguished  characters,  are  mentioned  as  pupils  of  tliis  seminary.  The  buildings 
of  the  College  are  on  a  large  scale,  divided  into  three  quadrangles,  lor  the  accommodation 
of  the  fellows  and  pupils.  The  front  towards  College  Green  extends  300  feet,  and  is  adorned 
with  columns  of  the  Corinthian  order.  The  library  forms  a  fourth  quadrangle,  built  of  hewn 
stone,  with  a  rich  entablature;  and  the  principal  room,  210  feet  long  and  41  feet  broad,  is 
eleo^antly  fitted  up.  At  a  sliort  distance  from  town  is  a  botanic  garden.  The  Royal  Dublin 
Society,  incorporated  in  1749,  for  the  promotion  of  husbandry  and  the  useful  arts,  has  a 
botanic  garden ;  a  museum  of  natural  history ;  a  school  for  drawing,  with  models ;  and 
teachers  in  all  these  departments.  The  Royal  Irish  Academy,  incorporated  in  1782,  has 
publislied  many  volumes  of  Transactions.  The  Dublin  Institution  has  been  formed  on  the 
model  of  that  of  London,  and  a  city  Library  established.  Although  a  great  literary  spirit 
prevails  in  Dublin,  there  are  few  books  printed  there,  and  the  art  of  printing  is  in  a  back- 
ward state.  The  works  of  Irish  authors  issue  from  the  London  presses.  Dublin  iias  very 
little  foreign  trade ;  but  she  has  a  considerable  trade  with  England,  particularly  w  ith  Liver- 
pool. The  bay  is  spacious,  and  has  good  anchorage ;  but  the  entrance  is  beset  with  formida- 
ble sand-banks,  particularly  those  called  the  North  and  South  Bulls,  wliich  cannot  be  passed 
by  large  vessels  at  low  water;  so  that  vessels  embayed  atthat  time  of  tlie  tide,  and  attacked 
by  strong  easterly  gales,  can  scarcely  escape  being  driven  upon  one  of  tliem.  To  avert  these 
evils,  a  double  wall  has  been  constructed  three  miles  in  length,  composed  of  enormous  blocks 
of  granite,  dovetailed  into  each  otiier,  the  interval  filled  witli  gravel ;  and  a  light-house 
erected  at  the  end.  Another  pier  of  great  extent  has  been  built  at  Dunleary,  now  Kings- 
town, on  the  southern  side  of  the  bay,  which  is  connected  by  a  railway  with  the  capital. 
To  these  advantages  Dublin  unites  that  of  being  placed  at  the  termination  of  the  Grand 
Canal  on  the  south,  and  the  Royal  Canal  on  the  north,  which  penetrate  by  different  lines  to 
the  Shannon  and  the  interior  of  Ireland.  In  1829,  Dublin  paid  the  sum  of  660,000/.  of  duty 
on  imported  goods,  while  that  paid  at  all  the  other  ports  of  Ireland  amounted  only  to  910,000/. 
The  environs  are  celebrated  for  their  beauty.  The  vast  number  of  villas  and  villages  which 
cover  the  adjacent  districts,  and  are  rendered  conspicuous  by  the  ground  sloping  down  to  the 
bay ;  the  foreground  of  the  Dublin  mountains,  and  the  picturesque  summits  of  those  of 
Wicklow  in  the  background,  render  the  situation  striking  and  delightful.  To  the  west. 
Phoenix  Park,  a  royal  demesne  of  several  miles  in  circumference,  affords  an  agreeable  pro- 
menade, and  has  lately  been  adorned  with  an  obelisk,  210  feet  higli,  in  honour  of  the  Duke 
of  Wellington.  The  rest  of  the  county  contains  only  villages,  and  the  interior  possesses  few 
interesting  objects.  The  shores  of  the  bay,  however,  include  many  striking  sites;  and  the 
view  from  the  Hill  of  Killiney  is  almost  matchless. 

Wicklow  is  in  general  composed  of  bog,  forest,  and  mountain,  and  contributes  little  to  the 
wealth  of  Ireland.  It  is,  however,  celebrated  for  picturesque  beauty.  Its  coast,  diversified 
by  hills,  broken  into  glens,  and  richly  wooded,  is  almost  covered  with  the  seats  of  the  gentry 
and  opulent  citizens  of  Dublin.  These  variegated  and  embellished  grounds,  having-on  one 
side  the  expanse  of  the  Irish  Channel,  and  on  tlie  other  the  lofty  mountains  in  the  interior, 
produce  a  number  of  beautiful  sites.  The  demesne  of  Powerscourt  is  pre-eminent,  the  water- 
fall {fig.  216.),  descending  360  feet  down  a  steep  hill,  amid  vast  hanging  woods.  The  interior 
of  the  county  presents  features  of  a  very  different  description  ;  glens  between  lofty  mountains, 
naked  and  desolate.  Among  these  is  Glendalough  (Jig.  217.),  which  is  surrounded  by  a  most 
majestic  circuit  of  mountains,  and  contains  some  remarkable  ecclesiastical  monuments  attri- 
buted to  St.  Kevin,  a  great  patron  saint  of  Ireland  in  tlie  seventh  century.  One  of  liis  disci- 
ples founded  at  Glendalough  a  little  city,  long  celebrated  as  a  seat  of  religion  and  learning. 
Only  its  site  can  now  be  traced ;  but  there  are  distinct  remains  of  seven  churches,  among 
which  the  cathedral  and  St.  Kevin's  kitchen  are  the  most  entire.     Loughs  Dan  and  Bray, 


Book  I. 


IRELAND. 


453 


situated  in  the  bosom  of  tlie  wildest  mountains,  and  enclosed  by  dark  and  lofty  rocks,  present 
nature  under  an  aspect  the  most  rudely  sublime.  Wicklow  has  veins  of  copper  and  lead : 
g-old  was  collected  in  one  year  to  the  value  of  10,000?. ;  but  the  vein  was  soon  exiiausted. 

The  towns  of  Wicklow  and  Arklow,  though  well 
built,  are  inconsiderable;  yet  the  latter,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Ovoc,;,  has  a  little  trade,  and  was  once 
the  residence  of  the  kings  of  Ireland.  It  was  the 
scene  of  a  memorable  action  in  1798,  when  the  in- 

217 


iuit  \^■alerfa!l 


GU'iidrtl.'Ugh 


surgents,  above  30,000  strong,  were  defeated  by  a  small  British  detachment. 

Wexford,  to  the  south  of  Wicklow,  is  separated  from  it  by  a  range  of  mountains;  but 
the  interior  contains  a  great  deal  of  level  land,  in  which  agriculture  is  pursued  with  greater 
diligence,  and  the  tenantry  are  more  comfortable,  than  in  most  other  parts  of  Ireland.  Barley 
is  a  prevailing  crop.  The  woodlands  also  are  extensive  and  valuable.  Wexford  is  a  place 
of  some  consequence,  with  a  harbour  much  obstructed  by  sand ;  yet  it  carries  on  some  traffic. 
Some  woollens  are  made  both  at  Wexford  and  Ennifcortliy.  New  Ross,  in  the  western  part 
of  the  county,  is  a  flourishing  town,  on  the  Barrow,  which  admits  of  large  ships  coming  up 
to  its  quay. 

Kilkenny,  a  fine  and  extensive  county,  separated  from  Wexford  by  the  Barrow,  is  watered 
not  only  by  that  river,  but  by  its  tributaries  the  Nore  and  the  Suire.  These  streams  carry 
olF  the  superfluous  moisture,  and  prevent  the  formation  of  bog  or  marsh  to  any  extent.  Kil- 
kenny, being  chiefly  level,  or  intersected  only  by  hills  of  moderate  height,  is  composed 
almost  entirely  either  of  arable  or  fine  pasture  land.  The  latter  is  employed  in  extensive 
dairies,  but  the  system  of  cultivation  is  still  imperfect.  Kilkenny,  the  capital,  advantage- 
ously situated  on  the  Nore,  is  partly  built  of  the  marble  of  the  surrounding  quarries.  Its 
cathedral  is  one  of  the  finest  in  Ireland,  and  the  castle,  with  its  remaining  gates  and  bastions, 
exhibits  indications  of  that  strength  which  enabled  it  to  hold  out  against  Cromwell  longer 
than  any  other  city  in  Ireland.  At  present  Kilkenny  flourishes  by  inland  trade,  and  by  a 
manufactory  of  blankets  and  other  woollens.  The  foreign  trade  of  the  county  is  carried  on 
by  Waterford. 

Carlow  is  encompassed  by  mountains,  which  however  enclose  a  champaign  tract  of  great 
beauty  and  fertility,  equally  fit  for  tillage  and  pasture,  and  producing  the  best  butter  in  Ire- 
land. The  town  of  Carlow  is  a  considerable  place,  distinguished  by  an  abbey  and  castle, 
both  of  great  antiquity.  The  town  has  a  manufactory  of  coarse  woollens,  and  carries  on  a 
considerable  trade  down  tlie  Barrow.  An  extensive  Catholic  seminary  has  lately  been 
founded  here. 

Queen's  County  and  King's  County  form  a  table-land  of  moderate  elevation.  Part  of  the 
great  chain  of  bogs  crosses  these  counties,  and  renders  a  large  proportion  of  them  unpro- 
ductive, tliough  it  supplies  them  with  cheap  and  abundant  fuel.  The  remaining  surface  i.s 
highly  fertile.  Queen's  County  is  situated  along  the  heads  of  tlie  Barrow  and  the  Nore ; 
King's  County  reaches  to  the  Shannon ;  and  both  conmiunicate  by  canals  with  Dublin, 
Portarlington,  on  the  borders  of  the  two  counties,  is  a  well-built  place,  with  good  schools, 
and  the  residence  of  a  considerable  number  of  gentry.  Tullamore,  on  the  great  canal,  and 
Birr  or  Parsonstown,  are  the  most  thriving  towns  in  King's  County. 

Kildare,  with  the  exception  of  about  a  sixth  part  of  bog,  forms  a  plain  of  the  finest  arable 
soil,  well  cultivated,  and  whence  the  capital  is  chiefly  supplied  with  grain.  The  Grand  and 
Royal  Canals,  which  both  cross  its  northern  border,  afford  the  means  of  ready  conveyance 
to  Dublin.  Kildare-town,  presenting  a  lofty  round  tower  and  some  other  vestiges  of  past 
importance,  is  only  supported  by  the  races  held  on  the  curragh  of  Kildare,  an  expanse  of 
several  thousand  acres  of  the  very  finest  turf  Naas  and  Athy  are  larger  towns,  and  the 
castle  of  tlie  former  bears  testimony  to  the  period  when  it  was  the  residence  of  tlie  kings 


454  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  P.vrt  III. 

of  Leinster.  In  this  county  is  Maynooth,  a  small  town  containing'  the  college  established 
by  government  for  the  education  of  the  Roman  Catholics. 

Mcath  is  one  of  tlie  most  favoured  counties  of  tiie  kingdom  in  respect  to  soil.  Its  rich  pas- 
tures support  vast  herds  of  black  cattle,  which  supply  the  markets  of  the  capital,  and  are  ex- 
ported to  England.  The  products  of  tlie  dairy  are  abundant,  though  not  of  very  superior 
quality.     Trim,  where  tlie  assizes  are  lield,  is  a  small  town ;  Navan  and  Kells  are  larger. 

Louth,  though  the  smallest  in  area  of  any  Irish  county,  is  one  of  the  first  in  point  of  natu- 
ral and  acquired  advantages.  An  active  spirit  of  improvement  has  brought  almost  every 
part  of  its  excellent  soil  under  cultivation.  Its  linen  manufacture  produces  chiefly  dowlas 
and  slicetings,  with  some  cambric.  Loutli  presents  many  samples  of  the  earthen  mounds 
called  ruths.  Dundalk,  the  capital  of  the  county,  is  ancient,  populous,  and  flourishing.  It 
has  been  the  theatre  of  important  historical  events ;  but  its  lolly  towers  and  castles  are  now 
demolished,  and  have  given  place  to  comfortable  dwellings.  The  town  consists  chiefly  of 
one  lurge  and  broad  street,  whence  many  lanes  are  seen  diverging.  It  is  the  only  place  in 
Ireland  where  the  cambric  manufacture  has  been  introduced,  and  continues  to  flourish. 
Drogheda,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Boyne,  was  of  still  greater  importance  as  a  military  station, 
being  considered  one  of  the  keys  of  Ireland.  In  the  great  rebellion  of  1641,  it  stood  a  long 
siege,  but  was  afterwards  taken  by  Cromwell,  who  punished  its  resistance  by  a  most  barba- 
rous massacre  of  tlie  garrison.  In  1690,  two  miles  above  Drogheda,  was  fought  the  battle 
of  the  Boyne,  that  memorable  field  which  establislied  the  civil  and  religious  liberties  of  the 
empire.  The  fortifications  are  of  obsolete  structure,  and  are  commanded  on  several  sides. 
The  place  has  an  excellent  harbour,  and  extensive  commerce  in  grain  brought  down  the 
river  in  considerable  quantities  for  exportation ;  in  return  for  which,  coals  and  other  commo- 
dities are  imported. 

Westmeath  and  Longford,  reaching  westward  as  far  as  the  Shannon,  consist  chiefly  of  a 
very  extensive  plain  considerably  encumbered  with  lakes,  bogs,  and  morasses,  and  subject  in 
part  to  the  overflowing  of  the  Shannon,  but  including  fertile  tracts  of  great  extent.  Ath- 
lone,  the  largest  inland  town  of  Ireland,  is  situated  partly  in  Westmeath  and  partly  in  Ros- 
common. It  is  memorable  for  its  resistance  to  General  Ginkle  in  1691,  previous  to  the  battle 
of  Aughrim,  and  is  still  considered  an  important  military  station.  It  is  divided  by  the  Slian- 
non  into  two  parts  united  by  a  bridge.  With  this  exception,  these  provinces  contain  only 
small  country  towns  and  large  villages.  Mullingar,  in  Westmeath,  has  a  considerable  trade. 
Longford  is  the  capital  of  the  county  of  that  name, 

SuBSECT  2. — Munster. 

Munster  includes  the  south  and  south-west  of  Ireland,  and,  though  not  the  most  extensive 
division  of  the  kingdom,  is  one  of  those  which  presents  the  boldest  and  most  striking  fea- 
tures. Most  of  the  great  mountain  chains  of  Ireland  traverse  Munster ;  among  which  are 
conspicuous  the  Galties  and  the  mountains  of  Kerry,  which  encircle  Killarney ;  so  that,  not- 
withstanding the  almost  boundless  plains  of  Limerick  and  Tipperary,  and  the  level  character 
of  a  great  part  of  Cork,  it  may  be  considered  as  a  mountainous  region.  It  has  manufactures, 
though  not  on  so  great  a  scale  as  those  of  the  north  ;  and  its  commerce  is  very  considerable, 
chiefly  in  the  export  of  salted  provisions.  The  Catholic  religion  prevails,  with  little  inter- 
mixture of  tliat  of  the  English  church.  Munster  is  divided  into  larger  and  less  numerous 
portions  than  Leinster ;  its  counties  are  Tipperary,  Waterford,  Cork,  Kerry,  Limerick,  and 
Clare. 

Tipperary,  extending  over  almost  the  whole  fi'ontier  of  Leinster,  is  crossed  by  a  long 
chain  of  mountains  called  variously  Slieve-Bloom,  the  Devil's  Bit,  and  other  uncouth  names; 
and  on  the  south  it  includes  part  of  the  Galties.  On  the  north  a  small  portion  of  the  great 
central  bog  extends  across  the  county  ;  but  one  district,  along  the  upper  course  of  the  Suire, 
bears  the  appellation  of  the  Golden  Vale.  The  sheep  and  horned  cattle  are  of  excellent 
quality.  There  are  manufactures,  chiefly  for  domestic  use ;  and  some  coal,  similar  to  that 
of  Kilkenny.  Clonmel,  the  county  town,  is  one  of  the  most  considerable  in  the  interior  of 
Ireland  :  it  stood  a  long  siege  against  Cromwell,  who  after  its  reduction  demolished  the  strong 
walls  and  castles  by  whicli  it  was  defended.  It  is  a  well-built  town,  with  four  streets  cross- 
ing each  other,  and  carries  on  a  brisk  inland  trade.  Cashel  is  a  large  and  handsome  city, 
the  scat  of  an  archbishop,  to  whose  residence  a  considerable  library  is  attached.  In  ancient 
times,  it  was  the  capital  of  the  kings  of  Munster,  of  whose  palace  some  remnants  may  still 
be  traced.  Noble  fragments  remain  of  the  ancient  cathedral,  majestically  seated  on  the 
summit  of  a  precipitous  rock.  The  choir  and  nave,  210  feet  long,  are  strewed  with  the  re- 
mains of  its  rich  ornaments.  Here  was  deposited  the  Lia  Fale,  or  fatal  stone,  on  which  the 
kings  of  Munster  were  crowned.  The  structure  is  now  abandoned  to  decay,  and  a  modern 
cathedral  of  fine  Grecian  architecture  has  been  substituted.  Cashel  contains  remains  of 
other  monastic  edifices,  of  which  Here  Abbey,  on  the  same  rock  with  the  cathedral,  is  a 
magnificent  specimen,  still  almost  entire. 

Waterford  is  a  mountainous  county,  and  only  a  small  portion  is  under  cultivation ;  tha 


Book  I. 


IRELAND. 


455 


chief  branch  of  rural  industry  is  the  dairy,  and  great  quantities  of  butter  are  salted  for  ex- 
portation. Waterford,  its  capital,  one  of  ihe  principal  sea-ports  of  the  empire,  being  placed 
at  tlie  confluence  of  the  Barrow  and  Suire,  tlie  second  and  third  rivers  of  Ireland,  enjoys  a 
most  extensive  intercourse  with  the  interior.  Tlie  quantity  of  beef,  pork,  butter,  and  grain 
exported  to  England,  in  1831-2,  was  valued  at  2,065,861Z. ;  of  which  bacon  was  547,000A  ; 
butter,  538,000/.;  wheat  and  flour,  .566,000/.;  oats,  128,000/.;  live  pigs,  117,000/.  The 
southern  packet  communication  with  England  is  carried  on  from  Waterford  to  Milford  Haven. 
Within  these  few  years,  seventy  vessels  have  been  fitted  out  for  the  Newfoundland  fishery. 
Waterford  enjoys  tlie  benefit  of  a  deep  and  spacious  harbour,  and  a  fine  quay  half  a  mile 
long.  Its  ecclesiastical  monuments  are  of  considerable  magnitude,  and  it  has  an  elegant 
modern  cathedral,  with  other  fine  public  edifices.  Twenty  miles  to  the  west,  on  a  small 
bay,  is  Dungarvan,  the  largest  fishing  town  in  Ireland;  and  its  antiquity  is  attested  by  a  cas- 
tle and  several  monastic  remains.  Lismore,  on  the  Black  water,  is  now  deserted  ;  but  its  castle, 
erected  by  King  John,  in  1185,  still  presents  marks  of  ancient  grandeur,  and  has  been  lately 
repaired. 

Cork  is  the  largest  county  of  Ireland.  On  the  northern  border  is  the  lofty  range  of  the 
Galties,  which  present  many  picturesque  features,  and  command  extensive  and  beautiful 
prospects ;  its  western  border  partakes  of  the  mountainous  character  of  the  neighbouring 
districts  of  Kerry;  and  tlie  rocky  shores  and  headlands  washed  by  the  waves  of  the  Atlantic, 
are  of  an  awful  and  terrific  character.  About  a  fifth  of  the  county  consists  of  mountain  and 
bog ;  the  rest  is  only  traversed  by  hills  of  moderate  elevation,  enclosing  fertile  and  often 
beautifijl  valleys,  especially  that  along  the  river  and  bay.  Tlie  style  of  culture  is  altogether 
Irish ;  in  small  farms,  by  poor  tenants,  chiefly  by  the  spade,  and  potatoes  the  prevailing  crop. 
-  The  manufactures  consist  of  sailcloth,  coarse  linens  and  woollens.  There  are  also  some 
extensive  distilleries. 

Cork,  the  great  southern  emporium  of  Ireland,  has  a  population  of  107,000 ;  being,  in  point 
of  wealth  and  magnitude,  the  second  city  in  the  island.  Its  monastic  structures,  once  con- 
siderable, have  almost  entirely  disappeared.  Its  great  prosperity  is  modern,  in  consequence 
of  the  provision  trade,  of  which  it  has  become  the  chief  mart.  The  river  Lee,  at  its  junc- 
tion with  the  sea,  forms  the  spacious  enclosed  bay,  called  the  Cove  of  Cork,  composing  one 
of  the  finest  harbours  in  the  world.  In  consequence  of  its  convenient  situation,  the  West 
India  bound  fleets  usually  touch  there,  and  take  in  provisions.  The  export  of  salted  beef 
and  pork  has  somewhat  diminished  since  the  peace ;  but  that  of  provisions  in  general,  and 
particularly  grain,  has  been  greatly  augmented ;  and  Cork,  on  the  whole,  is  in  a  very 
flourishing  and  prosperous  state.  A  great  part  of  the  old  town  consists  of  miserable  and 
crowded  alleys ;  but  a  number  of  handsome  new  streets  have  been  built,  and  several  chan- 
nels branching  from  the  Lee,  which  flowed  through  the  city,  and  were  detrimental  to  the 
health  of  the  inhabitants,  have  been  filled  up.  Cork  has  a  literary  institution,  with  the  usual 
appendages  of  library,  lectures,  and  botanic  garden ;  and  it  supports  the  charitable  estab- 
lishments usual  in  great  cities  on  a  liberal  scale. 

Kinsale,  on  a  fine  bay  at  the  moutli  of  the  Bandon,  was  much  more  frequented  than  Cork 
by  the  early  English  monarchs,  who  bestowed  on  the  place  extensive  privileges,  and  viewed 
it  as  the  key  of  southern  Ireland.  It  has  now,  however,  sunk  under  the  superior  importance 
of  its  neighbour ;  and  it  is  chiefly  supported  by  a  fishery.  Youghal,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Blackwater,  has  a  good  harbour,  though  obstructed  by  a  bar ;  and  carries  on  some  trade  and 
manufacture. 

Kerry  presents  an  assemblage  of  mountains  wild,  rocky,  and  desolate.  These  are  inter- 
spersed with  valleys  and  narrow  plains  which  are  almost  wholly  employed  in  pasturage ;  and 
Kerry  has  a  small  breed  of  cows,  which  yield  plenty  of  excellent  milk.  Its  coast  is  broken 
into  several  very  deep  bays,  particularly  those  of  Dingle,  Kenmare,  and  Tralee.  A  considerable 
quantity  of  herring  is  caught  in  these  bays.     Tralee,  the  county  town,  exhibits  the  remains 

of  a  strong  castle,  once  the  residence  of 
the  Earls  of  Desmond,  when,  under  the 
title  of  Palatine,  they  exercised  the  real 
sovereignty  over  this  part  of  Ireland  ;  a 
sway  which  terminated  with  their  attain- 
der under  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 

Killarney  and  its  lakes,  as  to  scenery, 
have  no  rival  in  Ireland.  There  is  only 
one  body  of  water,  to  which,  however, 
the  term  lakes  is  usually  applied ;  so 
completely  is  it  divided  into  three  bays 
united  only  by  narrow  straits,  and  pre- 
senting each  a  different  aspect.  The  lower 
lake,  immediately  adjoining  Killarney 
{fig.  218.),  forms  the  main  expanse  of  water,  and  presents  all  the  features  on  the  greatest 


Lakes  of  Killarney. 


456 

scale. 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part.  III. 


On  the  eastern  shore  rise  the  mountains  known  by  the  name  of  Maci^illicuddy's 

Recks,  tlie  highest  of  which  rises  to  3400 


219  feet,  the  most  elevated  point  in  Ireland. 

On  this  side  also  are  the  mountains  of 
Tomics  and  Glona,  with  their  immense 
forests.  Near  the  western  bank  is  the  - 
beautiful  island  of  Innisfallen.  At  the 
most  southern  point  of  the  lower  lake  a 
mucli  smaller  bay  branches  off  from  it, 
through  channels  formed  by  Dinis  Island. 
This  bay,  called  Turk  Lake,  is  over- 
lumg  on  one  side  by  the  precipitous 
sides  of  the  lofty  mountain  of  that 
name,  and  bordered  on  the  other  by 
the  long  wooded  and  winding  penin- 
sula of  Mucruss.  The  venerable  ruin 
of  IMucruss  Abbey  (fiq:  219.)  adds 
Mucruss  Abbey.  greatly  to  the  interest  of  tliis  part  of  lite 

scenery.  From  Dinis  Ii^land,  a  long 
winding  channel  of  more  than  two  miles  leads  to  the  Upper  Lake.  The  scenery  seen  in 
this  passage  is  of  surpassing  grandeur  and  beauty.    The  most  striking  spot  is  at  the  Eagle's 

Crag  (Jig:  220.),  a  stupendous  and 
220  rugged  cliff,  which  bursts  suddenly 

on  Llie  view,  rising  in  a  pyramidal 
form  from  the  water.  Throughout 
all  the  rocks  of  Kdlarney,  but  here 
most  particularly,  the  eflect  of  cclioes 
is  most  powerful  and  striking.  The 
Upper  Lake,  the  least  exten.sive  but 
the  most  sublime,  exhibits  all  the  lof- 
tiest mountains  under  the  most  im- 
posing point  of  view.  Its  shores  are 
winding  and  varied  with  numerous 
islands,  whose  rocky  sides  contrast 
witli  the  brillia~nt  green  of  the  ar- 
butus. The  ascent  of  the  highest 
mountains,  Mangerton  to  the  north, 
and  Gheran  Tual,  the  highest  of  the  reeks  to  the  south-east,  discloses  awful  ranges  of  rugged 
precipices  and  of  dark  and  rocky  ravines;  and  their  summits  command  an  astonishing  view 
of  the  mountain  glens  and  rocky  shores  of  Kerry,  and  the  expanse  of  the  Atlantic,  and  the 
distant  plains  of  Cork  and  Limerick. 

Limerick  is  onp  of  the  finest  counties  of  Ireland.  Its  borders  include  some  branches  from 
the  higli  mountains  of  Kerry  and  Tipperary;  but  the  main  body  consists  of  a  fertile  plain. 
An  alluvial  tract,  two  or  tln-ee  miles  broad,  along  the  Shannon,  is  quite  exuberant.  That 
noble  river,  now  expanded  into  an  estuary  or  bay  sixty  miles  in  length,  runs  along  the  whole 
nortliern  border  of  Limerick. 

The  city  of  Limrrick,  now  outstripped  by  Cork,  is  the  third  in  Ireland  Its  situation,  in 
the  centre  of  the  grand  internal  navig-ation  of  the  kingdom,  secures  to  it  an  extensive  trade; 
and  the  largest  vessels  can  ascend  to  the  haibour.  Limerick  is  one  of  the  great  marts  for 
the  export  of  grain  and  provisions;  the  value  of  those  shipped  from  it  in  183L  having  been 
estimated  at  8-54,600/.  It  was  anciently  the  strongest  fortress  in  Ireland,  and  has  always 
stood  out  to  tlie  last  extremity  for  the  Catliolic  cause.  Ireton,  Cromwell's  lieutenant,  re- 
duced it  only  afler  a  long  siege,  aided  by  a  party  within  the  place.  In  1690-1,  it  stood  two 
long  sieges,  and  yielded  only  upon  those  advantageous  terms  called  the  "  capitulation  of 
Limerick."  Its  capture  was  considered  as  closing  the  contest  in  support  of  the  Stuarts.  At 
tliis  day,  not  more  than  a  twelfth  part  of  the  population  of  Limerick  is  protestant-  The 
spacious  monasteries  are  almost  entire!}'  demolished  ;  the  streets  are  narrow,  crowded,  and 
gloomy ;  but  since. the  fortifications  were  demolished,  they  have  been  carefully  widened.  In 
a  quarter  built  by  Lord  Perry,  and  bearing  his  name,  they  are  spacious  and  regular ;  and  the 
houses,  though  only  of  brick,  built  in  the  most  handsome  modern  style.  The  assembly-rooms, 
theatre,  and  other  modern  structures,  are  elegant  and  commodious. 

Clare  county  is  a  wild,  liilly,  romantic  district,  abounding  with  fine  creeks  and  harbours, 
but  without  commerce,  and  with  mines  of  lead,  iron  and  coal,  which  have  not  been  turned  to 
account.  More  tlian  half  the  surface  consists  of  mountain,  bog,  and  waste ;  its  hills,  how- 
ever, support  numerous  flocks  of  slieep,  the  wool  of  which  is  of  superior  quality.  The  plains 
on  tlie  banks  of  the  Shannon  and  the  Fergus  vie  in  fertility  with  any  in  the  kingdom.  Ennis, 
the  capital,  is  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  last-mentioned  river,  by  which  it  communicates 


Book  I  IRELAND  457 

with  the  Shannon.     It  is  considerable,  though  irregularly  built ;  and  its  abbey,  in  the  purest 
style  of  Gothic  architecture,  is  considered  the  finest  in  Ireland. 

SuBSECT.  3. — Connaiight. 

Connaught  forms  a  great  peninsula,  the  most  westerly  part  of  Ireland,  extending  from  tho 
Shannon  to  the  Atlantic.  This  division  is  of  all  others  the  most  decidedly  Irish,  having 
continued  unsubdued  long  after  the  English  kmgs  claimed  the  proud  title  of  lords  of  the 
island.  It  still  contains  fewer  English  inhabitants;  the  religion  is  more  universally  Catholic, 
industry  and  manufactures  have  made  less  progress,  and  all  the  imperfect  agricultural  im- 
plements and  processes  are  in  more  general  use.  Disturbances,  however,  have  never  taken 
place  here  to  so  great  an  extent  as  in  Munster  and  Leinster.  Its  shores  are  penetrated  by 
deep  and  extensive  bays,  forming  some  of  the  finest  harbours  in  the  world.  The  counties  in 
Connaught  are  Galway,  JNIayo,  Sligo,  Roscommon,  and  Leitrim. 

Galway  presents  to  the  sea  ranges  of  steep  clifis,  which,  with  the  waves  of  the  Atlantic 
dashing  against  them,  exhibit  a  grand  spectacle.  The  interior  contains  two  extensive  lakes, 
and  is  diversified  with  hills,  though  there  are  few  which  are  not  fit  for  pasturage.  The  cattle 
are  of  good  quality,  and  the  flocks  of  sheep  are  more  extensive  than  in  other  parts  of  Ireland. 
The  fisheries  of  herring  and  salmon  are  considerable.  Galway  has  always  been  a  consider- 
able town,  and  is  still  supported  by  some  inland  and  foreign  commerce,  by  a  considerable 
fisherj%  by  the  resort  of  the  gentry  to  it  for  sea-bathing,  and  as  the  only  scene  of  gay  society 
to  be  found  in  Connaught.  It  was  once  very  strongly  fortified  both  by  nature  and  art;  and 
to  obtain  the  protection  of  the  walls,  the  streets  were  made  narrow,  and  the  houses  high, 
massive,  and  gloomy ;  but  they  have  of  late  been  considerably  opened,  and  suburbs  built,  of 
a  more  gay  and  elegant  description. 

Tuam  is  an  ancient,  handsome  town,  of  considerable  extent,  the  seat  of  an  archbishopric. 
Ballinasloe,  on  the  eastern  border,  holds  the  greatest  cattle  fair  in  Ireland,  where  the  oxen 
and  sheep  of  the  pastoral  counties  of  Galway  and  Mayo  are  mustered  for  the  capital.  At 
the  mouth  of  the  bay  of  Galway  are  the  bold  and  rocky  islands  of  Arran. 

Mayo  is  chiefly  elevated  and  rugged  ;  some  of  the  mountains  rising  to  upwards  of  2600 
feet ;  but  many  of  their  sides  are  verdant,  and  the  valleys  rich  and  well  watered ;  so  that 
Mayo  is  a  fine  pastoral  county.  The  estates  are  large,  but  the  farms  small,  and  much  sub- 
divided. Mayo  contains  no  town  of  suffici-snt  imoortance  to  return  a  member  to  parliament. 
Castlebar,  the  county  town.'is  well  built,  with  a  linen  hall ;  and  the  linen  manufacture 
flourishes.  Killala,  a  straggling  village,  on  a  bay  of  the  same  name,  is  chiefly  noted  for  the 
landing  effected  in  1798,  by  a  body  of  French  troops  under  General  Humbert,  who  pene- 
trated to  Castlebar,  but  were  finally  obliged  to  surrender  to  Marquess  Cornwallis. 

Sligo  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  bog ;  but  the  remainder  consists  of  a  sandy 
gravelly  soil,  well  adapted  to  the  production  of  barley  and  oats ;  so  that  pasturage  is  not  so 
exclusively  tha  employment  here  as  in  the  two  last-mentioned  counties.  Salmon  is  caught 
in  large  quantities.  The  linen  manufacture  has  made  considerable  progress,  and  is  extend- 
ing. Sligo,  the  capital,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  and  the  head  of  the  bay  of  the  same  name, 
was  in  early  times  a  considerable  place  :  it  has  suffered  severely  in  civil  contention ;  yet,  by 
the  advantage  of  a  good  situation  and  harbour,  it  has  attained  considerable  importance  and 
trade.  In  the  vicinity  is  a  remarkable  circle  of  stones,  called  the  Giant's  Grave,  somewhat 
resembling  Stonehenge. 

Roscommon  is  mostly  level,  finely  watered,  and  celebrated  for  rich  pastures ;  but  the  in- 
crease of  population  and  manufactures  has  caused  a  great  part  of  them  to  be  lately  brought 
into  tillage ;  it  contains  some  pretty  little  lakes,  among  which  Lough  Key  is  particularly 
admired.  Roscommon  is  ancient,  and  marked  by  some  ecclesiastical  antiquities,  but  it  is 
not  now  so  important  as  Boyle,  pleasantly  situated  on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  over  which 
there  are  two  fine  bridges;  in  its  neighbourhood  are  the  ruins  of  a  stately  abbey,  founded  in 
1512,  the  arches  of  which,  forty-six  feet  in  height,  are  deemed  models  of  Gothic  architect- 
ural grandeur.     Elphin,  the  seat  of  a  very  ancient  episcopal  see,  is  only  a  village. 

Leitrim  is  filled  with  higli  mountains,  presenting  nature  under  bold  features,  often  height- 
ened by  tlie  ruined  castles  which  crown  their  summits.  There  are  veins  of  iron,  lead,  copper, 
and  coal,  tJie  last  of  which  has  been  wrought.  There  are  good  pastures  in  the  valleys,  and 
on  the  sides  of  the  hills ;  and  pretty  large  quantities  of  oats  are  raised.  The  linen  manu- 
facture is  extending,  and  there  are  some  considerable  potteries.  Carrick  on  Shannon,  the 
county  town,  and  Leitrim,  which  gives  name  to  it,  are  only  villages. 

SuBSECT.  4. —  Ulster. 

This  part  of  Ireland  presents  in  many  respects  a  superior  character  to  the  other  three,  its 
population  being  more  industrious,  better  instructed,  and  in  more  comfortable  circumstances. 
The  Presbyterian  form  of  worship,  introduced  by  the  Scottish  settlers  under  the  reign  of 
.Tames  I.,  is  the  prevailing  one.  The  linen  manufacture,  the  staple  of  the  country,  has  here 
its  chief  seat,  and  is  carried  on  almost  in  every  village.  The  harbours  of  Belfast,  London- 
derry, and  Louo-h  Swilly,  are  sufficient  for  the  wants  of  commerce.     The  coast  of  Antrim, 

Vol.  L  39  3H 


458  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  '        Part  III. 

in  the  boldness  and  peculiar  character  of  its  rock  scenery,  is  without  a  match  in  any  other 
part  of  the  world.  The  counties  of  this  province  are,  Fermanagh,  Donegal,  Londonderry, 
Antrim,  Down,  Armagh,  Tyrone,  Monaghan,  Cavan. 

Fermanagli  is  a  somewhat  rougli  county,  comprising  a  large  proportion  of  mountain  and 
boo-,  but  with  fertile  valleys,  in  whicli,  besides  the  usual  products  of  oats  and  potatoes,  flax 
is  cultivated  to  tiie  extent  of  about  5000  acres.  The  waters  of  all  the  high  grounds  flow 
down  into  Lough  Erne,  a  noble  lake,  upwards  of  twenty  miles  in  length.  It  is  studded  with 
numerous  islands,  covered  with  fine  woods ;  long  wooded  promontories  are  seen  stretching 
far  into  the  waters ;  and,  tliough  the  immediate  borders  of  the  lake  are  not  mountainous, 
.ofty  distant  eminences  form  the  general  background  to  its  prospects.  Castle  Caldwell,  Bel- 
turbet,  and  Belleisle  are  the  spots  in  which  its  beauties  are  peculiarly  concentrated.  The 
chief  town  is  Enniskillcn,  delightfully  situated  on  an  island,  accessible  only  by  two  opposite 
bridges;  this  site  enabled  it  to  make  its  noble  stand  against  the  army  of  James  II. 

Donegal  includes  a  great  extent  of  the  north-western  coast  of  Ireland,  full  of  deep  bays 
and  fine  harbours.  In  its  interior,  however,  it  consists  almost  entirely  of  mountain,  moss, 
and  moor,  with  only  a  few  productive  valleys.  It  is  often  called,  with  some  adjoining  dis- 
tricts, "  the  black  north  of  Ireland."  Distillation  forms  an  active  branch  of  its  industry. 
Liflbrd,  its  small  county  town,  stands  on  the  Foyle,  upon  the  borders  of  Derry.  Ballyshan- 
non,  almost  at  the  opposite  extremity,  is  a  thriving  town,  beautifully  situated  on  the  channel 
by  which  Lough  Erne  pours  its  waters  into  the  Atlantic.  Raphoe  is  a  celebrated  episcopal 
see,  but  now  only  a  decayed  village. 

Deny,  or  Londonderry,  a  large  and  fine  county,  is  crossed  by  a  range  of  mountains,  whose 
principal  peaks  are  from  1000  to  1500  feet  high,  and  a  considerable  part  of  whose  surface 
consists  of  heath  and  bog.  Tliere  are,  however,  fine  valleys,  and  extensive  plains,  which 
are  cultivated  with  some  diligence,  but  according  to  that  system  of  minute  subdivision  whicli 
is  the  bane  of  Irish  agriculture.  The  linen  manufacture  flourishes  in  full  vigour,  chiefly 
according  to  the  Irish  system,  among  the  little  farmers  and  cotters,  who  combine  it  with  the 
cultivation  of  a  few  acres.  Londonderry  is  a  fine  city,  situated  at  the  point  where  the  Foyle, 
after  traversing  a  great  part  of  this  county  and  that  of  Tyrone,  falls  into  the  broad  basin  of 
Louo-h  Foyle.  It  is  ancient,  being  the  theatre  of  remarkable  events  even  in  the  time  of  the 
Danes.  In  1608,  after  the  attainder  of  O'Neale,  it  was  granted  by  James  I.  to  the  citizens 
of  London,  whence  it  derived  the  first  part  of  its  name.  But  its  chief  distinction  was  from 
the  siege  sustained  by  the  city  in  1690-1,  against  the  united  forces  of  Ireland  under  James 
II.  Londonderry  is  composed  of  four  main  streets  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles,  and 
surrounded  still  by  its  old  walls  in  full  repair,  serving  rather  for  ornament  than  defence.  It 
has  an  ancient  Gothic  cathedral,  and  some  handsome  modern  edifices.  It  is  now  supported 
by  an  extensive  commerce,  for  which  Lough  Foyle,  though  its  entrance  is  somewhat  impeded 
by  a  bar,  affords  a  spacious  and  secure  harbour.  Its  chief  intercourse  is  with  the  United  States 
and  the  West  Indies,  to  which  it  exports  the  linen  manufactured  in  this  part  of  the  country. 
Coleraine  is  a  well-built  town  on  the  Bann,  which  flows  from  Lough  Neagh,  and  on  which 
is  the  most  extensive  salmon  fishery  in  the  island  ;  but  the  rapidity  of  the  stream  obstructs 
the  navigation  upwards. 

Antrim,  occupying  tlie  north-eastern  corner  of  the  kingdom,  opposite  the  coast  of  Scotland, 
is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  districts  of  Ireland,  in  regard  to  natural  features  as  well  as  to 
commerce  and  industry.  A  great  part  of  the  surface  consists  of  rugged  mountains,  com- 
posed chiefly  of  rock  and  moss,  and  even  its  best  soils  are  scarcely  available  for  agricultural 
purposes  till  improved  by  the  use  of  the  lime  with  which  the  country  abounds.  The  moun- 
tains, where  they  face  the  ocean,  are  broken  into  vast  perpendicular  precipices,  exhibiting 
the  basaltic  columnar  form  on  a  grander  scale  than  exists  in  any  other  part  of  the  world. 

Of  these  objects,  the  Giant's  Causeway  (Jig.  221.)  is  tlie  most  celebrated  and  magnificent, 

-^  ngi  Throe  natural  piers  or  moles,  400  feet 

/..    \  in  height,  here  stretch  out  ijito  the 

sea,  and  are  visible  above  the  water 
for  about  300  yards.  The  walls  are 
composed  of  dark  basaltic  columns,  of 
the  most  regular  form,  and  so  closely 
united,  that  only  the  blade  of  a  knife 


can  be  thrust  between  them.     Each 

column  is  distinct  from  the  others,  and 

divided   into  jointed  portions,  as  per- 

„  feet  as  if  art  had  formed  them  :  there 

The  Giant  s  Causeway.  t.    •         •  i_  ■.  •      t-  l-   u 

bemg  m  each  part  a  projection,  which 
13  lodged  in  a  corresponding  concavity  or  socket  of  the  one  contiguous.  The  coast  eastward 
of  the  causeway  is  composed  of  a  succession  of  capes,  presenting  the  most  sublime  scenery; 
dark  precipitous  cliffs,  rising  regularly  hi  gradually  retiring  strata,  and  formed  into  various 
broken  colonnades  wliich  might  suggest  the  idea  of  palaces  overwhelmed  in  ruins. 

Other  striking  features  distinguish  the  coast  of  Antrim.     Conspicuous  above  all  others  is 


Book  I. 


IRELAND. 


459 


Fairhead,  called  also  Benmore ;  a  promontory  which  forms  nearly  the  north-eastern  point  of 
Ireland.  It  consists  of  a  vast  mass  of  columnar  greenstone,  composing  a  mural  precipice, 
rudely  columnar,  and  250  feet  high.  At  its  feet  lies  a  chaos  of  huge  masses  of  rock,  heaped 
together  in  the  wildest  confusion,  and  forming  a  scene  of  ruin  the  awflil  grandeur  of  which 


222 


has  scarcely  a  parallel.  Against  this 
the  sea  heaves  in  a  solemn  majestic 
swell,  the  peculiar  attribute  of  the  At- 
lantic waters.  Carrick-a-Rede  {Jig.  222.) 
is  a  small  island  composed  of  a  mass  of 
basalt,  imperfectly  formed  into  columns, 
separated  from  the  continent  by  a  chasm 
of  sixty  feet.  The  fishermen,  however, 
have  occasion  to  resort  to  it  with  the 
view  of  placing  nets  to  intercept  the 
salmon ;  to  reach  it,  therefore,  they  have 
constructed  a  daring  and  singular  bridge, 
formed  of  two  strong  parallel  cables  fixed 
to  each  side,  with  planks  inserted  between  them.  This  slight  pontage  is  subject  to  violent 
movements,  and,  if  not  judiciously  trodden,  may  precipitate  the  passenger  into  the  abyss; 
but  the  fishermen,  accustomed  to  tread  it,  carry  great  loads  across  without  the  slightest 
apprehension.  Several  of  the  precipitous  cliffs  are  adorned  with  the  ruins  of  ancient  castles, 
the  grandest  of  which  is  Dunluce  {fig.  223.),  whose  extensive  area  covers  the  long  ridge  of 


t  iriitk  1  il    1 


223 


Dunluce  Castle. 


an  almost  insulated  rock,  which  presents 
its  perpendicular  face  to  the  ocean.  The 
walls  enclose  the  entire  surface  of  the 
rock,  and  rise  up  as  a  continuation  of  its 
precipitous  sides.  In  one  place,  the  rocky 
base  having  given  way,  the  apartment 
above  actually  overhangs  the  sea. 

Belfast,  the  grand  emporium  of  the 
north  of  Ireland,  has  risen  to  greatness 
by  rapid  steps.  Carrie kfergus,  by  means 
of  peculiar  privileges,  monopolised  all 
the  trade  of  this  part  of  Ireland,  till  these 
privileges  were  bought  up  by  the  Earl 
of  Strafford.  The  career  of  competition 
was  then  opened  to  Belfast,  and  she  gradually  outstripped  all  her  rivals.  In  1660,  the  town 
contained  about  6500  inhabitants.  At  present  the  population  is  53,000,  exclusive  of  a  large 
suburb  in  the  county  of  Down.  The  linen  manufacture  is  very  flourishing  at  Belfast,  and 
that  of  cotton  is  rapidly  extending ;  besides  which  there  are  various  minor  fabrics.  Com- 
merce, however,  is  the  main  source  of  its  wealth.  The  linen  fabrics  of  the  north  are  largely 
exported,  along  with  oats,  oatmeal,  and  salted  provisions;  the  entire  value  of  which,  in  1810, 
amounted  to  2,900,000Z.  The  duties  of  customs,  which  in  1801  were  182,314?.,  had  risen 
in  1829  to  2;59,000Z.  Belfast  Lough  forms  a  noble  and  secure  bay,  and  the  channel  at  the 
mouth  of  the  I<agan  has  been  so  deepened  by  art  that  vessels  drawing  thirteen  feet  water 
can  come  close  to  the  wharves.  Belfast  is  mostly  built  of  brick  ;  but  several  public  edifices, 
recently  erected,  the  Commercial  Buildings,  the  Museum,  St.  George's  Church,  &c.,  are 
ornamented  with  pillars  of  freestone.  Belfast  has  several  commercial  and  literary  institu- 
tions ;  and  in  1810,  the  Royal  Academical  College,  a  seminary  on  an  extensive  scale,  was 
founded. 

The  other  towns  of  Antrim  can  boast  little  more  than  names  Icnown  in  history.  Antrim 
itself  has  lost  its  former  importance,  though  beautifully  situated  near  the  great  body  of  water 
called  Lough  Neagh,  which  covers  about  100,000  English  acres,  and  borders  on  five  coun- 
ties,— Armagh,  Tyrone,  Londonderry,  Down,  and  Antrim.  Its  fiat  shores  possess  little  of 
interest  or  beauty ;  and  its  overflowings  have  converted  into  bog  about  60,000  acres  round  it, 
Carrickfergus,  at  the  mouth  of  Belfast  Lough,  is  a  very  ancient  town,  once  the  emporium 
and  key  of  northern  Ireland,  but  it  has  yielded  the  palm  of  commerce  entirely  to  Belfast, 
and  is  supported  only  by  being  the  county  town  and  resorted  to  as  a  watering-place.  Lis- 
burn  is  a  prosperous  town,  with  a  manufacture  of  damask. 

Down  is  a  fine  county,  penetrated  by  several  large  lakes,  as  those  of  Strangford  and  Car- 
lingford.  The  last  of  these  receives  the  Newry,  which  communicates  by  a  canal  with  Lough 
Neagh.  The  Mourne  mountains,  on  the  southern  border,  exceed  2600  feet  in  height,  and 
form  a  conspicuous  object ;  but  a  large  extent  of  the  county  is  level,  and  a  greater  propor- 
tion is  under  tillage  than  pasturage.  The  combination  of  farming  and  weaving  exists  in  a 
remarkable  degree ;  and  the  linen  fabrics  are  not  only  extensive,  but  some  of  them  very  fine. 
Of  late,  however,  those  of  cotton  have  gained  a  preference  in  many  districts.  Down,  or 
Downpatrick,  celebrated  in  tradition  as  the  burial-place  of  the  patron  saint,  is  cf  moderate 


460  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

dimeneions,  and  its  public  buildings  respectable.  Newry  is  larger  and  more  flourishing. 
These  advantages  are  owing  to  its  situation  in  the  bay  of  Carlingford,  and  its  canal  commu- 
nication with  Lough  Neagh,  which  enable  it  to  export  the  linen  manufactures  and  provisions 
produced  in  an  extensive  district.  It  is  ancient,  but  in  1689  was  reduced  to  ashes  by  Mar- 
shal Berwick  ;  so  that  it  is  now  quite  a  new  town.  Donaghadce,  a  considerable  port,  with  a 
large  substantial  quay,  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  ferry  between  it  and  Portpatrick,  the 
shortest  sea  communication  with  Britain,  and  by  which  packets  are  despatched  and  live  stock 
in  very  great  quantities  conveyed  over. 

Armagh  is  also  a  fine  and  agreeable  county.  In  general  it  is  only  pleasingly  diversified 
with  little  hills,  the  bogs  are  no  more  than  requisite  for  supplying  fuel,  and  only  a  small  part 
is  left  unproductive.  Both  culture  and  manufacture  are  prosecuted  with  great  activity. 
The  linens  produced  in  1824  were  reputed  at  568,000Z.,  exceeding  a  fiflh  of  the  produce  of 
the  whole  kingdom.  Armagh,  the  capital,  was  celebrated  in  the  early  history  of  Ireland 
as  one  of  its  most  extensive  and  populous  cities,  and  has  always  been  the  ecclesiastical  n>e- 
tropolis  of  the  kingdom.  The  Augustine  monastery,  and  the  college  attached  to  it,  ranked 
for  a  long  time  among  the  most  celebrated  institutions  in  Europe  for  religion  and  learning; 
the  latter,  it  is  said,  could  once  boa.st  of  7000  .students.  Armagh  sunk,  however,  under  suc- 
cessive ravages  by  the  Danes,  the  English,  and,  finally,  the  Irish  insurgents  under  O'Neale, 
and  fell  into  decay ;  but  by  good  fortune  had  for  its  primate  Dr.  Richard  Robinson,  to  whose 
munificent  exertions  is  ascribed  its  revival  and  its  having  become  one  of  the  prettiest  little 
cities  in  Ireland.  To  him  Armagh  is  indebted  for  the  repair  of  its  cathedral,  for  a  library, 
and  an  observatory.  The  linen  market  is  well  supported  by  the  flourishing  state  of  the 
manufacture  in  Armagh.  The  only  other  place  of  consequence  is  Lurgan,  a  thriving  manu- 
facturing town. 

The  three  counties  of  Tyrone,  Monaghan,  and  Cavan  occupy  a  great  proportion  of  the 
interior  of  Ulster,  and  present  a  very  uniform  aspect ;  a  considerable  extent  of  mountain  and 
bog,  fertile  plains,  rude  cultivation,  and  the  linen  manufacture.  O'Neale,  Earl  of  Tyrone, 
was  long  one  of  the  most  formidable  enemies  of  the  English  power.  Omagh  is  the  county- 
town  of  Tyrone,  but  is  not  so  considerable  as  Dungannon,  a  large,  populous,  and  handsome 
place,  once  the  chief  seat  of  the  O'Neales ;  but  this  powerful  castle  was  demolished  by  the 
parliamentary  forces.  Strabane  is  also  a  populous  place,  finely  situated  on  the  Foyle. 
Monaghan  and  Cavan  are  both  tolerable  county-towns,  which  alone  possess  any  importance 
in  their  respective  shires. 


FINANCES  OF  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM. 
I.  Income  for  the  year  1834. 

Customs £21,1 18,920 

Excise 16,750,716 

Stamps  and  Hackney  Coaches,  &c 7,462,755 

Taxes 4.667,350 

Post  Office , 2,319,980 

Miscellaneous 456,118 

East  India  Company 60,000 

Balance  on  hand 1,907,190 

Repayments 618,732 

X53,456,571 

n.  Expenditure  for  the  year  1834. 

Payments  out  of  the  gross  Revenue. 

Drawbacks,  Rppaymenls,  &,c X2,204,296 

Charces  of  Collection,  &c 3,582,6.S5 

Miscellaneous  .....' 738,810 

6,525,741 

Paid  at  the  Exchequer. 

Interest  and  Manaseinent  of  Permanent  Debt 24,158,879 

Terminable  Annuities 3,65.1,923 

Interest  on  Exchequer  Bills 691,094 

Russian  Loan,  raised  in  Holland 190,810 

Civil  List 510,000 

Civil,  Naval,  Military  and  Judicial  Annuities  and  Pensions 502,310 

Salaries  and  Allowances 162,930 

Diplomatic  Salaries  and  Pensions 181,448 

Courts  of  Justice 433,610 

Mi  n  t 14,850 

Army 6,49.1,925 

Navy 4,503,910 

Ordnance 1,068,223 

Miscellaneous 2,:135,.590 

Advances  for  Public  Works 2ioi4i513 

Total  Expenditure je53,441,955 

III.  Public  Debt— January,  1834.  Charge  for  1833. 

Funded  Debt je75],658,883  je27,782,116 

Unfunded  Debt 27,906,900  779,769 

Totals XT79,565,783  JE28,561,885 


Book  I. 


TRADE  OF  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM. 


461 


I.  Account  of  the  Official  and  of  the  Real  or  Declared  Value  of  the  principal  Articles  of  British  Produce  and 
Manufacture  exported  in  1832,  1633,  and  1834.— (From  the  Annual  Finance  Book  for  1835,  pp.  121—128.) 


Brass  aod  copper  manufactures 
C  otion  oiaiiulactures 

Hardwares  and  cutlery 

Iron  and  steel,  wrought  and  un- 

wrousht 

Linen  m.uiufactu:es  ---.--. 
ysrn 

s>it 

Silk  ounufictures 

S:)a))  and  cmdles 

'1  iu,  wrou;lit  and  unwrought    • 

\Vo(j1,  sheep's  ----- 

Woiiiieu  and  worsted  yam  -  -  ■ 

Woollen  minufactures 

All  other  articles   •  • 

Totals 

Whereof  from  Great  Britain  -  - 


L.  I.  d. 

1,126,246  18  3 

37,2()6,4sO  10  4 

6,726,362  17  6 

878,361  17  1 

2,408,183  IS  3 

2,785,349  13  6 

5,H'J8  7  8 

353,824  19  2 

475,165  19  2 

348, 2S6  8  3 

1,2^2,489  9  S 

358,259  10  1 

149,991  12  4 

122,1-24  19  8 

6,536,294  8  8 

4,232,981  1  5 


65,026,702  11    0 


64,582,037    9    7 
444,663    I    5 


L.  1.  d. 

1,018,284  11  5 

40,133,343  2  3 

6,279,076  6  8 

966,303  4  7 

2,690,253  14  3 

3  389,539  0  8 

50,125  16  5 

392,033  7  8 

693,324  0  6 

433,910  17  5 

693,131  14  4 

371,634  3  4 

175,479  12  3 

113,191  3  9 

7,78!-,842  6  3 

4,578,646  12  11 


69,989,339  13    8 


I8.T4. 


L.           ».  d. 

1,086,594    2  4 

44,2b6,9l>2  13  0 

6,802,237  18  9 

947,476  18  11 

2,621,672    9    8 

3,830,763  14    5 

82,169  10    9 

371,469  19  10 

533,683    9     7 

382,198  10    0 

1,141,363  14    4 

370,113  18  10 

81,382   17  10 

99,933  11     9 

6,514,703    3  10 

4,678,680    I     6 


Declared  Value. 


916,563    1  5 

12,675,622    6  6 

4,722,-39    3  6 

1,434,431     7  11 

1,190,747   12  10 

1,774,726  13  9 

8,705     7  0 

149,678     1  6 

529,990  10  10 

315,644  16  3 

1,038,7!!9  16  0 

333,036    9  2 

219,650    1  0 

233,307    7  6 

5,244,358  11  8 

5,332,293  11  9 


73,831,330  15    4     36,444  524  IS 


73,493,335  li     3 
336,013    4     1 


1833. 


L.           I.  d. 

S>4.149    4  9 

13,782,:i75  17  6 

4,704,024     9  1 

1,466,361  12  11 

1,405,034  19  3 

2,167,023    7  1 

72,006    5  0 

184,173  10  2 

737,403  17  10 

362,284  19  1 

563,092    4  3 

369,162    0  2 

332,303  17  4 

246,204    0  0 

6,204,432    3  9 

6,097,113    0  3 


39.667,347    8 


39,303,512  19 
361,834    S 


961,823  2  11 

15,302,571  7     I 

5,211,014  17    8 

1,485,233  I     1 

1,406,872  2    1 

2,443,344  18    7 

136,312  11     9 

152,126  14  10 

637,198  5    4 

263,972  4  11 

916.391  9    6 

370,362  11     5 

192.175  14     1 

■    238,343  15    9 

5,7:i6,870  11     0 

6,194,358     1     6 


41,649,191     9    6 


II.  Account  of  the  Real  or  Declared  Value  of  the  various  Articles  of  the  Manufacture  and  Produce  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  e.xported  to  Foreign  Countries  during  tlie  eight  years  ending  with  18.34  ;  specifying  tlieir  Value,  the 
Countries  to  which  exported,  and  the  Value  of  those  annually  shipped  for  (;ach.— {Papers  published  by  Board  qf 
Trade,  vol.  iv.  p.  227.) 


Countries  to  wh>:h  exported. 


Russia 

Sweden 

Norway  .--... 

Denmark 

Pruvsia 

Germany   -  -  -  -  . 

Holland 

Belgium  -  -  -  -  - 
France-  -  -  .  .  • 
Portugal,  Proper  . 


Madeira 

Spain  and  the  Balearic  Islands  -  •  -  - 

C  inary  Islands •*- 

Gibraltar  -...-------••-- 

Italy  and  the  Italian  Islands 

Malta 

lonim  Islands  .-.---•------ 

Turkey  and  Continental  Greece  (ex- 
clusive of  the  Morea)   - 

Morea  nnd  Greek  Islands 

Egj'pt  (Ports  on  the  Mediterranean) 
Tripoli,  Barbary,  and  Morocco  •  -  - 

Western  Coast  of  Africa 

Cape  of  Good  Hope ••• 

Cape  Verd  Islands 

St.  Htlena 

Isle  of  Bourbon 

Mauritius  -.--.---•.----• 

Arabia 

East  India   Company's  Territories 
and  Ceylon  ---..---•--•- 

China 

Sumatra  and  Java  ..---••-•- 

Pbilippint:  Islands  --.- • 

New   South  Wales,  Van  Diemen's 

Land,  and  Swan  River 

New  Zealand,  and  South  Sea  Islands 

Ports  of  Siam 

British  North  American  Colonies-  - 
British  West  Indies 


Cuba  and  other  Foreign  West  Indies 
United  States  of  America  -  •  - 

Mexico  -•• -- 

Gijiilemala .--.- 


Exjjorts. 


L. 

1,408,970 

46,731 

39.129 

104,916 

174,338 

4,634,618 

2,104,561 

446,952 

1,400,044 

26,687 

39  916 

225,414 

48,821 

1,045,266 

1,942,752 

200,949 

37,196 

531,704 

53,624 

8,201 

155,759 

216,558 


3,662,012 
610,637 
120,747 
65,926 


172 


Braz-1 

Slaiti  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plafei  - 
Chili 


1,397,330 

3,383,222 
257,931 
649,378 

7,018,272 

692,800 

1,943 

213,972 

2,312,109 
134,895 
400,134 
228,466 

320,959 


37,181,335 


1,318,936 

42,699 

53,382 

111,880 

179,145 

4,394,104 

2,142,736 

498,938 

945,016 

27,940 

39,802 

301,153 

38,152 

1,038,925 

2,176,149 

239,458 

41,078 

185,842 

335 

35,302 

13,745 

191,452 

218,049 

D,856 

31,362 

35,IS8 

185,972 


4,256,582 


189,200 


1,691,044 

3,289,704 
248,328 
569,728 

5,610,315 

307,029 

6,191 

261,113 

3,518,297 
312,389 
709,371 
374,615 

329,428 


36,312.756 


1,435,805 
38,252 
64,234 
95,247 
189,011 
4,473,555 
2,050,014 

491,388 
1,195,404 
31,244 
40,2K3 
861,675 
60  010 
,304,163 
2,202,030 
224,010 
30,165 


59,305 


244,233 

257,501 

240 

43,531 

16,341 

203,558 


3,659,218 


253,885 
4,721 


845 


1,581,723 

3,612.083 

297,709 

672,176 

4,823,415 

303,562 


232,703 
2,516,040 
758,540 
818,930 
300.171 

319,996 


L. 

1,489,338 

40,488 
63,926 
118,813 
177,923 

4,463,605 

2,022,438 
475,884 

1,106,695 
23,629 
38,444 
607,068 
42,620 
292,760 

3,251,379 
189,135 
56,963 

1,139,616 

9,694 

110,227 

1,138 

252,123 

330,036 

1,710 

38,915 

10,042 

161,029 


3,895,530 


.  314,677 

1,396 

10,467 

1.857,133 

2,838,448 

321,793 

618,029 

6,132,346 

978,441 


216,751 
2,452,103 
632,172 
540,626 
368,469 

344,036 


35.842,&23  I  38,271,597 


58  580 

92,294 

192,816 

3,642,952 

2,082,536 

602,688 
975,991 

41,638 

38  960 
597,848 

33,282 

367J285 

2,490,376 

134,319 

50,883 

888,654 

10,446 

122,832 

426 


39,431 


4,752 


2,089,327 

2,581,949 

376,103 

663,531 

9,053,5(-3 

728,858 


246.250 
1,238,371 
339,870 
651,617 
409,003 

324,634 


37,164,372 


L. 

1,587,250 
64,932 
34,528 
93,3'J6 
258,356 
5,068,997 
2,789,398 


77,920 
28,038 

442,926 
21,033 

461,470 

2,361,772 

96,994 

55,725 

915,319 
10,149 

113,109 
751 

290,061 

292,403 


21,236 


2,075,723 

2,439,808 

543,104 

633,700 

5,468,272 

199,821 


283,568 
2,1-14.903 
660,132 
708,193 
273,610 

317,496 


36,450,594 


L. 

1,531,002 
59,549 
65,038 
99,951 
144,179 
4,353,548 
2,181,893 
886,429 
848,333 
967,091 
54,430 
33,411 
442,837 
30,507 
383,460 
2,316,260 
133,438 
38,915 

1,019,604 


143,647 

2,330 

329,210 

346,197 


3,495,301 


936 


2,092,550 

2,597,589 
381  528 
577,228 

7,579,699 

421,487 

3,700 

121,826 

2,373,680 
613,362 
816,817 
387,524 

335,934 


I. 

1,382,300 

63,094 

61,988 

94,595 

136,423 

4,547,166 

2,470,267 

750,059 

1,116,885 

1,600,123 

63,275 

38,455 

323,807 

30,686 

460,719 

3,282,777 

242,696 

94,498 

1,207,941 

37,179 

158,877 

14,823 

326,483 

304,382 

630 

31,615 

7,091 

149,319 

230 

2,578,569 
842,852 
410,273 
76,618 

716,014 

19,742 

1,671,069 

2.680,024 

337,297 

913,005 

6,844,989 

439,6  0 

30,366 

199,996 

2,460,679 

831,564 

886,221 

299,235 

360,665 


39,607,347  I  41,649,191 


*  The  rate  at  which  all  articles  of  export  and  import  are  officially  valued  was  fixed  in  1696,  but  an  account  of 
the  real  or  declared  value  of  '.he  exports  is  also  prepared  ;  there  is,  however,  no  such  account  of  the  imports,  and 
therefore  their  official  value  alone  can  be  given. 

39* 


462 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  Ul 


III.  Account  of  the  duantities  of  the  Principal  Articles  of  Foreign  and  Colonial  Merchandise  imported  into, 
exported  from,  and  retained  for  Consumption  in  the  United  Kingdom,  with  the  Nett  Revenue  accruing  thereon 
during  the  Years  ended  5lh  January,  1834,  and  1835. — {Papers pubtlshed  by  Board  of  Trade,  vol.  iv.  pp.  152-19.) 


Descriplion  of  Merchandise, 


Quantities  imported. 


Quaiitities  exported. 


Quantities  retained  for 
ConsumptioQ. 


Ashes,  pearl  and  pot, 
Barilla  and  alkali  -  ■ 


Bark  for  tanning  or 

dyei  6 

Coffee^  viz.  : — 

British  plantation lbs. 

East  India  and  Mauritius  -  -  .  .  •  — 
Foreign  plantation  -.---•••-   — 

Totals 

Cocoa H». 

Husks  and  shells  ---- •  — 

Cotton  wool  from  foreign  coun'ric-., 

United  States  of  America — 

BrazU — 

Turkey  and  Eg}'pt  -- •  — 

Other  foreign  cr>uatries  -..---  — 
Cotton  wool  m)m  British  possesions. 

East  Indies  and  Mauritius  -  -  •  •  — 
British  West   Indies,  the  growth 

of — 

British  West    Indies,   imported 

from — 

Other  British  possessions — 

Total  quantities 

Indigo lbs. 

Lac  dye — 

Logwood tons. 

Madder-  ..............  cwts. 

Madder  roots    - 

ylax  and  tow,  or  codilla  of  flax 

and  hemp  - 

Currants .-• 

Lemons  and  oranges  --..-...  chests 

Raisioi ■  -  ■  cwts. 

Hats  of  straw No. 

Plaiting  ofstraw lbs. 

Hemp  undressed  -  .  -  - cwts. 

Hides,  untanned,  viz, ; — 
B'jfi'alo,  bull,  or,  cow,  or  horse 
bides cwts. 

Hides,  tannedj  viz, : — 
Buoalo,  bull,  ox,  cow,  or  horse 
hides ....-..----.---  lbs. 

Leather  gloves pairs 

Molasses cwts. 

Oil- 
Olive  galls. 

Palm  •-.- cwts. 

Train,  spermaceti  and  blubber  •  •  tuns 

Saltpetre  and  cubic  ni'je   .  •  -  •  -  cwts. 

Flax  and  Unseed  -  •  - bushels 

Silk- 
Raw  lbs, 

Was!e  and  knubhs   ........  — 

Cassia  Lignea — 

Pepper — 

Pimento — 

Sugar,  vi?, : — 

West  India  -•..-.-.....  cwts. 

East  India  and  Mauritius — 

Foreign — 

Tallow — 

Tea — 

Timber,  vi '. : — 

Battens  and  batten  ends — 

Deal  and  daal  ends  ....  great  hund. 
Masts  ti  and  under  S  inches  in  dia. 

meter No. 

Masts  8  and  under  12  inches  in  dia- 
meter       -  -    — 

Masts  12  inches  and  upwards  •  -  Ids. 

Oak  planks — 

Staves •-..-•gt.  hund. 

Fir,  S  inches  square  and  upwards,loads 

Oak,  ditto 

Unenumerated,  ditto .--.... 

Wainscot  logs,  ditto  .  -  -  .    •  •  • 

Tobacco,  viz. :  — 
Unmanufactured  ....---.-   lbs. 

Manufactured  or  segars  •  -  .  -  • 

Snuff — 

Wool,  sheep  and  lambs' — 

Wine,  viz. :  - 

tape imp.  galls. 

French 

Ponu^ 

Spanish  .-.-........., 

Madeira 

Other  sorts 

All  sorti 


169,-23 
214,523 


I8,?33,830 
6,2IS,299 
9,373,980 


9-1,134 
193,971 


E,0S9,123 
9,951,141 

9,iS24,»47 


11,395 
2,458 


I94,9S0 
3,996,097 
11,13S,50I 


6,136 
3,233 


1,132 

768,946 
6,303,562 
b,  177,972 


166,4^ 
219,503 


20,941.194 

1,799,319 

1,471 


89,960 
180,490 


22,K4,073 

1.558,604 

2,418 


34,426,109 


13,349578        15,250,460 


4,608,718 
515,688 


237,506,758 

2^,463,^2I 

987,262 

1,696,10S 


32,755,164 
1,653,166 


431,696 
162,862 


303,656,837 


6,635.436 
326,894 
26,080 
61,397 
56,662 

1,129,633 
142,539 
351,931 
158,324 
25,723 
22,223 
627,459 


296,300 


65.702 

1,436,472 
717,834 


163,746 
2,179,135 

2,785,109 
619,451 

1,297,710 
8,729,552 
4,844,973 

3,653,621 

737,653 

346,018 

1,115,427 

32,057,832 

10,597 
55,79S 

9,169 

3.136 
4.416 
2.381 
63.896 
466,694 
27,622 
32,484 


22,082,379 

386,609 

3,864 

38,046,087 

454,394 
275.366 
2,226,733 
3,368,530 
301,057 
817,761 


2,984,894 
404,039 


269,203,075 

19,291,396 

855,167 

2,260,852 

32,920,8^ 
1,672  211 


2,351,877 


7,443,841 


4,153,-296 
708,959 
21,054 
72,004 
80,297 

811,722 
192,786 
266,323 
213,729 
16,550 
45,372 
673,811 


437,291 


80,262 

1697.944 

e7f,382 


25,3*4 

359,488 

2,210,237 

3,613,3'2 
1,012,951 

2,066,836 
7,675,340 
1,396,773 

3,844,243 

697,141 

2O2,C30 

1,397,407 

33,&13,9S0 


VD,223 

3,853 
4,470 
2,739 
86,855 
489,466 
26,494 
41,769 
3,031 


46,455,232 

4S4.298 
363,376 
4,213.427 
3,446,563 
372,698 
885,754 


17,363,8S 


3.664,814 
62,811 


18,2(H 
10,554 

5,294 
36,127 
56,093 

2,801 
32,170 


29,366 


1,332 

397,367 
19,738 
2,0S3 
20,737 


1,341,346 

3,997,027 

2,810,384 

Ra 

366,550 

Refin 

245,698 

39,245 

254,460 

60 


3,081 


8,060,.3<a 

210,914 

2,359 

442,696 

16,436 
99,510 
243,577 
7.32,306 
209,194 
312,243 


9,766,116  I      1,613,298 


a,74 1,984 


2,203,316 


3,928,226 

88,234 
4,548 


19,569 
12.967 

1,460 
27,635 
23,956 

2,S32 
19,672 


56,127 


4.964 
22,638 

2,078 

234.930 
20.412 

3,727 
68,276 

7,523 

207,007 
1,680.350 
6,391,247 
1,799,143 


401,044 

19,068 

1,181,005 


2,634 


293,6^976 


2,323,300 

435,372 

17,595 

72,l.«6 

60,549 

1,112,190 
140,445 
319,147 
137,692 
21,469 
22,079 
512,623 


265,861 


48,578 
1,411,215 
trt3,SS6 

1,368,217 
216,225 
31,242 
160,235 

2,222,567 


t  3,651,804 

1,090,765 
31,829,619 

12,384 
67,291 

8,756 

3,209 

4,833 
2,549 
65,480 
481,523 
27,236 
33,111 


12,980,951 
273,360 
10,303 
807,362 

5,56S 
128,506 
296,538 
688.024 
173,910 
346,575 


20,502,971 

143,856 

138 

39,066,620 

545,  V91 
232,550 
2.596,530 
2,246,085 
161,042 
426,372 


1,173,795 
443,786 


16.703 
Drawbacks  & 
repayments 

26,674 

I     591,241 


12,026 


302,935,657 


2,447,827 

393.474 

14,026 

70,951 

75,271 

794.272 
163,523 
254,783 

147,467 
11,487 
25,470 

666,096 


342,718 


40,339 

1,603,828 

607,980 

2.225,227 
264,806 
21.462 
215,963 

2,211,968 


100,182 

2,457,020 

323,751 


3,741,579 

1,160,180 
34,969,651 

13,.560 
Q,808 

9,595 

3,612 
3,791 
2,616 
83.186 
493,200 
26,854 
40.352 
3,269 

21,048,324 

145,385 

161 

40,840,271 

524.0S1 
260,630 
2,750,303 
2,279,853 
150,369 
485,308 


473,011 


29,781 
1,170 
3,492 

14.730 
3,721 

4,T28 
311,063 
69,392 
149,195 
6,092 
18,768 
2,110 


39,027 


45,743 
27,043 
1,761 
4,184 
13,923 

15,900 

292 

1,778 

111,174 

6,S94 


4,414,302 

171,605 
3,444,102 

1 16,215 
521,494 


10,149 
43.388 
437,629 
33,775 

8,308 


3,140,085 
137,855 


1,491,078 


1,639,121.  I     6,207,770 


6,480,544 


Book  I. 


DENMARK. 


463 


IV.  Account  of  the  Shipping  employed  in  the  Trade  and  Navigation  of  the  United  Kingdom  in  1834;  specifying 
the  Number  and  Tonnage  of  Vessels  entering  Inwards  and  clearing  Outwards  (including  their  repeated  Voy. 
ages),  and  the  Number  of  their  Crews  ;  separating  British  from  Foreign  Vessels;  and  distinguishing  the  Navi- 
gation  with  each  Country. 


Russia  --..---.----- 
Sweden  •---.-.-•--- 

Norway    -  •  - -  - 

Denmark ..--.. 

Prussia 

Germany  -•- -  - 

Holland 

Belgium 

France     

Portugal,  Proper 

Azores  ..--..- 
Madeira  .-...- 

Spain  and  the  Balearic  Islands 

Canary  Islands  .-..--.- 

Gibraltar  .----..-..- 

Italy  and  Italian  Islands  -  -  • 

Malti 

Ionian  Islands 

Turkey  &  Continental  Greece 

Morea  and  Greek  Islands  -  - 

Egypt 

Tripoli,  Barbary,  &  Morocco 

Coast  of  Africa,! rom  Morocco 
to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 

Eastern  Coast  from  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  to  Babel 
Mandel  ---........ 

Isle  of  Bourbon  --..---- 

Cape  de  Verd  Islands   .  -  -  - 

St.  Helena  and  Ascension  -  • 

Mauritius •-- 

Arabia 

East  India  Company's  Terri- 
tories, Singapore  &  Ceylon 

Sumatra ....... 

China 

Java 

Philippine  Islands 

Ports  of  Siam  ......... 

New  South  Wales  ...... 

British  Northern  Colonies  •  ■ 

British  West  Indies 

Hayti 

Cuba,  and  other  Foreign  West 
Indies 

United  States 

Mexico  ............ 

Guatemala  .-...--.-. 

Colombia  --..--..-.. 

Brazils   .--....--.-. 

Slates  of  Rio  de  la  Plata  -  -  • 

Chili 

Peru 

The  Whale  Fisheries  .... 

Isles  of  Guernsey,  Jersey,  and 
Man 

Greenland  (Ice) 

Foreign    parts    (not   distin- 


British. 


Ships. 
1,519 


1,011 
407 
1,565 


Tont. 
297,013 

15,333 
6,403 
S,691 

32,021 
115,278 
137,546 

40,875 
128,017 

59,0  5 

12,338 
2,475 

45,234 
3,S30 
3,720 

58,142 
1,063 
8,469 

18,688 
2,311 
1,124 
4,014 

32,313 
5,566 


20,909 


29,308 
1,901 
1,586 


■    12,400 

624,606 

246,605 

1,928 

7,152 
94,658 

6,893 
272 

7,459 
29,371 
10,120 

6,341 

2,768 
34,161 

146,543 

802 


Men. 

13,568 

764 

398 

276 

1,506 

6,502 

6,684 

3,265 

12,168 

3,492 

753 

160 


1,012 


1,073 


2,649 


23,270 
13,387 


359 

4,078 


3,993 
10,103 


Foreign. 


1,403 


59,166 
35,910 
98,303 
53,282 
118,111 
45,471 
67,230 
43,683 
74,382 
4,539 


1,367 

204,529 

490 


1,074 


Men. 
2,725 
1,731 
5,139 
3,138 
5,081 
2,552 
3,667 
2,260 
9,207 


8,417 


1,880 


2,141 


13,903  I  2,298,263  1 126,727  ,    5,894     ,833,905   |   45,897  |    13,639  |  2,296,325 


CHAPTER  V, 

DENMARK. 

Denmauk  is  an  ancient  kingdom,  formerly  very  powerful,  holding  sway  over  the  surround- 
ing regions,  and,  as  a  predatory  state,  the  terror  of  all  Europe.  Though  now  reduced  to 
the  secondary  rank,  her  situation  renders  her  of  importance  in  the  general  system  of  the 
Continent. 

Sect.  I. — General  Outline  and  Aspect. 

Denmark  consists  mainly  of  an  extensive  peninsula,  shooting  out  from  the  north-west 
corner  of  Germany,  and  a  cluster  of  large  islands  to  the  east  of  the  peninsula.  The  northern 
shores  of  Denmark  approach  close  to  the  southern  point  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula, 
bounding  the  great  interior  sea  of  the  Baltic.  She  commands  the  only  channel  by  which 
the  countries  around  this  sea  can  transmit  their  products  to  the  rest  of  Europe ;  a  circum- 
stance which  gives  her  some  consideration  as  a  maritime  state,  at  the  same  time  that  the  toll 
she  imposes  on  ships  passing  and  repassing  the  Sound,  is  productive  of  revenue.  The  Danish 
peninsula  is  termed  Jutland ;  and  the  islands  in  the  interior  of  the  Baltic,  interposed  be- 
tween Jutland  and  Scandinavia,  are  Zealand,  Funen,  Odensce,  and  a  few  others  of  smaller 
note.  Denmark  holds  also  the  German  territories  of  Sleswick  and  Ilolstein  ;  with  Iceland, 
tlie  Faroe  Islands,  and  some  settlements  on  the  coast  of  Greenland,  remnants  of  her  former 
maritime  power. 

The  extent  of  the  dominions  of  a  country  broken  into  such  a  variety  of  detached  portions 
can  with  difficulty  be  estimated.     The  only  compact  mass  consists  of  Jutland,  Sleswick, 


404 


MAP  OF  DENMARK- 


Fig.  223. 


0       lou^tude  East         10      fani  Green'.vicb      11 


Boor  I. 


DENMARK. 


465 


and  Holstein ;  bounded  on  the  west  and  north  by  the  North  Sea  or  German  Ocean  ;  on  the 
east  by  the  sounds  which  form  the  entrance  of  the  Baltic ;  on  the  south  by  the  Elbe.  This 
tract  lies  generally  between  53i°  and  575°  north  latitude,  and  8°  and  11°  east  longitude. 
We  have  thus  a  length  of  280  miles,  and  a  breadth  of  120.  The  total  area  of  the  Danish 
monarchy,  is  about  22,000  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  Denmark  is  nearly  flat ;  forming,  witli  the  exception  of  Holland,  the  lowest 
part  of  the  great  plain  of  Northern  Germany.  The  islands,  in  particular,  in  many  places, 
rise  only  a  few  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  soil,  as  in  the  rest  of  this  plain,  is  fre- 
quently sandy  and  marsiiy  ;  the  climate  humid,  tliough  not  liable  to  those  severe  frosts  which 
prevail  in  the  interior  of  Scandinavia.  Hence  it  affords  good  pasturage,  and  its  soil  is  favour- 
able to  the  growth  of  the  coarser  species  of  grain. 

The  waters  of  Denmark  consist  chiefly  of  its  numerous  sounds  and  bays ;  the  Skager-rack, 
which  comes  in  from  the  North  Sea,  and  separates  Jutland  from  Norway;  the  Categat, 
which,  running  southward  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  Skagerrack,  separates  that  peninsula 
from  Sweden ;  the  Sound,  a  narrow  strait  at  the  extremity  of  the  Cattegat,  between  Zealand 
and  Sweden,  and  which  forms  the  main  entrance  into  the  Baltic.  The  insular  and  penin- 
sular character  of  her  territory  gives  Denmark  an  extent  of  coast  which  certainly  does  not 
fall  short  of  600  miles  ;  and  there  is  said  to  be  no  part  of  the  land  more  than  ten  miles  distant 
from  the  sea.  This  structure  leaves  no  room  for  the  formation  of  any  rivers  of  tl\e  least 
consequence,  except  the  Eyder  in  Holstein,  and  the  canal  of  Kiel,  by  which  an  important 
communication  is  formed  between  the  ocean  and  the  Baltic.  Jutland  contains  a  number  of 
shallow  but  extensive  lakes,  closely  bordering  on  the  sea,  with  which  they  in  many  places- 
communicate,  and  may  hence  be  regarded  as  bays. 

Sect.  II. — Natural  Geography. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Geology. 

Denmark.  The  geology  of  this  low  and  flat  country  has  not  been  completely  ascertained. 

As  far  as  is  known  at  present,  it  contains  neither  primitive  nor  transition  rocks :  the  only 

secondary  deposits  are  Weald  clay,  and  the  various  members  of  the  chalk  formation  ;  both  of 

which  are  generally  covered  up  with  tertiary  soils ;  which,  in  their  turn,  are  as  deeply  covered 


NORTH  PART. 

52.  Harboe  Ore 

106.  North  Bork 

50. 

1.  l.ykenshuus 

53.  Nees 

107.  Haureig 

51. 

2.  Hloring 

.54.  Ulborg 

108.  Kiergaard 

52. 

3.  Harshals 

55.  Vringelberg 

53. 

4.  Toersled 

56.  Holslbroe 

SOUTH  PART. 

54. 

5.  Skagen 

57.  Hodsager 

1.  Hoe 

55. 

6.  Aalbek 

58.  Soriip 

2.  Varde 

56. 

7.  Flailstrand 

59.  KnudstrupOver   3.  Jerne 

57. 

8.  Sffibye 

fiO.  Wiborg 

4.  Hodde 

58. 

9.  Bottergaard 

61.  Skierne 

5.  Giording 

59. 

10.  Blokhuu3 

62.  Laurberg 

6.  Folding 

(SO. 

Jl.Tolsirup 

63.  Raiiders 

7.  Vaarbase 

61. 

J  2.  Thnse 

64.  Horning 

8.  Odsted 

62. 

]:i.  Byslet 

65.  Oersted 

9.  Smidstriip 

63. 

14.  Biorsted 

66.  Ulslriip 

67.  Gieriid 

0.  Frederica 

64. 

15.  Vaar 

11.  Colding 

65. 

16.  Al'z 

68.  Greenaae 

12.  Christiansfelde 

66. 

17.  Illsted 

69.  Alboge 

13.  Aaroe 

67. 

18.  Hals 

70.  Ebeltost 

14.  Hadersleben 

68. 

I'.l.  Sundbye 

71.  Hekenaee 

15.  Gram 

69. 

2(1.  Aalborg 

72.  Agrie 

16.  Hyam 

70. 

21.  l.oKslor 

73.  Tborsager 

17.  Hiortland 

71. 

22.  Kollerup 

74.  Hornslet 

18.  Ripen 

7.7 

2:t.  Kiorup  Pra;- 

75.  Skeibye 

19.  Reisbye 

73.' 

stegaard 

76.  Aarhuus 

20.  Ballura 

74. 

24.  Kolbye  Herru- 

77.  Dover 

21.  Hoyer 

75. 

eaard 

78.  Dallerup 

22.  Lygum  Kloster 

76. 

2.'i.  TLstpd 

79.  Midstrup 

23,  Hoist 

77. 

2fi.  Forbye 

80.  Agersktiv 

24.  Schrudstrup 

78. 

27.  Aggpr 

81.  Engisvang 

25.  Apenrade 

79, 

28.  Visbye 

82.  Sunds 

26.  Gravenstein 

80. 

2!i.  Sundby 

83.  Arcnburg 

27.  Holebul 

81, 

30.  Rosted 

84.  Noromme 

28.  Ucke 

82, 

:tl.  Nykiobine 

85.  Sondervang 

29.  Tonder 

83. 

32.  Hierk 

8fi.  Rinkioping 

30.  E.nhsbull 

84, 

3:!.  Strandbyu 

87.  nijberaUind 

31.  Leek 

85, 

34.  Malle 

88.  Herningsholtn 

32.  Ockkolm 

86, 

3.').  Giindersted 

89.  Faurgaard 

33.  Bredstedt 

87, 

3(i.  A  Mrs 

90.  Brandholm 

34.  Merielburg 

88, 

37.  Bisley 

91.  Snee 

35.  Jorl 

89, 

.38.  Rllcshoy 

92.  Give 

36.  Arenholt 

90. 

311.  Kongsley 

93.  Grendstriip 

37.  Flensborg 

91. 

41).  SJprn 

94.  Snandt-rbiirg 

38.  Sloirnp 

92. 

41.  Vive 

9.5.  Tvenstrup 

39.  Gelring 

93. 

42.  Siidringliolirj 

96.  Haldrup 

40.  Kappul 

94. 

4:t.  Miiriager 

97.  Ilorsona 

41.  Windemark 

05 

44.  TInbr..B 

9-'.  Aasirup 

42.  Eckernforde 

96; 

4.->.  Isindum 

99.  F.ngiini 

43.  Sleswick 

97, 

4li.  Bcldrup 

1(K).  Vpile 

44.  Hollingstedo 

98. 

47.  inbi..rg 

101    Rins-ivo 

45.  Treya 

99. 

48.  Skive 

W>.  Grwne 

46.  Husuin 

100, 

4!l.  Kaas 

103.  Oddam 

47.  Mildsted 

101, 

50.  BDrbeirg 

104.  Fro.strupgaard 

48.  Frederirkstadt 

102, 

51.  I.emvig 

105.  Lundage 

49.  Carding 

103, 

Vol.  I. 

References  to  the  Map  of  Denmark. 

Tonningen  Rivers. 

Weslingburen  a  Skiern 

Tellingstedt  b  Gielst 

Rendsburg  c  Wldavv 

Barloch  d  Eyder 

Schnelm  e  Stor 

Kiel  f  Elbe 

Rumor  g  Trave 
Reesdorf 

Preelz  I.AAI.AND. 

Ploen  1.  Frcdericksdal 

Ste8en  2.  Raunsholt 

Krokan  3,  Nakskov 

Dransan  4.  Skibbeiunde 

Lutgenburg  5,  Rydo 

Halendorf  6.  Marieboe 

Oldenburg  7,  Rodbye 

Burg  8,  Nypsted 

Heihgenhafen  9.  Saxkioping 
Groniniz 

Neudtadt  FALSTER, 

Eulin  1,  Onslev 

Sarau  2,  Slubbekioping 

Schamersdorf  3.  Karleby 

Neumunsler  4.  Nyekioping 
Wildenscharen 

Oslereted  MOEN. 

Gnbbom  1,  Mondemark 

Meldorf  2.  Sleege 

Marne  3.  Phanefiord 
Brunsbuttel 

llzehoe  ZEALAND. 

Krempe  1.  Tomnaerup 

Gluckstadt  2.  Ramlos 

Uetersen  3,  Giilelye 

Barmstedt  4,  KIsinore 

Hohenborst  5,  Fred('nsborg 

Oldcsloh  6,  Slangerup 

Bedf;berg  7,  Lyngliye 

Travemunde  8,  Copenhagen 

Lubeck  9.  Golstrup 

Labenz  10.  Bailerup 

Sierley  11,  Gylling 

Gudow  12  Krnbbeeholra 

Greven  13,  Holbek 

Boilzenburg  14,  Nyekioping 

l,nui>riburg  15,  Egemark 

Sninau  16,  Callundborg 

Wolhorn  17,  Giorlov 

Lemsal  18,  Undlose 

Pinncberg  19.  Aagerup 

Wedel  20.  Roschild 

Hamburg  21.  Kioge 
Bergedor 


22.  Olteslrup 

23.  Tryggevelde 

24.  Ruholte 

25.  Glumsoe 

26.  Ringsted 

27.  Soroe 

28.  Antvorskov 

29.  Slagelse 

30.  Shielekiov 

31.  Saltoeslot 

32.  Vallensved 
Xi.  Nestved 

34.  Proestoe 

35.  Wordingborg 

SAMSOE. 

1.  Nordbye 

2.  Selvcg 

FUNEN. 

1.  Middelfarth 

2.  Indslov 

3.  Bogensee 

4.  Bederslov 

.5,  Kierteminde 

6,  Ronkebye 

7,  Nyborg 

8.  Bellinga 

9.  Odense 

10,  Broebye 

11,  Hunsbye 

12,  Oersted 

13,  Asscns 

14,  DresleltB 
1,5,  Sallinge 

16,  Risling 

17,  Gudbier 

18,  Svendborg 
19  Faaborg 

ALSEN. 

1,  Nordburg 

2,  Augustenburg 

3,  Sonderburg 

ARROE. 

1.  Soebye 

2,  Kiopmg 

LANGELAND. 

1.  Humble  K. 

2.  Rudkiobing 

3.  Stoense 

31 


166  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III 

with  diluvium  of  sand,  and  calcareous  loam ;  which  latter  are  occasionally  concealed  by  newe" 
alluvial  deposits. 

Iceland.  This  island,  so  far  as  is  known  to  geologists,  is  entirely  composed  of  ignigenous 
rocks.  These  are  of  two  classes ;  viz.  Plutonian  and  volcanic.  The  Plutonian  formations 
are  greenstone,  and  its  accompanying  rocks,  and  basalt,  with  its  associated  tuflas,  amygda- 
loids,  &c.  Of  all  the  rocks  of  the  trap  series,  amygdaloid  is  that  which  contains  the  greatest 
variety  of  mmerals ;  and  of  these  the  zeolites  and  calcareous  spars  are  the  most  interesting 
and  beautiful.  The  volcanic  rocks  exliibit  the  usual  characters,  and  in  Iceland  are  spread 
around  in  vast  abundance. 

Faroe  Islands.  This  small  insular  group  consists  of  seventeen  large  inhabited  islands, 
and  of  many  smaller,  with  and  without  inhabitants.  In  none  of  the  inhabited  islands  are 
the  most  elevated  summits  lower  than  1000  feet ;  the  highest  land  is  in  tlie  island  of  Osteroe, 
which  rises  to  fully  2,800  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  two  prevailing  rocks  are 
greenstone  (dolerite)  and  claystone.  The  greenstone  is  sometimes  basaltic,  sometimes  por- 
phyritic,  or  amygdaloidal.  The  claystone  is  red,  yellow,  brown,  and  green.  It  alternates 
with  the  greenstone,  in  beds  of  varying  thickness.  The  beds  of  greenstone  and  claystone 
of  the  group  all  incline  or  dip  towards  a  central  point  of  the  group,  rendering  it  probable 
that  the  islands  are  but  portions  of  one  whole.  The  upper  surface  of  the  greenstone  is 
slaggy,  showing  that  the  mass  had  been  in  a  state  of  igneous  solution.  There  are  two 
principal  varieties  of  greenstone ;  one  porphyritic,  with  crystals  of  glassy  felspar,  tlie  other 
without  the  porphyritic  structure.  In  some  of  the  islands  there  are  beds  of  pitchcoal,  asso- 
ciated with  fire  clay,  slate  clay,  and  sphserosiderite,  resting  upon  the  trap,  and  covered  by  it. 
The  beds  of  greenstone  and  slate  clay  are  often  traversed  by  veins  or  dikes  of  basaltic  and 
porphyritic  greenstone,  which,  however,  do  not  appear  to  occasion  any  change  in  them ;  but 
the  greenstones  are  changed  m  position  and  direction  by  the  invasion  from  below  of  a 
conglomerated  rock,  a  kind  of  trap  tufFa.  The  trap  rocks  of  the  Faroes  have  been  long 
celebrated,  on  account  of  the  splendid  zeolites  they  afford :  some  species  of  this  beautiful 
family  appear  to  be  daily  forming.  The  chloropoerite,  peridote,  and  precious  opal  are  also 
productions  of  this  insular  group. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Botany. 

Denmark  and  Sweden,  Norway  and  Lapland,  the  Faroe  Islands,  and  Iceland, — the  latter 
giving  a  name,  indeed  to  a  plant  equally  common  in  the  other 
224  _^         ^^^  countries,  Lichen  islandicus,  or  Iceland  Moss,  (Jig.  224.), — 

may  be  considered  under  one  head,  so  far  as  regards  their 
vegetable  productions;  for  it  is  difficult  to  draw  an  exact 
line  of  demarcation,  and  even  of  these  the  very  nature  of  our 
work  does  not  allow  us  to  treat  much  at  large  :  this  is  the 
less  to  be  regretted,  because  the  classical  works  of  Linnaeus 
and  Wahlenberg  are  in  the  hands  of  every  botanical  student ; 
and  they  contain  a  mine  of  valuable  mformation  in  the  Flora 
Lapponica  and  Suecica  of  both  these  authors,  and  a  fund  of 
interesting  and  delightful  narrative  in  the  Lachesis  Lap- 
ponica of  the  great  Swedish  naturalist.  The  various  wTitings 
of  CEder,  Vahl,  and  Hornemann  afford  much  useful  matter 
relative  to  the  plants  of  Denmark.  The  vegetation  of  a  great 
portion  of  these  countries  may  be  considered  the  same  as  that 
of  the  more  northern  and  mountainous  parts  of  Great  Britain. 
Yet  as  the  northern  regions  of  the  continent  of  Europe  pre- 
ii-Liaiiu  uLuaa.  ggj^j.  ^^  alpine  and  arctic  vegetation,  in  a  much  more  perfect 

degree  than  islands,  we  should  scarcely  do  justice  to  our  subject,  did  we  not  offer  some  re- 
marks on  the  distribution  of  the  vegetable  productions  of  a  portion  of  that  more  interesting 
and  extreme  nortliern  European  territory  ;  namely  Lapland.  The  natural  boundaries  of  this 
country  are  formed  by  some  low  mountains,  about  500  feet  in  height,  at  a  distance  of  from 
five  to  eight  Swedish  miles  from  the  extremity  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  They  present  no 
naked  summits,  but  are  covered  with  forests  of  Spruce  Fir*  {Jig.  225.) :  these  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  last  subalpine  range  in  northern  Europe.  Commencing  in  the  south-east,  a 
little  beyond  the  lake  Kemistrask,  in  lat.  67°,  it  tends  towards  Upper  Tornea,  and  near  to 
Ofover  Calix  in  the  west ;  stretches  south  to  Edifers,  in  Lulea ;  and  reaches  its  southermost 
point  at  the  Tafi^elsjon,  in  Umean  Lapland,  lat.  64°.  This  mountain  chain  exhibits  Calla 
palustris  {fg.  226.),  (a  plant  of  a  poisonous  family,  closely  allied  to  the  Arum  maculatum 
or  Wake-robin,  and  to  the  Caladium  esculentum  of  the  tropics;  and,  as  with  them,  a  kind  of 
bread  called  Missenbrod,  or  the  bread  of  famine,  is  made  by  the  Laplanders  from  the  roots) ; 
Sweet  gale*,  common  Speedwell*  Ox-eye*,  Meadow  Fescure-grass*,  and  Carex  slellulata* 
The  Birch*  there  produces  its  leaves  m  the  beginning  of  June. 

♦  The  names  marked  with  an  asterisk  are  those  of  plants  found  also  in  Britain. 


Book  I. 


DENMARK. 


46T 


The  inferior  and  woody  district  of  Lapland  has  its  upper  limit  at  Sondankyla  in  Kemean 
Lapland,  between  Kengis  and  Munoniska  in  Tornea,  at  Jockmock  in  Lulea,  and  at  Falstrak, 
in  Umean  Lapland ;  and  it  yields,  besides  the  Spruce  Fir,  the  Meadow  Trefoil,  the  Lysima- 
chia  thyrsiflora*,  Lily  of  the  Valley*,  and  White  Water  Lily*,  which  grow  abundantly. 
Some  plants  which  are  peculiarly  subalpine  begin  to  appear,  as  Tofie^ldia  palustris*  and  Ser- 
ratula  alpina"^. 


226 


225 


Calla  Palustris. 


227 


Spruce  Fir. 


Rein-deer  Moss. 


The  upper  woody  district  is  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  the  last-mentioned  plants;  but 
the  forests  of  spruce  still  abound.  Where  the  Spruce  ceases,  in  places  of  warm  exposure, 
the  upper  limit  of  this  region  is  indicated.  Its  boundary  in  Kemean,  Tornean,  and  Pitean 
Lapland,  is  more  distinctly  marked,  because  the  country  is  flatter,  and  destitute  of  deep 
valleys ;  but  in  such  situations,  in  Lulea  and  Umea,  the  Spruce  Fir  approaches  nearer  to  the 
Alps,  and  the  sides  of  the  mountains  are  covered  with  it.  There  its  utmost  northern  limits 
are  found  to  be  at  Kyro,  near  the  great  lake  of  Enare,  in  lat.  60^^  north.  Here,  too,  is  the 
most  northern  boundary  of  many  well-known  plants,  such  as  Trifolium  repens*,  Festuca 
rubra*,  Rumex  aquaticus*,  the  Yellow  Water  Lily*,  and  several  other  aquatics.  Many 
alpine  plants  commence,  as  Salix  glauca*,  extending  south  to  the  middle  of  this  region, 
Salix  hastata*,  confined  to  the  north,  and  Bartsia  alpina*,  with  Lychnis  alpina*,  on  the  banks 
of  the  streams.     The  culture  of  barley  still  succeeds ;  but  scarcely  beyond  this  line. 

The  subalpine  mountains  in  this  region  are  very  dry  and  remarkably  gravelly  and  stony ; 
abounding  in  that  plant  which  Linnseus  has  so  beautifully  described,  in  his  Flora  Lapponica, 
as  the  main  support  of  the  Rein-deer,  and  consequently  of  the  Laplander,  Lichen  Rangife- 
rinus*  {Jif^.  227.),  or  Rein-deer  Moss.  Ill  could  the  Laplander  subsist  without  the  supplies 
afforded  by  that  useful  animal ;  it  is  his  sole  wealth.  Almost  the  only  winter  food  of  this  ser- 
viceable animal  is  the  moss,  which  the  deer  are  so  fond  of,  that  though  it  is  commonly  buried 
at  that  season  under  a  great  depth  of  snow,  yet,  by  scratching  with  their  feet,  and  digging 
with  their  antlers,  they  never  fail  to  get  at  it.  In  short,  without  this  lichen,  both  the  rein- 
deer and  the  Laplander  must  perish.  "  Thus,"  adds  Linnaeus,  "  things  which  are  often 
deemed  the  most  insignificant  and  contemptible  by  ignorant  men,  are,  by  the  good  providence 
of  God,  made  the  means  of  the  greatest  blessings  to  his  creatures."  Linnaeus  assures  us 
that  this  lichen  grows  so  luxuriantly  in  Lapland,  as  to  be  found  sometimes  a  foot  in  height. 

But  as  the  hills  scarcely  rise  to  the  limits  of  perpetual  snow,  about  200  or  300  feet  higher 
than  the  woods  arc  found,  tliey  are  fertile  in  such  plants  as  flourish  in  a  dry  and  barren  soil , 
viz.,  Menziesia  caerulea*,  Arbutus  alpina*,  Juncus  trifidus*,  Lycopodium  alpinum*,  Azalea 


•468 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III 


228 


procumbens,*  and,  though  rarely,  Diapensia  lapponica.   Here  the  Lichen  tartareus  (Jig.  228.) 

or  Cudbear,  abounds,  and  is,  both  here  and  in  Sweden  and 
Norway,  collected  and  exported  to  the  dye-manufacturers. 
Wahlcnberff  distinguishes  by  tlie  term  "  Regio  subsylva- 
tica,"  or  partially  wooded  region,  tiiat  where  the  Scotcli 
Fir  grows,  but  not  the  Spruce.  Tiiis  is  more  contracted 
than  the  other  regio;is,  and  more  difficult  to  be  defined.  It 
is  not  unfrequently  eight  Swedish  miles  broad  in  northern 
Lapland  ;  in  Kemea  extending  to  nearly  70°  of  lat.  Be- 
fore the  Scotch  Fir  ceases,  the  Carex  globularis  disap- 
pears, and,  in  the  more  northern  parts.  Prunella  vulgaris. 
Cudbear.  Within  the  Fir  region,  the  beautiful  Pedicularis  lapponica 

appears  scattered  througli  the  woods;  Viola  bifblia,  and 
Thalictrum  alpinum*  following  the  course  of  the  streams;  Sali.x  lanata,*  with  its  splendid 
golden  catkins,  at  the  margins  of  marshes  and  springs,  and  also  Ranunculus  lapponicu-s. 
The  cultivation  of  barley  scarcely  succeeds,  and  the  colonists  are  miserably  poor.  The 
Birch  comes  into  leaf  at  the  summer  solstice.  The  lakes  and  rivers  have  an  elevation  of 
about  1000  feet  above  tlie  level  of  the  sea.  The  subalpine  region  still  yields  the  Birch* 
(Betula  alba'),  though  other  trees  will  not  grow.  Its  upper  boundary  is  marked  by  the 
dwarf  stature  of  these,  where  they  scarcely  attain  a  height  of  six  feet.  The  Aspen*  (j)opii- 
lus  tremulu)  and  the  Bird-cherry  (iVi<«  if. sPaJt^.s)  cease  before  the  Birch:  the  Sorbus  Aucu- 
paria,*  or  Mountain  Ash,  extends  as  far.  The  Birch  always  in  Lapland  reaches  to  a  much 
greater  elevation  and  more  northern  latitude  than  the  Scotch  and  Spruce  Firs.  Its  limits 
are  more  easily  determined ;  yet,  on  a  geographical  map,  thoy  are  with  difficulty  expressed, 
because  the  Birch  ascends  to  the  alpine  regions,  circumscribes  all  the  mountains,  and  pene- 
trates all  the  lesser  valleys:  thus  it  extends  almost  to  lat.  71°  in  Western  Finmark,  and 
stops  but  little  short  of  the  North  Cape.  The  dry  portion  of  this  region  is  again  the  habi- 
tation of  tlie  Lichen  rangiferinus,  and  of  Azalea  procumbens,*  Luzula  spicata,*  and  Juncus 
trifidus.*  On  the  borders  of  Russia,  the  Birch  as  well  as  the  Scotch  Fir  extend  even  to 
the  Northern  Ocean. 

The  lower  alpine  region,  or  the  Lower  Alps,  commence  where  the  Birch  ceases  to  exist, 
and  where  tlie  snow,  not  of  perennial  duration,  except  in  caves  and  liollows,  melts  before 
the  middle  of  July.  There  the  Diapensia  lapponica,  Silene  ac-.iulis,*  and  Andromeda  hyp- 
noides  are  found.     The  Salix  myrsinites*  and  Dwarf  Birch  still  grow  erect.     Nearly  tlie 

same  vegetation  as  is  met  with  on  tlie  Lower  Alps  exists 
upon  the  maritime  alps  of  Finmark,  to  the  most  northern 
promontory,  with  this  difference  only,  that  the  steep 
and  precipitous  rocks  harbour  more  moisture  and  snow, 
and  the  affinity  is  greater  with  the  alpine  range  in  tiie 
higher  mountains,  which  retain  the  snow  during  the  whole 
summer,  the  partial  melting  of  which  creates  a  moist 
and  even  a  boggy  soil.  Here,  therefore,  are  seen  the 
little  Dwarf  Willow*  {fitr.  229.)  {Salix  herbacea,)  Ra- 
nunculus glacialis  and  nivalis,  Pedicularis  hirsuta  and 
flammea,  Stellaria  biflora,  Erigeron  uniflorum  ;*  plants 
eminently  alpine,  and  peculiar  to  those  situations. 
Beyond  these  is  the  region  of  perpetual  snow.  Towards  the  Norwegian  Ocean,  another 
form  of  the  alps  presents  itself;  lolly  mountains  without  any  plains,  circumscribed  with  very 
narrow  zones,  which  Wahlenberg  defines  as  the  more  elevated  sides  of  the  alps,  reaching 
nearly  to  the  limits  of  perpetual  snow,  consequently  always  irrigated  with  snow-water: 
they  nourish  a  few,  and  those  marshy,  plants.  The  Ranunculi  (Crowfoots)  principally 
abound. 

The  lower,  or  less  elevated,  sides  of  the  alps,  generally  destitute  of  perpetual  snow,  yield 
the  Dwarf  Birch*  in  the  moister  spots ;  and,  on  tlie  drier,  Andromeda  hypnoides,  the  Alpine 
Speedwell*,  Juncus  bifidus*,  and  the  Procumbent  Azalea.* 

The  bases  of  the  alps  are  where  the  Birch  grows,  but  no  Pines.  Among  the  Birches, 
scarcely  six  feet  high,  the  Purple  alpine  Saxifrage*,  with  Saxifraga  nivalis  and  cernua, 
abound  in  the  moist  and  precipitous  places,  and,  in  those  that  are  more  dry,  Aspidium 
Lonchitis.  The  lower  portion  of  this  zone  affords  tall  birches,  such  as  are  found  in  the  more 
northern  regions,  only  in  the  inmost  recesses  of  the  deep  bays,  and,  beneath  them,  Aspidium 
Filix  Mas*,  Osmunda  Struthiopteris,  the  Blue  Alpine  Sowtiiistle*,  and  the  Red  Currant.* 

The  maritime  alps  include  the  islands  and  promontories ;  so  exposed  to  the  winds  that 
they  derive  their  alpine  character  more  from  their  peculiar  situation  than  from  their  eleva- 
tion above  the  level  of  the  sea :  and  so  bare  are  they  of  trees  and  shrubs,  that  even  the 
Juniper  will  not  succeed  there.  They  are  almost  equally  destitute  of  the  more  alpine  shrubs, 
such  as  Andromedas;  but  they  are  adorned  with  succulent  alpine  plants,  such  as  Saxifi-aga 
oppositifolia*,  Silene  acaulis*,  and  Dryas  octopetala.     Near  the  shore  occur  some  produc- 


229 


Dwarf  Willow. 


Book  I.  DENMARK.  469 

tions  of  the  alps  of  the  south  of  Europe,  such  as  Erijjeron  alpinnm*,  Sedum  villosum*  and 
Geritiana  involucrata,  which  in  Lapland  are  found  nowhere  inland.  The  Norwegian  alpa 
nourish  numerous  annual  plants;  but  the  dryer  ones  of  Sweden,  remote  from  the  sea,  are 
remarkable  for  the  little  alpine  shrubs,  particularly  Azalea  lapponica,  which  scarcely  occurs 
in  Norway ;  Salices  alone,  such  as  S.  myrsinites*,  occupying  their  place. 

The  subalpine  spots  and  valleys  are  marked  by  the  presence  of  the  Pine ;  but  the  most 
extended  Fir  forests  are  only  tbund  at  the  heads  of  the  deep  inlets  of  the  sea,  in  narrow 
ravines,  sheltered  by  the  loltiest  mountains.  These  valleys  enjoy  a  much  milder  climate 
than  all  the  rest  of  Lapland :  there  are  found  the  Convallaria  verticillata*,  Campanula  lati- 
folia*  and  Fragaria  vesca*,  in  abundance ;  but  no  alpine  plants  will  grow,  except  the  Starry 
Saxifrage*  {Saxifraga  stcllaris)  along  tlie  margins  of  the  rills. 

A  more  interesting  account  of  the  vegetation  of  Lapland,  at  different  elevations,  is  pub" 
lished  by  Sir  J.  E.  Smitli,  in  the  Appendix  to  the  Lachesis  Lapponica  of  Linnjeus.  It  is 
translated  from  the  Swedish  of  Dr.  Wahlenberg ;  his  "  Observations 
made  witli  a  view  to  determine  the  height  of  the  Lapland  Alps." 
(1.)  On  approacliing  the  Lapponese  mountains  (Fjdll),  we  first 
reach  the  line  where  the  Spruce  Fir  ceases  to  grow.  This  tree 
liad  previously  assumed  an  unusual  appearance ;  that  of  a  tall 
230  slender  pole,  covered  from  the  ground  witii  short,  drooping,  dark 
branches :  a  gloomy  object  in  these  desolate  forests  !  The  Arctic 
Raspberry*  {fiff.  230.)  {Rubus  arcticus)  had  already,  before  we 
arrived  at  this  point,  ceased  to  bring  its  fruit  to  maturity.  With 
tlie  Spruce  we  lose  the  Cinnamon  Rose  (Rosa  ci7ina?nomea*),  and 
tlie  Twin-leaved  Solomon's  Seal  (Convallaria  bifolia),  &c. ;  and 
the  borders  of  the  lakes  are  stripped  of  tlieir  ornaments  of  Reeds 
(Arundo  Plira<rmites*),  Lysimachia  thyrsiflora*,  Galium  borcale*, 
and  Carex  globularis.  Here  is  the  true  station  of  the  Arctic  Colts- 
foot  (Tussilago  nivea).  The  last  beaver-houses  are  seen  in  tlie 
rivulets ;  and  no  pike  nor  perch  is  to  be  found  in  the  lakes  higher 
up.  The  boundary  of  the  Spruce  Fir  is  3200  feet  below  the  line 
of  perpetual  snow,  and  the  mean  temperature  37°  of  Fahrenheit. 

(2.)  Scotch  Firs*  (Finns  sijlvestris)  are  still  found,  but  not  near 
so  tall  as  in  the  lower  country.  Their  stems  here  are  low,  and  their 
The  Arctic  Raspberry.  branches  widely  extended.  Here  are  seen  the  last  of  Ledum  pa- 
lustre*,  Salix  pentandra*,  Veronica  serpyllifolia*.  Sic.  The  bogs  have  already  a  very  sterile 
appearance.  Near  the  utmost  boundary  of  the  Scotch  Fir  grows  Phaca  alpina.  Higher  up, 
hardly  any  bears  are  to  be  met  witli ;  and  the  fruit  of  the  Bilberry*  does  not  ripen  well. 
The  Gwiniad  and  Grayling,  two  species  of  the  Salmon  tribe,  soon  after  disappear  from  the 
lakes.  Tlie  upper  limit  of  this  zone,  at  which  the  Scotch  Firs  cease,  is  2800  feet  below  the 
line  of  perpetual  snow,  and  the  mean  temperature  about  36°  Fahrenheit.  A  little  short  of 
this  point,  or  about  3000  feet  before  we  come  to  perpetual  snow.  Barley  will  not  ripen ;  but 
email  farms,  the  occupiers  of  which  live  by  grazing  and  fishing,  are  met  with  as  far  as  400 
feet  higlier;  for  instance,  Naimaka  in  Enontekis,  and  so  far  also  potatoes  and  turnips  grow 
large  enough  to  be  worth  cultivating. 

(3.)  Beyond  this,  the  dwarf  and  stunted  forests  consist  only  of  Birch.*  Its  short,  thick 
stem,  and  stiff,  widely-spreading,  knotty  branches,  seem  prepared  to  resist  the  strong  winds 
from  the  Alps :  its  lively  light  green  hue  is  delightful  to  the  eye,  but  evinces  a  weakness 
of  vegetation.  The  birch  forests  soon  become  so  low,  that  they  may  be  entirely  commanded 
from  the  smallest  eminence.  Their  uppermost  boundary,  where  the  tallest  of  them  do  not 
equal  the  height  of  a  man,  is  2000  feet  below  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  This  zone  is 
therefore  much  wider  than  the  preceding.  Long  before  its  termination,  the  Alder*  (Alnus 
incana),  the  Bird-cherry*  (Prunus  Padus),  and  the  Aspen  (Populus  iremula*),  were  no 
more  to  be  seen.  A  little  before  the  Birch  ceases,  we  miss  the  Mountain  Ash*,  which  for 
some  time  had  not  presented  us  witli  any  fruit;  the  Arctic  Bramble*  (Rubus  arcticus)  was 
already  likewise  barren;  the  Ling*  (Erica  vulgaris),  Aconitum  Lycoctonum,  &c.  Where 
the  birch  forest  becomes  thinner,  the  reflection  of  the  heat  from  the  sides  of  the  mountains 
is  the  strongest.  Here,  in  many  spots,  we  find  the  vegetation  o.f  Sonchus  alpinus*,  Struthi- 
opteris,  and  Aconitum  Lycoctonum  remarkably  luxuriant.  The  dryer  spots  now  become 
covered  witli  the  Iceland  Moss*  (Lichen  rangifcrinus) :  Tussilago  frigida  and  Pedicularis 
sceptrum-caroliuum  extend  to  the  utmost  boundary  of  the  Bircli.  Thus  far  only  the  Char 
(Sal/no  alpinus)  is  found  in  the  lakes,  and  liiglier  up  all  fishing  ceases. 

(4.)  All  mountains  above  this  limit  are  called  Fjiill  (alps).  Near  rivulets,  and  on  the 
margin  of  bogs  only,  is  tbund  a  little  brushwood,  consisting  of  Salix  glauca*,  whose  gray 
luie  affords  but  little  ornament  to  tlic  landscape.  The  lower  country  is  covered  with  the 
dark-looking  Dwarf  Bircli*  (Betula  nana),  wliicli  still  retains  its  upright  position.  A  few 
Juniper  bushes*,  and  some  plants  of  Salix  hastata*,  are  found  scattered  about.  Every  hill 
is  covered  with  Arbutus  alpina*,  variegated  with  Andromeda  CBerulca*,  and  the  Wintergreen* 
Vol.  I.  40 


470  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

(^Trientalis  europcea).  The  more  boggy  ground  is  decorated  with  Andromeda  polifolia*  in 
its  greatest  beauty,  and  Pedicularis  lapponica.  On  the  sides  of  the  mountains,  where  tho 
reflected  heat  bears  most  power,  grow  Veronica  alpina*,  Viola  biflora*,  Pteris  crispa*,  and 
Angelica  archangelica.*  This  zone  extends  within  1400  feet  of  the  line  of  perpetual  snow. 
The  glutton  (Mustela  Gulo)  goes  no  higher  than  this.  The  berries  of  the  Cloudberry 
(liubus  Chamccmorus)  still  rifl^n  here,  but  not  at  a  greater  elevation. 

(5.)  Now  no  more  brushwood  is  to  be  seen.  The  white  Salix  lanata*  is  not  a6ove  two 
feet  high,  even  about  tlie  rivulets,  and  Salix  myrsinites*  is  of  still  humbler  growth.  The 
Dwarf  Birch*  occupies  the  dry  spots,  and  creeps  entirely  upon  the  ground.  The  hills  are 
clothed  with  the  rather  brown  than  green  Azalea  procumbens*,  and  A.  lapponica,  which 
give  tliis  zone  its  most  peculiar  feature.  Verdant  spots  between  the  precipices,  where  the 
sun  has  the  greatest  power,  produce  Lychnis  apetala*,  Erigeron  uniflorum*,  Astragalus 
leontinus  and  montanus,  with  Ophrys  alpina.  In  boggy  places,  Aira  alpina*',  Carex  ustu- 
lata*,  and  Vaccinium  uliginosum*  are  observable.  The  only  berries,  however,  which  ripen 
at  this  degree  of  elevation  are  those  of  the  Crowberry*  (Empetrum  nigrum) ;  but  these  are 
twice  as  large  as  what  grow  in  the  woodlands,  and  better  flavoured.  Tiie  upper  boimdary 
of  this  zone  is  800  feet  below  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  The  Laplanders  scarcely  ever 
nx  their  tents  higher  up,  as  the  pasture  for  their  reindeer  ceases  a  very  little  way  above 
this  point.     The  mean  temperature  is  about  34°  Fahrenheit. 

(6.)  Next  come  the  snowy  Alps,  where  are  patches  of  snow  that  never  melt.  The 
bare  places  between  still  produce  a  few  dark  shrubby  plants,  such  as  the  Crowberry*,  des- 
titute, however  of  fruit;  Andromeda  tetragona  and  hypnoides,  and  Diapensia  lapponica. 
Green  precipices,  exposed  to  the  sun,  are  decorated  with  tiie  vivid  azure  tints  of  Gentiana 
tenella  and  nivalis*,  and  Campanula  uniflora,  accompanied  by  the  yellow  Draba  alpina. 
Colder  and  marshy  situations,  where  there  is  no  reflected  heat,  produce  Pedicularis  hirsuta, 
and  Dryas  octopetala.*  This  zone  reaches  to  within  200  feet  of  the  limits  of  perpetual  and 
almost  uninterrupted  snow. 

(7.)  Beyond  it,  the  eternal  snows  begin  to  cover  the  ground,  and  we  soon  arrive  at  a  point 
where  only  a  few  dark  spots  are  here  and  there  to  be  seen.  This  takes  place  on  the  alps 
of  Quickjock  at  the  elevation  of  4100  feet  above  the  sea ;  but  nearer  the  highest  ridge,  and 
particularly  on  the  Norway  side  of  that  ridge,  at  3100  feet.  Some  few  plants  with  succulent 
leaves  are  thinly  scattered  over  the  spong}'  brown  surface  of  the  earth,  where  the  reflected 
heat  is  strongest,  quite  up  to  the  line  of  uninterrupted  snow:  these  are  Saxifraga  stellaris*, 
rivularis*,  and  oppositifolia* ;  Ranunculus  nivalis  and  glacialis;  Rumex  digynus*,  Juncus 
arcuatus*,  and  Silene  acaulis.  The  mean  temperature,  at  the  boundary  of  perpetual  snow, 
is  32^°  of  Fahrenheit. 

(8.)  Above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  the  cold  is  occasionally  so  much  tempered,  that  a 
few  plants  of  Ranunculus  glacialis,  and  other  similar  ones,  may  now  and  then  be  found  in 
the  clefts  of  some  dark  rock  rising  through  the  snow.  This  happens  even  to  the  height  of 
500  feet  above  that  line.  Farther  up,  the  snow  is  very  rarely  moistened,  though  some  um-- 
bilicated  Lichens  (Gyrophorce),  &c.  still  occur  in  the  crevices  of  perpendicular  rocks,  even 
2000  feet  above  the  line  of  never-melting  snow.  These  are  the  extremes  of  vegetation, 
where  the  mean  temperature  seems  to  be  30°  Fahrenheit.  The  Snow  Bunting  {Emberiza 
nivalis)  is  the  only  living  being  that  visits  this  elevated  spot. 

SuBSECT.  3. — Zoology. 
The  native  Zoology,  in  conjunction  with  that  of  Norway,  has  been  ably  illustrated  by  the 
celebrated  Danish  naturalist  MilUer,  and  shows  that  the  fauna  of  those  kingdoms  is  much 
richer  than  their  northern  and  ungenial  climate  would  lead  us  to  imagine.  The  total  num- 
ber of  land  quadrupeds,  including  the  domestic  species,  is  forty-one.  Among  these  we  find 
the  lynx,  the  glutton,  the  beaver,  the  leming,  and  the  flying  squirrel ;  together  with  four 
of  the  largest  deer  inhabiting  Europe ;  namely,  the  elk,  the  stag,  the  rein-deer,  and  the 
fallow-deer. 

The  Elk  {Cervus  Alces)  (Jig.  231.)  of  Europe  is  not  the  same  with  the  Moose-deer  of  Ame- 
rica :  it  is  found  in  Europe  between  latitude  53°  and 
65° :  in  size  it  is  higher  than  a  horse ;  and,  to  support 
the  enormous  weight  of  its  horns,  sometimes  nearly 
fifty  pounds,  its  neck  is  short,  thick,  and  very  strong. 
Its  movements  are  rather  heavy :  it  does  not  gallop,  but 
ambles  along,  the  joints  cracking  so  much  at  every 
step,  that  the  sound  is  heard  to  some  distance.  During 
winter  it  chiefly  resides  in  hilly  woods ;  but  in  summer 
it  frequents  swamps  and  the  borders  of  lakes;  often 
going  deep  into  the  water,  to  escape  the  stings  of  gnats, 
&.C.,  and  to  feed  without  stooping.  With  its  enormous 
j^r-^e-      I  --._       '   A^      horns  it  turns  down  branches  of  trees,  to  feed  upon  the 

^^^»l*%/,"^         ^^(^0^      bark,  with  great  dexterity ;  and  these  are  also  used  as 
The  Elk.  shovels,  to  get  at  pasture  when  covered  with  snow. 

The  young  are  so  simple  and  fearless,  that  they  will 


BookI.  DENMARK.  471 

suffer  themselves  to  be  taken  by  the  hand.  An  unusually  large  elk,  killed  in  Sweden,  is 
said  to  have  weighed  1200  lbs.  These  animals  do  not  now  appear  to  be  employed  in  any 
domestic  office. 

The  Wolverine,  or  Glutton,  is  one  of  those  animals  whose  history  has  long  been  shrouded 
in  fiction  and  romance.  It  is  only  now  that  its  true  habits  have  been  given  to  the  world,  by 
that  enterprising  traveller.  Dr.  Richardson.  The  Wolverine  of  America,  generally  consi- 
dered the  same  with  the  European  Glutton,  feeds  chiefly  upon  beasts  that  have  been  acci- 
dentally killed ;  but  it  will  hunt  smaller  animals,  as  meadow-mice,  marmots,  &c.  and  occa- 
sionally attack  disabled  animals  of  a  larger  size.  In  its  gait  it  resembles  the  bear ;  and, 
although  not  fleet,  is  very  industrious.  Mr.  Graham  observes,  that  it  does  more  damage  to 
the  small  fiir  trade  than  all  the  other  rapacious  animals  conjointly ;  as  it  will  follow  the 
martin-hunter's  path  round  a  line  of  traps  extending  sixty  miles,  and  render  tlie  whole 
unserviceable,  merely  to  get  at  the  baits.  Yet  it  flies  from  the  face  of  man,  and  may  be 
killed  with  a  stick.     Its  total  length  is  not  more  than  two  feet  and  a  half. 

The  Birds,  according  to  Miiller,  amount  to  232  species :  the  greater  part  of  these  are 
„„p  common  to  the  northern  countries  of  Europe ;  but  the 

.^^  Mocking  Jay  {Oorvus  infaiistus  Lin.)  {jig.  232.),  and 
the  Nutcracker  {Nucifraga  caryocatactes)  are  unknown 
in  Britain  and  more  southern  latitudes :  the  bill  of  the 
latter  is  shaped  much  like  that  of  a  woodpecker,  and  is 
said  to  be  used  for  breaking  the  shells  of  nuts :  whence 
its  name.  The  species  of  fish,  from  the  maritime  nature 
of  the  region,  are  numerous. 

Domestic  animals.     It  appears  that  the  breeds  called 
___^__         the  lesser  and  greater  Danish  Dogs  are  much  more  com- 
The  Mockin  Jay  ™°^  ^  other  countries  than  in  that  from  which  they 

have  been  named.  The  horses  and  cattle  are  of  very 
large-sized  breeds,  generally  called  the  Holstein.  The  greatest  number  of  oxen  seem  to  be 
bred  in  Jutland :  they  are  fattened,  during  summer,  in  the  rich  marshes  of  Holstein,  and 
driven,  in  the  autumn,  to  Hamburg. 

Sect.  HI. — Historical  Geography. 

During  the  early  period  of  the  middle  ages,  the  swarms  of  pirates  sent  forth  by  Denmark 
spread  desolation  and  terror  to  the  remotest  extremities  of  Europe.  Canute  king  of  Den- 
mark even  ascended  the  English  throne  in  1017.  Denmark,  at  the  same  time,  carried  on 
frequent  wars  against  the  contiguous  districts  of  Germany  and  Poland,  and  often  held  sway 
over  large  portions  of  them.  But  her  most  brilliant  era  was  the  reign  of  Margaret  of  Wal- 
demar,' surnamed  the  Semiramis  of  the  North,  who,  by  her  courage,  popularity,  and  address, 
succeeded  in  effecting  the  union  of  Calmar,  which  placed  on  her  head,  and  on  tho.t  of  her 
nephew  Eric,  the  crown  of  the  three  northern  kingdoms  of  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway. 

The  decline  of  Denmark  began  in  the  thirteenth  century,  under  the  violent  and  tyranni- 
cal reign  of  Christian  I.  The  sanguinary  course  by  which  he  sought  to  punisli  an  insurrec- 
tion of  the  Swedes  roused  all  the  dormant  spirit  of  that  brave  people,  who  found  a  deliverer 
in  Gustavus  Vasa,  and  were  finally  freed  from  the  Danish  yoke.  During  the  two  following 
centuries,  Sweden,  led  to  victory  by  a  succession  of  heroic  monarchs,  rose  to  the  highest 
pitch  of  military  glory ;  while  Denmark,  always  defeated,  was  stripped  of  many  of  her  most 
important  territories,  and  sunk  into  the  rank  of  a  secondary  state.  Still  she  successfijlly 
cultivated  maritime  commerce  and  shipping,  and  obtained  some  valuable  possessions  in  the 
East  and  West  Indies. 

In  the  great  crisis  produced  by  the  conquests  of  Napoleon,  Denmark  was  thrown  into  an 
unfortunate  predicament.  Placed,  as  it  were,  at  the  point  of  collision  between  France  and 
Russia,  she  could  with  difficulty  escape  being  crushed  between  them.  Circumstances  of 
peculiar  hardship  threw  her  into  the  arms  of  France,  to  whose  cause  she  adhered,  and  at  the 
great  contest  which  ended  in  the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  she  became  a  victim.  First,  she 
was  deprived  of  Norway,  that  it  might  be  ceded  to  Sweden,  and  that  Russia  might  retain 
Finland.  Denmark  received  in  return  Swedish  Pomerania  as  an  inadequate  compensation. 
Next,  she  was  required  to  exchange  Pomerania  for  Lauenburg,  a  territory  of  still  inferior 
extent  and  value  ;  but,  as  it  borders  on  Sleswick  and  Holstein,  it  has  rendered  her  dominion 
more  compact,  and  extended  her  frontier  to  the  Elbe,  so  that  she  is  perhaps  rather  a  gainer 
by  the  exchange. 

Sect.  IV. — Productive  Industry. 

The  agriculture  of  Denmark  is  conducted  under  considerable  disadvantages  both  of  cli- 
mate and  soil.  The  climate,  though  not  subject  to  severe  frost  or  intense  cold,  is  chill  and 
damp ;  and  the  land  consists  in  a  great  measure  of  sand  and  marsh.  Every  part  of  the  king- 
dom, however,  is  capable  of  some  cultivation,  and  occasional  tracts  of  luxuriant  fertility 
occur.     Such  are  the  islands  of  Zealand,  Laaland,  and  Falster ;  and,  in  a  still  greater  degree, 


4r,2  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

the  sea-coast  of  Sleswick  and  Holstein ;  for  the  interior  is  arid  and  sandy.  The  industry 
of  the  peasant  in  Denmark  Proper  suffers  many  severe  checks ;  he  has  been  but  recently 
emancipated  from  personal  bondage,  and  is  still  subjected  to  many  feudal  usages.  Life- 
leases,  under  which  the  payment  is  made  in  produce  or  personal  services,  are  common.  The 
proprietors  are  generally  embarrassed,  and  unable  to  expend  much  on  the  improvement  of 
their  lands.  The  farmers  of  Holstein  and  Sleswick  carry  on  the  process  of  cultivation  with 
great  skill  and  activity.  The  chill  moisture  of  the  climate  is  less  favourable  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  wheat  than  of  barley,  rye,  and  oats;  all  of  which  afford  a  large  surplus  for  exporta- 
tion. The  rearing  of  cattle  is  also  an  extensive  branch  of  industry,  though  too  little  atten- 
tion has  been  paid  to  the  improvement  of  the  breeds,  unless  on  the  west  coast  of  Sleswick, 
on  whose  moist  and  rich  meadows  is  produced  what  bears  a  high  reputation  under  the  name 
of  "  Hamburg  beef"  Over  all  Dermiark,  the  produce  of  the  dairy  forms  tlic  basis  of  a  large 
export  trade. 

The  manufactures  of  Denmark  are  extremely  rude,  and  consist  chiefly  in  working  up  the 
flax  and  wool  of  the  country  in  a  coarse  form  fir  domestic  use.  A  great  proportion  also  of 
the  wool  is  exported.  Government  liavc  employed  great  efforts  to  raise  Denmark  to  the 
rank  of  a  manufacturing  country ;  and  some  fabrics  in  the  different  kinds  of  cloth,  brandy, 
sugar-refining,  &c.,  have,  under  its  patronage,  been  set  on  foot  in  the  large  towns;  but  these 
are  all  languishing,  and  with  difficulty  support  foreign  competition. 

The  commerce  of  Denmark  is  in  a  more  active  state  than  the  other  branches  of  industry ; 
though  it  is  still  not  such  as  to  give  her  a  prominent  place  among  the  powers  of  Europe. 
The  basis  consists  in  the  exportation  of  its  raw  produce.  The  grain  exported  from  Jutland 
and  the  islands,  at  an  average  of  seven  years  to  1827,  amounted  to  29,000  quarters  of  wheat ; 
141,000  quarters  of  rye ;  190,000  quarters  of  barley ;  43,000  quarters  of  oats.  The  rye 
was  chiefly  exported  to  Norway,  to  be  used  as  bread-corn,  and  the  barley  to  be  employed  in 
distillation.  The  value  of  these  articles  amounted,  in  1825,  to  iS«2,30(),0"00.  That  of  butter 
and  cheese  exported  was,  in  the  same  year,  .*^1,300,000.  Holstein  and  Sleswick,  called  the 
duchies,  exported  at  an  average  also  of  seven  years,  78,000  quarters  of  wheat ;  .55,000  of 
r}'e ;  75,000  of  barley ;  130,000  of  oats.  The  value  of  butter,  cheese,  and  salted  meat,  is 
still  greater.  Denmark,  from  its  situation  between  the  northern  and  middle  states,  has  a 
considerable  carrying  trade  of  the  bulky  articles  produced  by  the  former;  and  has  also  a 
good  deal  of  ship-building.  Both  the  whale  and  herring  fisheries  are  likewise  carried  on  to 
some  extent. 

Sect.  V. — Political  Geography. 

The  constitution  of  Denmark,  originally  founded  on  the  basis  of  the  most  complete  feudal 
independence,  to  the  extent  of  rendering  the  monarchy  itself  elective,  underwent  a  com- 
plete change  in  1660,  when  Frederick  III.  had  the  address  to  obtain  an  act  by  which  the 
crown  was  declared  hereditary,  and  himself  invested  with  supreme  and  absolute  power. 
The  sway  of  the  Danish  princes  has,  however,  been  exceedingly  mild  and  popular,  and  their 
despotic  power  exerted  in  a  manner  beneficial  to  the  people,  as  it  limited  the  oppressive 
rights  exercised  by  the  nobles.  These,  however,  continue  to  be  extremely  obnoxious  ; 
and  it  is  only  within  a  very  few  years  that  the  body  of  the  people  were  emancipated  from 
a  state  of  personal  slavery.  The  nobles  are  few  in  number,  consisting  only  of  one  duke, 
nineteen  counts,  and  twelve  barons.  The  king  himself  presides  at  the  supreme  national 
tribunal. 

The  revenue  amounts  to  from  about  .1!!7,500,000  to  #8,000,000.  There  is  a  nominal  debt  of 
$75,000,000;  but  the  interest  paid  upon  it  is  small. 

The  military  and  naval  establishments  are  on  a  scale  suited  to  a  greater  country  than 
what  remains  of  Denmark.  The  army  is  kept  up  to  nearly  40,000  regular  troops  and  60,000 
militia.  The  navy  has  not  recovered  from  the  severe  shock  which  it  received  during  the 
last  war :  at  present  it  consists  of  six  ships  of  the  line,  six  frigates,  and  four  corvettes,  besides 
smaller  vessels.  The  sailors  being  all  registered,  no  difficulty  is  ever  found  in  manning  the 
navy. 

Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State. 

The  population  of  the  Danish  dominions  in  1832,  amounted  to  2,049,000;  of  which 
1,.540,000  were  in  its  ancient  domain  of  the  islands  Jutland  and  Sleswick ;  404,000  in  Hol- 
stein; 40,000  in  Lauenburg;  51,000  in  Iceland  ;  14,000  in  Greenland  and  the  Faroe  Islands.* 

National  character.  The  Danes  are  generally  quiet,  tranquil,  and  industrious.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  towns,  who  are  chiefly  engaged  in  trade,  have  a  great  share  of  the  patient, 
thrifty,  and  persevering  habits  of  the  Dutch.  The  peasantry,  poor  and  oppressed,  are  begin- 
ning, however,  to  raise  their  heads ;  and  the  nobles,  no  longer  addicted  to  those  rude  and 

*  The  Danish  rolonios  are  Christiansborg  and  other  stations  in  Guinea,  with  44,000  inhabitants  ;  Santa  Cruz, 
St.  Thomas,  and  St.  John  in  the  West  Indies,  with  47,000 ;  and  Tranquebar  and  factories  on  the  Coromandel  coast, 
in  the  East  Indies,  with  CO.OOO.— Am.  Ed. 


Book  I. 


DENMARK. 


473 


daring  pursuits  which  rendered  them  once  so  formidable,  live  much  in  the  style  of  opulent 
proprietors  in  other  European  countries. 

The  Lutheran  religion  was  early  and  zealously  adopted  in  Denmark,  to  the  extent,  indeed, 
of  granting  toleration  to  no  other ;  but  the  liberal  principles  now  diffused  throughout  Europe, 
have  made  their  way  fully  into  that  country.  Science  was  at  one  era  somewhat  brilliantly 
patronised  in  Denmark.  The  observatory  at  Orienbaum  was  the  theatre  of  many  of  the 
most  important  modern  observations;  and  Tycho  Brahe  ranks  as  one  of  the  fathers  of 
modern  astronomy.  Q^lenschlager  and  other  writers  have  introduced  a  school  of  poetry  and 
dramatic  literature,  founded  upon  that  of  the  modern  German.  The  government  has 
bestowed  a  laudable  attention  on  the  general  education  of  its  people,  and  has  even  passed  a 
law,  requiring  every  child,  of  a  certain  age,  to  be  sent  to  school.  The  schools,  on  the  plan 
of  mutual  instruction,  amounted,  in  1829,  to  2500,  and  more  were  in  progress ;  there  are  also 
3000  grammar  and  parisJi  schools. 

Sect.  VII. — Local  Geography. 
The  local  divisions  of  continental  Denmark  present  little  variety  in  consequence  of  the 
uniformity  of  its  surface,  and  the  small  number  of  considerable  cities.    Its  divisions  are  Zea- 
land and  the  other  islands;  Jutland,  Slcswick,  Holstein,  Lauenburg ;  with  the  remote  terri- 
tories of  Iceland,  Greenland,  and  the  Faroe  Islands. 

Zealand  is  a  flat,  fertile,  and  extensive  island,  separated  from  Funen  by  the  Great  Belt, 
and  from  Sweden  by  the  Sound.  Including  the  capital,  and  chief  seats  of  trade,  it  forms  the 
most  important  part  of  the  Danish  dominions. 

Copenhagen,  (Jig.  233.),  (in  Danish,  Kiobenhafn,  or  the  "  merchant  port,")  the  capital 

of  Denmark,  is  situated  on  tlie  east 
coast  of  Zealand,  with  the  island 
of  Amak  oppposite  to  it,  and  seve 
ral  little  lakes  in  its  vicinity.  Its 
walls  enclose  a  circuit  of  five  miles, 
a  great  part  of  which,  however,  is 
covered  with  open  spaces,  and  with 
the  harbour  and  docks.  The  houses, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  are  built  of 
brick,  plastered  over,  and  painted 
in  different  colours.  The  number 
of  inhabitants  is  about  115,000; 
the  houses  are  lofty,  and  contain 
many  families  in  each.  The  city 
is  divided  into  three  parts ;  the  old  town,  which  contains  the  greater  part  of  the  population ; 
the  new  town,  in  which  are  all  the  finest  edifices;  and  the  port,  or  Christian's  Haven.  In 
the  midst  of  the  principal  square  is  the  bronze  statue  of  Frederick  V.,  weighing  45,000  lbs. 
This  square,  with  the  adjoining  one  called  the  King's  Mark  Place,  surrounded  by  the  palace 
of  Charlottenborg,  the  theatre,  the  principal  hotel,  and  other  stately  buildings,  forms  the 
handsomest  part  of  Copeniiagen.  The  cathedral  was  destroyed  during  the  bombardment  by 
the  English,  and  is  left  in  ruins ;  but  the  Frue  Kirke  is  an  elegant  Grecian  edifice,  215  feet 
by  180,  with  a  Doric  portico,  and  for  whicli  Thorwaldsen  is  preparing  statues  of  the  apostles 
and  evangelists.  The  palace  of  Rosenborg,  though  now  unoccupied,  contains  an  extraor- 
dinary display  of  jewels,  precious  stones,  and  porcelain.  The  collections  in  science  and  art 
are  equal  to  those  of  the  greatest  capitals.  The  king  has  a  library  of  400,000  volumes,  with 
numerous  manuscripts  illustrative  of  the  history  and  literature  of  the  North,  as  well  as  those 
brought  by  Niebuhr  from  the  East;  an  extensive  museum  of  northern  antiquities:  a  gallery 
of  pictures,  comprising  some  fine  specimens  of  the  greatest  masters,  and  a  numerous  collec- 
tion of  engravings.  The  University  of  Copenhagen,  a  highly  respectable  institution,  has  a 
valuable  library  of  about  100,000  volumes,  and  an  excellent  collection  of  northern  manu- 
scripts. The  arsenal  is  said  to  equal  that  of  Venice  in  beauty,  and  to  surpass  it  in  extent. 
The  mint  throws  off  200  pieces  in  a  minute. 

The  other  towns  in  Zealand  and  the  islands  are  of  comparatively  small  magnitude.  Ros- 
child,  the  ancient  capital  of  Denmark,  whicli  contained  once  thirty  convents  and  thirty 
churches,  is  now  remarkable  only  for  its  Gotiiic  cathedral,  in  whose  vaults  are  deposited  the 
remains  of  the  kings  of  Denmark.  Several  of  tlic  monuments  are  fine.  Elsinore,  with  its 
castle  of  Cronborg,  is  important  from  its  situation  on  tlie  Sound,  which  being  commanded 
by  the  castle,  the  government  is  enabled  to  levy  wliat  are  called  the  Sound  dues.  The  pas- 
sage to  Helsinborg,  in  Sweden,  may  be  made  in  iialf  an  hour.  Elsinore,  from  its  favourable 
situation  and  good  roadstead,  carries  on  a  considerable  commerce,  and  contains,  among  its 
inhabitants,  many  British,  Jews,  and  even  ]\lahometans.  It  has  a  handsome  cathedral,  with 
bome  fine  tombs.  Population  7000.  At  Cronborg  is  shown  the  chamber  in  which  the 
unfortunate  Matilda  was  confined.  This  castle  commands  a  noble  view  over  the  sea,  the 
Vol.  I.  40*  .  3K 


Copcnliagtii. 


474  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY  P^vrt  III. 

islands,  and  the  opposite  coast  of  Sweden.  The  terrace  from  vvhicli  these  are  viewed 
recalls  to  the  English  reader  the  first  scenes  of  Hamlet,  the  tradition  of  whose  story  is  still 
prevalent  here.  Soroo,  in  the  interior,  surrounded  by  a  fine  country,  has  a  noble  academy  ; 
and  contains  the  tombs  of  Eric,  Canute,  and  other  princes.  Odensee,  the  capital  of  Funen, 
has  a  collesfp,  and  is  rather  a  thriving  town,  with  manufactures  of  woollen  and  soap.  Nye- 
horg,  in  Funen,  and  Corsoer  in  Zealand,  derive  some  importance  from  their  situation  on  the 
passage  of  the  Great  Belt;  and  Middelfarth,  in  the  former  island,  from  the  passage  of  tlie 
Little  Belt. 

The  towns  of  Jutland  are  of  small  interest,  and  liave  been  little  observed,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  those  which  lie  on  the  high  road  from  Hamburg  to  Copenhagen.  Aalborg,  near  the 
northern  extremity,  is  the  seat  of  one  of  the  four  bishoprics;  and,  being  situated  on  a  narrow 
arm  of  the  sea,  with  a  good  harbour,  carries  on  some  trade.  Aarhuus,  on  tlie  eastern  coast, 
is  the  seat  of  another  bishopric ;  and,  being  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  country,  exports  some 
grain.  Population,  5,000.  Colding  derives  some  importance  from  its  vicinity  to  the  passage 
of  the  Little  Belt.     Wiborg  and  Ripen  are  also  deserving  of  mention. 

In  Slcswick,  the  city  of  that  name  is  agreeable,  though  irregularly  built.  Its  cathedral, 
with  numerous  monuments  of  ancient  dukes,  is  viewed  with  interest.  Flemsborg,  on  a  deep 
and  winding  haaf,  or  bay,  with  an  excellent  harbour,  possesses  a  much  greater  commercial 
importance,  while  it  carries  on  the  communication  with  the  Baltic  :  it  has  15,000  inhabitants. 
Tonningen,  on  the  other  side,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Eyder,  communicates  with  the  coun- 
tries situated  round  the  German  Ocean ;  and,  by  the  canal  of  Holstein,  it  has  now  a  water 
communication  with  the  Baltic. 

Holstein,  tlie  most  southern  province  of  Denmark,  ranks  as  a  part  of  the  German  empire, 
to  which  it  once  belonged,  and  gives  to  tlie  king  of  Deimiark  a  vote  in  the  diet.  Reaching 
to  the  Elbe,  and  being  more  in  the  commercial  circle,  it  has  a  considerably  brisker  trade  than 
the  northern  or  peninsular  territory.  Altona,  a  few  miles  below  Hamburg,  is  a  repetition  of 
that  city  on  a  smaller  scale  ;  having  25,000  inhabitants,  busily  employed  in  the  commerce 
of  the  Elbe,  in  sliip-building,  and  in  several  manufactures.  Gluckstadt,  about  twenty  miles 
lower,  though  inferior  in  extent,  is  a  handsome  and  regular  town,  with  considerable  naval 
establishments.  Kiel,  on  the  eastern  or  Baltic  coast,'  has  an  excellent  harbour,  and  derives 
importance  from  its  situation  at  the  extremity  of  the  canal  which  connects  the  eastern  and 
western  seas.  It  contains  an  university.  Lauenburg,  a  level  tract,  intersected  with  several 
small  lakes,  though  it  rounds  tlie  Danish  borders,  does  not  possess  much  importance,  either 
in  itself  or  its  little  capital,  with  3,000  inhabitants. 

Iceland,  an  appendage  of  the  Danish  crown,  unimportant  in  a  political  view,  but  interest- 
ing from  its  physical  and  moral  aspect,  is  situated  in  the  Northern  Ocean,  on  the  border  of 
the  arctic  circle,  and  at  the  farthest  verge  of  the  civilized  world.  It  is  a  large  island,  220 
miles  in  length,  and  210  in  breadth;  containing  about 40,000  square  miles.  Iceland  belongs, 
by  its  situation,  to  the  polar  world  ;  and  the  mountain  chains,  from  3000  to  6000  feet  high, 
with  which  it  is  everywhere  intersected,  give  it  a  still  more  severe  and  stern  character. 
Barley  is  the  only  grain  that  can  be  raised,  and  this  only  in  patches ;  cabbages,  and  a  few 
other  imported  vegetables,  may  be  produced,  but  by  no  means  in  perfection.  The  dependence 
of  the  inhabitants  is  chiefly  upon  the  abundance  of  fish  which  the  surrounding  seas  afford  ;  so 
that  the  interior,  comprising  about  half  of  the  island,  is  a  desert  of  the  most  dreary  character. 
The  mountain  phenomena  of  Iceland  are  very  striking.  According  to  Glieman,  the 
jokuls,  or  hills  covered  with  ice,  rise  to  the  following  heights :  Oerefe,  6240  feet ;  Snafell, 
^_^  •  4572 ;  Findfall,  5368 ;  Hecla,  5210 ;  Eya- 

234  '     ''^'  fiall  Ooster,  5794.     All  these  mountains 

are,  at  the  same  time,  glaciers  capped 
with  ice  which  never  melts;  but  these 
glaciers  consist  not,  like  those  of  Switzer- 
land, of  great  masses  sloping  down  from 
upper  regions  of  the  mountains  to  the  val- 
leys; they  are  the  snows  of  winter  melted 
and  frozen  where  they  fall.  Beneath  this 
mantle  of  ice  and  snow  burns  a  perpetual 
fire,  which  in  every  part  of  the  island 
bursts  forth  in  the  most  strange  and  fear- 
ful phenomena.  Hecla  (Jig.  234.),  with  its  flaming  volcano,  is  the  most  celebrated  ;  but  its 
eruptions,  of  which  six  have  occurred  in  the  course  of  a  century,  are  at  present  suspended. 
There  are  six  other  volcanoes,  which,  in  tlie  course  of  a  century,  have  emitted  twenty 
eruptions. 

The  Geysers  form  a  phenomena  strikingly  characteristic  of  Iceland,  and  rank  with  the 
most  extraordinary  that  are  produced  on  any  part  of  the  globe.  They  consist  of  fountains, 
which  throw  up  boiling  water,  spray,  and  vapour,  to  a  great  height  into  the  air.  The  erup- 
tions are  not  contmuous,  but  announce  their  approach  by  a  sound  like  that  of  subterraneous 


Book  I, 


DENMARK, 


475 


thunder ;  immediately  after  which,  a  column  of  water,  accompanied  with  prodigious  volumes 
235  of  steam,  bursts  forth,  and  rushes  up  to  the  height  of  fifty, 

.^■^-  _,  ^  sixty,  ninety,  or  even  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet.     The  water 

^^''^^"''  soon  ceases;  but  the  spray  and  vapour  continue  to  play  in 

i^P"  the  air  for  several  hours,  and,  when  illuminated  by  the  sun, 

'i«:  produce  the  most  brilliant  rainbows.     The  largest  stones, 

.^  fJ  when  thrown  into  the  orifice,  are  instantly  propelled  to  an 

amazing  height,  and  remaining  often  for  some  minutes 
within  the  influence  of  the  steam,  rise  and  fall  in  singular 
';'  -  alternation.  Stones  thrown  into  the  fountain  have  the 
remarkable  effect  of  acting  as  a  stimulus  to  the  erup- 
tion, and  causing  it  to  burst  from  a  state  of  tranquillity. 
^  '  The  basin  of  the  Great  Geyser  {fig.  235.),  is  of  an  oval 

rfft  form,  with   diameters   of  fifty-eight   and    sixty-four   feet. 

Every  spot  around  the  Geysers  is  covered  with  variega- 
ted and  beautiful  petrifactions.  Leaves,  grass,  rushes, 
are  converted  into  white  stone,  preserving  entire  evfery 
fibre. 

The  Sulphur  Mountains,  with  their  caldrons  of  boiling 
Citat  0(y  tr.  mud,  present  another  phenomenon  which  the  traveller  be- 

holds with  the  utmobt  abtonibhment.  These  consist  chiefly  of  clay,  covered  with  a  crust, 
which  is  hot  to  the  touch,  and  of  sulphur,  from  almost  every  part  of  which,  gas  and  steam 
are  perpetually  escaping.  Sometimes  a  loud  noise  guides  the  traveller  to  a  spot  where  cal- 
drons of  black   boiling   mud  {fig. 


236 


C;il(].oii  of  Boiling  Mud. 


236.),  largely  impregnated  with 
this  mineral  substance,  are  throw- 
ing up,  at  short  intervals,  their 
eruptions.  That  on  the  Krabla, 
observed  by  Mr.  Henderson,  had  a 
diameter  equal  to  that  of  the  Great 
Geyser,  and  rose  to  the  height  of 
thirty  feet.  The  situation  of  the 
spectator  here  is  not  only  awful,  but 
even  dangerous;  standing,  as  Sir 
George  Mackenzie  observes,  "  on  a 
support  which  feebly  sustains  him, 
over  an  abyss  where  fire  and  brim- 
stone are  in  dreadful  and  incessant 
action." 

The  civil  and  social  state  of  Iceland  presents  features  no  less  interesting.  It  was  dis- 
covered about  the  year  S40,  by  Nadod,  a  Danish  pirate.  After  its  settlement  it  became  a 
little  independent  republic ;  and  the  arts  and  literature,  driven  before  the  tide  of  barbarism, 
which  then  overwliclmed  the  rest  of  Europe,  took  refiige  in  this  remote  and  frozen  clime. 
Iceland  had  its  divines,  its  annalists,  its  poets,  and  was  for  some  time  the  most  enlightened 
country  then  perhaps  existing  in  the  world.  Subjected  first  to  Norway,  in  1261,  and  after- 
wards to  Denmark,  it  lost  the  spirit  and  energy  of  an  independent  republic.  Yet  the 
difRision  of  knowledge,  even  among  the  lowest  class,  which  took  place  during  its  pros- 
perous period,  still  exists  in  a  degree  not  paralleled  in  the  most  enlightened  of  other 
nations.  Men  who  seek,  amid  the  storms  of  the  surrounding  ocean,  a  scanty  provision 
for  their  families,  possess  an  acquaintance  with  the  classical  writings  of  antiquity,  and 
a  sense  of  their  beauty.  The  traveller  finds  the  guide  whom  he  has  hired  able  to  hold  a 
conversation  with  him  in  Latin,  and  on  his  arrival  at  his  miserable  place  of  rest  for  the  night, 
is  addressed  with  fluency  and  elegance  in  the  same  language.  "The  instruction  of  his  chil- 
dren," says  Dr.  Holland,  "  forms  one  of  the  stated  occupations  of  the  Icelander ;  and  while 
the  little  hut  which  he  inhabits  is  almost  buried  in  the  snow,  and  while  darkness  and  deso- 
lation are  spread  universally  around,  the  light  of  an  oil-lamp  illumines  the  page  from  which 
he  reads  to  his  family  the  lessons  of  knowledge,  religion,  and  virtue." 

The  Faroe  Islands  compose  a  group  in  the  Northern  Ocean,  between  61°  15'  and  62°  20' 
N.  lat.,  to  the  N.  W.  of  Shetland,  which  they  resemble.  The  principal  are  Stromsoe,  Osteroe, 
Suderoe,  and  Norderoe,  with  the  smaller  islands  of  Nalsoe,  Vagoe,  and  Sandoe.  "Their  only 
wealth  is  produced  by  the  rearing  of  sheep,  fishing,  and  catching  the  numerous  birds  which 
cluster  round  the  rocks.  With  the  surplus  of  these  articles  they  supply  their  deficiency  of 
grain.     Thorsharn,  on  Stromsoe,  is  the  only  place  that  can  be  called  a  town. 


476  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY  Part  III 

CHAPTER  VI. 

SWEDEN   AND    NORWAY. 

Sweden  and  Norway,  now  united  into  one  kingdom,  form  an  extensive  region,  stretching' 
from  the  utmost  verge  of  the  temperate  zone  far  into  the  frozen  range  of  the  arctic  circle. 
Alono-  the  north  and  west  stretch  the  wide  shores  of  tlie  Frozen  Ocean,  so  far  as  yet  known. 
The  'south-west  point  of  the  kingdom  borders  on  the  North  Sea  or  German  Ocean.  The 
Baltic  and  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  enclose  it  on  tlie  south  and  cast;  so  that  it  forms  an  immense 
peninsula.  The  isthmus  by  which  it  is  joined  to  Russia  is  above  200  miles  broad,  but  so 
closely  barred  by  moimtains  and  frozen  plains,  that  the  kingdom  is  nearly  inaccessible, 
except  by  sea. 

Sect.  I. — General  Outline  and  Aspect. 

This  kingdom  is  of  vast  extent.  Its  length,  from  the  extreme  point  of  Scania  to  the  North 
Cape,  is  1550  miles.  Its  breadth,  from  the  extreme  points  of  the  provinces  of  Stockholm 
on  the  east,  and  Bergen  on  the  west,  will  little  exceed  350  miles.  Its  area  is  297,000  square 
miles.  Of  this  large  territory,  scarcely  a  half  can  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  civi- 
lized world.  The  Laplander,  who  derives  his  whole  subsistence  from  the  rein-deer,  can 
hardly  be  included  within  the  pale  of  civilized  society.  Even  the  southern  districts  have  a. 
rugged  and  repulsive  aspect,  when  compared  to  almost  any  other  European  state.  Forests 
of  tall  and  gloomy  pine  stretch  over  the  plains,  or  hang  on  the  sides  of  the  mountains  ;  the 
ground  for  five  months  in  the  year  is  buried  under  snow ;  cultivation  appears  only  in  scat- 
tered patches,  and  was  long  quite  insufficient  to  furnish  bread  to  the  inhabitants. 

The  mountains  consist  chiefly  of  the  dark  and  lofty  chain  of  the  Dofrines,  which  were 
for  ages  a  barrier  between  the  two  separate  and  hostile  states  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  but 
are  now  included  within  the  united  kingdom.  It  commences  near  Gottcnburg,  on  a  low 
scale,  and  becomes  much  more  elevated  in  passing  through  Norway,  where  some  of  its  pin- 
nacles exceed  8000  feet.  Chains  of  secondary  elevation  run  through  Lapland;  but,  in 
approaching  the  North  Cape,  they  again  rise  as  high  as  before,  and  face  the  polar  seas  with 
clifis  of  prodigious  magnitude. 

The  rivers  are  numerous,  Sweden  being  a  country  profusely  watered;  but,  as  they  rise  in 
the  Dofrines,  and  traverse  the  divided  breadth  of  the  peninsula,  they  seldom  attain  any- 
material  length  of  course.  The  largest  is  the  Dahl,  which  crosses  Dalecarlia,  and  falls  into 
the  sea  at  Geffle,  afler  a  course  of  260  miles.  The  most  important  as  to  navigation  are  those 
which  form  the  outlet  to  the  lakes,  particularly  the  Gotha,  reacliing  from  the  lake  Wener 
to  Gottenburg.  The  Glomme  and  the  Dramme  are  pretty  considerable  rivers,  running 
from  north  to^'south,  and  down  which  considerable  quantities  of  timber  are  floated.  Lapland 
pours  a  number  of  large  streams  into  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia ;  but  these  are 
usually  chained  in  ice,  and  at  no  time  can  be  subservient  to  the  purposes  of  agriculture  or 
navigation. 

Lakes  form  the  grand  depository  of  the  surplus  waters  of  Sweden.  The  Wener  bears 
almost  the  character  of  an  inland  sea,  and  the  completion  of  the  canal  of  Trolhatta,  by 
enabling  its  coasts  to  communicate  by  the  Gotha  with  Gottenburg,  has  given  them  almost 
the  fliiradvantages  of  a  maritime  site.  The  Wetter,  though  equal  in  length,  covers  not 
nearly  so  great  an  extent  of  ground.  Maler,  or  Malar,  is  a  narrow,  winding  loch,  or,  more 
strictly,  a  bay,  running  sixty  miles  into  the  interior  from  Stockholm,  to  whose  environs  its 
variegated  and  rocky  shores  give  a  beautiful  wildness.  Small  lakes,  enclosed  between  hills, 
are  of  very  frequent  occurrence,  both  in  Norway  and  Sweden. 

Sect.  II. — Natural  Geography. 
SinjsECT.  1. —  Geology. 

(1.)  Geology  of  Sweden. — I.  Primitive  rocks.  Granite  occurs  in  the  mountains  of 
Jamtland,  in  Herjeadalen,  in  Lulea  Lappmark,  in  Pitea  Lappmark.  It  occurs  also  in  the 
plains,  without  any  covering  of  other  rocks,  as  in  Upland,  Westmanland,  Sudermanland,  and 
apart  of  East  and  West  Gothland.  It  passes  into  gneiss  and  syenite.  Gneiss  occurs  in 
many  places  in  Sudermanland,  East  Gothland,  «&:c.,  with  beds  of  copper  and  iron  ore.  Mica 
slate  abounds  not  only  in  the  principal,  but  also  in  the  subordinate  chains,  and  contains  the 
greater  number  of  the  metalliferous  beds  met  with  in  Sweden.  It  often  alternates  with  vast 
beds  of  primitive  limestone,  quartz,  &c.  In  the  high  moimtain  ridges,  the  strata  of  this 
rock  are  generally  disposed  at  an  angle  of  45°;  while  in  the  subordinate  chains  they  are 
vertical.  In  many  places  it  abounds  in  garnets,  when  it  is  known  under  the  name  noorka, 
or  murkstein,  the  gar7iet  rock  of  geologists.  Clay  slate  occurs  sparingly:  talc  slate,  in 
several  quarters,  occurs  in  considerable  abundance.  Porphyry  occurs  only  in  Smaland, 
where  the  basis  is  a  quartzy  hornstone  (hallejlinta)  wfth  embedded  crystals  of  felspar,  and 
grains  of  quartz.     Primitive  limestone  occurs  generally  in  the  secondary  mountain  chains, 


Book  I.  SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY.  477 

but  selJom  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  central  chains.  It  is  mixed  up  with  hornblende 
trcmolite,  quartz,  serpentine,  garnet,  magnetic  ironstone,  and  mica.  It  is  often  metalliferous, 
containing  galena,  copper,  and  iron  pyrites.  Serpentine,  with  the  exception  of  masses  in 
some  metalliferous  beds,  seldom  occurs  pure :  it  is  often  mixed  with  limestone,  when  it 
occurs  in  primitive  limestone.  Quartz  rock  occurs  either  pure,  and  in  whole  mountains,  as 
in  Dahlsland,  Smaland,  and  many  other  places;  or  it  alternates  with  mica  slate,  as  in  Dahls- 
land,  and  also  in  the  metalliferous  beds  of  Persberg  and  Klacka.  The  limestone  of  Dane- 
mora  contains  mica  slate.  It  also  occurs  in  veins  in  granite  and  mica  slate,  &c.  Porphyri- 
tic  quartz,  a  granite  rock,  with  embedded  grains  and  crystals  of  felspar,  occurs  in  Smaland, 
Tornea  Lappmark,  &c.  Primitive  trap.  Of  this  interesting  group  of  rocks,  the  following 
kinds  are  met  w'ith ;  viz.  hornblende  rock,  hornblende  with  felspar,  and  hornblende  with 
mica. 

II.  Transition  rocks.  Conglomerate  and  sandstone,  which,  in  some  places,  are  covered 
with  transition  limestone,  occur  in  Jamtland,  Tornea  Lappmark,  Angermanland,  Dalecarlia, 
Schonen,  islands  in  the  Lake  Wetter,  East  and  West  Gothland,  Nerika,  Dalarnia.  Transi- 
tion porphyry :  in  the  parish  of  Elfdal,  in  Dalarnia.  The  basis  is  of  the  nature  of  horn- 
stone.  It  rests  upon  transition  sandstone,  and  is  covered  by  syenite,  porphyry,  and  transition 
greenstone.  Greywacke  slate  lies  upon  sandstone,  and  is  covered  by  transition  limestone. 
It  sometimes  contains  coal,  and  then  passes  into  a  kind  of  shale.  It  also  contains  fossil 
remains  of  marine  animals.  Transition  limestone  occurs  in  Gothland,  CEIand,  Schonen, 
East  and  West  Gothland,  Nerika,  Dalarnia,  and  Jamtland.  In  the  regular  succession,  it  lies 
immediately  upon  alum  slate,  but  in  Gothland  directly  upon  sandstone.  It  is  seldom  covered 
by  other  rocks,  excepting  in  West  Gothland,  where  it  is  covered  by  clay  slate  and  green- 
stone. It  contains  many  different  petrifactions,  as  orthoceratites,  ammonites,  anomites,  echi- 
nites,  corallites,  and  entrochites.  Its  colour  is  commonly  gray,  or  bluish  gray,  and  reddish 
brown,  often  varied  with  veins  of  a  green  colour.  Transition  trap  is  the  youngest  rock  of 
the  transition  class  in  Sweden.  In  Elfdal  it  rests  upon  porphyry ;  upon  transition  clay  slate 
and  alum  slate  in  Kennekulle,  Billengen,  the  Hunne  and  Halleberge,  and  others,  in  West 
Gothland. 

III.  Secondary  rocks.  The  mountain  chain  around  Helsingborg,  in  Schonen,  is  composed 
of  secondary  sandstone.  It  contains  beds  of  slate  clay,  bituminous  shale,  and  black  bitumi- 
nous coal.  This  sandstone,  which  belongs  to  the  black  bituminous  coal  formation,  is  covered 
with  other  secondary  deposits,  as  limestone,  the  age  of  which  is  not  well  known.  The  only 
one  of  these  newer  secondary  deposits,  the  geognostical  history  of  which  has  been  made 
out,  is  Chalk.  This  interesting  formation  occurs  at  Limhamn,  near  to  Malmo.  It  encloses 
balls  of  common  flint,  and,  at  its  lower  part,  passes  into  a  more  solid  chalk  and  secondary 
limestone. 

IV.  Tertiary  rocks.  The  tertiary  deposits  seem  to  occur  in  some  points  of  the  land  not 
far  distant  from  the  sea-coast ;  but  they  have  not  been  carefully  explored. 

V.  Alluvial  rocks.  Many  tracts  more  or  less  deeply  covered  with  gravel,  sand,  and  clay, 
occur  in  Sweden. 

Mines.  The  mines  of  Sweden  have  been  long  celebrated  all  over  the  world,  and  have 
been  frequently  described  by  travellers.  Gold  and  silver  mines.  The  Adelfors  mine,  which 
formerly  yielded  thirty  or  forty  marks  of  gold  annually,  now  furnishes  only  three  or  four ; 
those  of  Fahlun,  where  copper  predominates,  return  annually  four  marks  of  gold  and  fitly 
marks  of  silver.  The  silver  mine  of  Sahla,  which,  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Christina, 
yielded  annually  20,000  marks  of  silver,  does  not  at  present  afford  annually  more  than  2000 
or  3000  marks.  Copper  mines.  The  most  considerable  copper  mines  are  those  of  Fahlun, 
which  is  also  known  under  the  name  of  Kopparberg.  The  mines  of  Atwidaberg,  in  East 
Gothland,  furnish  about  a  sixth  part  of  all  the  copper  which  the  Swedes  obtain  annually  from 
mines ;  those  of  Fahlun  yield  more  than  the  half  of  the  copper  raised  in  Sweden.  The  ore 
at  Fahlun  is  copper  pyrites,  disposed  in  an  immense  irregular-shaped  mass,  in  mica  slate : 
10,200  quintals  of  copper  are  yielded  by  it  annually.  Iron  mines.  The  greatest  iron  mines 
are  those  in  the  province  of  Upland :  of  these  the  most  important  are  those  of  Skebo,  of 
Q]sterby,  not  far  from  Danemora,  of  Gimo,  of  Ronaes.  Iron  is  mined  as  far  north  as  Gell- 
vara,  which  is  200  leagues  to  the  north  of  Stockholm.  The  island  of  Uto,  on  the  east  coast 
of  Upland,  also  affords  a  considerable  quantity  of  iron.  The  whole  mines  afford  annually 
1,800,000  quintals  of  iron.  Cobalt  mines.  The  principal  mines  of  this  metal  are  those  of 
Tunaberg,  near  to  Nykoping,  and  at  Awed,  in  East  Gothland.  These  mines  afford  excel- 
lent cobalt,  but  the  quantity  is  not  great.  Coal  mines.  Coal  mines  have  been  worked  for 
some  time  in  Scania,  two  leagues  from  Helsinborg,  and  are  affording  a  considerable  return. 
Sulphur  and  vitriol.  The  pyritical  minerals  of  Dylta  afford  annually  1050  quintals  of  sul- 
phur, and  those  of  Fahlun  about  100  quintals  of  the  same  substance.  The  vitriolic  waters 
of  Fahlun  afford  annually  about  GOO  quintals  of  green  vitriol,  or  sulphate  of  iron,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  blue  vitriol,  or  sulphate  of  copper.  Alum.  The  annual  produce  of  alum  is 
about  42,600  quintals.  Qitarries.  Sweden  possesses,  besides  its  regular  mines,  also  valua- 
Dle  quarries  of  granite,  porphyry,  and  marble.     The  porphyry  quarries  of  Elfdal  are  the 


478 


MAP  OF  SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


Fig.  237 


25     50  100  150  200 


16        Loogitode  £ast      20  ttom  Greenwich  24 


Book  I 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY 


479 


largest  and  most  celebrated  in  Europe.  Nearly  all  the  fine  modern  works  m  porphyry  are 
in  the  porphyry  of  Elfdal. 

(2.)  Geology  of  Norway  and  Lapland. — I.  Primitive  rocks.  These  wild  but  highly 
interesting  countries  are  principally  composed  of  primitive  and  transition  rocks ;  secondary 
rocks  occur  but  rarely,  and  alluvial  deposits  are  not  so  abundant  as  in  many  other  less  exten- 
sive regions.  Granite  is  a  rare  rock  in  Norway  and  Lapland,  and  may  be  considered  one 
of  the  least  abundant  rocks  in  Scandinavia.  The  granite  frequently  appears  in  veins  tra- 
versing the  primitive  stratified  rocks,  or  running  parallel  with  beds  or  strata ;  and  sometimes 
it  can  be  seen  spread  over  the  surface  of  mica  slate,  as  at  Forvig,  or  irregularly  associated 
with  clay  slate  and  diallage  rock,  as  in  the  island  of  Mageroe.  Gneiss  seems  to  be  by  far 
the  most  frequent  and  abundant  rock  in  Scandinavia,  all  the  other  primitive  rocks  appearing 
to  be  in  some  degree  subordinate  to  it.  Mica  slate  rests  upon  and  alternates  with  the  gneiss, 
but  is  far  from  being  so  generally  distributed  as  that  rock.  Clay  slate  along  with  the  mica 
slate  is  not  of  frequent  occurrence.  Quartz  rock,  various  hornblende  rocks,  and  limestone, 
occur  in  beds  subordinate  to  the  gneiss  and  mica  slate.  Gabhro,  or  diallage  rock,  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  the  older  rocks,  occurs  in  great  quantity,  connected,  with  clay  slate,  in  the 
island  of  Mageroe,  and  other  parts  of  Norway. 

IL  Transition  rocks.  This  class  contains,  besides  greywacke,  alum  slate,  and  limestone 
(which  contains  much  tremolite),  and  other  rocks  well  known  to  mineralogists  as  members 
of  this  class,  the  following  : — 1.  Granite,  which  sometimes  contains  hornblende.  2.  Syenite, 
which  contains  a  beautiful  Labradoric  variety  of  common  felspar,  and  numerous  crystals  of 
the  gem  named  zircon.  3.  Porphyry,  and,  associated  with  it,  various  trap  rocks  allied  to 
basalt  and  amygdaloid. 

in.  Secondary  rocks.  The  great  primitive  land  of  Scandinavia  continues  onward  to  the 
extreme  northern  point  of  Norway ;  but  in  this  high  latitude  some  new  formations  make 
their  appearance  among  the  older.  The  sandstone  quartz  of  Alton  has  been  known  since 
the  publication  of  the  travels  of  Von  Buch.  On  the  East,  towards  the  Russian  dominions, 
there  is  a  considerable  tract  which  differs  more  from  the  primitive  formations  than  the  sand- 
stone quartz  of  Alten  does.  Sandstone  and  conglomerate  extend  across  the  subjacent  gneiss 
in  a  horizontal  position.     These  rocks  probably  belong  to  the  old  red  sandstone. 

IV.  Alluvial  rocks.  Old  alluvium  occurs  on  the  coast,  and  in  the  interior  in  many  of  the 
valleys,  and  the  new  everywhere  in  greater  or  less  quantity. 

Mines.  The  only  silver  mines  in  Norway  are  those  of  Kongsberg,  situated  in  mica  slate, 
which  formerly  afforded  rich  returns,  but  of  late  have  yielded  no  profit.  Tiie  gold  mine  of 
Edswold,  and  the  mines  of  lead  and  silver  in  Jarlsberg,  have  been  but  feebly  worked.  The 
'^opper  mines  are  principally  situated  in  the  northern  division  of  the  kingdom.  The  most 
onsiderable,  near  Rseraas,  were  discovered  in  1644.  They  have  afforded  considerable  quan- 
ities  of  copper :  in  1805,  the  annual  return  was  7860  quintals  of  copper.  The  other  mines 
of  copper  are  from  1.5  to  20  leagues  of  Drontheim,  at  Quikne,  La?kken,  Selboe,  and  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Christiania,  at  Fredericksgave  or  Foledal.  The  principal  iron  mines  are  those  of  Aren- 
dal  and  Krageroe,  in  southern  Norway.     The  mine  of  Laurwig,  near  the  town  of  that  name, 


References  to  the  Map  of  Sweden  and 

Norway. 

NORTH  PART. 

42.  Arieplos 

84.  Ostersund, 

34.  Moe 

76.  Holden 

b  Alten 

1.  Kiberg 

43.  Hylta 

85.  Maria;by 

35.  Flalhen 

77.  Frcderickstad 

c  Ranncns 

2.  Nisseby 

44.  Henne 

86.  Herndal 

36.  Flaa 

78.  Froderickshall 

d  Namsen 

3.  Tana 

4.5.  Dolslad 

87.  Drontheim 

37.  Hoel 

79.  Uddevalla 

e  Torris 

4.  Lababije 

46.  Hogholm 

88.  Leinsvig 

38.  Kleiven 

80.  Wcnerborg 

f  Nidelven 

5.  Hammerferstl 

47.  Tama 

89.  Garberg 

39.  Bergen 

81.  Lidkoping 

g  Reina 

G.  Aliengaard 

48.  Sorsele 

90.  Hevne 

40.  Anrevig 

82.  Skara 

h  Glommen 

7.  Joksby 

49.  Lomsele. 

41.  Odden 

83.  MaricBtad 

i   Klar 

8.  Alaapahta 

50.  Arvids 

SOUTH  PART. 

42.  Tussungdal 

1            84.  Raana 

j    Laga 

9.  Peiviaskanta 

51.  Norsio 

1.  Sunds\\'all 

43.  Noie 

85.  Nykoping 

k  Morrins 

10.  Kautokeino 

52.  Gumdtrasken 

2.  Bracke 

44.  Christiania 

86.  Norkopine 

1    Dahl 

11.  Kollojaurea 

53.  Lulea 

3.  Lanss 

4.5.  Fryksande 

87.  Westerwick 

m  Ijjiisne 

12.  Finland 

54.  Piiea 

4.  Sveg 

46.  Narens 

88.  Linkoping 

n  Nijurunda 

13.  Ofoden 

55.  Albyn 

5.  Lindsalls 

47.  Norrbarko 

89.  Saby 

o  Indal 

14.  Ankenes 

56.  Burtrask 

6.  Hede 

48.  Tuna 

90.  Ekcfjo 

p  Angermana 

15.  Kurravaara 

57.  Lofanger 

7.  Sorrae 

8.  Tylda! 

49.  Hedmora 

91.  Jonkopinz 

q  Umea 

16,  Ragisvari 

58.  Umea 

50.  Ferneb 

92.  Hjo 

r    Windel 

17.  Soppero 

59  Nyby 

9.  Jjessoe 

51.  Lofsta 

9:i.  Oreryd 

a    Pilea 

18.  Siranvo 

60.  Jekrosele 

10.  Opdal 

.52.  Lpna 

94.  Garchom 

t    Lulea 

19.  flellivare 

61.  Lycksele 

11.  Romsdal 

53.  VVaddo 

9.5.  (inttPiiburg 

u  Lina 

20.  Ripas 

62.  Raska 

12.  Orskoug 

54.  Upsal 

9fi.  Kfi>ioy 

V   Kalix 

21.  Uuickjock 

63.  Busele 

13.  Sondelv 

SJ.  Stockholm 

97.  Jlalnislad 

w  Tiirnea 

2-i.  Ruolivare 

64.  Orinsjo 

14.  Stavum 

56.  Mariafrel 

98.  Nuiicbnok 

X   l.ainio 

23.  Saltdaleo 

6.1.  Gaddedett 

1.5.  Forde 

57.  F.nkoping 

99.  Mdrlnndo 

y  Muonio 

24.  Liones 

66.  Foldereid 

16.  Sognedal 

58.  Westeraa 

100.  Mistirhult 

2,1.  Slipfiea 

67.  Strom 

17.  Lorn 

59.  Orehro 

lOl.Wisby 

Lakes. 

26.  P.-lsne3 

68.  Oldornesa 

18.  Rineebo 

60.  Philipslad 

102.  Na.ss 

a*  Horn 

27.  Silbc.jock 

69.  Honstad 

19.  f)vam 

61.  Carlslad 

103.  Ruinpekulla 

b*  Stora 

as.  Rindijaur 

70.  Holmsct 

20.  Grullo 

62.  Holmedal 

104.  Talmar 

c*  .^ve 

2f|.  VVaimat 

71.  TTndersuker 

21.  Encedal 

63.  Moss 

105.  Bnrirbolm 

d*  Umea 

.30.  Lulea 

72.  Kullsjon 

22.  Asbyn 

64.  Tonsberg 

106.  Carlscrona 

e*  Walgomas 

Sl.Oras 

73.  Follnge 

23. Ilespn 

6.5.  Ovamen 

107.  Carlshamm 

f*  Apuiius 

32.  Sopijenfri 

74.  Strom 

24.  Mnsdel 

C6.  Ranland 

108.  Lalholm 

c*  Kails 
h*  Slora 

3.3.  Pulla 

7.5.  Asele 

2.5.  Arbra 

67.  SrIsoo 

lOO.  Landecrona 

34.  Bajala  Kengia 

76.  Junsele 

26.  Sodethamn 

68.  Eaersund 

110.  Chrislianslad 

i*    Foemund 

35.  Pell,, 

77.  Amiind 

27.  Hamrango 

69.  Bakke 

111.  Borum 

j*    MIosen 

36.  T'ppcr  Tornca 

78.  Nordnialing 

28.  Gefle 

70.  Chrisliansund      112.  Falsterbo 

k*  Maler 

37.  'l-nrnea 

79.  Parviken 

29.  Fahlun 

71.  Langoe 

113.  Malmo 

1*    lljolmar 

38.  Kalix 

80.  Ressple 

30.  Mora 

72.  Valle 

m*  Wetter 

39   Ranea 

81.  Nordingra 

31.  Mailing 

73.  Mokland 

Rivers. 

n*  Wener 

40.  Harada 

82.  Hernosand 

32.  Dunby 

74.  Arendal 

a  Tana 

o*  Bolmen 

41.  Tvara 

83.  Fora 

33.  Grusel 

75.  Sande 

480 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


afTords  annually  26,000  quintals  of  bar-iron  and  6000  quintals  of  cast-iron.  The  establish- 
ment of  the  same  kind  at  Moss  affords  annually  10,000  quintals  of  iron  in  bars  and  cast. 
The  same  annual  quantity  is  afforded  by  the  mines  of  Ba;rum,  Bolvig',  Ulfoss,  Eidfoss.  Esre- 
land,  Naes,  Dikkemarken  Fossum,  and  Oudalon.  Lastly,  tlie  mines  of  Hassel,  Froeland, 
Lessoe,  and  JNIostmarken,  furnish  from  3000  to  .5000  quintals  of  iron  annually.  The  annual 
produce  of  the  iron  mines  of  Norway  is  estimated  by  a  well-known  statistical  writer  at  about 
150,000  quintals.  The  mines  of  cobalt,  which  are  worked  at  jModum  and  Fossum,  are 
extensive  but  not  deep.  In  the  year  1792  they  yielded  2817  quintals  of  ore.  There  is  a 
mine  of  phunbago  and  black  lead  at  Engledal.  The  mines  of  alum,  which  are  worked  in 
the  mountain  of  Egeberg,  near  to  Christiania,  aflbrd  not  only  a  sufficiency  for  the  consump- 
tion of  the  Danish  states,  but  also  a  considerable  quantity  for  exportation.  Norway  possesses 
quarries  of  granite,  marble,  millstone,  whetstone,  slate  and  clay.  Granite  is  exported  to 
Holland ;  the  marble  and  other  minerals  supply  the  Danish  states. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Botany. 
The  Botany  of  these  countries  has  been  noticed  under  that  of  Denmark. 

SuBSECT.  3. — Zoology. 

The  Zoology  of  Sweden,  the  native  country  of  the  celebrated  Linnsus,  is  so  well  known 
to  naturalists,  by  the  writings  of  that  great  man,  that  to  them  the  subject  is  familiar.  Nor 
does  it  present  any  thing  very  different  m  its  general  character  from  that  of  Denmark.  The 
bleak  and  inhospitable  regions  of  Norway  and  Lapland,  to  which  nature  has  denied  the  rich 
and  verdant  pasturage  of  Britain,  and  the  consequent  abundance  of  grazing  animals,  are, 
however,  the  chief  metropolis  of  the  Rein-deer,  whose  diversified  qualities  are  beautifully 
adapted  for  supplying  such  deficiencies. 

The  Rein-deer  (Rangifer  Tarandus  H.  Smith)  (fig.  238.)  forms  the  sole  riches  of  the 

Laplander,  and  its  care  is  almost  his  only  occu- 
pation. According  to  the  season,  he  migrates 
to  the  sea  shore,  the  plains,  or  the  mountains. 
The  rich  oflen  possess  2000  head ;  and  the 
poorer  seldom  less  than  100.  The  adult  male, 
in  a  wild  state,  is  even  larger  than  a  stag ;  but 
the  domesticated  races  are  somewhat  smaller : 
the  sight  and  scent  of  these  creatures  are  aston- 
ishing, and  guide  them  with  wonderful  precision 
through  the  most  dangerous  passes  and  in  the 
darkest  stormy  nights  of  an  arctic  winter.  To 
this  sagacity  tiio  Laplander  trusts  his  life  with 
confidence ;  and  accidents  rarely  happen :  they 
draw  his  sledge  with  such  amazing  rapidity, 
that  in  twenty-four  hours  a  pair  of  Rein-deer  have  been  said  to  perform  a  journey  of  100 
miles.  In  a  wild  state  they  are  gregarious;  and,  when  domesticated,  evince  an  e.\-cessive 
attachment  to  each  other.  During  summer  they  are  much  tormented  by  a  species  of  gad-fly; 
but  the  old  account  of  the  glutton  falling  upon  them  from  a  tree,  and  then  devouring  them, 
is  now  considered  fabulous.  During  life  this  useful  animal  supplies  its  master  with  labour  and 
milk ;  and,  when  dead,  every  part  becomes  serviceable,  the  skin  for  clothing,  and  for  boots ; 
the  horns  to  make  utensils ;  the  sinews  for  thread,  and  the  flesh  for  food :  the  intestines  are 
also  used ;  and  the  tongue  is  a  well-known  article  of  commerce. 

The  Birds  are  not  numerous,  and,  with  few  exceptions,  differ  not  from  those  of  Denmark 


The  Rein-Deer. 


239 


Iceland  Falcon 


and  the  other  northern  kingdoms.  The  Iceland  Falcon  (Falco 
islandicus)  {fig.  239.)  rarely  wanders  to  niore  temperate  climes;  and 
a  gigantic  Owl  {Strix  lapponica  Lin.)  is  a  peculiar  inhabitant  of 
the  dreary  solitudes  of  Lapland :  to  these  we  may  add  two  other 
species;  the  large  Ural  Owl,  and  the  Great  Snowy  Owl.  These 
formidable  birds  prey  upon  numerous  ptarmigans  and  grouse,  great 
numbers  of  which  inhabit  the  confines  of  the  arctic  circle.  The 
Curruca  suecica  Sw.  or  Blue-throated  Reed  Warbler,  one  of  the 
most  elegant  birds  of  Europe,  is  not  peculiar,  as  its  name  would  im- 
ply, to  Sweden,  being  common  in  France  and  Switzerland. 

The  insects  of  Sweden,  during  its  short  summer,  are  very  numer- 
ous; and  many,  enumerated  by  Acerbi,  very  beautiful;  but,  in 
autumn,  nearly  the  whole  country  is  terribly  infested  by  Musqui- 
toes,  these  tormenting  little  animals  being  beyond  calculation  more 
numerous  in  high  northern  latitudes  than  in  the  woods  of  tropical 
America. 


Book  I.  SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY  481 

Sect.  III. — Historical  Geography 

The  early  history  of  Scandinavia  is  deeply  involved  in  fable  and  uncertainty.  Ptolemy 
and  Pliny,  the  best  informed  of  ancient  geographers,  seem  to  distinguish  it  from  "Great  Ger- 
many," oft' the  coast  of  which  they  represent  Basilia,  or  Baltia,  as  a  large  is.and,  though  not 
nearly  approaching  to  the  real  dimensions.  The  Goths  were  found  m  early  possession  of 
Sweden,  and  its  southern  provinces  have  been  denominated  Gothland;  but  the  question, 
whether  they  were  the  native  possessors,  or  entered  it  as  conquerors,  is  one  which  can 
scarcely  be  now  decided.  Scandinavia  has  been  called  the  "  storehouse  of  nations ;"  and 
"  the  blue-eyed  myriads  from  the  Baltic  coast"  are  supposed  to  have  been  among  the  most 
numerous  of  those  who  spread  war  and  desolation  throughout  Europe.  Dr.  Clarke  ridicules 
this  idea,  as  inapplicable  to  a  country  of  unbroken  forests,  and  a  slowly  advancing  popula- 
tion, making  the  first  essays  of  agriculture ;  yet,  though  the  population  could  never  be  great, 
tlie  simple  and  pastoral  habits  of  the  people  might  dispose  emigrants  to  seek  subsistence  with 
the  sword  in  happier  climates. 

Scandinavia,  lirst,  by  a  series  of  formidable  expeditions,  made  a  figure  in  history  at  the  end 
of  tlie  nintli  century.  Harold  Harfager,  or  the  Fair-haired,  the  first  of  the  great  sea-kings 
of  the  North,  having  united  the  formerly  independent  districts  of  Norway  under  his  sway, 
undertook  triumphant  expeditions  against  Shetland,  Orkney,  and  the  Hebrides.  For  several 
centuries  the  Danes  and  Norwegians  held  full  possession  of  those  islands ;  gave  a  king  to 
England,  and  formed  a  permanent  establishment  in  Normandy.  The  defeat  of  Haco  in  Scot- 
land, and  of  Harold  III.  in  England,  during  the  eleventh  century,  put  an  end  to  this  maritime 
dominion :  and  tlu;  northern  nations,  notwithstanding  their  immense  supply  of  naval  stores, 
have  never  since  attained  to  more  than  a  secondary  rank  among  the  maritime  powers. 

The  union  of  the  kingdoms  of  Scandinavia,  in  1388,  under  Margaret,  called  the  Semiramis 
of  tlie  Nortli,  forms  a  memorable  era.  Immediately,  however,  after  the  death  of  that  able 
princess,  the  Swedes  began  to  struggle  for  independence.  But  their  repeated  attempts  to 
establish  a  separate  kingdom  were  always  defeated,  till  the  cruel  and  tyrannical  reign  of 
Christian  II.  drove  matters  to  extremity,  and  brought  on  a  new  revolution. 

Gustavus  Vasa,  in  1520,  hoisted  again  the  national  standard  in  the  province  of  Dalecarlia, 
and,  in  three  years  subsequently,  entered  Stockholm  in  triumph.  After  a  long  struggle,  the 
Danes  were  compelled  to  recognise  the  independence  of  Sweden. 

The  reign  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  formed  a  glorious  era  for  Sweden.  The  Protestant  reli- 
gion having  been  established  under  Gustavus  Vasa,  Sweden  began  to  be  looked  to  as  its  sup- 
port when  assailed  by  a  formidable  confederacy.  In  1630,  Gustavus  took  the  field  at  the 
head  of  only  ten  tlious:ind  Swedes ;  but  around  this  gallant  band  rallied  all  the  Protestant 
powers  of  Germany.  The  splendid  victory  of  Breitenfeld  humbled  the  house  of  Austria,  and 
re-established  the  civil  and  religious  liberties  of  the  empire.  Even  after  his  fall,  in  the  glori- 
ous field  of  Lutzen,  his  generals  continued  to  wage  that  desperate  war  of  thirty  years,  which 
was  necessary  to  compel  the  Catholic  leg^gue  finally  to  renounce  its  pretensions.  Sweden, 
at  the  peace,  obtained  Pomerania,  and  other  important  possessions  in  Germany ;  and  con- 
tinued, till  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  to  exercise  a  powerful  influence  on  the  affairs 
of  Europe. 

The  victories  and  reverses  of  Charles  XII.  threw  a  wild  and  romantic  lustre  around 
Sweden,  which  terminated,  however,  in  the  loss  of  her  station  and  greatness.  Being  de- 
feated at  Pultowa,  by  the  Czar  Peter,  and  driven  to  seek  shelter  from  the  Turks  at  Bender, 
he  was  obliged  to  purchase  peace  by  the  sacrifice  of  Livonia,  and  others  of  his  finest  provinces. 
The  influence  of  Sweden  was  thenceforth  confined  within  its  own  barren  limits,  and  it  ranked 
witli  difficulty  as  a  power  of  the  second  order.  The  only  remarkable  change  in  the  course 
of  the  century  was  produced  by  the  revolutions  of  1772  and  1769,  when  Gustavus  III.  suc- 
ceeded in  converting  the  government  into  an  absolute  monarchy,  though  in  other  respects 
his  reign  was  advantageous  to  Sweden. 

The  election  of  Bernadotte,  one  of  Bonaparte's  commanders,  to  fill  the  throne,  left  vacant 
througli  the  rash  conduct  of  tlie  legitimate  monarch,  made  a  great  change  in  the  relations 
of  Sweden.  To  conciliate  his  new  subjects,  he  restored  in  full  plenitude  the  representative 
constitution,  which  had  been  reduced  to  a  rncro  shadow.  Having  joined  the  confederacy 
against  his  former  master,  he  received  Norway  in  compensation  for  the  loss  of  Finland,  and 
liad  thus  a  more  compact  and  defensible  territory.  The  Norwegians  e.xclaimed,  not  without 
reasr.n,  against  this  compulsory  transference ;  yet  Denmark  had  deprived  them  of  their  free 
constitution,  which  they  now  regained,  and  had  in  so  many  respects  depressed  the  country, 
with  tlie  view  of  concentrating  every  thing  at  Copenhagen,  that  the  connection  now  termi- 
nated has  been  considered  the  bane  of  Norway. 

Sect.  IV. — Political  Geography. 

The  constitution  of  Sweden  is  one  of  tlie  few  in  Europe,  which  has  always  preserved 
some  portion  ot  that  representative  system  which  had  been  formed  in  remote  ages.  Towards 
the  close,  indeed,  of  the  last  century,  it  was  reduced  by  Gustavus  III.  to  little  more  than  a 

Vol.  I.  41  3  L 


482  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  HI. 

form.  Beraadotte,  liowever,  an  elected  monarch,  without  any  national  claim,  was  obliged 
to  court  the  favour  of  tlic  nation,  and,  with  that  view,  to  re-establish  the  riglitsof  its  ancient 
diet.  This  is  now  rather  an  antique  and  cumbrous  form  of  legislature,  consisting  of  four 
orders ;  the  nobles,  the  clergy,  the  peasants,  and  the  burghers ;  who  sit  and  vote  in  separate 
houses. 

Of  these  houses,  that  of  the  nobles  consists  of  about  1200  members ;  the  head  of  each 
family  being,  by  inheritance,  its  legal  representative.  They  are  divided  into  three  classes : — 
herra,  counts,  barons,  &c. ;  reddar,  knights ;  and  sivena,  or  gentlemen  who,  though  without 
any  title,  have  received  letters  patent  of  nobility.  The  house  of  clergy  consists  of  the  arch- 
bishop and  all  the  bishops ;  while  the  rest  of  the  ecclesiastical  body  is  represented  by  depu- 
ties. The  burgliers  are  chosen  by  the  towns,  every  freeman  wlio  pays  taxes  having  a  vote : 
they  form  an  independent  hotly,  partly,  perhaps,  because  the  lionour  of  a  seat  is  not  eagerly 
contested.  The  peasants  do  not  exactly  correspond  to  our  idea  of  that  term :  they  consist 
of  a  body  of  little  proprietors,  or  lairds,  who  cultivate  their  own  ground,  and  who  are  numer- 
ous in  Sweden.  Their  allowance  of  a  dollar  a  day  is  provided  by  a  subscription  among 
their  constituents ;  and,  in  some  cases,  two  or  three  districts  must  combine  to  furnisli  out  one 
deputy.  The  nobles  have  bestirred  themselves  much  to  keep  down  the  attempts  made  by 
this  class  to  rise  in  society.  They  have  procured  regulations,  according  to  which  no  person 
could  sit  in  the  house  who  allowed  himself  to  be  called  Herr  (or  Mr.),or  who  woreacoatof 
fine  cloth.  Notwithstanding  all  their  efforts,  however,  this  house,  and  that  of  the  burghers, 
are  daily  increasing  in  strength. 

In  the  division  of  powers,  the  royal  prerogative  is  ample.  The  king  appoints  to  all  offices 
civil  and  military,  and  he  is  obliged  to  convoke  the  diet  only  once  in  five  years,  and  to  con- 
tinue its  sittings  three  months;  but  he  may  make  the  meetings  more  frequent,  and  longer. 
He  has  also  a  negative  upon  the  laws  proposed  by  the  diet.  In  regard  to  the  diet  itself,  the 
division  rests  with  a  majority  of  the  houses;  but  if  they  be  two  against  two,  the  balance  is 
struck  by  the  committee  of  state,  a  body  composed  of  a  certain  number  of  members  from 
each.     No  tax  can  be  levied,  or  loan  obtained,  without  the  consent  of  the  diet. 

Tlie  storthing  of  Norway,  restored  by  Bernadotte,  is  possessed  of  much  higher  privileges 
than  the  Swedish  diet.  It  assembles  more  frequently,  and  at  its  own  time,  without  any  con- 
trol from  the  king ;  and  it  allows  to  him  only  a  suspensive  veto,  obliging  him  to  accept  any 
project  which  has  been  three  times  presented  by  the  storthing.  These  rights  having  been 
once  granted,  Bernadotte,  who  found  them  pressing  somewhat  hard  against  his  prerogative, 
has  in  vain  made  several  attempts  to  abridge  them.  A  highly  republican  spirit  prevails  in 
Norway,  and  the  influence,  and  almost  existence,  of  the  nobles  is  nearly  annihilated. 

The  revenue  of  Sweden  arises  from  a  poll-tax ;  the  produce  of  the  royal  demesnes,  duties 
on  exports  and  imports,  mines  and  forges,  distilled  spirits,  and  some  monopolies.  The  whole 
produce  is  about  $5,000,000  a  year,  exclusive  of  lands  assigned  to  soldiers  and  sailors,  and 
by  which  these  classes,  in  time  of  peace,  are  chiefly  supported.  The  military  force,  is  at 
present, — 

Sweden.  Norway.  Total. 

Infantry 26,221  ....    9,642  -  -  -  35,863 

Cavalry 4,580  ....     1,070  -  .  .  5,650 

Artillery      ....  2,400  ....     1,278  -  -  .  3,678 

Landwehr    ....  83,368  ....  10,000  .  -  .  93,368 

The  troops  are  raised  by  conscription :  they  only  receive  pay  when  on  actual  service ;  re- 
maining, at  other  times,  in  the  provinces,  where  they  employ  themselves  in  cultivating  lands 
assigned  to  them  for  their  support. 

Sect,  V. — Productive  Industry. 

Sweden  seems  doomed  by  nature  to  be  a  poor  country.  Her  most  southern  districts  are 
beyond  the  limits  of  that  zone,  in  which  alone  the  finer  and  more  valuable  kinds  of  grain, 
and  the  richer  fruits,  come  to  maturity.  Her  scanty  harvest  consists  solely  of  rye,  bigg,  and 
oats,  scarcely  accounted  as  food  in  more  favoured  climates.  Scandinavia  is  described  gene- 
rally asTDne  unbroken  boundless  forest,  varied  only  in  its  aspect  by  little  patches  of  cultivated 
land. 

Agricultural  industry  till  of  late  had  not  done  much  to  remedy  natural  deficiencies.  Ac- 
cording  to  the  valuable  statistical  details  collected  by  Dr.  Thomson,  tlie  arable  land  in  Swe. 
den  amounts  to  1,818,450  English  acres,  which  is  only  a  sixty-second  of  the  entire  surface, 
or,  throwing  out  the  Norrland  deserts,  a  thirty-second.  Of  this,  1,363,000  acres  are  returned 
as  under  cultivation.  But  the  average  size  of  a  Swedish  farm  is  only  twenty-seven  and  a 
half;  the  annual  average  of  grain  sown  on  each  farm  does  not  amount  to  a  Winchester 
bushel ;  and  tlie  annual  produce  of  the  whole  country  was  only  5,700,000  spanns,  or  about 
71,000  quarters.  Hence  Sweden  was  obliged  to  import  grain  to  a  great  extent ;  and  such  is 
the  scarcity,  that  the  peasantry  often  grind  the  bajrk  or  even  wood  of  the  fir-tree  into  flour 


Book  I.  SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY.  483 

a  nutriment  equally  scanty  and  unwholesome.  These  statements  are  given  in  1812 ;  since 
whicli  time  we  find  it  mentioned  that  agriculture  has  made  a  very  rapid  progress ;  that  im- 
proved processes  have  been  introduced  from  other  countries  ;  and  that,  in  the  most  southern 
provinces,  a  great  extent  of  moving  (and  before  entirely  barren)  sand  has  been  rendered  solid, 
and  covered  with  plantations  and  grain.  The  consequence  has  been,  that  in  1827,  Sweden  even 
exported  39,000,  and,  in  1828, 164,000  tons  of  grain  of  every  description.  Every  farm  has  a  tract 
of  forest  of  about  1000  acres  attached  to  it,  on  which  cattle  are  fed :  these  are  reported  as 
only  amounting  to  403,000  horses,  1,475,000  cows,  and  1,212,000  sheep.  The  most  valua- 
ble product  of  land  is  formed  by  the  vast  forests  with  which  nature  has  covered  the  whole 
24Q  country.     The  trees  over  a,ll  Scandinavia  are 

small,  and  consist  chiefly  of  the  birch,  the 
pine,  the  spruce  and  Scotch  firs.  Wooden  in- 
closures  {jig.  240.)  of  a  peculiar  form,  are  uni- 
versally employed.  The  poplar  and  the  willow 
are  also  indigenous.  The  timber  of  these  trees, 
as  well  as  the  tar,  pitch,  and  turpentine,  drawn 
from  them,  forms  the  chief  objects  of  Scandi- 
navian exports.  Those  on  the  hills  of  Nor- 
way are  in  much  demand  for  masts.  Accord- 
Swedisi.  Mode  of  Inciusuie.  jj,g   ^   ]Yj_  Hegelstamm,  not   more   than  the 

115th  part  of  the  surface  of  Norway  is  under  cultivation,  chiefly  in  oats ;  a  space  which 
might  be  greatly  extended ;  yet  the  annual  production  is  stated  at  2,650,000  tons. 

The  manufactures  of  Scandinavia  are  inconsiderable,  unless  we  should  class  their  mines 

as  such.   Even  in  the  common  trades  the  work  is  lazily  and  ill  performed,  and  charged  at  a  high 

ate,  which  renders  this  the  most  expensive  country  in  Europe  for  those  who  live  luxuriously. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  some  great  merchants  in  the  western  towns  send  their  linen  to  be 

waslied  in  London. 

The  mines  of  Sweden  are  peculiarly  rich  in  important  products.  Its  iron,  found  chiefly 
in  primitive  rocks,  is  the  finest  in  the  world,  and  is  widely  diflused.  In  1812,  there  were 
176  mines;  624  smelting-houses ;  764  forges;  producing  in  all  1,293,411  cwt.  of  iron.  The 
exportation,  in  1821,  amounted  to  340,000  skippund,  and  in  1824  had  risen  to  373,000,  of  which 
345,000  were  in  bars,  and  28,000  in  ruder  forms.  There  are  also  some  valuable  mines  in  the 
southern  provinces  of  Norway.  A  most  extensive  deposit  of  copper  occurs  in  the  province 
of  Dalecarlia,  particularly  at  Fahlun.  Gold  occurs  at  Adelfors,  in  Sweden,  to  no  great 
amount ;  but  the  silver  mines  of  Kongsberg,  in  Norway,  are  the  richest  in  Europe.  The 
metal  occurs  in  masses,  of  which  there  was  once  found  one  weighing  600  lbs.  There  are 
also  lead  mines  of  some  importance  at  Scola,  and  in  other  parts  of  Sweden. 

Fishery  appears  a  pursuit  peculiarly  appropriate  to  the  extensive  coasts  of  Scandinavia. 
Yet  the  Swedes  are  not  much  addicted  to  it,  probably  because  the  Baltic  during  a  great  part 
of  the  year  is  frozen.  Gottenburg  had  once  a  herring  fishery,  now  nearly  lost,  the  shoals 
having  taken  another  direction.  The  Norwegian  fishery  is  considerable,  though  bearing  only 
a  small  proportion  to  the  almost  unlimited  opportunities  afforded  by  its  wide  seas,  and  its 
deep  and  commodious  bays.  Its  chief  theatre  is  far  to  the  north,  off"  the  Isles  of  Loffbden. 
The  season  lasts  only  for  seven  or  eight  weeks  in  the  year,  when  fishermen  crowd  thither 
from  all  quarters.  Codfish  is  the  chief  object :  it  is  cut  into  pieces,  and  spread  on  the  rocks 
to  dry,  whence  it  receives  the  names  of  stockfish  and  clipfish.  According  to  Mr.  Brooke,  the 
number  taken  in  a  year  was  700,000,  which  may  be  worth  nearly  .^600,000 ;  they  are  sent 
chiefly  to  Germany,  Spain,  and  Italy.  The  roes  are  also  salted  and  barrelled  for  exportation ; 
also  the  fish  oil  to  the  amount  of  about  30,000  barrels. 

The  commerce  of  Scandinavia  is  greater  tlian  its  unimproved  agriculture  and  total  want 
of  manufactures  might  lead  us  to  suppose.  But  nature  has  giff,ed  these  bleak  regions  with 
an  almost  inexhaustible  store  of  timber  and  iron,  two  of  the  prime  necessaries  of  human 
life ;  the  main  implements  in  ship-building  and  in  the  construction  of  houses,  machinery,  and 
furniture.  These  articles  are  indeed  also  the  produce  of  North  America ;  and  Britain,  which 
affords  the  best  market,  has  lately  sought  to  favour  her  colonies  in  that  quarter  by  a  great 
inequality  of  duties.  Yet  the  superior  quality  of  the  Scandinavian  commodity  always  secures 
it  a  sale.  The  entire  exports  of  Norway  are  estimated  by  Dr.  Clarke  at  1,800,000?.  sterling; 
but  we  believe  that  this  is  very  much  beyond  the  mark.  The  commerce  of  Sweden  is  not 
on  so  great  a  scale ;  her  surplus  timber  being  not  nearly  so  ample,  though  her  iron  is  superior. 
She  has  suffered  much  injury  from  the  absurd  prejudices  of  the  peasantry,  who  obtained  the 
prohibition  of  colonial  produce,  and  of  almost  all  foreign  articles  of  consumption  ;  and  though 
these  were  regularly  imported,  and  in  daily  use,  the  trade  was  greatly  fettered  by  being 
carried  on  only  as  contraband.  In  1828,  however,  commercial  treaties  were  concluded  on  a 
more  liberal  footing.  The  total  number  of  merchant  vessels  belonging  to  the  diflferent 
towns  of  Sweden,  in  1829,  was  1178,  of  the  burthen  of  61,000  tons. 


f 


484  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

Sect,  VI. — Civil  and  Social  Slate. 

The  population  of  Sweden,  according  to  the  latest  census,  made  in  18"25,  amounted  to 
2,771,252 ;  of  wliom  20,499  were  nobles ;  13,977  ecclesiastics ;  66,604  citizens ;  the  remain- 
der belonged  to  the  class  of  peasants.  Of  these,  1,332,970  were  males,  and  1,438,282 
females;  2,489,973  resided  in  the  country,  281,279  in  the  cities.  This  was  a  rise  of 
186,.562  since  1820.* 

The  population  of  Norway,  by  a  census  made  in  November  1820,  amounted  to  1,050,132 ; 
of  whom  105,021  inhabited  cities,  934,414  the  country.  Tliis  was  a  rise  of  164,662  since 
1815. 

The  national  character  of  the  Swedes  is  usually  painted  under  favourable  colours.  Their 
honesty  is  described  as  proverbial ;  and  Dr.  Clarke  considers  tlie  contrast  between  them  and 
the  Russian  people,  in  tiiis  respect,  as  most  striking.  Highway  robbery,  though  it  has  been 
known,  is  exceedingly  rare;  and  charity  bo.xes,  which  arc  often  set  up  on  tlie  public  roads, 
have  never  been  plundered.  "  The  nation,"  says  Mr.  James,  "  has  its  singularities :  there 
exists  something  of  a  reciprocity  between  the  moral  and  political  constitution  of  Sweden. 
Rigidly  ceremonious,  they  make  their  stiff  and  measured  courtesies  the  essentials  rather 
than  tiie  forms  of  life ;  and  seem,  in  a  stranger's  eye,  a  people  cold  in  their  nature  as  the 
very  snows  they  dwell  upon.  Their  characteristics,  a  passive  courage,  not  unmi.xed  with 
indolence ;  a  pride  not  free  from  ignorance ;  a  disposition  that  is  not  ill-humoured,  from  hav- 
ing no  humour  at  all,  from  indifference,  from  apathy.  But  a  Swede  is  never  in  extremes  ; 
even  these  traits  are  not  deeply  marked ;  and  if  we  review  the  more  favourable  side  of  his 
character,  we  shall  find  in  him  an  undaunted  spirit  of  perseverance,  and  an  honest  love  of 
freedom,  to  which  the  feelings  of  every  one  do  homage."  The  same  writer  mentions  a 
cold-blooded  obduracy,  connected,  perhaps,  with  a  sanguinary  turn  of  mind,  displayed  in 
those  frequent  assassinations  which  have  stained  tlie  pages  of  Swedisji  history.  Tlie  man- 
ners of  the  higher  ranks,  in  consequence,  perhaps,  of  political  connexion,  have  been  studi- 
ously formed  on  the  French  model,  which  does  not  accord  very  happily  with  the  somewhat 
rude  simplicity  of  the  Swedes,  who  find  it  easier  to  imitate  the  frivolity  and  dissipation  of 
that  people,  than  their  easy  and  careless  grace.  Several  habits  are  enumerated  as  preva- 
lent even  among  the  higher  classes  in  Scandinavia,  which  seem  to  negative  its  pretensions 
to  any  high  pitch  of  refinement.  Among  these  are,  spitting  even  on  handsome  carpets,  blow- 
ing the  nose  with  the  fingers,  and  recording  games  on  the  table  with  chalk. 

The  religion  of  Sweden  is  Lutheran,  and  the  church  Episcopal.  This  country,  which 
stood  long  at  the  head  of  the  great  Protestant  confederacy,  is  animated  with  an  ardent  zeal 
for  the  reformed  religion.  The  Catholics,  till  of  late,  scarcely  enjoyed  common  toleration, 
and  they  are  still  excluded  from  the  diet  and  the  higher  offices  of  state.  The  Swedish  people 
are  commended  for  their  regularity  in  performing  the  duties  of  their  religion :  at  the  same 
time  it  has  been  remarked  that  the  dissenters  from  the  established  church  are  much  fewer 
than  in  other  Protestant  countries ;  which  has  been  imputed  to  the  want  of  any  peculiar 
fervour  upon  the  subject.  The  wide  extent  and  thin  population  of  the  northern  districts 
must  often  render  the  provision  for  their  religious  instruction  very  defective.  The  diocese 
of  Tornea,  in  Lapland,  is  750  miles  in  circumference ;  and,  what  is  more  blameable,  the 
small  number  of  clergy  employed  are  not  required  to  understand  the  language  of  the  natives. 
The  income  of  the  largest  bishopric  in  Sweden  is  about  .*f>5000  a  year. 

In  science,  the  Swedes,  considering  their  poverty  and  remote  situation,  have  made  a  very 
distinguished  figure.  Gustavus  Adolphus  favoured  the  interests  of  literature  with  a  degree 
of  ardour  not  generally  known.  Of  the  spoils  of  places  conquered  by  him,  he  set  a  particular 
value  upon  books  which  he  transmitted  to  Sweden,  in  order  to  form  tlie  foundation  of  several 
large  libraries.  The  Swedes  cultivated  with  peculiar  ardour  botany  and  mineralogy,  which 
some  of  their  countrymen  mainly  contributed  to  raise  to  the  rank  of  sciences.  In  botany,  the 
name  of  Linnaeus  is  yet  without  a  rival ;  and  Cronstadt  and  Bergman  were  in  their  day  little 
inferior,  though  they  now  yield  to  Werner  and  other  great  names  which  have  arisen  in  other 
countries.  Bergman  and  Scheele  made  also  large  contributions  to  chemistry,  which  is  still 
ably  pursued  by  Ekeberg,  Bcrzelius,  and  Afzelius.  Although  history  and  poetry  have  been 
cultivated,  they  have  not  produced  any  writers  whose  reputation  has  spread  throughout 
Europe.  "From  the  limited  sphere  of  the  Swedish  language,  few  works  of  science  are 
written  in  it,  or  translated  into  it:  hence  the  literati  of  Sweden  are  particularly  well  versed 
in  the  languages  of  foreign  nations.  One  of  tlie  subjects  in  which  Sweden  may  most  justly 
exult  is,  the  general  spread  of  education  among  the  lower  orders,  which  seems  to  equal  or 
exceed  that  which  Scotland  enjoys;  and  to  this  may  probably  be  in  a  great  measure  ascribed 
their  generally  meritorious  conduct.  Norway  is  not  nearly  so  literary  a  country  as  Sweden ; 
Dr.  Clarke  even  states  that  there  is  not  in  the  whole  country  a  single  bookseller's  shop. 
This  was  in  a  great  measure  owing  to  the  jealousy  of  Denmark,  which  would  not  allow  an 
university  to  be  founded  even  in  Christiania,  which  used  to  be  a  rival  to  that  of  Copenhagen. 

♦  The  only  Swedish  colony  is  St.  Bartholomew  in  the  W.  Indies,  with  about  9000  inhabitants.— Am.  Eo. 


Boor  I.  SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY,  485 

Yot  Norway  can  boast  of  literary  names ;  Holberg-,  Pontoppidan,  Vahl  the  botanist,  Torfeus, 
and  Snorro  Sturleson,  the  old  historians.  A  vein  ,of  bold  and  rude  poetry  is  cultivated  with 
peculiar  ardour;  and  Dr.  Clarke  exhibits  a  roll  of  names  unknown  to  Europe,  whose  claims 
to  distmction  appear  to  be  somewhat  justified  by  a  specimen  given  to  us  by  Mr.  Wilson. 

Of  tiie  learned  establishments  of  Sweden,  the  most  eminent  is  the  university  of  Upsal, 
the  chief  nurse  of  all  the  great  men  who  have  disting-uished  her  literary  records.  This  cele- 
brated seat  of  northern  learning  was  founded  in  1478,  by  Steno  Sture,  was  enlarged  by 
Gustavus  Vasa  and  Gustavus  Adolphus,  but  reached  its  highest  eminence  in  the  last  century, 
when  it  was  adorned  by  LinnsEus,  and  all  the  men  of  science  who  have  been  distinguished 
as  reflecting  glory  on  Sweden.  Since  that  time  its  lustre  has  been  somewhat  diminished, 
though  statements  on  this  subject  vary  considei'ably.  The  professors  have  salaries  of  about 
$500  a  year ;  and  are  left  thus  almost  wholly  dependent  on  their  students,  who  live  in  private 
lodgings.  They  attend  what  and  whom  they  please ;  and  their  exertions  are  not  stimulated 
or  tried  by  any  public  examinations.  The  mineralogical  collection  is  one  of  the  most  com- 
plete in  Europe ;  and  the  library  contains  50,000  volumes.  Its  most  precious  treasure  is  the 
Codex  Argenteus,  a  manuscript  of  the  four  Gospels,  written  in  silver  characters,  and  sup- 

f)osed  to  date  as  fiir  back  as  the  fourth  century.  The  garden  of  Linneeus  has  been  neglected 
or  a  larger  one  lately  founded,  but  which  scarcely  corresponds  to  the  botanical  fame  of  Upsal. 
The  royal  library  at  Stockholm  is  still  more  extensive.  It  is  particularly  rich  in  manuscripts, 
in  sagas,  and  otJier  historical  works,  and  in  original  drawings  by  the  great  masters.  This 
collection  is  open  to  the  public.  The  Swedish  academy  of  sciences,  founded  in  1739,  by 
learned  private  individuals,  has  published  above  100  volumes.  It  is  considered  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  in  Europe,  and  the  greatest  men  in  otiier  countries  have  viewed  it  as  an 
honour  to  be  enrolled  among  its  members.  In  the  college  of  mines  are  preserved  copious 
specimens,  drawn  from  a  country  so  rich  in  metallic  productions.  The  cabinet  of  models, 
presenting  the  various  mechanical  contrivances  employed  through  the  different  parts  of  Swe- 
den, is  also  considered  very  interesting. 

The  fine  arts  in  Sweden  have  been  cultivated  amidst  considerable  difficulties.  The  opera 
is  conducted  with  splendour  and  taste ;  Lergell,  as  a  sculptor,  has  been  ranked  second  to 
Canova,  and  even  called  the  Michael  Augelo  of  the  North.  Breda  in  portrait,  and  Fulcrantz 
in  landscape,  enjoy  reputation. 

The  habitations  of  Scandinavia  are  very  simple  and  uniform.  "Having,"  says  Dr.  Clarke, 
"  once  figured  to  the  imagination  a  number  of  low  red  houses,  of  a  single  story,  and  each 
covered  with  turf  and  weeds,  a  picture  is  presented  of  the  oppidan  scenery  of  Sweden." 
The  houses,  however,  are  well  finished  within,  and  elegantly  furnished ;  and  by  means  of 
stoves,  double  windows,  ajid  close  doors,  they  are  kept  comfortably  warm,  even  during  the 
most  rigorous  winter.  Swedes  have  even  complained  that  they  suffered  much  more  fi-om 
cold  in  London  than  in  their  native  city. 

The  dress  is  described  by  Dr.  Clarke  as  equally  uniform  with  the  habitations.  "  A  skull- 
cap, fitting  close  to  the  crown,  edged  with  a  little  stiff  lace,  the  hair  being  drawn  as  tight 
and  straight  as  possible  beneath  the  cap  fi^om  all  parts  of  the  head,  as  if  to  start  from  the 
roots ;  add  to  this,  a  handkerchief  thrown  over  the  cap  when  they  go  out ;  a  jacket ;  short 
petticoat ;    stockings  of  coloured  or  white  woollen ;    and  higli-heeled  shoes :"  this  is  the 

general  costume  of  the  Swedish  women.  Mr.  Wilson  thus 
describes  the  dress  of  the  representatives  of  that  class  of 
peasants : — "  White  worsted  stockings,  half-boots  extend- 
ing above  the  calf  of  the  leg,  yellow  leather  small-clothes 
witli  knee-buckles,  a  short  brown  coat  and  waistcoat,  and 
a  plain  handkerchief  tied  round  their  necks."  Tlie  an- 
nexed cut  {fg.  241.)  may  give  an  idea  of- the  attire  and 
aspect  of  the  Norwegian  peasantry.  In  winter  these  gar- 
ments must  be  reinforced  to  the  utmost  ability  of  the 
wearer,  as  a  fence  against  the  excess  of  the  cold.  The 
peasantry  wear  a  sheepskin  cloak,  with  the  wool  towards 
the  body,  and  close  fur  caps.  Dr.  Clarke  mentions  as  a 
travelling  dress,  thick  yarn  stockings  covered  by  stout  lea- 
ther boots,  and  over  these  again  boots  made  of  tlie  hides 
of  rein-deer,  with  the  hair  on  the  outside,  and  doubly  lined 
.  with  sheepskin  covered  with  black  wool.  Thf  people  wear, 

orwegian   easan  s.  besides,  fur  caps  ou  the  head,  bearskin  pelisses  over  the 

body,  besides  several  flannel  waistcoats,  and  on  the  hands,  gloves  of  slieepskin  covered  by 
double  gloves  of  fur  and  wool.  Yet  these  accumulated  guards  are  insufficient  to  prevent 
the  feeling  of  the  most  intense  cold,  which,  in  those  not  duly  fenced  against  it,  sometimes 
produces  death,  and  frequently  a  frost-bitten  limb. 

41* 


486 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III 


Sect.  VII, — Local  Geography. 

This  section  naturally  divides  itself  into  three  subordinate  parts : — 1.  Sweden ;  2.  Norway  • 
and  3.  Lapland ;  which,  though  accounted  partly  Swedish  and  partly  Norwegian,  has  a  dis- 
tinct character  of  its  own. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Sweden. 

Sweden  is  formed  into  three  great  divisions :  Svealand,  or  Sweden  Proper ;  Gotaland,  or 
Gothland ;  and  Nordland,  or  Norrland.  In  the  following  statistical  table,  the  extent  and 
arable  produce  are  from  materials  collected  in  1812,  since  which  time  cultivation  has  been 
greatly  extended ;  but  the  population  is  from  the  census  of  1825. 


J/brdland. 

Arable  Ground, 
Tunnlands. 
(13  4  acre.) 

Being  10  the 

whole  as  1 

to 

2,151 

1.465 

220 

917 

Number  of 
Karim. 

Operalive 

Farmei^ 

Grain  produced 

in  Spanns. 
(l-20th  bushel.) 

Population. 

8,080 
10,530 
22,780 
10,720 

522 

694 

1,563 

945 

22,824 
23,870 
36,812 
20,281 

37,570 
56,576 
103,509 
48,348 

40,624 
44,911 
72,237 
39,122 

Sweden, 

52,110 

915 

3,724 

103,787 

245.998 

195,894 

71,416 
84.364 
55.515 
54,011 
46,223 
82,473 
51,547 
28,367 

22 
13 
27 
24 
36 
42 
129 
140- 

4,056 
3,548 
2,852 
3,276 
2,774 
1.703 
1,792 
2,089 

58.649 
48,657 
49,063 
59,791 
61,720 
92,5fi2 
79,313 
50,024 

316,987 
285,356 
211,100 
225,006 
198,279 
377,514 
240,781 
153,996 

103,095 
81,897 
88,618 
106,793 
109,254 
163,372 
129,388 
96,736 

Carlstarlt 

GoUiland. 

473,016 

45 

22,096 

499,809 

2,009,017 

879,153 

104,061 
66.121 
53,(584 
37,095 
21,715 

143,192 
73,808 
42,458 
43,983 
89,344 

222.(i09 
30,064 

21 
34 
40 
48 
27 
12 
37 

23 
13 
4 
20 

5,458 
3,.347 
3,905 
2,837 
1,089 
4,804 
4,200 
2,783 
2  922 
3!009 
4,033 
1,098 

94,194 
83,404 
76,115 
56,010 
31,5-22 
89,910 
102,715 
66,409 
47,485 
79,331 
95,637 
17,500 

360,044 
230,^6 
233.346 
175,229 
1.39,143 
425,864 
334,282 
215,757 
167,120 
306,027 
548,334 
83,523 

182,280 
160,720 
129,996 
102:709 

85,314 
159,614 
187,021 
146,691 

85,657 
145,.'l80 
192,199 

38,151 

928,734 

20 

39,487 

840,262 

3,204,184 


1,62.5,632 
79,473 

1,454,700 

02 

65,309 

1,443,858 

5,702,835 

2,771,252 

Sweden  Proper  occupies  the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  and  includes  the  capital,  and  the 
great  mining  districts.  It  consists  of  an  immense  plain,  covered  by  almost  boundless  forests, 
intermixed  with  patches  of  cultivation ;  only  a  few  hills  of  moderate  heiglit  breaking  its 
vast  uniformity.  Three  great  lakes,  like  inland  seas,  the  Wener,  the  Wetter,  and  the  Malar, 
form  almost  a  continuous  chain  across  its  centre.  Besides  tliese,  there  is  an  immense  num- 
ber of  smaller  lakes,  especially  towards  the  north,  communicating  by  river  channels  with 
the  greater.  These  lakes  do  not  display  the  grandeur  which  belongs  to  those  of  Switzer- 
land; but  their  Vv-ide  and  winding  shores,  broken  with  rocks,  and  fringed  with  a  profusion  of 
wood,  present  many  romantic  scenes. 

The  division  into  provinces,  of  Sweden  Proper,  as  well  as  of  Gothland,  as  given  in  the 
preceding  table,  was  made  recently  by  government,  and  is  the  only  one  upon  which  statisti- 
cal details  have  been  collected.  But  there  is  another  and  earlier  division,  which  remains 
still  fixed  in  the  Swedish  mind ;  and  corresponds,  in  fact,  both  to  the  aspect  of  nature  and  to 
the  peculiarities  in  the  people.  These  are  Sudcrmanland,  the  province  which  contains  the 
capital,  and  is  situated  on  the  south  side  of  the  lake  Malar ;  Upland,  a  high  territory  on  the 
northern  side  of  tliat  lake ;  Westmanland,  to  the  west  of  Upland ;  Nerike,  a  beautiful  little 
region,  completely  enclosed  between  the  three  great  lakes ;  Warmeland,  to  the  north  of  the 
Wener,  covered  with  a  multitude  of  little  lakes ;  and,  lastly,  Dalecarlia,  called  also  Dalarne, 
or  the  Plains,  a  province  wliich,  of  all  others,  presents  the  most  striking  and  peculiar  fea- 
tures. It  is,  above  all,  distinguished  by  the  energetic  character  of  its  peasantry,  whose 
exertions  at  one  time  reared  the  fallen  monarchy,  and  who  continue  to  form  its  most  power- 
ful defence.  They  still  hold  as  a  maxim,  that  one  Dalecarlian  is  equal  to  two  of  any  other 
Swedes.  Their  diet  is  poor  in  the  extreme,  consisting  in  a  great  measure  of  bark-bread : 
yet  their  health  and  vigour  do  not  suffer;  and  a  number  of  them,  who  were  quartered  as 
troops  at  Stockholm,  were  affected  with  fevers  in  consequence  of  the  repletion  caused  bj 


Book  L 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


487 


eating  wheaten  bread.  The  memory  of  the  great  Gustavus  Vasa,  the  founder  of  the  Swe- 
dish monarchy,  is  cherished  in  this  province  with  the  utmost  warmtii ;  and  many  memorials 
of  him  are  preserved  in  different  places. 

Stockholm  (Jig.  242.)>  vvith  which  we  shall  commence  our  details,  is  finely  situated,  at  the 

junction  of  the  extensive  and  beau- 


242 


tiful  lake  of  Malar,  or  Malcr,  with 
the  sea.  It  stands  partly  on  some 
small  islands,  and  two  peninsulas, 
presenting  a  view  as  beautiful  and 
diversified  as  imagination  can  con- 
ceive. Innumerable  craggy  rocks 
rise  fi-om  the  water,  partly  covered 
with  houses,  and  partly  planted 
with  wood;  while  vessels  of  all 
forms  and  descriptions  are  seen  passing  to  and  fro.  White  edifices,  consisting  of  public  and 
private  palaces,  churches,  and  other  buildings,  rising  from  an  expanse  of  waters,  produce  an 
effect  of  incomparable  gi^andeur.  When  the  lake  and  sea  are  frozen,  they  are  covered  with 
sledges  of  all  kinds,  and  exhibit  one  of  the  gayest  scenes  imaginable.  If  external  appear- 
ance were  alone  to  be  relied  on,  Stockholm  might  be  deemed  the  most  magnificent  city  in 
the  world.  This  impression  is  not  sustained  by  any  beauty  or  convenience  in  the  interior. 
Except  the  great  square  of  Norden  Malm,  the  streets,  though  of  very  considerable  length, 
are  neither  broad  nor  handsome.  There  is  no  foot  pavement;  the  houses  are  lofty,  all  white- 
washed, and  the  shops  are  extremely  poor.  The  different  families  reside  in  separate  floors 
or  stories,  one  above  another,  the  ground-floors  being  usually  occupied  as  shops.  The  royal 
palace,  however,  begun  by  Charles  XL,  and  finished  by  Gustavus  III.,  may  vie  with  any 
structure  of  the  kind  in  Europe.  It  is  in  the  Grecian  style,  quadrangular,  four  stories  high, 
built  of  brick  only,  but  faced  with  stone-coloured  cement.  Its  situation,  facing  the  quay, 
and  commanding  a  view  of  all  parts  of  the  city,  adds  greatly  to  its  beauty.  It  contains 
some  fine  specimens  of  sculpture  and  painting,  curiosities  connected  with  Swedish  history, 
and  a  range  of  small  apartments  embellished  by  Gustavus  III.  in  a  fanciful  manner.  This 
palace,  with  the  finest  buildings  of  the  city,  stands  on  one  of  the  islands.  The  kings  of 
Sweden  have  in  the  country  other  palaces :  that  of  Drottningholm  is  a  handsome  stuccoed 
building,  roofed  with  copper,  and  having  side  wings;  but  the  gardens  are  barbarously  laid 
out  in  the  old  fashion,  with  trees  and  hedges  clipped  into  fanciful  shapes. 

Nykoping  is  the  only  tract  of  Sweden  Proper  which  is  south  of  the  lakes.  The  town  of 
that  name,  though  small,  has  an  air  of  magnificence.  The  houses  are  of  wood  painted 
yellow. 

The  provinces  of  Westeros,  Orebro,  and  Carlstadt,  along  the  north  side  of  the  lakes,  reach 
across  the  kingdom.  Enkoping,  on  a  branch  of  the  Malar,  is  the  first  town  which  occurs 
westward  from  Stockliolm,  but  it  is  not  of  great  consequence.  Westeras,  on  the  same  lake, 
has  more  commercial  importance,  as  a  link  between  the  capital  and  the  northern  and  western 
provinces.  There  is  only  one  principal  street,  about  two  miles  in  length ;  the  houses  are 
only  of  one  story,  and  ofteji  roofed  with  turf.  It  is  the  see  of  the  richest  bishopric  in  Swe- 
den. The  cathedral  is  a  simple  edifice ;  but  one  of  the  most  elegant  in  Sweden,  adorned 
with  a  very  elegant  porphyry  monument  erected  to  Eric  IV.,  who  died  by  poison  in  1577. 
Next  comes  Koping,  small  and  poor ;  but  celebrated  as  having  been  the  residence  of  Scheele. 
It  lies  at  the  extreme  interior  point  of  the  Malar.  Quitting  that  lake,  and  proceeding  south- 
west, we  come  to  Arboga,  a  beautiful  little  town  on  a  river  which  falls  into  that  lake,  and 
near  a  canal  which  connects  it  with  the  lake  Hjelmar.  A  steam-packet,  established  by  an 
Englishman,  now  enables  it  to  communicate  with  the  capital.  Nearly  due  west  is  Orebro, 
a  more  considerable  town,  and  the  occasional  place  of  meeting  for  the  Swedish  diet.  It  is 
reckoned  the  fifth  town  in  Sweden,  containing  about  4000  people,  and  the  streets  are  broad 
and  spacious,  though  the  houses,  as  elsewhere  in  Sweden,  are  low,  and  of  painted  wood. 
The  stadthus,  or  governor's  residence,  which  includes  also  the  prison,  is  a  huge  sliapeless 
edifice.  The  church,  which  forms  also  the  place  of  meeting  for  the  diet,  is  an  ancient  struc- 
ture, originally  Gothic,  and  built  of  stone,  but  patched  with  brick,  and  in  various  styles." 
Proceeding  westward,  we  enter  Carlstadt,  or,  as  anciently  called,  Warmeland,  a  region 
entirely  of  mines,  forests,  and  lakelets,  and  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  extended  shores  of 
the  Wener  lake.  Carlstadt  is  situated  near  the  point  where  this  lake  receives  the  Clara,  a 
considerable  river,  which  traverses  these  wooded  regions,  and  down  which  immense  quanti- 
ties of  timber  are  floated ;  advantage  for  this  purpose  being  taken  of  the  floods  to  which  it 
is  occasionally  subject.  One  company  from  Gottenburg  has  saw-mills,  at  which  are  annually 
cut  upwards  of  50,000  planks.  Carlstadt  is  a  place  of  from  2000  to  3000  people,  presenting 
the  ordinary  aspect  of  Swedish  towns.  It  collects  the  vast  produce  of  the  mines  and 
forests  of  Warmeland,  and  transmits  them  across  the  Wener  to  Wenersberg,  whence 
they  find  their  way  to  Gottenburg.  Considerably  in  the  interior  is  Philipstadt,  in  the 
very  heart  of  the  iron  mines,  by  which  it  is  supported. 


488 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  Ifl. 


Persbcrg  Mine. 


The   most   remarkable   are   those   of  Persbcrg  (Jig.  243.),  a   few   miles  to  the   east- 
^  _  ward.     They  are  thirteen  in  number,  dug 

^^        — -    '*"""="""'/,r.,  •~„.:^~~.  into  a  mountain  entirely  composed  of  veins 

and  beds  of  iron  ore.  Dr.  Clarke,  after 
having,  in  the  coui.se  of  ten  years'  travel, 
inspected  many  of  the  principal  works  of 
tliis  kind  in  diflerent  countries,  declares,  that 
he  had  never  beheld  any  thing  equal  to  this 
for  grandeur  of  effect,  and  for  the  tremen- 
dou.?ly  striking  circumstances  under  which 
human  labour  is  here  pertbrmed.  In  the 
wide  and  open  abyss  suddenly  appeared  a 
vast  prospect  of  yawning  caverns  and  prodi- 
gious machinery.  Immense  buckets,  sus- 
pended by  rattling  chains,  were  passing  up 
and  down ;  ladders  were  scaling  all  the  in- 
ward precipices;  upon  which  the  work- 
people, reduced  by  tlieir  distance  to  pigmies, 
were  ascendmg  and  descending.-  The  clank- 
ing of  chains,  the  groaning  of  the  pumps, 
the  hallooing  of  the  miners,  the  creaking 
of  the  blocks  and  wheels,  the  trampling  of - 
liorses,  tlie  beating  of  the  hammers,  and  the 
loud  and  frequent  subterraneous  thunder 
from  the  blasting  of  the  rocks  by  gunpowder, 
in  the  midst  of  all  this  scene  of  excavation  and  vapour,  produced  an  effect  that  no  stranger 
could  witness  unmoved. 

Dalecarlia,  or  Dalarne,  extends  to  the  north-east  of  Warmeland.  It  is  covered  with  an 
extraordinary  profusion  of  mosses  and  fungi,  so  that  it  is  termed  by  Dr.  Clarke  the  supreme 
court  of  the  cryptogamia.  We  have  already  remarked  the  peculiar  character  of  the  people, 
who  preserve  entire  the  dress,  habits,  and  the  daring  energy  of  tlie  ancient  Swedes.  The 
most  important  branch  of  productive  industry  consists  in  tlie  mines,  particularly  the  great 
copper  mine  at  Faliluii  (Jig.  244.).     It  is  immediately  adjoining  to  the  town,  and  consists  of 

an  enormous  conical  mass  with  the  top 
downwards.  The  bottom  of  the  cone,  be- 
ing the  top  of  the  mine,  was  the  first 
worked ;  and  the  galleries  being  made 
through  it  without  due  precaution,  the 
whole  fell  in,  producing  an  immense  open 
crater  which  still  remains.  Regular  stair- 
cases of  easy  descent  traverse  this  im- 
mense crater  or  basin,  from  its  outer  lip 
to  the  lowermost  point,  whence  arise  vast 
volumes  of  smoke  and  vapour,  giving  it 
the  appearance,  on  a  greater  scale,  of  the 
Neapolitan  Solfatra.  It  is  divided  into  no 
less  than  1200  shares  or  sections,  among 
which  the  ore  is  divided  immediately  on 
being  brought  up,  and  it  is  then  smelted 
on  a  small  scale  by  the  different  indivi- 
duals. The  ore  is  not  rich.  In  1600,  this 
mine  is  said  to  have  yielded  8,000,000 
pounds  of  copper ;  in  1650,  5,500,000 ;  but 
at  present  only  1,120,000  pounds.  The  workmen  have  now  reached  the  bottom,  or  the  sur- 
face of  the  cone,  and  are  still  working  through  the  ground,  in  the  fond  hope  of  comuig  to  the 
top  of  another  cone,  reaching  downwards.  Unless  this  chimera  should  be  realised,  the  mine, 
it  is  .said,  will,  in  a  few  years,  cease  to  be  productive.  Fahlun  is  a  regularly  built  but  old- 
fashioned  and  dirty  town,  subsisting  solely  by  the  mine.  It  has  two  churches,  one  covered 
with  copper,  but  this  has  not  a  handsome  appearance,  the  colour  of  that  metal  being  converted 
into  a  whitish  green  soon  after  exposure  to  the  weather.  Near  Fahlun  is  the  house  where 
Gastavus  Vasa  lay  concealed,  the  proprietor  of  which  ha.s  studied  to  preserve  in  its  pristine 
state  this  asylum  of  tlie  Swedish  king.  His  cliamber,  bed,  and  clothes  are  still  shown;  his 
shirt  of  worsted  mail  fitted  similar  to  those  made  by  the  Circassians,  and  his  other  weapons. 
Sala,  wliich  is  properly  in  Westmanland,  may  be  mentioned  here  as  another  mining  town 
on  a  smaller  scale,  neat,  regular,  but  ill-paved.  The  only  important  mine  is  one  of  galena, 
which  yields  2000  marks  of  silver,  and  32,000  pounds  weight  of  lead.     There  is  also  a  cop- 


Book  I. 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


489 


Upsala. 


p'jr  mine,  which  produces  little ;  and  one  of  iron,  which  is  not  considered  worth  the  expense 
of  working. 

Upland,  coinciding  nearly  with  the  modern  Upsala,  is  an  interesting  province,  extending 
from  a  part  of  the  lake  to  the  river  Dal.  It  is  flat,  but  diversified  with  numerous  little  round 
knolls,  wiiich,  with  the  small  lakes  and  the  numerous  fine  forests,  render  it  picturesque.  It 
contains  Upsala,  the  seat  of  the  great  northern  university,  and  Danemora,  the  most  valuable 
of  the  iron  mines. 

Upsala,  or  Upsal  {fig.  245.),  is  the  place  in  Sweden  most  venerable  for  its  antiquity.     It 

was  long  the  residence  of  the  kings, 
245  and  has  always  been  the  chief  seat 

of  religion  and  learning.  Even  in 
pagan  times  it  was  the  residence  of 
the  highpriest  of  Odin ;  and  in  1026, 
Everinus,  a  bishop  from  England, 
was  placed  there,  for  the  purpose  of 
converting  the  natives  to  Christiani- 
ty. The  cathedral  is  the  largest  and 
finest  ecclesiastical  monument  in 
Sweden,  a  country  not  eminent  for 
sucli  structures.  Tiie  exterior  is  in- 
deed only  of  brick,  and  there  is  an 
injudicious  mixture  of  the  Gothic 
with  the  Doric  towers.  But  the  in- 
terior is  very  striking,  adorned  with  a  double  row  of  fourteen  fluted  columns,  a  magnificent 
altar,  and  above  all  by  many  monuments  of  the  kings  and  heroes  of  Sweden.  Particular 
notice  is  attracted  by  that  of  Gustavus  Vasa,  and  the  three  Stures,  successively  regents  of 
the  kingdom,  who,  in  that  station,  earned  tlie  title  of  fathers  of  their  country.  The  shirt  of 
mail  of  Margaret,  tlie  Semiramis  of  the  North,  is  also  kept  as  a  warlike  relic.  Upsala  con- 
tains also  a  palace  founded  by  Gustavus  Vasa,  now  half  burnt  down.  It  is  at  present  sup- 
ported solely  by  tlie  university,  of  which  an  account  has  already  been  given.  It  is  destitute 
of  all  trade  or  industry.  It  is  therefore  small,  but  very  regular  and  neat,  having  a  large 
square  in  the  centre,  where  all  the  streets  converge. 

The  mine  of  Danemora  is  situated  near  the  small  town  of  Osterby.  Swedish  iron  is  the 
best  in  the  world,  and  the  iron  of  Danemora  is  the  best  in  Sweden.  Dr.  Thomson  was  told 
at  Sheflield,  that  cast  steel  could  not  be  made  with  any  other.  Danemora  was  first  wrought 
as  a  silver  mine,  but  this  was  soon  exhausted.  The  iron  then  began  to  be  wrought,  and  soon 
established  the  high  character  it  now  holds.  The  great  opening  is  fifty  fathoms  deep,  and 
the  mine  has  been  wrought  thirty  fathoms  lower  down.  The  ore  is  blasted  with  gunpowder. 
At  short  intervals  are  heard  tremendous  explosions,  like  the  discharge  of  the  heaviest  artil- 
lery, which  are  echoed  through  the  caverns,  and  shake  the  earth  like  a  volcano,  v/hile 
volumes  of  smoke  burst  forth  after  each  crash.  From  the  mouth  of  the  cavern  enormous 
masses  of  iron  are  raised  up  by  machinery.  The  mine  belongs  to  a  number  of  private  indi- 
viduals, who  have  erected  a  steam-engine  at  an  expense  of  86,000  rix-dollars.  The  produce 
is  estimated  at  4000  tons.     There  are  twenty-seven  other  mines  in  the  province  of  Upsala. 

Gothland,  or  Gotaland,  the  southern  division  of  the  kingdom,  forms  a  large  peninsula,  with 
a  wide  circuit  of  shores.  It  enjoys  a  considerably  milder  climate,  and  is  the  only  part  of  the 
kingdom  where  wheat  is  raised  in  any  considerable  quantity.  It  is  here  also  that  the  recent 
improvements  in  agriculture  have  been  chiefly  observable.  There  is  thus  more  land  in  cul- 
tivation, and  trees  will  not  grow  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  coasts;  so  that  Gothland  is 
not  so  thoroughly  covered  with  wood,  as  the  provinces  to  the  north -of  the  lakes.  If  we 
except  the  capital,  this  division  contains  almost  all  the  sea-ports  and  naval  arsenals ;  and 
consequently  engrosses  nearly  all  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  kingdom. 

The  modern  and  olficial  divisions  of  Gotjiland  have  been  exhibited  in  the  statistical  table. 
The  ancient  divisions  are  into  Eastern  and  Western  Gothland,  divided  from  each  other  by 
the  long  line  of  the  lake  Wetter;  Smaland,  an  extensive  but  barren  tract,  to  the  south  of 
that  lake ;  and  Scania,  or  Schonen,  the  southern  peninsular  extremity  of  Sweden,  a  better 
peopled,  and  better  cultivated  district  than  any  other  in  the  kingdom. 

Eastern  Gothland  comprises  chiefly  the  modern  provinces  of  Nykoping  and  Linkoping, 
The  town  of  Nykoping  is  agreeably  situated  at  the  extremity  of  a  small  bay  of  the  Baltic, 
and  though  small  has  an  air  of  rnngnificence;  but  it  carries  on  little  or  no  trade.  It  is  now 
much  outstripped  by  Norkoping,  the  largest  of  all  the  hopings  (i.  e.  markets),  and  the  fourth 
town  in  Sweden.  Norkoping  lies  upon  the  large  river  Motala,  which  communicates  between 
the  lake  Wetter  and  the  Baltic,  and  which  is  here  broken  into  numerous  rocky  channels. 
The  chief  branch  of  industry  consists  in  the  manufacture  of  broadcloth,  which  is  produced  so 
fine  as  to  sell  at  twenty-seven  shillinirs  per  ell,  of  one  yard  and  three  quarters  broad.  The 
breed  of  sheep  in  the  neighbourhood  has  been  considerably  improved  by  the  introduction  of 
uif'rinos.  The  town  is  regularly  built,  of  neat  wooden  houses.  Linkoping  is  another  pro. 
\ou  I.  3  ]\I 


490  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPm'.  -  P.^t  III. 

vincial  capital,  handsomer  in  its  aspect,  though  much  smaller,  than  Norkoping.  The 
cathedral,  rebuilt  four  hundred  years  ago,  is  one  of  the  finest  ecclesiastical  structures  in  the 
kingdom,  and  near  it  is  a  very  handsome  theatre. 

The  district  of  Smaland  has  for  its  chief  town  .Tonkoping,  situated  at  the  extremity  of  the 
Wetter,  and  conmianding  grand  and  beautiful  views  over  that  immense  lake,  which  has  here 
a  wide  border  of  low  but  finely  wooded  rocks.  The  town  has  been  entirely  rebuilt  since 
1790,  when  it  was  burnt  to  the  ground.  Though  built  chiefly  of  wood,  like  other  Swedish 
towns,  it  contains  many  good  and  commodious  houses,  the  residence  of  wealthy  inhabitants, 
who  have  been  attracted  by  the  amenity  of  the  site.  A  high  court  of  appeal  for  this  part  of 
Sweden  is  established  here.  About  ten  miles  distant  is  Tuberg,  a  long  round-backed  hill, 
composed  wholly  of  one  unbroken  mass  of  fine  magnetic  ironstone.  It  presents  such  a 
colossal  mass  as  in  Hausmann's  opinion  must  continue  to  afford  a  source  of  riches  to  the 
remotest  pi^sterity.  The  upper  bed,  370  feet  thick,  has  been  wrought  for  250  years.  It  is 
merely  blasted  with  gunpowder,  when  the  fragments  fall  to  the  bottom,  and  are  conveyed  to 
neighbouring  ftirnaces.  The  ore  is  not  very  rich,  the  proportion  of  pure  iron  varying  from 
21  to  32  per  cent. ;  but  it  is  very  tractable,  and  free  from  any  hurtful  ingredients.  The  hill, 
though  only  400  feet  high,  commands  an  almost  boundless  view  over  the  vast  wooded  flats 
of  Smaland.  This  district  contains  also  a  considerable  quantity  of  bog  iron  ore  of  inferior 
quality,  and  some  copper  mines. 

The  sea-coast  of  Smaland,  consisting  of  the  modem  provinces  of  Calmar  and  Bleking,  is 
of  a  naked  and  unpromising  aspect,  but  contains  some  havens  of  importance.  Calmar  is 
noted  in  Swedish  history  as  a  strong  fortress,  and  still  more  because  in  one  of  the  apartments 
of  its  castle  was  signed  the  celebrated  treaty  which  united  the  three  crowns  of  the  north  on 
the  head  of  Margaret.  Carlscrona  is  the  chief  naval  arsenal  and  one  of  the  largest  towns  in 
Sweden.  It  is  built  on  three  small  islands  connected  with  each  other  and  with  the  coast  by 
long  wooden  bridges,  while  other  islands  serve  for  the  erection  of  works  for  the  defence  of 
the  harbour.  These  are  square  batteries  of  stone,  well  mounted  with  ordnance,  which  appear 
formidable  enough,  though  probably  not  capable  of  coping  with  a  ship  of  the  line.  Separate 
establishments  e.xist  for  the  large  vessels,  and  for  the  flotilla ;  but  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
features  consists  of  the  covered  docks,  partly  excavated  out  of  the  vast  masses  of  solid  rock. 
The  want  of  tides  in  the  Baltic  is  supplied  by  sluices,  which  open  into  the  port,  and  are 
emptied  again  at  pleasure.  Carlshamn  is  a  smaller  town,  romantically  situated,  like  a  cluster 
of  nests,  on  the  tops  of  cliffs.  During  war  it  enjoyed  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  neutral 
trade,  which  it  has  since  lost.  Christianstadt  is  a  fortress  of  considerable  celebrity,  the  cap- 
ture of  which  formed  the  first  military  achievement  of  Gustavus  Adolphus.  Some  fragments 
of  the  fortifications  remain,  and  the  approach  to  them  is  defended  by  an  extensive  swamp 
which  surrounds  the  place. 

Scania  begins  here,  a  flat  and  fertile  peninsula,  forming  the  most  southern  part  of  Sweden. 
There  are  numerous  German  residents  in  Scania,  supposed  to  have  sought  refuge  there 
during  the  Protestant  persecution  in  Germany ;  and  some  Scotch  farmers  have  also  sought  to 
introduce  an  improved  system  of  agriculture.  In  the  centre  of  Scania  is  Lund,  the  seat  of 
the  second  university  in  Sweden,  containing  30,000  volumes,  a  good  observatory  and  botanical 
garden,  and  a  noble  cathedral  in  the  Norman  style  of  architecture.  Malmo,  formerly  one  of 
the  Hanseatic  towns,  is  the  chief  seat  of  trade.  Helsenving  and  Ystadt,  neat  little  ports,  are 
the  chief  places  of  embarkation  for  Denmark  and  Germany.  All  these  towns  command 
magnificent  views  of  the  Sound,  enlivened  by  the  crowds  of  shipping  that  are  continually 
passing. 

Having  turned  the  southern  point  of  Sweden,  we  come  to  the  coast  of  West  Gothland, 
situated  on  that  great  gulf  of  the  German  Ocean  called  the  Cattegat.  Being  the  part  of  the 
kingdom  nearest  to  the  great  states  of  Europe,  it  carries  on  a  principal  part  of  the  commerce 
of  Sweden.  Laholm  and  Halmstadt  are  ports  of  some  consideration,  in  the  gloomy  and 
heathy  province  of  Halland,  but  almost  the  whole  of  the  western  commerce  of  Sweden  centres 
at  Gotten  burg. 

Gotlenburg  is  built  in  the  interior  of  a  bay  set  round  with  rugged  and  naked  rocks,  and 
the  whole  country  round  is  sterile  and  desolate.  It  is  supported  by  its  situation  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Gotha,  the  broadest  and  most  navigable  of  the  rivers  of  Sweden,  whicli  by  means  of 
the  canal  of  Trolhatta  aflbrds  a  full  communication  with  the  great  interior  lake  of  Wener, 
and  the  opportunity  of  bringing  down  tliose  immense  stores  of  wood  and  iron  produced  around 
its  shores.  The  prosperity  of  Gottenburg  was  also  greatly  promoted  by  the  French  anti- 
commercial  system,  under  which  this  port  remained  one  of  the  few  channels  by  which  British 
goods  could  force  their  way  into  the  Continent.  It  is  a  very  handsome  city,  built  entirely  of 
stone,  the  use  of  wood  having  been  prohibited  since  the  last  great  conflagration,  the  second 
which  had  occurred  in  the  course  of  ten  years.  A  magnificent  church,  lately  built,  is  con- 
structed, in  a  great  measure,  of  stone  imported  fi-om  Scotland.  The  principal  street,  which 
is  long  and  wide,  has  a  canal  rtmning  through  it ;  the  others  strike  off  fi-om  it  at  right 
angles.     The  principal  merchants  are  Scotch,  who  live  in  a  style  of  great  magnificence. 

West  Gothland  presents  still  some  other  striking  features.     Among  these  rank  foremost 


Book  I. 


S-WEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


491 


the  cataracts  and  canal  of  Trolha  tta.  Above  the  fonner  the  river  is  a  mile  broad ;  but  being 
conrineil  between  two  lofty  rocks,  it  pours  down  its  waters  with  prodigious  force.  The  de- 
scent, liowever,  is  only  a  hundred  feet  in  tlie  course  of  two  miles,  making  thus  a  rapid  rather 
tlian  a  tall ;  tlie  water  rushing  along  with  inconceivaWe  rapidity,  l>oiling  up,  and  covered 
with  foam.  The  noise  is  prodigious,  and  clouds  of  vapour  are  thrown  up.  These  catiiracts 
opposed  a  complete  obstruction  to  the  navigation  of  the  Gotha,  which  tlie  king-s  of  Sweden 
e.\pended  immense  sums  in  endeavouring  to  overcome;  but  their  works  were  too  imperfect 
to  resist  the  impetuosity  of  the  current.  At  length,  in  1793,  tlie  enterprise  was  taken  up 
by  a  company  of  private  mercliants,  who  in  seven  years  brought  it  to  a  happy  completion. 
The  canal  is  twenty-four  feet  wide,  and  eight  feet  deep.  It  extends  only  two  miles ;  but 
being  cut  through  a  granite  rock,  sometimes  to  the  depth  of  one  hundred  and  lit>y  teet,  it 
proved  a  work  of  very  great  labour.  Wenerborg,  at  the  junction  of  tlie  Gotlia  with  the 
Wencr,  is  the  channel  by  which  tlie  proilucts  of  the  interior  are  brought  down  the  river ; 
yet  it  does  not  derive  from  this  trade  much  prosperity  or  importance.  Uddevalla  and  Stron- 
stadt,  are  small  sea-ports,  with  some  trade  and  fishery,  but  tliey  have  suffered  since  tlie 
herrings  deserted  the  coast.  Skara  and  Fahlkoping  are  places  of  some  consequence  in  tlie 
interior  of  West  Gotliland. 

Norrhvid  forms  a  third  division,  which,  if  considered  as  including  Lapland  (and  it  is  so 
considered  jxilitically),  would  be  much  more  extensive  than  all  tlie  rest  of  the  kingdom  put 
together.  It  is,  however,  our  intention  to  reserve  for  a  particular  section  the  vast  and 
peculiar  region  known  under  the  name  of  Lapland.  Norrland,  in  a  restricted  sense,  com- 
prises the  tour  provinces  named  in  the  table,  but  is  better  known  under  the  divisions  of 
Jamtland,  Angermanland,  Medelpad,  and  Helsingland.  Jamtland,  wliere  it  borders  on 
Norway,  inchules  some  of  the  highest  mountains,  several  of  them  rising  to  6000  or  1000 
feet.  The  rest  of  Norrland  is  flat,  and  the  climate  moist  and  variable,  like  that  of  Jamt- 
land, but  colder.  Wheat  scarcely  ripens  beyond  Sundswall ;  near  to  the  northern  border, 
barley  and  rye  ripen  with  ditticulty.  Almost  the  only  fruits  are  cherries  and  gooseberries. 
The  land  under  cultivation  did  not,  in  1812,  exceed  5"2,0W  acres,  which  is,  in  projx^nion  to 
the  whole,  only  as  1  to  91o.  Yet  the  people  are  industrious ;  and  Von  Buch  observed  a  greater 
air  of  prosperity  here  than  in  the  rest  of  the  kingdom.  The  woods  which  cover  almost  the 
whole  country,  are  infested  by  numerous  herds  of  wolves.  Of  tJie  entire  population,  amounting 
to  159,100,  only  G81S  live  in  tlie  towns,  wliicli  of  course  must  be  very  unimportant,  Sunds- 
wall and  Hernosand  are,  however,  sea-ports  of  some  little  consequence,  as  is  Umea  ;  but  tJiis 
last  properly  belongs  to  Lapland. 

SiiBSECT.  2. — Noriray. 
This  extensive  portion  of  the  Swedish  monarchy,  recently,  by  compulsion,  but  in  all  like- 
lihood permanently,  united,  comprises  a  verj'  long  line  of  maritime  territory,  facing  the 
boundh^ss  expanse  of  tlie  Norlliern  Ocean.  Throughout  its  whole  length,  in  an  oblique 
line  parallel  to  the  sea,  runs  the  chain  of  the  Dofrines,  presenting  many  lxild  and  lotly 
summits  covered  willi  perpetual  snow.  Sneehatta,  the  highest,  is  8100  t'cct.  These  moun- 
tains throw  out  numerous  chains,  sloping  downwards  to  tlie  sea,  wliicli  form  romantic  \Tilleys 
and  deep  and  winding  bays.  Norway  produces  some  corn,  not  nearly  sulhcient,  liowever, 
for  its  own  consumption;  but  exports  large  quantities  of  timber  and  fish,  receinng,  m  return, 
those  commodities  of  whicli  it  stands  most  in  need. 

The  southern  Norwegian  provinces  of  Aggerlmus,  Cliristiania,  and  Christiansund,  include 
a  considerably  greater  proportion  of  level  territory  tlian  tlie  others.  They  have  tlie  great 
range  of  mountains  to  tlie  north  and  west,  and  are  not  separated  from  Sweden  by  these 
natural  barriers.  Through  these  provinces  flow  southward  into  the  bay  of  Cliristiania  the 
Urammcn  and  the  Glommen,  the  two  greatest  rivers  of  the  North,  and  bring  with  them  an 

immense  quantity  of  timber,  whicli 
246  is  cut  into  deals,  and  exjxirted  to  all 

parts  of  Europe*.     Tlie  export  of  iron 
_,-■'-.       is  also  considerable. 

Christ Iduio.   (,/?y".   040.),  capital 
of  all  this  district,  with  a  population 
of  20,581,  now  ranks  as  the  capital 
of  the  whole  kingdom.  It  is  situated 
1  '    i  i  'lliffiWa'-tnih  i>>  i  "''"^^^S^t^^Wiit if* '      at  the  head  of  a  long  interior  bay  or 

|vk -'^^^^BEP^v^'-''        -      '<^9|^^B|^S^^K      fiord,  and  enjoys  a  situation  wliii  li 

Von  Buch  considers  as  altogether 
wonderful.  The  bay,  its  islands, 
the  crowds  of  sails  spr<\ad   among 

'  """" theni,  with  the  view  of  majestic  hills 

rising  over  hills  in  the  di.«!tance,  appeared  to  him  equalled  only  on  the  lake  of  Geneva,  which, 
howfn-er,  has  not  the  vessels  and  islands.  Cliristiania  is  chiefly  supported  by  the  trade  in 
deals;  and  iJio&o  cut  in  its  s;i\v-niills  are  considered,  by  the  traders  in  this  article,  to  be 


492 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


Swinsnnd  Ferry. 


superior  to  all  others.  Some  of  its  mercliants,  particularly  the  Ankers,  maintain  the  state 
of  princes,  and  are  considered  equal  in  wealth  and  liberal  views  to  any  in  Europe.  CJiris- 
tiania  comes  more  into  Contact  than  Bergen  witii  the  more  advanced  countries  of  Europe, 
and  lias  adopted  almost  exclusively  the  improvements  whicli  distinjruish  them.  The  buildings 
are  rei^ular,  and  mostly  of  stone;  so  that  in  tlie  course  of  200  years,  while  other  Scandina- 
vian towns  have  been  repeatedly  reduced  to  asiies,  Chrisliania  has  suftered  only  sliolit  injury 
from  lire.  Since  tlie  union  with  Sweden,  it  has  received  an  university,  with  two  professors, 
who  have  moderate  incomes,  ciiiefly  derived  from  grain. 

Tlierc  arc  other  havens  of  some  importance  in  this  southern  tract  of  Norway.  On  tlie 
western  coast  of  Christiania  fiord,  the  two,  Bragena^s  and  Stromsoe,  unite  in  forming  svliat 
is  called  Drammen,  at  the  mouth  of  the  important  river  of  that  name.  Tonsbcrg,  at  the 
bottom  of  the  same  side,  is  a  town  of  some  ancient  celebrity,  but  now  a  good  deal  decayed. 
On  the  eastern  side  of  the  same  bay  is  Moss,  watered  by  a  stream,  turning  twenty  saw-mills, 
by  which  an  immense  quantity  of  deals  are  prepared  for  exportation.  Frederickshall,  an 
ancient  and  still  important  frontier  town,  is  beautifully  situated  in  an  interior  bay,  winding 

among  mountains.     Near  it  is  the  strong 
247  fortress  of  Frederickstadt,  the  scene  of  the 

death  of  Charles  XII.  The  pass  of  tlie 
Swinsund  {Jig.  247.),  on  the  immediate 
frontier,  presents  one  of  the  most  romantic 
and  picturesque  scenes  in  Scandinavia. 
Christiansund,  the  most  southern  province 
of  Norway,  has  a  capital  of  the  same  name, 
the  fourth  town  in  the  kingdom,  which, 
from  its  situation  on  the  Skagerrack,  is 
visited  for  shelter  and  supplies  by  nume- 
rous vessels  entering  and  leaving  the 
Baltic.  The  interior  from  Christiania, 
though  it  includes  Iledemarken,  and  other 
large  pastoral  valleys,  and  though  its  communications  are  facilitated  by  the  large  lake  of 
Miosen,  does  not  contain  a  single  town.  That  of  Hammer  attests  its  former  magnificence, 
by  the  remains  of  a  palace,  and  of  several  churches  now  restored.  The  whole  of  this  terri- 
tory is  hemmed  in  on  the  west  and  north  liy  the  gigantic  ranges  of  the  Dovcrfield  and 
Fillefield,  which  separate  it  from  Drontheim  and  Bergen. 

The  province  of  Bergen  is  rude,  rocky,  and  mountainous,  consisting  of  the  slope  down- 
wards to  the  sea  of  the  highest  part 
248  /^^ 


of  the  Dofrine  range.  The  town  of 
Bergen,  {fg.  248.),  at  the  head  of  a 
long  interior  bay,  was  formerly  ac- 
counted the  capital,  and  contains  a 
population  of  18,511.  Its  commerce, 
which  is  considerable,  is  founded  on 
the  exportation,  less  of  the  produce 
of  the  country  behind  it,  than  of  the 
northern  fishery  at  Daffbden,  of  which 
the  produce  is  brought  to  Bergen  by 
numerous  barks.  Its  merchants  had 
^'^"^*'-"-  long  the  monopoly  of  this,  and  still 

retain  much  the  greatest  share.     They  are  chiefly  Dutch,  and  send  a  vessel  weekly  to 
Amsterdam  for  a  supply  of  the  garden  stuffs  which  their  own  soil  does  not  yield.     Bergen 
is  built  of  large  masses  of  wooden  houses,  amid  rocks,  and  has  sufiered  severely  by  fire. 
The  province  of  Drontheim,  to  the  north  of  Bergen  and  Christiania,  and  separated  from 

them    by    vast   mountains,    cor- 
249  j^  responds    in   latitude   with   the 

Swedish  Jamtland.  The  capital 
{fg.  249.),  of  the  same^  name, 
is  situated  on  the  shore  of  a 
winding  fiord,  but  subsists  less 
by  foreign  commerce  than  by 
the  internal  communication  be- 
tween numerous  valleys  and 
districts  to  which  it  forms  a  cen- 
tral point  of  union.  Of  these 
valleys,  that  of  the  Guldal  is  the 
most  extensive  and  beautiful. 
Here,  it  is  boasted,  dwelt  the 
society  of  Drontheim  is  always 


and  singularly  celebrated  in  Swedish  story  and   tradition, 
mighty  Ilaco,  the  noble  and  wise  Olaf  Tryggvason.     The 


Hook  I. 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


493 


held  forth  as  representing  under  the  happiest  light,  the  genuine  Norwegian  character;  ils 
warmth  of  Icindness,  and  generous  hospitality.  Dr.  Clarke  praises  chiefly  its  truly  Norwe- 
gian simplicity ;  but  Von  Buch  considers  it  as  marked  by  more  refined  taste,  more  graceful 
and  attractive  manners,  than  the  society  of  Christiania.  In  no  district  of  Norway  is  there 
said  to  be  such  a  feeling  of  patriotism  and  public  spirit.  Drontlieim  is  built  wholly  of  wood, 
and  has  in  consequence  been  seven  times  burnt  to  the  ground;  yet  the  houses  are  handsome, 
and  ornamented  with  taste.  There  is  a  spacious  palace,  built  wholly  of  this  material,  and 
partaking  its  imperfection.  Drontheim  also  contains  the  remains  of  a  cathedral,  the  largest 
edifice  in  the  country,  and  to  which  the  whole  population  of  the  North  came  once  in  pil- 
grimage. The  environs  are  very  beautiful,  with  numerous  country-seats,  and  lofty  snow- 
crowned  hills  in  the  distance.  Christiansund  is  also  a  small  sea-port  and  fishing  town  in 
this  province. 

Beyond  Drontheim  commences  Norrland,  a  district  rather  than  a  province,  the  name 
being  vaguely  applied  to  all  the  north  of  Scandinavia.  Relatively  to  Norway,  it  is  marked 
by  an  increasing  intensity  of  cold;  the  mountains,  even  at  3000  feet  high,  being  capped  with 
perpetual  snow,  and  vast  table-plains  or  fields  remaining  covered  with  it  during  the  whole 
summer.  Grain,  even  of  the  coarsest  descriptions,  ripens  only  in  a  few  favoured  spots.  The 
spruce  fir  gradually  disappears,  and  shelter  is  necessary  to  allow  tlie  Scotch  fir  and  tlie 
birch  to  spring  up.  The  climate,  however,  is  somewhat  milder  than  that  of  regions  under 
the  same  latitude  on  the  Baltic ;  so  that,  while  the  ports  of  Stockholm  and  Carlscrona  are 
shut  during  several  months  of  the  year,  those  of  Norrland  remain  rontinunlly  open.  Yet 
in  this  dreary  region  occurs  a  busy  scene  of  human  action  and  existence.  The  numerous 
islands,  and  the  deep  bays  between  them  and  the  land,  afford  spots  to  which  shoals  of  fish 
come  from  the  farthest  depths  of  the  North  Sea  to  deposit  their  spawn.  During  the  whole 
year,  tlie  herring  aftbrds  a  regular  occupation  to  the  Norrland  boatman ;  but  from  February 
to  April,  the  slioals,  migrating  from  thence,  and  from  all  the  surrounding  coasts,  crowd  to 
the  Loffoden  Islands,  the  central  seat  of  the  northern  fishery.  These  islands  form  a  chain 
parallel  to  the  land,  and  separated  by  narrow  channels  through  which  the  tides  of  the 
Northern  Ocean  rush  with  tremendous  rapidity.  Tlie  sea  flows  asm  the  most  rapid  rivers,  and 
the  name  of  stream  is  employed : — Malslrom,  the  famous  whirlpool,  Grimstrom,  Sundstrom, 
whicli,  when  the  tide  is  high,  produce  the  effect  of  a  mighty  cataract.  Waves  are  seen 
struggling  against  waves,  towering  aloft,  or  wheeling  about  in  whirlpools;  the  dashing  and 
roaring  of  which  are  heard  many  miles  out  at  sea.  The  produce  of  the  fishery,  which  has 
been  rendered  much  more  abundant  by  the  introduction  of  large  nets  instead  of  hooks,  is 
conveyed  to  Bergen  in  a  great  number  of  little  barks.  The  Danish  government  endeavoured 
to  form  at  Stromsoe  a  commercial  depot  for  the  produce  of  Norrland ;  but  in  this  bleak  situa- 
tion it  has  not  flourished.  The  Russians  come  with  numerous  vessels  from  Archangel, 
bringing  meal  and  provisions,  which  they  "give  in  exchange  for  the  fish  caught. 

SuBSECT.  3. — Lapland. 
The  vast  region  of  Lapland  is  divided  from  the  rest  of  Scandinavia  by  a  line  drawn  across 
it  nearly  coinciding  with  the  Polar  Circle,  so  as  to  render  it  almost  entirely  an  arctic  region. 
It  consists  partly  of  great  chains  of  mountains,  some  of  which  are  4000  feet  high,  while 
other  extensive  tracts  are  level.  Through  these  roll  the  Tornea,  the  Lulea,  the  Pitea,  and 
other  rivers  of  long  course,  and  navigable  for  the  few  boats  which  have  any  occasion  to  pass 

along  them.  The  Laplanders  are  a  peculiar  race, 
short,  stout,  brown,  with  black  hair,  pointed  chin, 
and  eyes  rendered  weak  by  exposure  to  tiie  smoke 
and  snow.  They  are  divided  into  the  mountain 
or  wandering  Laplanders,  and  tliose  who  dwell  in 
what  are  called  villages ;  but  Kautokeino,  which 
forms  a  sort  of  Lapland  capital,  when  visited  by 
Acerbi,  was  found  to  contain  not  more  than  four 
families  and  a  priest.  The  swift-footed  rein-deer, 
which  they  train  to  draw  them  in  sledges  over  the 
snow,  form  their  riches;  the  flesh  and  milk  of 
these  animals  compose  their  food,  and  the  skins 
their  furniture.  The  tents  of  the  Laplanders 
(.fig:  250.)  are  formed  by  six  beams  of  wood 
meeting  nearly  at  top,  covered  with  cloth,  a  flap 
of  which,  left"  between  iwo  of  the  beams,  serves 
as  the  door.  The  floor  is  spread  with  rein-deer 
skins,  having  the  hair  upwards,  and  which  thus 
serve  for  either  lying  or  sitting,  the  tent  being  too 
low  to  stand  in,  except  in  one  place..  A  stone 
frame  is  made  in  the  middle,  for  the  fire;  nnd  there  is  a  hole  at  the  top,  to  which  the  smoke 
Vol.  I.  42 


Mountain  Laplander's  Tent. 


494 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


must  film  its  way ;  but  this  it  does  not  efiect  till  it  has  thickly  impregnated  the  Vvhole 
tent  with  its  fiimes :  which,  however,  are  valued  as  affording  a  protection  in  winter  against 
the  cold,  and  in  summer  against  the  swarms  of  musquitoes  with  which,  during  a  period  of 
short  and  extreme  lieat,  the  air  is  infested.  Tlie  herds  of  rein-deer  vary  from  300  to  up- 
wards of  1000,  according  to  the  wealth  of  the  possessor.  All  day  tliey  wander  over 
the  liills,  and  in  the  evening  are  driven,  not  witliout  some  occasional  resistance,  into  an  en- 
closed park,  where  they  are  milked.  Each  yields  only  about  a  toa-cupful  of  milk  ;  but  rich, 
aromatic,  and  of  exquisite  taste.  Linnaeus  mentions  nineteen  farms  in  wliich  milk  is  pre- 
pared for  food :  but  cleanliness  does  not  preside  over  their  cookery ;  and  the  use  of  tiie  hand, 
without  knife  or  fork,  to  carry  every  thing  to  the  mouth,  and  of  the  tongue  to  lick  the  dishes, 
prevents  an  European  from  joining  these  meals  Avith  any  relisli.     The  Laplanders  travel 

from  place  to  phicc,  and  move 
251  ,v.-,  tlieir  families,  usually  at  the  be 

ginning  of  winter  and  summer, 
in  sledges  made  in  the  form  of  a 
boat,  and  drawn  by  rein-deer 
{Jig.  251.).  These  animals  are 
tamed  and  trained  with  con- 
siderable difficulty,  and  they  are 
sometimes  restive ;  but,  in  gene- 
ral, they  bound  over  hill  and 
dale  with  surprising  celerity. 
The  natives  have  also  a  species 
of  snow-shoe ;  net  a  broad  flat  board,  like  that  of  America,  but  somewhat  m  the  form  of  a 
skate,  with  which  they  glide  rapidly  along  the  surface  of  deep  snow,  and  even  up  and  down 


Luplanders  Travelling 


2.:;2 


the  steep  sides  of  the  hills  (Jig.  252.). 
Their  dress  is  carefully  contrived  lor 
the  purposes  of  warmth.  The  under 
part,  or  shirt,  is  composed  of  sheep's 
skin  with  the  wool  inwards;  while  the 
e.xterior  coat  is  formed  by  the  skin  of 
the  rein-deer,  or  some  other  animal, 
having  the  fur  outwards.  They  add 
fur  gloves,  and  a  woollen  pointed  red 
cap  {fig.  253.). 

The  entire  population  of  Lapland, 
spread  over  a  surface  of  150  miles  square, 
is  stated  by  Dr.  Thomson  not  to  exceed 
GO.OOO,  or  one  inhabitant  to  every  tliree 
square  miles.  Even  this  scanty  mea- 
sure is  supported  only  on  the  sea- 
coasts  by  a  supply  of  fish.  The  parish 
of  Kautokeino,  in  the  interior,  extending  200  miles  in  length  and  96  in  breadth,  was  re- 
ported to  Acerbi  as  containing  not  more  than  ninety  families,  of  whom  twelve  only  are 
fixed.  Tlie  Laplanders  are  a  liarmless  race,  among  whom  great  crimes  are  unknown.  Only 
one  murder  has  been  heard  of  in  twenty  years ;  and  the  absence  of  theft  is  proved  by  that 
of  bars,  bolts,  and  other  safeguards.     They  do  not  show  that  open  hospitality  and  warmth 


Laplandci  descending  a  Snow-Fhikr. 


253 


254 


Laplander  with  Magic  Drnm. 


mountain  Laplander. 


of  heart,  for  which  rude  nations  are  so  often  celebrated.  They  are  cold,  shy,  mistrustful, 
and  diffictilt  to  treat  witli,  at  least  unless  tobacco  or  brandy  be  brought  in  as  mediators.  They 
were  formerly  very  superstitious;  and  the  Lapland  witches  were  famous  for  their  empire 
over  the  wands,  which  tney  enclosed  in  bags,  and  sold  to  the  marmer.     The  magic  drum 


Book  I.  HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM,  495 

{Jig.  254.)  and  the  enchanted  chain  (Jig.  255.)  are  still  in  occasional  use.  Yet  the  Laplanders 
have  been  converted  to  Christianity,  and  are  attentive  to  its  duties,  coming 
'^^  often  from  vast  distances  to  attend  divine  service,  thouo^h  the  instructions  are 

conveyed  to  them  only  through  the  broken  medium  of  an  interpreter. 

The  sea-coast  of  Lapland  presents  a  continuation  of  tiie  same  bold  and  rocky 
features  which  distinguish  that  of  Norway.  Here,  too,  the  fishery  is  carried  on 
with  activity.  It  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  a  Finnish  race,  called  Quans,  who 
have  pushed  across  Lapland,  and  exert  an  activity  unknown  to  the  natives  of 
that  region.  The  Russians  from  Archangel,  also,  not  only  bring  their  meal  to 
exchange  for  fish,  but  carry  on  the  fishery  themselves  to  a  great  extent.  In 
July  and  August  they  cover  with  their  small  three-masted  vessels  all  the  fiorda 
and  sounds,  and  throw  out  lines  that  are  sometimes  two  miles  long,  and  contain 
600  or  700  hooks ;  so  that  their  vessels  are  filled  \vith  the  utmost  rapidity.  The 
government  has  founded,  on  the  large  island  of  Qualoe,  the  town  of  Ilammcrfest, 
tiie  most  northern  in  the  world,  and  destined  as  a  rival  to  Archangel ;  but  the 
settlement  has  never  taken  root  in  this  ungenial  climate,  and  continues  also, 
with  one  exception,  to  be  the  smallest  that  exists.  On  the  other  side  of  the 
North  Cape,  on  the  extreme  fi-ontier,  the  fort  of  Wardhuus,  defended  by  twenty 
men,  forms  the  only  barrier  to  prevent  the  Russians  fi-om  taking  possession  of 
the  whole  country.  Mageroe,  the  most  northerly  of  the  islands,  consists  of 
steep  rocks  rising  perpendicularly  from  the  sea,  and  ascended  as  if  by  stairs.  In 
a  rocky  recess  stands  Kielvig,  with  four  or  five  families,  on  a  level  spot,  barely 
Magic  Chain,  affording  a  site  for  the  houses,  and  exposed  to  the  perpetual  war  of  the  elements. 
The  tempests  here  rage  with  such  fury,  that  it  is  often  impossible  to  leave  the  house  without 
danger  of  being  blown  into  the  sea.  At  the  northern  point  of  this  island  is  formed  by  the 
North  Cape  the  grand  boundary  of  the  European  continent,  facing  the  depths  of  the  Polar 
Ocean.  It  consists  of  an  enormous  mass  of  naked  rock,  parted  by  the  action  of  the  waves 
into  pyramidal  cliffs,  down  which  large  fragments  are  continually  falling. 


CHAPTER  Vn. 

HOLLAND    AND    BELGIUM. 


The  Netherlands,  comprising  now  the  two  kingdoms  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  form  a 
maritime  territory,  which,  situated  almost  in  the  centre  between  the  north  and  the  south  of 
Europe,  and  penetrated  by  the  Rhine  and  its  tributaries,  possesses  great  natural  advantages 
for  industry  and  commerce.  It  has,  accordingly,  from  a  very  early  period  of  modern  history, 
ranked  as  one  of  the  most  prosperous  and  flourishing  parts  of  Europe.  The  union  of  the 
Batavian  and  Belgic  Netherlands  into  one  kingdom,  though  in  fact  only  a  renewal  of  that 
which  subsisted  at  a  former  period,  was  suddenly  terminated,  in  1830,  by  a  revolution  of  the 
Belgians.  The  separate  existence,  however,  of  Holland  and  Belgium  being  yet  recent,  and 
the  statistical  information  respecting  them  liaving  for  a  number  of  years  been  collected  with 
reference  always  to  the  entire  Netherlands,  they  will  be  still  treated  most  advantageously 
in  combination.  It  may  be  sufficient  to  observe,  that,  since  the  revolution  of  1830,  Belgium 
has  been  erected  into  a  separate  monarchy,  through  the  mediation  of  the  five  great  powers 
of  Europe ;  and  the  crown,  with  their  consent,  has  been  conferred  on  prmce  Leopold,  formerly 
of  Saxe-Coburg. 

Sect.  I. — General  Outline  and  Aspect. 

Holland  and  Belgium  may  be  regarded  as  a  large  corner  or  segment  cut  off  from  France 
and  Germany,  which  form  round  it  a  species  of  irregular  arc.  Arbitrary  lines,  drawn  con- 
formably to  treaties,  mark  all  except  its  maritime  boundaries;  for,  though  several  of  the 
greatest  rivers  of  Europe  cross  its  territory,  none  of  them  have  any  limitary  character.  The 
maritime  boundary,  which,  like  the  inland,  extends  from  nortii-east  to  soutli-vvest,  is  the 
North  Sea,  or  German  Ocean,  which  is  formed  here  into  a  species  of  large  gulf  by  the  oppo- 
site coast  of  part  of  the  English  Channel.  Holland  is  also  penetrated  by  the  deep  inlet  of 
the  Zuyder  Zee.  The  whole  territory  extends  between  49°  30'  and  53°  34'  N.  lat.,  and 
2°  30'  and  7°  12'  E.  long. ;  making  about  280  miles  in  length,  and  220  miles  in  breadth. 
The  entire  extent,  according  to  the  best  calculations,  amounts  to  24,870  square  miles,  or 
15.900,000  English  acres. 

In  respect  to  surface,  this  country  includes  the  lowest  portion  of  the  great  low  land  of 
the  European  continent.  The  northern  parts,  composing  the  new  kingdom  of  Holland,  are 
mostly  below  the  level  to  which  tiie  bordering  sea  rises  during  high  tides  or  swells.  Hence 
originated  an  imminent  danger  of  inundation,  till  the  Dutch  constructed  those  mighty  dikes, 
by  which  the  sea  is  excluded,  and  which  form  so  extraordinary  a  monument  of  their  industry. 
Holland  is  humorously  described  by  Butler  as  a  country  that  draws  fitly  feet  of  water." 
The  Belgic  provinces  are  also  flat,  but  not  lower  than  the  surface  of  tlie  sea,  nor  much  exposed 


496 


MAP  OF  HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM. 


Fig.  256. 


Book  T. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM 


497 


to  river  inundation.  In  the  south-eastern  district  of  Liege  and  Namur,  branches  of  the 
Rhenish  mountains  render  the  surface  irregular,  and  sometimes  hilly,  particularly  in  the 
tract  forming  part  of  tlie  ancient  forest  of  Ardennes. 

Several  rivers,  which  rank  among  the  greatest  in  Europe,  and  are  derived  from  distant 
source.*,  pass  thiough  this  territory;  and,  separating  into  numerous  channels,  form  broad 
estuaries  at  their  entrance  into  the  ocean.  They  all  unite  in  the  channel  of  the  majestic 
Rhine  ;  yet,  by  a  singular  fortune,  this  great  name  is  not  retamed  by  the  main  branch  of  the 
river,  which,  in  turning  to  the  westward,  receives  tlie  name  of  Waal,  and  afterwards  that 
'if  its  important  tributary  the  Maese,  under  which  designation  it  flows  into  the  sea  below 
^totterdam.  The  Yssel,  another  considerable  branch,  runs  northward  into  the  Zuyder  Zee; 
while  the  name  of  Rhine  is  retained  by  another,  comparatively  a  rivulet,  which  passes 
tlirough  the  provinces  of  Gueldres  and  Utrecht.  The  Maese  or  Mouse  is  tlie  only  great 
river  which  has  the  larger  part  of  its  course  through  the  Netherlands,  traversing  the  interior 
of  Belgium  from  south  to  north.  Its  main  tributaries,  the  Sambre  on  the  west,  and  the 
Roer  on  the  east,  have  only  a  portion  of  their  course  through  Belgium.  The  Scheldt  has 
not  nearly  so  long  a  course ;  but  tiiis  river,  and  its  tributaries,  the  Lys,  the  Dyle,  the  Dender, 
and  tlie  Neethe,  water  the  most  improved  districts,  and  visit  the  greatest  cities  of  Belgium. 
When  united  under  their  main  brand],  they  form  a  broad  navigable  channel,  opening  into 
an  estuary,  which  affords  to  Antwerp  the  means  of  carrying  on  an  extensive  maritime  com- 
merce. 


References  to  the  Map  of  Holland  and  Belgium. 

HOLLAND. 

64.  Wesepe 

124.  Schoonhoven 

186.  ,\.  Anwen 

56  Hamtne 

116.  Grand  Menil 

1.  Fnesland. 

6.5.  H^yno 

12.5    Lppdain 

l-'7.  M.irsch 

57.  Buicht  Town 

117.  T„h..gne 

1.  Pi^isens 

76.  Deventer 

1^6.  Gorcum 

188.  F.tiplbruck 

and  F.Tt 

1 18.  Mieraii 

2.  Buiienpost 

127.  RDttordam 

189.  nipkirch 

58.  Tetp  de  Flandres  119.  Huy    ' 

3.  D..bliU(n 

V.  Guflderland. 

128.  Charloi 

190.  Echtenach 

59.  Duel 

120.  NeuvlUe 

4.  T/niiwarden 

66.  KIburs 

129.  Siryen 

191.  Gri^venma- 

60.  Envelde 

121.  Omal 

5  St.  Jacob 

67.  P..slhuig 

l:iO.  HelvoeUluya 

cheren 

61.  St.  Laurens 

122.  Landcn 

6.  Fran,  ker 

68.  Harilprwyfc 

131.X3ueree 

123.  FlemaUe 

7.  Harlinsren 

6{).  Lcuvenuin 

BELGIUM. 

V.  TVtst  Flanders. 

124.  Liege 

8.  KiTiiwurt 

70.  Nykcrk 

IX.  Zralana. 

1.   .Intaeip. 

62.  Curii.ke 

1-2.5.  Vise 

!l.  B  Uward 

72.  Barnevcld 

132.  Ziprikzee 

1.  Arendoiick 

6.3.  Blankenburg 

126.  LInibars 

10   AVorkum 

73.  Koolvyk 

133.  Gops 

2.  Turnhiiut 

64.  Bruses 

127.  Hpron 

1 1.  Mindflopen 

74.  Apc'ldoom 

1H4.  Vpere 

3.  Minderhimt 

65.  Ostpnd 

128.  Baafaya 

]-2.  Siivdren 

75.  Vaason 

135.  Middleburg 

4.  Gorinz 

66.  iN'ieuport 

129.  Spa 

]3.  Si..ier> 

77.  Zuipben 

\?^.  S'uys 

5.  Odsi  Malle 

67.  Thorout 

130.  Solvnstre 

]4.  Kuinder 

78.  Ldchem 

137.  Biprvliet 

6.  Sam  Vliet 

68.  Dixmuide 

13I.Doiiflarae 

1.5.  Terkappel 

79.  Bnrkulo 

1.18.  A.tel 

7.  F.irl  Lillo 

69.  Loo 

1,32.  Slav,  lot 

16   fJr.iuw 

80.  Riicrlo 

139.  Miilst 

8.  Fort  Si.  Pliilip 

70.  Rougtbrugge 

133.  Thefsion 

17.  Sch(i..t 

81.  Brpdevort 

140.  Tholcn 

9.  .Antwerp 

71.  Piipe'inghe 

134.  Vieil  Salm 

IS.  NiM>rdwplde 

82.  Heerpnberg 

141.  Steeiibergen 

10.  Betaenhout 

72.  VVurnelon 

19.  Beest^r  Zwang 

83.  Deuiicbera 

1 1.  Berchem 

73.  Ypres 

IX.  Luzemburs 

20.  Doiikerboek 

&t  D..p-hiirg 

IX  XorthBrahant 

.  12.  B..om 

74.  Meiiin 

13.5.  Tradles 

8.5.  De  VVnest  Hoef 

142.  Bprceti  lip  Zoom  13.  Mechlin 

75.  Counray 

136.  Baetogne 

II.  Oroningen. 

86   Ainhiiiin 

143.  R..zpndaal 

14.  Ller 

76.  Rousselaere 

137.  Npuville 

21.  M:.nim 

87.  Huissen 

144.  Wdliamstad 

15.  Viisrioncken 

77.  Thielt 

138.  ChMU  de  Bo- 

22.  (;rsp«kprke 

88.  HiTVpId 

14.5.  Brpda 

16.  Hprptithals 

losno 

9.x  Z.l.kamp 

89.  Wa?eningen 

146   Chaam 

17.  Gestpj 

VI.  Hainault. 

139.  Arlon 

24.  UskTi 

90.  Thipl 

147.  Tilbursr 

18.  Lomtnel 

78  Pottes 

140.  Virion 

2.1.  1 .1  ppersum 

91.  Kuilenburg 

148.  Geprtruidenberg 

79.  Deptet 

141.  Belle  Fnntaina 

2fi.  n  Hzyl 

149.  Heusdim 

II.  lAnburg. 

80.  Temp  Leuve 

142.  Poren^art 

27.  Winsrhoten 

VI    Utrerht. 

1.50.  Bommel 

19.  Heick  Tuien 

81.  T.iurnay 

143.  Bmiillon 

S^.  Furl  Biiurtange 

92.  Wyk 

].51.F.iriSt.Andrie3  20.  Pepr 

82.  Fontpiioy 

144.  Orchiinont 

2'.l.  Tnr  A  pel 

93.  Venendaal 

1.52.  Grave 

21.  Hamont 

83   Peruvpla 

145.  Anioy 

:<0.  Tcr  Maarsch 

94.  I^selsipin 

1.53  Veehel 

22.  Maseyck 

84.  Ciuivrain 

146  Rpcosne 

31.K..lh..m 

95.  Miinifiiort 

154.  BiisleDuc 

23.    A^Ph 

85.  Sars 

147.  Neul  Chateau 

32.  GrDiiingen 

96.  Utrecht 

1.5.5.  Hi.uvpI 

24.  Recketn 

86.  Mons 

97.  Xicuwersluia 

15H.  RpuspI 

25.  H;.s^e!t 

87.  Lens 

Rivers. 

III.  Drcnthe. 

98.  Naarden 

1.57.  Liiiks  Gesfel 

26.  P.Upu 

88.  Ath 

a  Sdiuyten 

3X  R.H.n 

71.  Aiiiersfoort 

1.58.  Eprzel 

27.  T.mCTPS 

89.  Enffhien 

b  Hoorn 

34.  O  .sleron 

1.59   Leende 

28.  MansUovcn 

J)0.  Roeiilx 

c  Kumder' 

3.1.  A??i-n 

VII.  J^urtli  Hol- 

li;0. A^tPti 

91.  Gossplies 

d  Repst 

36.  Smilde 

lar,,!. 

IRI.  Hpbtionl 

III.  So,ith  Brabant 

.  92  Charlproi 

e  Dinkel 

37    nfivprhnrg 

99.  Am'icrdam 

162-  VVanroy 

29.  Tirl.'niont 

93   Merbes  le 

i  Vecht 

3.S.  Westerboig 

100  Dp  K.M.g 

163.  Verlingbeck 

30.  Incourt 

Chateau 

g  Rpgae 
h  Ys-el 

3n.  Od.M.rn 

101.  Monnikendara 

31.  M^usiier 

94  Beaumont 

40.  Scbonnclieek 

102  Piirmerend 

X.  I.imbwg. 

32.  Niv.  llps 

95.  Ransse 

i   Cliipbeech 

41.  Kiiovordeij 

1113.  F.datn 

164.  Vphen 

33.  La  Belle  Alliance  96.  Ciumay 

1   B.rkel 

42.  R.iMiHii 

104.  H.K.rn 

165.  Ppiprvverth 

34.  Halle 

k  Rhine 

43.  Meppel 

105.  Fnkbuispn 

lt«.  Vptilo 

35.  VV.ilprlno 

VII.  JVamiir. 

1    Waal 

Iflii.  Mp  !enblick 

lf.7.  Ilphb-n 

?6.  Brussels 

97.  Marienbourg 

m  Meu.se 

I\'.  Ovr-rvsscl. 

107.  K.ilhnrn 

16S.  Mf-ypl 

37.  Vlanden 

98.  Philipville 

n  Great  Aa 

44    Sppiiwyk 

ipa.  The  H.lder 

169.  W,  prt 

38.  Lduvain 

99.  L^ny 

o  Dommel 

4.5.  Rli.ckzyl 

109   Calandsoog 

170   Riiretnnnde 

39.  H  iprleu 

100.  Tliil  Baudian 

p   .Merk 

4fi.  Volli  iih<ivr>n 

110.  P.ttpn 

171.  VVe-sen 

40   Djpst 

101.  Graux 

q  Srlieldt 

47.  S^anesluis 

llI.Broek 

172.  O  r.'bnpck 

41.  Apr?chot 

102.  Namur 

r  Ypeilee 

4".  Kampen 

112.  Aikinaar 

173.  Rdilduo 

42.  Eclnse 

103.  Gembloux 

B   Lys 

49   H  iltPin 

113.  Esmundaan 

174.  M  le^tricbt 

43.  Dondpfzeel 

104.  Esh.zee 

t   Senne 

.50.  Zw„ll 

Zee 

175.  Gulpen 

44.  Asclie 

105.  Amlennes 

0  Hiiine 

51    n.npmuiden 

114.  Revprwyk 

1(16   Nait..re 

V  Sambre 

.52.  O  ninpn 

11.5.  Zinilvoort 

XI.  T.uxemhurg. 

IV.  Knst  Flanders 

.  107.  Pes-ii.ulx 

w  Dvie 

53.  Il:irdpiibprg 

116.  Ha;irletn 

176.  VViPs  Wam- 

4.5.  Al.iSt 

UK  n.nant 

X  Dermer 

51   n.n  Ilaiii 

pach 

46.  Nim.ve 

lU.I.  .I:mibp'ine 

y  Litilp  Letheg 

5.5.  .A'liiplo 

VI  ll.  South  Hol- 

177. rurvau.x 

47  Grammont 

110   Bpru  Raing 

z  Great  Lefnes 

5<1.  O.itmarsiim 

land. 

178.  ViMMdrtl 

48   Parieke 

111.  Gedinne 

a*  Ourt 

57.  niHenzaal 

117.  Lis*R 

179.  r.sr-hd..rf 

49.  Oiidpiiarde 

b*  f)iir 

.5>S.  Kn.-cl.ede 

118.  Leiinuden 

180   Miripl  .nje 

,50.  Leeuweruhem 

VIII.  r.ieee. 

c*   Sure 

.59.  Dpdpn 

119.  I.pydpn 

181.  Nidr-r  Pallet! 

51    Dencnock 

112   St.  Hubert 

d*  Svmoy 

fiO   Haaxbcrgen 

120.  The  Hasiie 

182.  Luxemburg 

52.  Dpjnse 

113.  Rpiusainte 

e*  Lpase 

61.  GiKir 

121.  Orav'zande 

18.3.  F>ch 

.53.  Ghent 

114.  Mart-he 

f*  Alseite 

62   Ry?8Pn 

122.  Wilsveert 

1»4.  Frisanse 

54.  VVpleren 

115.  Marcour' 

g*  Mosello 

63.  Holten 

123.  Gouda 

185.  Canach 

55.  Caluken 

Vol.  I. 

42* 

3N 

498  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

The  only  considerable  lake  in  Holland  is  Haerlem-IMeer,  a  wide  shallow  expanse ;  which, 
however,  was  of  great  service  to  the  Dutcli  during  their  grand  struggle  for  independence, 
by  giving  them  the  means  of  laying  the  surrounding  country  under  water.  There  are  several 
smaller  lakes  of  the  same  character  in  Friesland. 

Sect.  II. — Natural  Geography. 
SuBSECT.  1, — Geology. 

The  higher  parts  of  this  country  are  composed  of  strata  of  transition  slates  and  quartzes 
more  or  less  inclining  to  sandstone,  generally  directed  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.,  and  traversed 
by  numerous  veins  of  quartz.  These  slates  are  clay  slate,  whet  slate  or  hone,  drawing  slate 
or  black  chalk.  Resting  upon  the  transition  rocks  occur  various  secondary  deposits.  The 
first  formation  is  the  old  red  sandstone,  upon  which  rests  the  mountain  limestone.  Asso- 
ciated with  these  rocks  are  various  slate  clays,  and  beds  o?  anthracite  or  glance  coal.  Mines 
of  hroton  iron  ore,  or  hydrate  of  iron,  and  of  red  iron  ore,  or  oxide  of  iron,  occur  among 
these  rocks.  A  great  field  of  the  coal  formation,  resting  upon  this  mountain  limestone, 
extends  from  Aix-la-Chapelle  to  Douay.  The  coal  formation  in  tiiis  tract  of  country  forms 
a  series  of  irregular  basins,  of  which  the  most  considerable  are  those  of  Liege  and  Charieroi, 
which  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  small  ridge  of  limestone.  The  ciiief  rocks  of 
these  coal-basins  are  sandstone,  slate,  clay  ironstone,  and  coal.  The  most  important  coal 
mines  are  those  in  the  neiglibourhood  of  Mons  and  Charieroi ;  but  the  mines  of  Liege  are 
remarkable  on  account  of  the  difficulties  the  miners  meet  with  in  their  workings;  the  number 
of  beds  of  coal  being  reckoned  as  high  as  eighty-three  by  M.  Dumont.  From  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle  by  Maestricht  and  Brussels,  the  country  is  composed  of  chalk,  with  occasional  displays 
of  green  sand,  gault  and  Shanklin  sand,  rising  from  under  it. 

The  tritonian  or  lower  tertiary  rocks  form  in  the  Netherlands  a  very  considerable  basin, 
in  which  is  situated  the  city  of  Brussels.  It  is  composed  principally  of  sands,  ferriferous 
sandstones,  wiiite  sandstones,  flint,  limestone,  and  clayey  marl.  These  tertiary  deposits  are 
observed  more  or  less  deeply  covered  with  diluvium  ;  and  at  the  mouths  of  the  Scheldt, 
Mouse,  and  Rhine,  there  are  vast  deposits  of  river  alluvium,  which  alluvium  forms  also  the 
islands  of  Zealand,  and  the  greater  part  of  Holland. 

ScBSECT.  2. — Botany. 

The  Botany  of  this  country  is  noticed  under  that  of  Germany. 

SuBSECT.  3. — Zoology. 

The  Native  Zoology  offers  nothing  peculiar.   The  Dutch  horses  (fg.  257.)  are  only  valu- 
QKy  ^LznxmSfl.        ^^^^   ^°''   <^^'^Uoht:    those  of  Friesland,  Berg,  and  the 

country  of  Juliers,  are  the  best ;  but  their  feet  are  gene- 
rally large,  they  eat  much,  and  have  little  endurance. 
This  race  appears  to  have  been  derived  from  Den- 
mark, and  to  have  produced  the  Ilolstein,  which  was 
the  parent  of  the  old  unimproved  English  breeds  of 
horses.  The  Flemish  sheep  are  of  a  breed  cftuimon  to 
France  and  the  Netherlands,  being  in  general  horn- 
less, high  on  the  legs,  and  derived  from  an  intermix- 
ture with  the  Barbary  long-legged  sheep.  The  Dutch 
oxen  are  of  an  immense  size,  sometimes  weighing  2000 

Dutch  Horse.  pounds. 

Sect.  HI. — Historical  Geography. 

The  Netherlands  formed,  in  ancient  times,  the  principal  part  of  Gallia  Belgica.  The 
BelgsG  were  the  rudest,  the  bravest,  and  the  fiercest  of  the  three  nations  of  Gaul.  A  despe- 
rate struggle  was  maintained  before  they  yielded  to  the  genius  of  Caesar,  and  the  superior 
discipline  of  the  Roman  armies.  At  length  the  country  within  the  Rhine  was  reduced  to 
the  condition  of  a  Roman  province ;  but  the  Batavi  the  ancient  Hollanders,  united  them- 
selves to  Rome  rather  as  allies  than  subjects. 

During  the  middle  ages  the  Netherlands  pa  ssed  through  a  series  of  vicissitudes.  So  early 
as  the  era  of  Charlemagne,  they  had  acquired  distinction  in  the  pursuits  of  industry ;  and 
some  of  their  fabrics  were  sent  "by  that  monarch  to  the  caliph  Haronn  Alraschid,  as  speci- 
mens of  the  arts  and  industry  of  Europe.  When  the  empire  of  Charlemagne  fell  to  pieces, 
these  states  were  divided  into  a  number  of  separate  principalities,  all  successively  united,  by 
marriage  contract  or  inheritances,  under  the  sway  of  the  house  of  Burgundy.  It  was  at  this 
time  that  the  Flemish  provinces  rose  to  the  highest  pitch  of  manufacturing  and  commercial 
prosperity.  They  received  all  the  raw  materials  of  France  and  England,  countries  then 
rude  and  agricultural,  and  returned  them  in  a  manufactured  state.  Ghent  alone  is  said  to 
have  employed  40,000  looms  ;  though  this  is  most  probably  much  exaggerated.    Bruges  first, 


Book  I.  HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM.  499 

and  then  Antwerp,  formed  the  grand  depot  for  the  commerce  of  the  northern  and  middle 
states  of  Europe. 

The  house  of  Austria,  by  the  intermarriage  of  Maximilian  L  and  Mary,  the  heiress  of 
Burgundy,  succeeded  to  the  rich  dowry  of  the  Seventeen  Provinces.  They  form.ed  one  of 
the  chief  sources  of  the  power  of  Charles  V.,  who  transmitted  them,  with  Spain  and  his 
Italian  dominions,  to  his  son  Philip  II. 

The  Reformation  was  early  introduced  into  the  Netherlands,  and  had  a  most  powerful 
influence  upon  their  destiny.  Being  suited  to  the  sober  and  thinking  habits  of  a  manufac- 
turing population,  it  was  soon  embraced  by  a  majority  of  the  people,  who  were  thus  placed 
in  direct  collision  with  the  fierce  and  gloomy  bigotry  of  Philip  II.  The  Inquisition  being 
introduced,  in  its  most  unrelenting  severity,  wiih  a  view  to  the  suppression  of  the  new  doc- 
trine, drove  the  people  into  open  rebellion  ;  and  a  contest  of  fifty  years'  duration  arose,  the 
most  fierce,  bloody,  and  important  in  its  consequences,  of  all  those  to  which  differences  of 
religion  have  given  rise.  The  duke  of  Alva,  who  boasted  that,  during  his  government  in 
the  Low  Countries,  18,000  persons  had  perished  on  the  scaffold,  was,  however,  unable  to 
subdue  the  independent  spirit  and  determined  enmity  to  Spanish  dominion  which  he  had  been 
instrumental  in  kindling.  Tlie  more  moderate  conduct  of  his  successors,  and,  above  all,  of 
Alexander  Farnese,  succeeded  in  re-establishing  the  Spanish  sway  over  the  Belgic  provinces 
which  wore  not  defended  by  any  natural  barriers.  Even  the  Dutch  were  reduced  to  tlie 
disastrous  necessity  of  opening  their  dikes,  and  allowing  a  great  part  of  their  territory  to  be 
inundated.  Their  courage  and  perseverance,  however,  the  great  talent  of  the  first  two 
princes  of  the  house  of  Orange,  and  the  aid  afforded  by  Elizabeth,  enabled  them  finally  to 
achieve  their  independence.  The  union  of  Utrecht,  when  they  constituted  themselves 
into  an  independent  state,  by  the  title  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces,  was  concluded 
in  1597. 

From  this  period  the  destiny  of  the  United  Provinces,  called  more  commonly  by  the  name 
of  Holland,  the  chief  province  among  them,  was  entirely  different  from  that  of  Belgium. 
They  speedily  attracted  many  of  the  manufactures,  and  allthe  commerce,  which  had  raised 
the  Flemish  cities  to  prosperity.  The  Dutch  conquered  from  Portugal,  at  that  time  under 
tlie  dominion  of  Spain,  the  finest  of  her  possessions  in  the  East  Indies;  obtained  a  temporary 
footing  in  Brazil;  and  rendered  Amsterdam  the  centre  of  a  flourishing  trade  with  India: 
they  carried  on  the  fisheries,  especially  those  of  herrings,  upon  an  unprecedented  scale;  and 
became  the  first  maritime  people  in  the  world.  The  commercial  greatness  of  Holland  pre- 
sents so  remarkable  a  phenomenon,  tliat  we  cannot  forbear  availing  ourselves  of  some  part 
of  tliat  luminous  illustration  of  it,  which  has  been  aflbrded  by  the  researches  of  Mr.  M'Cul- 
loch.     That  able  writer  observes: — 

"  Between  the  years  1651  and  1672,  when  the  territories  of  the  republic  were  invaded'  by 
the  French,  the  commerce  of  Holland  seems  to  have  reached  its  greatest  height.  De  Witt 
estimates  its  increase  from  the  treaty  with  Spain,  concluded  at  Munster  in  1643,  to  1669,  at 
fully  a  half.  He  adds,  that,  during  the  war  with  Holland,  Spain  lost  the  greatest  part  of 
her  naval  power ;  that  since  the  peace,  tlie  Dutch  had  obtained  most  of  the  trade  to  that 
country,  which  had  been  previously  carried  on  by  the  Hanseatic  merchants  and  the  English; 
that  almost  all  the  coasting  tra,de  of  Spain  was  carried  on  by  Dutch  shipping ;  that  Spain 
had  even  been  forced  to  hire  Dutch  ships  to  sail  to  her  American  possessions;  and  that  so 
great  was  the  exportation  of  goods  from  Holland  to  Spain,  that  all  the  merchandise  brought 
from  the  Spanish  West  Indies  was  not  sufiicient  to  make  returns  for  them. 

"At  this  period,  indeed,  the  Dutch  engrossed,  not  by  means  of  any  artificial  monopoly,  but 
by  the  greater  number  of  their  ships,  and  their  superior  skill  and  economy  in  all  that  regarded 
navigation,  almost  the  whole  carrying  trade  of  Europe.  The  value  of  the  goods  exported 
from  France  in  Dutch  bottoms,  towards  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  exceeded 
40,000,000  livres ;  and  the  commerce  of  England  with  the  Low  Countries  was,  for  a  very 
long  period,  almost  entirely  carried  on  in  them. 

"  The  business  of  marine  insurance  was  largely  and  successfully  prosecuted  at  Amster- 
dam ;  and  the  ordinances  published  in  1551,  1563.  and  1570,  contain  the  most  judicious  regu- 
lations for  the  settlement  of  such  disputes  as  might  arise  in  conducting  this  difficult  but 
highly  useful  business.  It  is  singular,  however,  notwithstanding  the  sagacity  of  the  Dutch, 
and  their  desire  to  strengthen  industrious  habits,  that  tliey  should  have  prohibited  insurance 
upon  lives.  It  was  reserved  for  England  to  show  the  advantages  that  might  be  derived  from 
this  beautifiil  application  of  the  science  of  probabilities. 

"In  1690,  Sir  William  Petty  estimated  the  shipping  of  Europe  at  about  2,000,000  tons, 
which  he  supposed  to  be  distributed  as  follows: — viz.  England,  500,000  ;  France,  100,000; 
Hamburg,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Dantzic,  250,000;  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy,  250,000; 
that  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces  amounting,  according  to  him,  to  900,000  tons,  or  to  nearly 
one  half  of  the  whole  tonnage  of  Europe !  No  great  dependence  can,  of  course,  be  placed 
upon  these  estimates;  but  the  probability  is,  that,  had  they  been  more  accurate,  the 
preponderance  in  favour  of  Holland  would  have  been  greater  than  it  appears  to  be;  for 
the  official  returns  to  the  circulars  addressed  in  1701  by  the  commissioners  of  customs 


500  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

to  the  officers  at  the  different  ports,  show  that  the  whole  mercantile  navy  of  England 
amounted  at  that  period  to  only  261,222  tons,  carrying  27,196  men.  iMacpherson' s  An- 
nals of  Commfrce,  anno  1701.) 

"  It  may,  therefore,  be  fairly  concluded,  that,  during  the  seventeenth  century  the  foreign 
commerce  and  navigation  of  Holland  was  greater  than  tiiat  of  all  Europe  besides ;  and  yet 
the  country  which  was  the  seat  of  this  vast  commerce  had  no  native  produce  to  export,  nor 
even  a  piece  of  timber  fit  for  ship-building.  All  had  been  the  fruit  of  industry,  economy, 
and  a  fortunate  combination  of  circumstances. 

"Holland  owed  this  vast  commerce  to  a  variety  of  causes:  partly  to  her  peculiar  situa- 
tion, the  industry  and  economy  of  her  inhabitants,  the  comp.iratively  liberal  and  enlightened 
system  of  civil  as  well  as  of  commercial  policy  adopted  by  the  republic ;  and  partly  also  to 
the  wars  and  disturbances  that  prevailed  in  most  European  countries  in  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries,  and  prevented  them  from  emulating  the  successful  career  of  the 
Dutch. 

"  Many  dissertations  have  been  written  to  account  for  the  decline  of  the  commerce  of 
Holland.  But,  if  we  mistake  not,  its  leading  causes  may  be  classed  under  two  prominent 
heads,  viz.  first,  the  natural  growth  of  commerce  and  navigation  in  other  countries ;  and 
second,  the  weight  of  taxation  at  home.  During  the  period  when  the  republic  rose  to  great 
eminence  as  a  commercial  state,  England,  France,  and  Spain,  distracted  by  civil  and  reli- 
gious dissensions,  or  engrossed  wholly  by  schemes  of  foreign  conquest,  were  unable  to  apply 
their  energies  to  the  cultivation  of  commerce,  or  to  withstand  the  competition  of  so  indus- 
trious a  people  as  the  Dutch,  They,  tlierefore,  were  under  the  necessity  of  allowing  tlie 
greater  part  of  their  foreion,  and  even  of  their  coasting  trade,  to  be  carried  on  in  Dutcli 
bottoms,  and  under  the  superintendence  of  Dutch  factors.  But  after  the  accession  of  Louis 
XIV.  and  the  ascendency  of  Cromwell  had  put  an  end  to  internal  commotions  in  France  and 
England,  the  energies  of  these  two  great  nations  began  to  be  directed  to  pursuits  of  which 
the  Dutch  had  hitherto  enjoyed  almost  a  monopoly.  It  was  not  to  be  supposed  that,  when 
tranquillity  and  a  regular  system  of  government  had  been  established  in  France  and  Eng- 
land, their  active  and  enterprising  inhabitants  would  submit  to  see  one  of  their  most  valu- 
able branches  of  industry  in  the  hands  of  foreigners.  The  Dutch  ceased  to  be  the  carriers 
of  Europe,  without  any  fault  of  their  own.  Their  performance  of  tliat  function  necessarily 
terminated  as  soon  as  other  nations  became  possessed  of  a  mercantile  marine,  and  were  able 
to  do  for  themselves  what  had  previously  been  done  for  them  by  their  neighbours. 

"  Whatever,  therefore,  might  have  been  tlie  condition  of  Holland  in  otlier  respects,  the 
natural  advance  of  rival  nations  must  inevitably  have  stripped  her  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
commerce  she  once  possessed.  But  the  progress  of  decline  seems  to  have  been  considerably 
accelerated,  or  rather,  perhaps,  the  eflbrts  to  arrest  it  were  rendered  ineflectual,  by  the 
extremely  heavy  taxation  to  which  she  was  subjected,  occasioned  by  the  unavoidable  expenses 
incurred  in  the  revolutionary  struggle  with  Spain,  and  the  subsequent  wars  with  France 
and  England.  The  necessities  of  "the  state  led  to  the  imposition  of  taxes  on  corn,  on  flour 
when  it  was  ground  at  the  mill,  and  on  bread  when  it  came  from  the  oven ;  on  butter,  and 
fish,  and  truit ;  on  income  and  legacies ;  the  sale  of  houses ;  and,  in  short,  almost  every 
article  eitlier  of  necessity  or  convenience.  Sir  William  Temple  mentions  that  in  his  time 
— and  taxes  were  greatly  increased  afterwards — one  fish  sauce  was  in  common  use,  which 
directly  paid  no  fewer  than  thirti/  different  duties  of  excise ;  and  it  was  a  common  saying  at 
Amsterdam,  that  every  dish  of  fish  brought  to  the  table  was  paid  for  once  to  the  fisherman, 
and  six  times  to  the  state. 

"  In  consequence  principally  of  the  oppressiveness  of  taxation,  but  partly,  too,  of  the 
excessive  accumulation  of  capital  that  had  taken  place  while  the  Dutch  entrrossed  the  carry- 
ing trade  of  Europe,  profits  in  Holland  were  reduced  towards  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  have  ever  since  continued  extremely  low.  This  circumstance  would  of  itself 
have  sapped  the  foundations  of  her  commercial  greatness.  Her  capitalists,  who  could  hardly 
expect  to  clear  more  tlian  two  or  three  per  cent,  of  net  profit  by  any  sort  of  undertaking 
carried  on  at  liome,  were  tempted  to  vest  tlieir  capital  in  other  countries,  and  to  speculate 
in  loans  to  foreign  governments.  There  are  the  best  reasons  for  thinking  that  the  Dutch 
were,  until  very  lately,  the  largest  creditors  of  any  nation  in  Europe.  It  is  impossible, 
indeed,  to  form  any  accurate  estimate  of  what  the  sums  owing  them  by  foreigners  previously 
to  the  late  French  war,  or  at  present,  may  amount  to;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  at  the 
former  period  tne  amount  was  immense,  and  that  it  is  still  very  considerable.  M.  Demeunier 
(Dictionnnire  de  VEconomie  Politique,  tome  iii.  p.  720.)  states  the  amount  of  capital  lent 
by  the  Dutch  to  foreign  governments,  exclusive  of  tlie  large  sums  lent  to  France  during  the 
American  war,  at  spventii-three  millions  sterling.  According  to  the  author  of  the  Richesse 
de  la  Hollamle  (ii.  p.  292.),  the  sums  lent  to  France  and  England  only,  previously  to  1778, 
amounted  to  1,.500,000  livres  tournois,  or  sixty  millions  sterling.  And  besides  the-se,  vast 
sums  were  lent  to  private  individuals  in  foreign  countries,  both  regularly  as  loans  at  interest, 
and  in  the  shape  of  goods  advanced  at  lone  credits.  So  great  was  the  difficulty  of  finding 
un  advantageous  investment  for  money  in  Holland,  that  Sir  William  Temple  mentions,  that 


Eooji  I.  HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM.  501 

the  payment  of  any  part  of  the  national  debt  was  looked  upon  by  the  creditors  as  an  evil  of 
the  first  mag-nitude.  '  They  receive  it,'  says  he,  '  with  tears,  not  knowing  how  to  dispose  of 
it  to  intcrcf^t  with  such  safety  and  ease.' 

"  Among  the  subordinate  causes  which  contributed  to  the  decline  of  Dutch  commerce,  or 
whicli  have,  at  all  events,  prevented  its  growth,  we  may  reckon  the  circumstance  of  the 
commerce  with  India  having  been  subjected  to  the  trammels  of  monopoly.  De  Witt 
expresses  his  firm  conviction,  that  llie  abolition  of  the  East  India  Company  would  have 
added  very  greatly  to  the  trade  with  the  East;  and  no  doubt  can  now  remain  in  the  mind 
of  any  one  that  such  would  have  been  the  case.  The  interference  of  the  administration  in 
regulating  the  mode  in  which  some  of  tlie  most  important  branches  of  industry  should  be 
carried  on,  seems  also  to  have  been  exceedingly  injurious.  Every  proceeding  with  respect 
to  tiie  herring  fishery,  for  example,  was  regulated  by  the  orders  of  government,  carried  into 
elfect  under  tlie  inspection  of  officers  appointed  for  that  purpose.  Some  of  the.se  regulations 
were  exceedingly  vexatious.  The  period  when  the  fisliery  might  begin  was  fixed  at  five 
minutes  past  twelve  o'clock  of  tlie  night  of  the  24th  of  June!  and  the  master  and  pilot  of 
every  vessel  leaving  Holland  for  the  fishery  were  obliged  to  make  oath  that  tlicy  would 
respect  the  regulation.  Tiie  species  of  salt  to  be  made  use  of  in  curing  diflerent  sorts  of 
lierrings  was  also  fixed  by  law ;  and  there  were  endless  regulations  with  respect  to  the  size 
of  tlie  barrels,  the  number  and  thickness  of  the  staves  of  which  they  were  to  be  made ; 
the  gutting  and  packing  of  the  herring;  the  branding  of  the  barrels,  &c.  &c.  (Ilistoire  dcs 
Pcches,  4-c.  dans  Irs  Mers  du  Nord,  torn.  i.  chap.  24.)  These  regulations  were  intended 
to  secure  to  the  Hollanders  tliat  superiority  which  they  had  early  attained  in  the  fishery,  and 
to  prevent  tlie  reputation  of  tlieir  herrings  from  being  injured  by  the  bad  faith  of  individuals. 
But  their  real  effect  was  precisely  the  reverse  of  this.  By  tying  up  the  fishers  to  a  system 
of  routine,  they  prevented  them  from  making  any  improvements ;  v/hile  the  facility  of  coun- 
terfeiting the  public  marks  opened  a  much  wider  door  to  fraud,  than  would  have  been  opened 
had  government  wisely  declined  interfering  in  the  matter. 

"  In  despite,  however,  of  tlie  East  India  monopoly,  and  the  regulations  now  described,  the 
commercial  policy  of  Holland  has  been  more  liberal  than  that  of  any  other  nation.  And  in 
consequence,  a  country  not  more  extensive  than  Wales,  and  naturally  not  more  fertile,  con- 
quered indeed,  in  a  great  measure  from  the  sea,  has  accumulated  a  population  of  upwards 
of  two  millions;  has  maintained  vrars  of  unexampled  duration  with  the  most  powerful  mon- 
archies ;  and,  besides  laying  out  immense  sums  in  works  of  utility  and  ornament  at  liomcj 
has  been  enabled  to  lend  hundreds  of  millions  to  foreigners." 

The  French  revolution  produced  a  movement  so  great,  and  with  which  Holland  was  in 
such  close  contact,  that  it  acted  powerfiilly  upon  her  political  destinies.  The  revolutionary 
armies,  after  having  defeated  those  of  all  the  allied  powers  on  the  pliins  of  Belgium,  advanc- 
ed into  Holland ;  where,  meeting  with  support  from  a  powerful  internal  party,  they  had  no 
difficulty  in  subverting  the  dynasty  of  the  house  of  Orange.  In  its  stead  was  formed  the 
Batavian  republic,  virtually  united  to,  anrl  ruled  by,  the  republican  government  of  France. 
A  vigorous  attempt,  made  in  1799,  by  Britain  and  Russia,  to  re-establish  the  old  order  of 
things,  was  baffled ;  and  no  sooner  had  Napoleon  been  made  emperor  of  France,  than  he 
bestowed  Holland,  formed  into  a  kingdom,  on  his  brother  Louis.  This  prince,  of  a  mild 
and  amiable  temper,  was  disposed  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  Dutch ;  but  he  was  allowed 
only  to  act  as  viceroy  to  his  brother,  and  was  obliged  to  assist  in  forwarding  those  measures 
by  which  Napoleon,  in  the  vain  hope  of  ruining  Britain,  endeavoured  hermetically  to  seal  all 
the  ports' of  the  Continent  against  foreign  commerce.  This  system  was  most  distressing  to 
all  countries  subjected  to  it;  but  to  Holland  it  was  peculiarly  ruinous:  that  maritime  com- 
merce on  which  her  whole  greatness  had  rested,  received  a  blow  from  which,  perhaps,  it  will 
never  recover. 

The  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  grew  out  of  the  measures  adopted  by  that  great  coalition 
which,  after  a  long  series  of  triumphs,  totally  overthrow  the  colossal  fabric  that  had  been 
raised  by  the  genius  of  Napoleon  and  the  bravery  of  the  French.  After  its  fall,  Austria 
might  have  advanced  a  claim  to  the  Netherlands,  so  long  a  portion  of  her  extended  dominion. 
Being,  however,  so  remote,  and  so  much  detached  fi-om  her  other  territories,  it  was  likely 
to  prove  a  dependency  inconvenient  and  difficult  to  defend.  She  therefore  consented  to 
accept  indemnification  in  another  quarter,  and  to  allow  Belgium,  with  Holland,  to  be  formed 
into  a  representative  kingdom,  under  the  house  of  Orange ;  believing  it  might  serve  as  a 
barrier  against  any  future  encroachment  of  France.  The  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  thus 
formed,  was  divided  into  two  distinct  parts,  Holland  and  Belgium ;  but  tlie  latter,  differing 
in  religion,  language,  and  manners,  was  always  discontented  at  tliis  union,  and  considered 
itself  as  a  subject  state.  Inspired  by  the  example  of  France  in  18^30,  the  people  rose  in 
arms,  and,  after  a  short  but  desperate  struggle,  succeeded,  with  the  ultimate  consent  of  the 
great  powers,  in  forming  themselves  into  a  separate  kingdom,  under  the  name  of  Belg-ium. 
It  comprises  tlie  provinces  of  South  Brabant,  East  and  West  Flanders,  Antwerp,  Hainault, 
Namur,  Liege,  the  greater  part  of  Limburg,  and  a  small  part  of  Lu.xemburg.     Holland, 


503 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


PartIII. 


besides  the  ten  United  Provinces,  has  nearly  all  Luxemburg,  and  a  small  part  of  Limburg, 
containing,  however,  Maestricht,  its  largest  town. 

Sect.  IV. — Political  Geography. 

A  limited  monarchy  was  the  constitution  established  for  the  new  kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands, and  continued,  with  some  modifications  in  Belgium,  in  both  the  parts  into  which  it  has 
been  separated. 

The  legislative  power  in  Holland  is  vested  in  the  States-General ;  a  popular  assembly, 
modified,  however,  somewhat  differently  from  those  either  of  Britain  or  France.  Each  pro- 
vince, as  under  the  ancient  Dutcli  system,  has  an  assembly  of  its  own,  which  regulates  local 
affairs,  and  has  even  the  power  of  imposing  local  taxes.  It  cannot,  however,  injure  com- 
merce by  imposing  heavier  duties  on  the  produce  of  other  provinces  than  its  own.  The 
members  of  these  provincial  assemblies  are  chosen  by  electoral  colleges  formed  in  every 
great  town ;  not  by  public  meeting,  or  open  election ;  but  by  the  police  officers  going  from 
house  to  house,  and  collecting  billets  signed  and  sealed.  The  members  of  ihe  second 
chamber  of  the  States-General  are  chosen  for  three  years,  one-tiiird  of  the  number  being 
annually  renewed.  The  upper  chamber  does  not  consist  of  hereditary  nobles,  but  of  a 
council  of  from  forty  to  sixty,  named  by  the  king  for  life.  [The  Belgian  chambers  are  both 
elective ;  the  Senate  or  upper  house  being  chosen  for  the  term  of  eight,  and  the  Represent- 
ative chamber  for  that  of  four  years. — Am.  Ed.] 

The  revenue  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  amounted  to  about  #35,000,000,  raised 
by  the  usual  expedients  of  land-tax,  excise,  customs,  stamps,  post-ofhce,  and  by  a  tax  on 
patrnts.  These  are  required  to  be  taken  out  by  all  persons  exercising  trades  or  professions ; 
and  partake  of  the  character  of  an  income  tax,  inasmuch  as  their  magnitude  is  determined 
by  the  extent  of  the  sales  made  by  the  parties  during  the  preceding  year. 


Produce  of  the  priDcipal  branches  of  the  Reveoue  of  the  Netherlands. 
1.1  Flor.ns. 


Direct  Taxes - 

St  nips,  Rejis'n'ion,  &c.    -  - 

Imp  >rl  and  Export  - 

Duicsand  Excise 

Warranty  on  Gold  and  Silver 


Lotion'  of  the  Netherlands  - 

L^iterv  cf  Brussels 

Hkh  Roads 


ISI6. 


2:).363,700 
12,316,266 
m,  127,999 
131,786 
l,066,.'i08 
4-)^952 
l,47S,047 
1,546,080 


ia6. 

2«,972,8!3 
12,501,902 

31,121,666 
IP8.90S 
1.9S1.476 
■554.44? 
I,029,%7 
1,I0S,!>23 


Kind's  Household  -  - 
Greil  Offices  of  State 
Foreign  Affiirs  -  -  - 
Jus'i 


Interior  and  Waterstaat*  ..--.--.. 

Religions,  except  the  Catholic   , 

Catholic  Religion 

Education,  Arts,  Commerce,  and  Colonie 


Navy  ■ 

Army 


ISIS. 


2,600,000 
I,4fis.635 
937.S3J 
3,39t,ill 
7,21.0.910 
I,264,2G1 
1,32S,I76 
3,894.736 

23.314.342 
6,'>54.53l 

27,I28,.'>74 


2,100,000 
l,06S430 
766.969 
2,191,049 
6,119,249 
1,327,311 
1,631,413 
73,0 1 9t 

38,707,o62 
6,082.(42 

18,444,535 


The  total  average  annual  produce  of  the  revenue,  during  this  period,  was  88,044,152 
florins. 

The  article  finances  means  chiefly  the  interest  of  the  public  debt.  This  amounted,  in 
1826,  to  upwards  of  four  per  cent,  on  a  capital  of  832,334,500  florins.  Tlie  debt  was 
almost  wholly  contracted  by  the  Dutch,  principally  during  their  protracted  and  glorious 
struggle  for  mdependence,  and  partly  during  the  period  that  Holland  was  connected  with 
France. 

The  total  annual  average  expenditure,  during  the  above-mentioned  years,  was  98,106,820 
florins. 

[It  has  been  settled  that  Holland  should  assume  six-thirteenths  of  the  Netherlandish  debt, 
and.  Belgium  the  remaining  seven;  but  the  latter  has  not  hitherto  paid  any  part  of  the 
interest.  The  expenditure  of  the  Dutch  kingdom  in  1833  was  49,385,849  florins,  exclusive 
of  44,000,000  for  extraordinaries  on  account  of  the  war  establishments.  The  former  sum 
includes  the  interest  on  the  whole  debt,  amounting  to  21,621,484  florins. 

The  expenditure  of  Belgium  was  73,000,000  francs,  comprising  no  charges  on  the  debt; 
but  nearly  three-fiflhs  of  tliis  sum  was  ab.«orbed  by  the  military,  which  it  has  been  necessary 
to  keep  on  the  war  establishment. — Am.  Ed.] 

The  military  force  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  was  in  a  somewhat  large  propor- 
tion to  its  resources.  This  was  supposed  to  be  rendered  necessary  by  the  proximity  of  so 
great  a  power  as  France,  whose  attack,  or  at  least  whose  dictation,  there  might  be  room  to 
apprehend.  The  army,  before  the  late  changes,  amounted  to  about  62,0()0  men.  The 
Belgic  provinces,  having  been  long  the  principal  theatre  of  ho.stility  between  France  and 
Austria,  were  guarded  by  a  line  of  strong  fortresses.  These  had  been  allowed  to  fall  some- 
what into  decay ;  but  the  allies,  having  brought  their  contest  with  France  to  a  triumphant 
conclusion,  determined  to  strengthen  them  as  a  barrier  against  the  future  encroachments  of 
that  power ;  and  tlie  large  contributions  levied  upon  her  were,  in  a  great  measure,  employed 
in  restoring  tlie  fortresses  to  tlieir  original  condition.  Several  of  these,  however,  by 
an  agreement  made  between  the  French  and  English  governments,  have  been  recently 
dismantled.     Both  powers  liave  kept  up  large  forces  since  the  revolution ;  but  will  soon  re- 

*  Tlie  e.xpenses  of  canals,  diTces,  and  navigation  in  general. 

t  The  charges  for  education  are  now  included  under  the  head  of  "interior." 


Book  1.  HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM.  503 

(luce  them  to  a  regular  peace  establishment,  of  which  it  is  impossible  at  present  to  give  any 
account. 

In  naval  affairs,  Holland,  no  longer  the  maritime  rival  but  the  close  ally  of  Britain,  made 
only  fliint  attempts  to  raise  her  navy  from  the  low  state  to  which  it  was  reduced  by  the 
disasters  of  the  revolutionary  war. 

[It  consists,  at  present,  of  six  ships  of  the  line,  sixteen  large  class  and  seven  small  class 
frigates,  thirty  corvettes  and  brigs,  four  steam  vessels,  and  about  eighty  armed  barks,  of  five 
guns,  for  the  defence  of  tlie  interior  waters. — Am.  Ed.] 

The  foreign  possessions  of  Holland,  after  being  entirely  wrested  from  her  during  the  war, 
were,  witli  the  exception  of  Ceylon,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Demerara,  and  Berbice,  restored 
in  1814.  In  the  East  Indies,  she  possesses  the  Moluccas,  the  extensive  and  fertile  island  of 
Java,  with  settlements  on  Sumatra,  Celebes,  and  Borneo ;  and  some  factories  on  tlie  coast 
of  Malabar  and  Coroman'del.  In  Africa,  she  retains  El  Mina,  and  other  factories  on  the  Gold 
Coast.  Her  West  India  colonies  are  not,  and  never  were,  verjt  considerable,  unless  as  com- 
mercial depots.  Both  the  navy  and  the  colonial  possessions,  in  the  separation  of  tlie  two 
kingdoms,  remain  with  Holland. 

Sect.  V. — Productive  Industry. 

There  is  no  country,  perhaps,  which  in  proportion  to  its  extent  and  original  resources, 
produces  so  great  an  amount  of  valuable  and  useful  commodities  as  Holland  and  Belgium. 

The  agriculture  of  the  Belgic  provinces,  though,  contrary  to  the  usual  course,  it  was  founded 
upon  their  manufactures  and  commerce,  being  exempted  from  the  vicissitudes  which  befell 
them,  continues  to  form  the  most  ample  source  of  wealth.  The  whole  territory  of  Flanders 
is  cultivated  like  a  garden.  A  great  proportion  consisted  originally  of  harsh,  barren  sands, 
producing  nothing  but  heath  and  fir;  yet  by  the  application  of  manure  these  were  gradually 
reclaimed,  and  brought  into  their  present  state  of  high  fertility.  The  culture  of  artificial 
grasses,  and  especially  of  clover,  is  the  characteristic  process  of  Flemish  husbandry,  which 
it  has  taught  to  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  care  of  the  Flemish  farmers  in  collecting  manure 
was  early  conspicuous,  and  as  naturally  grew  out  of  the  use  of  artificial  grasses,  and  conse- 
quent stall-feeding.  The  use  of  liquid  manure,  collected  in  large  reservoirs,  is  common  to 
this  country  with  China,  and  not  known  in  any  other  part  of  Europe,  except,  perhaps, 
Norway.  Turf  ashes,  especially  those  imported  from  Holland,  are  in  high  estimation, 
and  are  said  to  produce  an  almost  magical  effect  on  the  vegetation  "of  clover.  In  general, 
the  Flemish  agriculture  is  conducted  on  a  careful,  economical,  antique  practice ;  the  farmers 
not  having  adopted  many  modern  improvements  in  the  arrangements  of  husbandry,  such  as 
the  crossing  of  the  breeds  of  cattle,  and  the  use  of  machinery,  which  have  been  adopted  in 
England  with  such  happy  effect.  But  this  system  of  agriculture,  afler  supplying  the  most 
dense  population  in  Europe  with  the  standard  productions  of  the  soil,  yields  several  articles, 
such  as  madder,  rape,  clover,  and  mustard-seeds,  hops,  &c.,  for  exportation. 

The  objects  of  culture  in  the  Dutch  provinces,  in  consequence  of  their  humid  climate, 
and  of  the  demand  for  animal  food  for  the  great  cities,  are  almost  entirely  connected  with 
pasturage.  Holland  is  as  it  were  one  great  meadow,  intersected  by  canals,  and  traversed 
by  rows  and  groups  of  trees.  The  cattle  are  stalled  in  the  winter,  and  fed  on  hay,  turnips, 
&c. ;  but  in  summer  they  are  kept  constantly  grazing  in  the  open  air.  Tlie  produce 
of  the  dairy  has  been  brought  to  such  a  state  of  improvement  as  to  be  an  object  of  export- 
ation ;  Dutch  butter  enjoys  a  high  reputation,  and  the  cheese  is  in  good  repute  over  aU  Europe. 

Horticulture,  which  elsewhere  is  only  a  recreation,  has  in  the  Netherlands  attained  such 
importance,  as  to  become  a  national  object.  Besides  amply  supplying  its  own  markets  with 
culinary  vegetables,  Holland  exports  them  in  large  quantities  to  Norway,  and  other  districts, 
where  the  growth  is  prevented  by  the  rigorous  climate.  Ornamental  gardening  has  been 
cultivated  with  peculiar  ardour,  especially  in  its  floral  department.  When  the  tulipo-mania 
reigned  in  Holland,  it  was  carried  to  such  an  excess,  that  lots  of  120  tulip-roots  sold,  in  1637, 
for  100,000  florins ;  and  particular  specimens  have  brouglit  from  8,000  to  10,000.  In  point 
of  fact,  however,  these  roots  formed  a  kind  of  imaginary  currency,  or  medium  for  a  sys- 
tematised  species  of  gambling.  They  were  never  actually  transferred  from  one  individual 
to  another ;  but  were  a  sort  of  stock  whose  whole  value  was  derived  from  caprice.  The 
government  at  length  put  down  this  species  of  gambling,  and  the  prices  of  tulips  fell  to  their 
natural  level.— Careful  enquiries  carried  on  by  the  government  of  the  Netherlands  are  con- 
sidered as  having  proved  that  the  agricultural  capital  of  the  whole  country  amounted  to 
10,395,000,000  francs.     The  following  estimate  was  made  of  the  growth  and  produce : — 

Hectsres.  Value  in  Fnncs.  HecUres.  Value  in  Fnno. 


Wheat   350.000 154,000,000 

Ryp   700,000 168,000.000 

Buckwheat   200,000 32,000.000 

Barlpy 280,000 84,000.000 

Pulse nO.OOO 48.000000 

Potatoes     i:n,000 41.000,000 

Oats    300,000 :  84,000,000 


Orchards 54,000 3,000,000 

Vfoetables 02,000 55,000,000 

Hemp  and  flax 210,000 120,000  000 

Madder 30,000 21,000,000 

Cattle  and  animals 150,000,000 

9Cf).000,QQO 


504 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


Part  III. 


Manufacturing'-  industry  is  the  branch  in  whicli  the  Belgic  provinces  formerly  most 
excelled,  and  in  whicli  their  decay  has  been  most  conspicuous.  Three  centuries  ago,  the 
linens  and  woollens  of  Glient,  Louvain,  Brussels,  and  Mechlin,  clotlied  the  hijjher  ranks  in 
all  tiie  surrounding  countries.  Since  that  tune,  tlie  fabrics  of  France  and  England,  have 
attained  such  an  astonishing  superiority,  and  are  at  once  so  cheap,  and  so  well  adapted  to 
the  taste  of  tlic  age,  that  tlie  Low  Country  manufacturers  can  with  difficulty  maintain  their 
ground  even  in  internal  consumption.  In  cottons,  especially,  thoy  are  quite  unable  to  with- 
stand British  competition.  There  are  still,  Iwwcver,  some  fine  linen  fabrics,  laces,  lawns, 
cambrics,  in  which  tlie  manufacturers  of  Mechlin,  Brussels,  &,c.  continue  unrivalled,  and 
which,  though  so  much  superseded  by  muslin  and  Nottingham  lace,  still  enjoy  a  certain 
demand  throughout  Europe.  The  fine  laces  liave  been  sold  for  seventy  or  eighty  Napoleons 
a  yard.     Tlie  Flemish  breweries  are  also  very  extensive. 

The  manufacluring  industry  of  Holland  is  not  on  so  great  a  scale  as  her  commerce.  The 
pottery  ware  of  Delft  has  lost  most  of  its  ancient  reputation,  and  even  in  Holland  is  super- 
seded by  tlie  earthenware  of  England.  The  spirit  called  gin,  geneva,  or  hollands,  is  pro- 
duced at  Scliiedam,  Amsterdam,  and  other  towns,  of  an  excellence  which  is  universally 
acknowledged.  The  refining  of  sugar,  and  the  manufacture  of  snuff,  are  continued  on  a 
great  scale,  chiefly  in  Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam,  and  the  making  of  tobacco-pipes  at  Gouda 
is  said  to  employ  5000  persons.  Silk,  leather,  and  woollens,  are  still  manufactsred,  though 
not  to  sucli  an  extent  as  formerly,  nor  much  with  a  view  to  exportation.  Tlie  general  value 
of  Dutch  and  Belgian  manufactures  has  been  estimated  as  follows: — Iron,  40,000,000  francs; 
copper,  5,000,000;  woollens,  80,000,000;  linens,  95,000,000;  lace,  25,000,000;  cottons, 
50,000,000;  refined  sugar,  14.000,000;  salt,  10,000,000;  spirits, 40,000,000;  beer,  110,000,000; 
tobacco,  23,000,000  ;  oil,  :30,000,000 ;  soap,  10,000,000 ;  leather,  28,000,000 ;  earthenware, 
4,000,000 ;  bricks,  6,000,000 :  books,  15,000,000 ;  bleachincr,  10,000,000 ;  dyeing,  10,000,000 ; 
paper,  8,000,000 :  in  all,  075,000,000  francs. 

The  commerce  of  the  Netherlands  has  declined,  both  absolutely  and  relatively,  but  in  a 
less  remarkable  degree.  The  causes  have  appeared  in  the  historical  survey.  Tlie  total  sus- 
pension of  all  maritime  intercourse  with  otlier  countries  during  the  subjection  of  Holland  to 
France,  and  the  conquest  of  the  Dutch  colonies  by  England,  rendered  it  necessary,  as  it 
were,  to  begin  every  thing  afresh  at  the  restoration  of  peace  in  1815.  But  the  large  capi- 
tals in  the  hands  of  the  Dutch  merchants,  their  commodious  situation  in  the  centre  of  the 
most  improved  states  of  Europe,  the  recovery  of  some  of  the  most  valuable  of  their  foreign 
possessions,  and  the  considerable  surplus  of  native  commodities  which  their  country  affords 
for  exportation,  secured  for  them,  as  soon  as  the  ports  were  open,  a  considerable  trade.  Since 
the  peace,  it  has  been  continually  increasing ;  and,  previously  to  the  late  revolution,  was 
more  equally  distributed  than  before  among  the  Belgic  as  well  as  the  Dutch  ports.  Holland 
exports,  of  its  own  produce,  butter,  cheese,  geneva,  tobacco-pipes ;  of  the  produce  of  its 
fishery,  herrings,  stockfish,  whalebone,  whale  oil ;  from  its  foreign  possessions,  coffee,  sugar, 
rum,  cotton  wool,  cloves,  nutmecfs,  mace,  pepper;  with  linens,  wool,  and  various  articles 
from  Germany  and  the  Baliic.  Belgium  exports  madder,  vegetable  oils,  lace,  lawn,  and  fine 
linen. 

There  are  no  official  returns  of  imports  and  exports  published ;  but  a  very  able  writer  in 
the  Foreign  Quarterly  Review,  to  whose  researches  we  have  been  much  indebted,  has 
given  from  original  sources  the  following  account  of  the  importation  of  the  principal  articles 
of  merchandise  into  the  Netherland  ports  during  the  year  1827: — 


ARTICLES. 


Coffee,  bnlos 

Ditto,  tons 

Siear,  cliosts 

Ditto,  mats 

Ditto,  tons 

Toliarco  of  America,  tons. 

Ricp,  hales 

Ditto,  tons 

Cotton,  bales 

Indiso,  clipsts 

Ditto,  sproons 

Tea,  quarter  chests 

Skins,  pieces 

P>'P|ier,  hales 

Wheat,  lasts 

Rve,  ditto 

Barli'V  rtitto 

Potash  of  R-issia,  puds*. .. 
l.insr-od  Oil  of  do.      do.... 

Tallow  of  ditto         do 

Hemp  of  ditto  do. . .. 


PORTS. 

Amsterdam. 

Rotterdam. 

Antwerp. 

Middleburg. 

11 1. 0.59 

97,317 

376,102 

2,678 

2.r03 

1.079 

3,.539 

117 

Iti.l'O 

7,.503 

56,3.56 

2.''27 

8145 

50.039 

79 

]8.r53 

3.823 

4.028 

2,609 

15.'30o 

13,934 

1,331 

],0K0 

13,892 

16,359 

P.41-2 

5.301 

14,f'35 

12,002 

19,907 

22.8.56 

152 

66 

476 

1,332 

128 

m 

fill 

35,124 

9..527 

1.4!'.7 

4,200 

9,271 

34..'>(11 

215.044 

31 

5.247 

21,847 

12,4''4 

l.r02 

26 

7,8:!5 

5.130 

96 

873 

1.412 

50,.533 

24,791 

106,920 

1.246 

9,416 

8.35 

1,191 

19,110 

4,.555 

8,372 

1 

*  A  Russian  weight  of  36  Iba. 


Book  I.  HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM,  505 

The  herring  fishery,  which  once  formed  so  ample  a  source  of  Dutch  wealth,  (though  in 
tliis  respect  its  importance  lias  been  greatly  exaggerated,)  was  almost  annihilated  during  the 
war ;  and  the  ground  having  since  been  occupied  by  neighbours  and  rivals,  Holland  has  been 
able  to  recover  only  a  small  portion.  Instead  of  1500  herring  busses,  in  1818  she  sent  out 
only  200.  Not  more  than  sixty  ships  go  annually  to  the  whale*  and  cod  fisheries ;  and, 
during  the  late  war,  the  English  undertook  the  task  of  supplying  their  own  markets  with 
fresh  fish ;  in  which  business,  however,  the  Dutch  still  employ  about  6000  boats. 

For  other  commercial  particulars,  M.  de  Cloet  states,  that  on  an  average  of  twenty  years, 
between  1775  and  1795,  the  number  of  vessels  entered  inwards  in  all  the  Dutch  ports  was 
4140,  and  outwards  the  same ;  making  a  total  of  8280  a  year.  The  entries  inwards,  in 
1822,  for  Amsterdam,  Rotterdam,  and  Antwerp,  were  4051 ;  which,  adding  500  for  Har- 
lingen  and  Dort,  becomes  4551.  The  number  outwards  for  the  same  three  ports  was  4045, 
which  we  may,  with  a  similar  addition,  call  4545;  making  a  total  of  9096  ships.  In  1827, 
the  number  entered  inwards  was  5203,  outwards  4548,  making  9751  altogether.  Taking 
tlie  average  number,  however,  at  10,000  (instead  of  9751),  so  as  to  cover  ihe  trifling  trade 
of  Ostend  and  Nieuport,  and  valuing  each  cargo,  with  M.  de  Cloet,  at  40,000  francs,  a  sum 
moderate  enough,  the  amount  of  the  trade  by  sea  will  be  400,000,000  francs.  The  trade  by 
land  with  France  and  Germany,  which,  in  1814,  was  estimated  at  152,000,000  francs,  may 
now  be  taken  at  160,000,000;  so  that,  if  the  calculations  be  at  all  correct,  the  annual  value 
of  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  Netherlands  is  altogether  about  560,000,000  francs. 

Mines.  The  south-eastern  provinces  in  the  neighbourhood  of  JMons,  Charleroi,  and  Liege, 
are  said  to  contain  350  mines  of  coal,  employing  20,000  men ;  but  this  number,  we  should 
think,  must  be  a  good  deal  exaggerated.  Turf  is  the  fuel  chiefly  used,  especially  in  Hol- 
land. There  are  also  in  the  southern  district  ironworks,  supposed  by  Mr.  Jacob  to  yield 
about  1000  tons.  Clay  suited  for  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  is  found  in  Holland,  and 
there  are  stone  quarries  in  the  south. 

Cayiuls  form  one  of  the  most  remarkable  features  in  the  economical  arrangernents  of  Hol- 
land, and  a  leading  source  of  her  prosperity.  From  the  structure  of  the  country,  these  are 
formed  with  peculiar  facility,  and  it  is  everywhere  intersected  with  them;  every  town, 
every  village,  being  connected  by  canals  of  greater  or  less  dimensions.  They  run  through 
the  streets  of  the  cities,  enabling  vessels  to  load  and  unload  under  the  eye  of  the  merchant. 
When  frozen,  they  serve  as  highways,  on  which  the  Dutch  females,  heavily  laden,  convey 
themseUes  along  on  skates  with  surprising  rapidity.  In  general,  from  the  flatness  of  the 
country,  and  the  abundance  of  water,  canals  may  be  made  without  much  exertion  of  art  or 
skill.  There  is  an  exception,  however,  in  the  canal  of  Pannerden,  constructed  with  the 
view  of  draining  off  the  superfluous  water  of  the  Rhine,  by  which  a  great  extent  of  ground 
was  converted  into  a  marsh.  It  is  two  miles  long,  and  200  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea, 
the  waters  being  received  into  three  different  sets  of  sluices.  It  is  considered  a  master- 
piece, and  completely  answered  its  object.  Another,  on  a  most  magnificent  scale,  connect- 
ing Amsterdam  with  the  Ilelder,  was  commenced  in  1819,  and  finished  in  1825,  at  an 
expense  of  10,000,000  florins.  It  is  50  miles  long,  125  feet  wide  at  the  surface,  36  feet 
wide  at  the  bottom,  and  21  feet  deep.  It  is  calculated  to  admit  ships  of  war  of  46  guns,  and 
merchantmen  of  1000  tons  burden.  It  was  constructed  to  avoid  the  troublesome  navigation 
to  and  from  Amsterdam  through  the  Zuyder  Zee,  and  the  necessity  of  lightening  large  ves- 
sels before  crossing  the  Pampus. 

The  canals  in  Belgium  are  spacious  and  commodious,  connecting  all  the  great  cities, 
though  not  nearly  in  equal  number,  nor  unitmg  every  village,  as  in  Holland. 

Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State. 

The  population  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  though  not  comparable,  as  to  absolute 
amount,  with  that  of  any  of  the  great  states,  is  superior  to  them  all  in  one  highly  important 
p;irticular,  that  the  country  contains  a  greater  density  of  population  on  the  same  surface 
than  any  other  in  Europe,  or  perhaps  in  the  world.  This,  in  the  Belgic  provinces  at  least, 
is  the  more  remarkable,  as  they  are  inhabited,  not  by  a  manufacturing  population,  drawing 
subsistence  from  agricultural  countries,  but  by  a  population  subsisting  exclusively  on  the 
produce  of  the  land  itself  The  census  of  1816  gave  a  total  population  of  5,491,945 : 
2,476,159  for  the  northern  provinces;  3,249,841  for  those  of  Belgium  ;  and  225,945  for  the 
duchy  of  Luxemburg.  This  gives  an  aggregate  average  density  of  about  212  to  the  square 
mile ;  but  the  rate  rises  much  higher  in  certain  provinces.  Throughout  Belgium  the  pro- 
portion is  296  to  the  square  mile ;  in  the  province  of  East  Flanders,  however,  it  is  as  high 
as  560.  In  the  United  Netherlands  the  average  density  is  only  180  per  square  mile ;  and  in 
Luxemburg,  which  has  much  of  a  German  cliaracter,  it  is  as  low  as  66.  The  census  of 
1825  gives  a  population  of  6,013,578 ;  and  some  further  augmentation  has  taken  place  since.f 

*  [In  1S27,  only  one  ship  sailfid  to  the  vvhalu-fishery  from  Holland,  which  in  1C80  had  out  2G0  ships  manned  by 
14,000  sailors,  eiisiaired  in  that  branch  of  industry. —  Am.  Ed.J 

t[Tli(^  population  of  till-  two  Icinsdoms  in  lS3a,  was  G,53G,000,  of  which  3,791,000  belonged  to  Belgium,  and 
it.nn.mo  to  Holland.— Am.  Ed.J 

\  OL.  I.  43  3  O 


506 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


The  following  details  with  respect  to  the  population  of  the  Netherlands  are  extracted  from 
tlie  publications  of  M.  Quetolet,  one  of  the  ablest  statistical  writers  of  the  Continent: — 

Table  of  the  Movement  of  the  Population  in  Holland  and  Belgiitm  for  Ten  Years. 


ProviDCes 

Fopulalion. 

Birlhs. 

Death'. 

Mirri.iges. 

Divorcfi. 

1815. 

1825. 

111,108 
264,097 
294,087 
375,257 
388.505 
107,947 
176,5.54 
147.229 
135,642 
46,459 
287,613 
358,185 
164,400 
213,597 
488,595 
441,649 
615,689 
516,324 
291,565 

129,329 
284,363 
326,617 
393,916 
438,202 
117,405 
202,530 
160,937 
156,045 
53,368 
321,246 
331,101 
189,393 
292,610 
546,190 
495.455 
687.267 
563,826 
323,678 

65.331 

90,862 

100,863 

145,744 

165,741 

41,038 

65,565 

51,951 

51.673 

16,723 

101,781 

113,623 

58,690 

92,242 

183,198 

169,181 

218,830 

191,139 

101,471 

42,436 

59,818 

69,507 

121.725 

143,850 

29,928 

38,219 

37,479 

30,539 

9,858 

70,549 

82,698 

34,134 

58,695 

118,289 

119,109 

162,834 

141,310 

70,623 

10,645 

19,337 
20,380 
34,789 
34,942 

8,982 
15,327 
11,629 
11,492 

3,954 
22,9(:0 
24,387 
12,592 
18,740 
39.591 
36,423 
43,120 
37,882 
23,075 

27 

13 

1 

209 

148 

30 

46 

13 

37 

3 

5 

1 
27 
5 
0 
6 
2 

South  Holland 

Namiir 

South  Brabant 

Antwerp   

5,424,502 

6,013,478 

2,015,646 

1,421.600 

430,247 

605 



The  births  and  marriages  in  the  Netherlands  are  proportionally  more  numerous,  while  the 
deaths  are  about  equal  to  those  of  France,  and  exceed  those  of  Great  Britain  in  the  ratio 
of  three  to  two.     The  account  stands  thus  : — 

Netherlauda.                                                               France.                                                 Great  Britain. 
JOO  births  to  2,?07  inhabitants 3,368 3,534  * 


100  deaths 3.981 4,000  . 

100  marriages 13,150 13,490  . 


.5,780 
.13,333 


There  has  been  a  very  material  increase  in  the  healthiness  of  the  people  of  the  Nether- 
lands, and  particularly  of  Holland,  during  the  last  thirty  or  forty  years. 

The  provision  for  the  support  of  the  poor  of  the  Netherlands  is  pretty  ample,  and  it  is 
applied  with  great  economy  and  skill ;  forming,  indeed,  an  important  branch  of  the  public 
administration.  The  following  table,  compiled  from  authentic  sources,  by  M.  Quetelet, 
cannot  fail  of  being  interesting : — 

Charitable  Institutions  of  the  Netherlands 


Nature  of  Institution. 


Administrations  for  relieving  the  Poor  at  home 

Commissions  for  distributing  Food,  &c 

Societies  of  Maternal  Chanty 

Hospitals 

Funds  fot  Military  Service 

Royal  Hospital  of  Messine* 

Poor  Schools 

Workhouses  of  Charity 

Depots  of  Mendicity 

Societies  of  Beneficence  for  the  Colonies .... 
Establishments  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb 


Monts  de  Piete. 
Savings  Banks. . 


Totals. 


5,129 

3G 

4 

724 

1 

1 

285 

34 

,      8 

2 

4 


6,228 
124 
50 


745,652 

22,056 

1,448 

41,172 

2,277 

156 

147.296 

6.169 

2.598 

8,553 

239 


977,616 
"18,035' 


Florins. 

7.31 

3.73 

9.32 

99.37 

48.73 

149.30 

1.67 

65.92 

88.37 

41.33 

175.70 


11.049.036     Average  11.30 
4,208,068 
2,771,608     Averagel53.93 


The  national  character  of  the  Dutch  has  been  long  moulded  into  the  form  natural  to  a 
highly  commercial  people ;  solid,  steady,  quiet,  laborious,  eagerly  intent  on  the  accumulation  of 
wealtli,  which  they  seek  rather  by  economy,  steadiness,  and  perseverance,  than  by  speculation. 
They  carry  the  virtue  of  cleanliness  to  an  extreme.  Outward  decorum  of  manners,  at  least, 
is  better  observed  than  among  the  neighbouring  continental  nations.  Yet  the  spiel  houses 
in  the  great  towns,  where  the  most  respectable  citizens  used  to  mingle  with  persons  entirely 
destitute  of  character,  presented  in  this  respect  a  strange  anomaly.  But  at  present  these 
can  hardly  be  said  to  exist ;  and  are  frequented  only  by  the  very  dregs  of  the  populace.  A 
traveller  in  Holland  will  rarely  meet  with  a  drunken  person ;  or  witli  a  man,  woman,  or 
child,  in  rags.  Every  class  of  people  seems  comfortable,  the  result  of  their  great  frugality 
and  unwearied  industry.     Were  a  young  sturdy  beggar  discovered  teasing  passengers  for 

•  In  West  Flanders,  for  the  daughters  of  soldiers  invalided  or  killed  in  service 


Book  T.  HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM.  507 

alms,  he  would  instantly  be  sent  to  the  workhouse;  where,  if  he  refused  to  perform  his  allot- 
ted task,  he  would  be  compelled  to  save  himself  from  drowning  by  working  at  the  pump ! 
Holland  is,  and  always  has  been,  a  country  of  short  credit.  Bankruptcy  is  rare.  Notwith- 
Btanding  the  invasion  of  the  French  in  1795,  and  the  consequent  interruption  to  all  sorts  of 
business,  the  bankruptcies  were  not  comparatively  so  numerous  as  in  England  in  ordinary 
years.  The  Belgic  provinces,  long  subjected  to  a  foreign  yoke,  and  in  constant  intercourse 
with  foreigners,  seem  to  have  lost  m  a  great  measure  the  original  Flemish  character,  and  to 
present  no  very  distinctive  features. 

It  is  not  very  easy,  irom  the  differences  of  their  judicial  organization,  to  compare  the  state 
of  crime  in  diflerent  countries.  In  this  respect,  however,  the  Netherlands  would  have 
nothing  to  fear  from  a  comparison  with  France  and  England.  In  Holland,  the  police  is  ex- 
cellent, and  robberies  very  rare. 

The  prevailing  religion  of  Holland  is  Calvinism,  while  that  of  Belgium  is  almost  exclu- 
sively Catholic ;  a  difference  which  contributed  not  a  little  to  that  rooted  dislike  entertained 
by  the  inhabitants  of  the  latter  to  those  of  the  former.  The  Dutch  have  the  honour  of 
being  the  first  people  who  established  a  system  of  unrestrained  toleration.  Even  popery, 
notwithstanding  the  grounds  which  the  nation  had  to  dread  and  hate  it,  was  allowed  to  be 
professed  with  the  utmost  freedom.  The  government  allows  salaries,  of  a  greater  or  less 
amount,  to  the  clergy  of  every  persuasion,  only  making  those  of  the  Presbyterian  minister.s 
higher  than  the  others.  The  latter  retain,  besides,  the  old  parish  churches,  and  the  exclusive 
privilege  of  using  bells.  They  amount  to  about  1600,  and  are  all  paid  and  appointed  by 
government,  which,  however,  respects  the  wishes  of  the  leading  parishioners.  Their  salaries 
are  very  moderate ;  3000  florins  in  the  great  cities ;  800  to  1000,  with  house  and  glebe,  in 
the  country.  They  are  divided  into  moderate  and  high  Calvinistic  parties;  the  former,  which 
are  said  to  be  the  most  numerous,  having  the  command  of  the  university  of  Utrecht,  while 
that  of  Leyden  is  attached  to  the  opposite  interest.  There  are  about  300  or  400  Catholic 
congregations,  in  general  very  small.  The  Armenians  or  Remonstrants,  who  originated  in 
Holland,  have  only  about  forty  or  fifty  ministers ;  but  their  tenets  are  preached  in  many  of 
the  presbyterian  churches.  The  Anabaptists,  called  here  Mennonists,  have  about  100  con- 
gregations, composed  of  many  opulent  and  respectable  members.  The  Lutherans  have  fifty 
or  sixty  churches;  and  the  French  Protestants  about  thirty.  [By  the  budget  of  1833, 
1,330,000  florins  were  voted  for  the  support  of  the  Protestant  worship,  and  400,000  for  the 
Catholic. — Am.  Ed.] 

In  Belgium,  the  Catholic  clergy  have  shown  a  very  rooted  spirit  of  intolerance,  with  the 
bishop  of  Client  at  their  head,  and  vehemently  objected  to  the  indulgent  treatment  of  the 
other  sects.  Tlie  bishop  was  imprisoned  for  two  years  by  Napoleon,  on  account  of  his 
obstinacy  in  this  particular.  The  great  possessions  of  the  church,  however,  have  been  for- 
feited, and  the  clergy  receive  very  moderate  salaries  from  government.  The  monasteries 
have  been  rooted  out,  and  generally  also  the  nunneries,  though  that  of  Ghent  still  retains 
all  its  pomp.  [There  is  an  archbishop  of  Mechlin  with  a  salary  of  21,000  francs,  and  the 
five  bishops  have  each  14,700  francs  a  year.  These,  with  64  vicars  general  and  canons, 
246  curates,  and  4,288  inferior  officers,  form  the  body  of  the  Catholic  clergy.  There  are 
only  about  5000  Protestants  in  Belgium,  with  19  ministers,  clerks,  &c.,  who  are  paid  by 
government. — Am.  Fd.] 

Learning  in  the  Netherlands  no  longer  boasts  such  names  as  Erasmus,  Grotius,  and  Boer- 
haave ;  but  tlie  institutions  for  its  diffusion  continue  to  be  very  ample.  Holland  retains  its 
two  ftimous  universities  of  Leyden  and  Utrecht.  The  former,  which,  under  Boerhaave,  liad 
once  tlie  reputation  of  the  first  medical  school  in  Europe,  is  still  highly  respectable.  The 
professors,  who  are  twenty-one  in  number,  receive  salaries  of  3000  florins,  independent  of 
fees;  and  this  being  a  better  income  than  any  of  the  ecclesiastical  livings,  the  university 
draws  from  the  church  its  most  learned  members.  The  medical  education,  liowever,  can- 
not be  completed  unless  at  Amsterdam,  which  affords  the  advantage  of  hospitals  and  otlier 
accommodations  peculiar  to  a  large  city.  The  university  of  Utrecht  is  not  so  considerable 
as  that  of  Leyden;  and  that  of  Groningen  is  still  inferior.  In  1833,  the  number  of  students 
was,  in  Leyden  684 ;  in  Utrecht  476 ;  in  Groningen,  284. 

The  universities  of  Belgium,  of  which  the  most  celebrated  were  Ghent  and  Louvain,  were 
partially  stripped  of  their  ample  endowments,  first  by  Joseph  II.,  and  then  by  the  French, 
who  in  tlieir  room  substituted  lyceums,  which  are  now  continued  nearly  on  the  same  footing, 
under  the  name  of  colleges.  Only  the  languages,  and  some  general  branches,  are  taught ; 
education  for  professional  purposes  being  received  in  separate  appropriate  seminaries.  Ghent 
and  Brussels  have  the  highest  reputation ;  but  the  salary  of  professors  in  the  former  does  not 
exceed  1500  francs.  The  three  universities  of  Louvain,  Liege,  and  Ghent  have  lately 
been  restored ;  and  in  1827  the  first  was  attended  by  678  students ;  the  second  by  506 ;  and 
the  tliird  by  404  students.  Besides  athenffiums,  which  are  only  colleges  on  a  smaller  scale, 
Holland  has  primary  schools  in  every  village,  by  which  the  benefits  of  education  are  com- 
municated to  the  lowest  ranks.     Belgium  is  at  present  very  deficient  in  institutions  for 


508 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


popular  education.*  But  at  an  average  of  the  Netherlands,  the  proportion  of  children  at 
school  to  the  entire  population,  in  1827,  was  as  high  as  1  to  9.5 ;  a  proportion  not  exceeded 
in  any  European  country,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  Prussia. 

The  line  arts  were  cultivated  witii  zeal  and  success  in  both  parts  of  the  Netherlands. 
Wealthy  merchants  liberally  patronised  the  arts  of  design;  and  the  gentry  and  landholders 
being  induced  by  the  constant  wars,  of  which  the  Low  Countries  were  the  theatre,  to  live 
much  in  towns,  acquired  more  refined  tastes  than  could  have  been  formed  in  a  country  resi- 
dence. Antwerp,  during  its  prosperity,  became,  in  soiue  measure,  a  Belgic  Athens.  Yet 
the  Flemish  and  Dutch  painters  never  attained  that  grandeur  of  design,  and  that  pure  and 
classic  taste,  which  wore  formed  in  Italy,  by  the  study  of  the  antique,  and  the  refined  taste 
of  its  nobles.  The  Flemish  school,  under  its  great  masters  Rubens  and  Vandyke,  displayed, 
however,  may  excellences  in  a  degree  not  inferior  to  any  other  in  modern  times ;  splendour 
of  colouring,  grandeur  of  composition,  and  force  of  expression.  The  Dutch  school  has  been 
eminently  successful  in  a  lower  sphere.  Under  Rembrandt  and  his  disciples,  subjects  of 
common  life  and  vulgar  luimour  were  treated  with  a  native  force,  which,  being  aided  by 
brilliant  effects  of  light  and  shade,  have  rendered  this  scliool  exceedingly  popular,  though  it 
has  failed  in  all  attempts  at  high  and  heroic  delineation.  The  landscape  painters  have 
seldom  employed  their  pencils  upon  the  grand  scenery  delineated  by  Claude  and  Poussin ; 
but  Berghem,  Cuyp,  Ruysdael,  Hobbima,  Vandevelde,  and  others,  have  represented,  in  the 
most  natural  and  pleasing  colours,  the  pastoral  scenery  of  their  country ;  its  meadows,  its 
woods,  and  the  banks  of  its  seas  and  rivers. 

Amusement  is  far  from  being  a  primary  object  with  the  Dutch.  They  have  most  of  tlie 
diversions  of  the  neighbouring  nations,  though  they  do  not  follow  them  with  much  ardour. 
A  great  portion  of  their  time  is  passed  in  smoking;  the  Dutchman  having  seldom  the  pipe 
out  of  his  mouth.  The  rivers  and  canals  passing  through  the  streets,  afibrd  the  opportunity 
of  fishing  from  the  windows.  The  great  Flemish  kermes,  or  fairs,  though  no  longer  sub- 
servient to  commerce,  exist  still  as  festivals,  at  which  there  is  a  great  display  of  humour 
and  character,  such  as  we  find  happily  illustrated  in  the  works  of  the  Flemish  painters. 
There  seems  nothing  peculiar  in  the  Dutch  style  of  cookery.  The  peasantry  both  of  Holland 
and  Flanders  hav<i  their  peculiar  local  costume ;  as  the  hiige  breeches  of  the  men,  and  the 
short  jacket  of  the  females;  but  the  higher  classes  dress  in  the  French  or  German  style. 

Sect.  VII. — Local  Geography. 
The  following,  according  to  recent  official  statements,  are  the  extent  and  population  of 
Belgium  and  Holland,  respectively  : 


BELGIUM. 

Provinces. 

Extent  in 
Hectares. 

Pnpnbtiin  in 
Dec.  1827, 

Princip.-il 

roi^-Bs. 

South  Brabant. 

Antwerp 

Kast  Flanders  . 
West  Fianders 

Hainanlt 

Namnr 

Lip-Te 

328  000 
283,000 
282,000 
316,000 
372,000 
347,625 
288,000 
460,000 

499  728 
338,294 
708,705 
575,807 
567,.30O 
194,845 
347.625 
328,234 

Brussels 72,f00 

Antwerp 65,000  Mechlin  ... 

Louvain 

...   16,000 
...    10,980 

18,580 

15,150 
3,000 

29,045 
10,568 
9,016 

Mons 18.400 

Namur 15,100  Verviers... 

Liege 45,300 

Tongres 4,000 

HOLLAND. 

(  Rotterdam  . . .     63,033  Hacue 

}  Dort 18.400  Delft 

j  Amsterdam..  201,000  Haarlem... 

...   10  070  Spa 

...  4.5.144  Lrvden 

...   13  285  Goiiila 

Limburg 

Holland,  South 

Holland,  North 

Zealand 

Utrecht 

North  Brabant 
Guelderland  . . . 

Drenthe 

Friesland 

Overyssel 

Groningen  .... 

Limburg,          ) 

■part  of....  1 

Luxemburg. .. . 

2,670,000 

3,560,538 

287,000 

245,000 
158,000 
133,000 
501,000 
50^,000 
3215,000 
2n3,000 
328,000 
204,000 

uncet 
650,000 

453,818 

391,586 

133,932 
122,213 
332,551 
293,396 
59,915 
200,332 
165,936 
153,982 

tain. 

298,655 

...  18.453  Zaandam 

...     8  1.55 

Miiidleh'irg  ..     20.800  Flushing... 

Utrecht 34,087  Amersfoort 

Bois  le  Due  .  .     13,340  Breda 

Nimeguen...     12.780  Arnheim. .. 

Assen 1.100 

Leuwarden  ..     18,380 

Deventer 9,530 

Groningen...    28,851 

Maestricht...     21,000 

Luxemburg  . .     10,250 

. . .     6,380 

. . .     9,395 

. . .  13,000  Bergen-op-Zoom 

...  10,050 

3.654.000 
2,676,000 

2,60r.000 

3.5(;o,5:}8 

6,330,000 

6,166,354 

*[Tn  1832  there  were  5,229  primary  schools  in  Belsium,  with  370,996  pupils,  beside  1,318  in  the  Athenseuins,  and 
1,783  in  the  universities.   Annual  expense.  743,200  francs. — Am.  Ed.'J 


Book  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM. 


509 


358 


SuBSECT.  1. — Belgium. 
South  Brabant,  which  nearly  coincides  with  wliat  was  formerly  the  Austrian  part  of  that 
large  province,  forms  a  rich  plain  m  the  heart  of  Belgium,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  finest  manu- 
factures carried  on  in  that  country. 

Brussels  (Jig.  353.)  is  the  capital  of  Belgium.  Considered  as  such,  it  is  small,  yet  it  is 
one  of  the  gayest  and  most  elegant  cities  of  Europe.    Its  situation  is  fine,  in  a  valley  watered 

by  the  Sonne  and  the  canal  to 
Antwerp.  The  Allee  Verte,  con- 
sisting of  three  rows  of  trees  bor- 
dering the  canal,  makes  a  beauti- 
ful approacli.  The  market-place 
and  the  park  are  the  two  great 
ornaments  of  Brussels.  The  former 
is  of  great  e.xtent,  and  surrounded 
by  the  town  hall,  one  of  the  most 
elegant  Gothic  structures  in  Eu- 
rope, adorned  witli  a  tower,  348 
feet  high,  and  by  the  old  halls  of 
tliG  different  corporations.  The  park  forms  an  extensive  range  of  pleasure  ground,  inter- 
spersed witii  rows  of  lofty  trees,  and  pleasing  lawns,  ornamented  v;ith  fountains  and  statues ; 
and  it  is  surrounded  by  all  the  most  spacious  and  sumptuous  edifices.  The  church  and  cJiapel 
of  St.  Gudule  are  also  distinguished  tor  the  elegance  of  tlieir  ornaments.  Brussels  has  an 
academy  of  painting,  attended  by  400  or  500  students;  and  in  the  palace  there  is  a  library 
of  12,000  volumes,  and  a  small  but  valuable  collection  of  paintings.  It  was  on  the  plains  of 
Brabant,  near  tlie  little  villages  of  Quatre  Bras,  St.  Jean,  La  Belle  Alliance,  and  Waterloo 
a  few  leagues  from  Brussels,  that  the  fate  of  Europe  was  decided  in  1815. 

Another  ancient  and  important  city  is  Malines,  or  Mechlin  (now  in  the  province  of  Ant- 
werp), still  retaining  traces  of  the  prosperity  derived  from  the  lace  bearing  its  name,  which 
is  considered  the  strongest,  though  not  the  finest,  made  in  the  Netherlands.  Another  branch 
of  industry  consists  in  the  making  of  excellent  brown  beer.  The  houses  are  ancient,  and 
very  spacious,  often  constructed  in  a  curious  and  grotesque  manner,  and  most  nicely  white- 
washed. The  tower  of  the  cathedral  is  highly  finished,  and  rises  to  the  height  of  348  feet. 
The  other  churches  contain  many  of  the  masterpieces  of  Rubens  and  Vandyke.  Louvain  is 
equally  fallen  from  the  period  when  its  extensive  cloth  manufactures  and  its  university,  one 
of  the  first  in  Europe,  gave  it  a  population  of  150,000.  It  is  a  large  ill-built  town,  whose 
bulky  walls,  seven  miles  in  circumference,  are  now  falling  to  decay.  Its  Catholic  university, 
an  attendance  on  which  was  once  required  as  a  qualification  for  holding  any  office  under  the 
Austrian  government,  perished  in  the  French  revolution,  and  was  replaced  by  what  could 
only  be  called  a  lyceum;  but  the  ancient  institution  has  since  been  restored.  The  town  hall, 
enriched  by  mimerous  carved  figures,  and  the  collegiate  church,  whose  spire,  before  its  fall, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  rose  to  the  height  of  500  feet,  are  the  chief' 
ornaments  of  Louvain. 

Antwerp  {fig.  359.),  formerly  the  port  of  Brabant,  has  now  a  province,  to  which  it  gives 
its  name.     Tliis  territory  is  situated  along  the  Lower  Scheldt,  and  is  covered  to  a  great 

extent  with  pleasure-grounds  and 
359  ^  houses,  erected  by  the  rich  mer- 

chants during  the  period  when 
Antv.erp  was  in  its  glory.  That 
city,  down  to  the  close  of  the  fif- 
teenth century,  was  almost  with- 
out a  rival  among  the  commercial 
states  of  Europe.  In  the  great 
struggle  which  then  arose,  Ant- 
werp embraced  vrith  ardour  the 
reformed  cause,  in  support  of 
which  it  suffered  the  most  dread- 
ful calamities.  In  1576  it  was 
sacked  by  the  Spaniards;  and  being  afterwards  wrested  from  them,  surrendered  on  favour- 
able terms,  after  being  besieged  for  more  than  a  year,  to  the  Prince  of  Parma.  Subjected 
to  the  bigoted  and  tyrannic  sway  of  Spain,  and  oppressed  by  the  active  rivalry  of  Holland,  it 
lost  all  its  commerce,  and  presented  the  mere  .shadow  of  its  former  greatness.  Its  renewed 
prosperity  dates  fi'om  its  occupation  by  the  French.  Bonaparte  made  it  one  of  his  grand 
naval  arsenals,  and  erected  immense  works,  in  the  vain  hope  of  creating  a  fleet  which  might 
rival  that  of  Great  Britain.  Since  the  peace,  Antwerp,  having  been  placed  on  an  equal 
footing  with  the  ports  of  Holland,  has  availed  itself  of  the  advantages  of  its  situation,  and 
reo-amed  a  considerable  commerce.     Having  a  ready  navigation  into  tlie  interior,  and  com- 

43* 


Antwerp. 


510  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  P.yrt  HI. 

municaling  by  canals  with  the  principal  seats  of  manufacture,  it  is  destined  by  nature  to  be 
the  chief  emporium  of  Belgium.  In  1828  there  entered  its  port  955  vessels.  Antwerp  is 
still  a  noble  city,  containing  numerous  stately  buildings,  both  private  and  public,  which 
include  some  of  tlie  finest  specimens  of  Gothic  architecture  existing.  The  cathedral,  which 
occupied  100  years  in  building,  is  celebrated  over  Europe.  It  is  500  feet  long,  230  wide, 
and  ;3G0  high.  Tiie  spire  is  466  feet  high,  of  extreme  beauty,  and  from  its  summit  is  obtained 
a  magnificent  view  of  the  windings  of  the  Scheldt,  witli  the  distant  towers  of  Ghent,  Malines, 
and  Breda.  The  interior  is  adorned  with  the  greatest  masterpieces  of  Rubens  and  Vandyke, 
which,  after  being  carried  oft"  to  Paris,  have  been  again  restored.  Numerous  fine  specimens 
of  the  Flemish  school  are  found  in  the  other  churches,  as  well  as  in  private  mansions.  Ant- 
werp has  always  been  the  centre  of  Flemish  art;  the  birth-place  of  Rubens,  Vandyke,  Jor- 
daens,  Teniers,-and  all  its  greatest  masters.  Zealous  patronage  is  still  bestowed  upon  the 
ait;  an  academy  is  supported,  at  which  400  or  500  students  are  almost  gratuitously  taught; 
annual  prizes  are  given,  and  crowns  placed  on  the  heads  of  the  successful  candidates.  This 
encouragement  lias  called  forth  some  respectable  talents,  though  none,  as  yet,  to  rival  the 
fame  of  the  old  masters. 

East  Flanders  is  chiefly  an  inland  district,  and  is  the  part  of  Belgium  in  which  culture  has 
been  carried  to  the  highest  perfection.  It  displays  an  aspect  of  uniform  luxuriant  fertility, 
resulting  altogether  from  the  application  of  art  and  capital.  Even  in  journeying  along  the 
road,  the  traveller  finds  the  wheels  of  his  carriage  sinking  in  the  sand,  while  beyond  the 
hedge  on  each  side,  tlie  soil  consists  of  the  richest  black  mould.  The  most  fertile  district  is 
called  the  Waes,  or  St.  Nicholas. 

Ghent,  even  in  its  fallen  state,  is  still  one  of  the  noblest  of  the  old  cities  of  Europe.  That 
vast  circuit  of  walls  which,  according  to  the  boast  of  Charles  V.,  could  contain  all  Paris 
within  tiiem,  may  still  be  traced.  It  is  built  on  twenty-seven  islands,  most  of  them  bordered 
by  magnificent  quays,  and  connected  by  three  hundi-ed  bridges.  The  streets,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  are  spacious  and  handsome,  and  there  are  many  fine  old  churches:  but  the  great 
cathedral  does  not  display  the  architectural  grandeur  of  that  of  Antwerp,  though  the  interior 
is  rich  in  the  extreme,  adorned  with  numerous  pillars  of  white  marble.  Tiiis  and  the  other 
churches,  as  well  as  the  academy,  contain  numerous  paintings  by  the  old  Flemish  masters. 
Ghent,  though  it  can  no  longer  send  its  40,000  weavers  into  the  field,  is  still  one  of  the  most 
manufacturing  cities  of  Belgium.  Prior  to  the  revolution,  its  staple  was  sorted  lace;  but 
since  the  great  improvements  in  tlie  cotton  manufacture,  several  large  fabrics  have  been 
established  at  Ghent.  The  society  is  good,  this  being  a  favourite  residence  of  the  old 
Flemish  nobles,  and  now  frequented  by  a  considerable  number  of  English  families. 

The  other  towns  in  East  Flanders  are  Dendermonde,  a  small  but  strong  place,  which  has 
stood  repeated  sieges;  Alost,  on  the  eastern  frontier;  St.  Nicholas  and  Tokerem,  two  large 
villages,  of  more  than  11,000  inhabitants  each,  in  the  centre  of  the  Waes,  flourishing  by 
means  of  corn-markets  and  of  some  considerable  manufactures.  Sas-van-Ghent  is  the  centre 
of  the  sluices  on  the  canal  to  the  Scheldt,  by  which  the  whole  country  can  be  laid  under 
water.     Hulst  is  a  strongly  fortified  little  town. 

West  Flanders  is  a  continuation  of  the  same  richly  cultivated  plain  which  has  now  been 
described ;  yet,  being  partly  mixed  with  sand  and  marsh,  and  exposed  to  the  blighting  influ- 
ence of  fogs  and  sea  breezes,  it  does  not  display  altogether  the  luxuriant  aspect  of  the  Pays 
de  Waes.  It  has  no  place  comparable  to  Ghent,  yet  it  comprises  an  extraordinary  number 
of  ancient  cities,  whicii  siill  retain  a  portion  of  their  former  prosperity. 

Bruges,  formerly  the  residence  of  the  counts  of  Flanders,  and  one  of  the  factories  of  the 
Hanseatic  league,  was  the  greatest  commercial  city  in  the  Low  Countries,  and  perhaps  in 
the  north  of  Europe,  till  it  was  first  surpassed  by  Antwerp,  and  then,  from  the  same  causes, 
shared  its  fall.  Its  situation  in  the  midst  of  so  fertile  a  country,  and  its  communications  by 
spacious  canals  with  the  sea  and  with  the  interior,  still  secure  to  it  a  considerable  trade. 
Bruges  has  the  character  of  an  old  town,  the  streets  being  narrow,  and  the  houses  lofty. 
The  town  hall  is  its  most  conspicuous  edifice,  and  it  is  adorned  also  with  many  noble  churches, 
containing  some  of  the  finest  works  of  tlie  great  Flemish  painters.  The  invention  of  paint- 
ing in  oil  has  been  ascribed  to  this  city. 

Ostend  is  an  ancient  town,  early  celebrated  for  its  fortifications.  The  siege  by  Spinola, 
which  began  in  1601,  and  lasted  two  years,  was  one  of  the  most  memorable  in  modern  his- 
tory; and  upon  its  issue  the  destiny  of  the  Low  Countries  was  considered  to  depend.  But 
though  it  ultimately  fell,  the  exliaustion  of  the  Spanish  army,  and  the  time  which  had  been 
afforded  to  Holland  for  collecting  her  energies,  prevented  its  capture  from  having  the  ruinous 
eflects  anticipated.  Under  Austrian  sway,  Ostend,  which  has  one  of  the  few  good  harbours 
in  Flanders,  became  the  chief  theatre  of  the  limited  trade  of  the  Belgic  provinces.  Napo- 
leon restored  its  fortifications,  which  were  still  farther  strengthened  by  the  allies.  It  has 
not  now  above  a  third  of  its  former  population,  but  still  carries  on  a  brisk  intercourse  with 
England,  and  has  almost  the  appearance  of  an  English  town.  In  1828,  574  vessels  entered 
its  port. 

Other  large  fortified  places,  celebrated  in  the  military  annals  of  Europe,  are  found  m  West 


Book  I.  HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM.  511 

Flanders.  Courtray,  Ypres,  and  Menin  have  the  usual  character  of  Flemisli  towns.  They 
are  large,  rather  well  built,  with  handsome  churciies  and  town  halls ;  fallen  from  their 
ancient  prosperity,  yet  retaining  considerable  manufactures  of  linen  and  beer ;  and  having,  in 
the  long  course  of  the  Low  Country  wars,  been  repeatedly  taken  and  retaken.  Courtray  is 
noted  for  the  very  fine  flax  grown  in  its  neighbourhood.  Oudenarde,  the  scene  of  one  of 
Marlborough's  victories,  Dixmuide,  and  Furnes,  present  the  same  characters  on  a  smaller 
scale.  Nieuport  is  rather  a  noted  fisliing  and  trading  town,  surrounded  by  sluices,  by  means 
of  which  the  country  can  be  inundated. 

Hainault,  to  the  east  of  Flanders  and  the  south  of  Brabant,  presents  a  long  range  of  mili- 
tary frontier  to  the  once  hostile  border  of  France.  It  is  watered  by  the  upper  courses  of  the 
Scheldt  and  the  Sambre ;  and,  instead  of  presenting,  the  same  dead  level  with  Flanders,  is 
varied  by  gentle  undulations,  still  highly  cultivated,  yet  not  with  the  same  extreme  care  or 
ample  expenditure.  In  this  province  are  rich  mines  of  coal,  a  mineral  not  found  in  any 
other  part  of  the  Low  Countries ;  and  though  Hainault  never  formed  any  of  the  great  seats 
of  manufacture,  it  is  by  no  means  deficient  in  this  branch  of  industry. 

Mons,  Tournay,  and  Charleroi  are  the  chief  towns  of  Hainault.  The  description  given 
of  the  secondary  cities  of  Flanders  may  apply  to  them.  Mons,  called  once  Hannonia,  is  very 
ancient;  it  is  well  built,  but  appears  often  almost  buried  under  the  smoke  of  the  steam- 
engines  employed  in  working  the  neighbouring  coalmines.  It  has  a  very  extensive  found- 
ling hospital.  Tournay,  a  fine  large,  old  city,  with  a  handsome  cathedral,  has  stood  many 
sieges.  Charleroi,  besides  its  military  reputation,  has  that  of  making  very  fine  nails,  with 
which  it  supplies  all  Belgium.  In  front  of  Mons  is  Gemappe,  and  eight  miles  east  of  Char- 
leroi is  Fleurus,  both  celebrated  for  signal  victories  gained  by  the  French  during  the  revolu- 
tionary war.  The  large  and  strong  cities  of  Conde  and  Valenciennes  are  now  annexed  to 
France. 

Namur,  to  the  east  of  Hainault,  presents  a  striking  variety  from  the  tame  and  flat  surface 
which  covers  the  greater  part  of  the  Low  Countries.  Consisting  of  the  valley  of  the  Meuse, 
which  traverses  the  whole  province  from  north  to  south,  it  contains  numerous  rugged  emi- 
nences, which  give  to  it  a  varied  and  picturesque  character.  The  banks  of  the  r'ver,  from 
Namur  to  Liege,  overhung  by  wooded  rocks,  and  opening  into  deep  valleys,  abound  in  the 
most  romantic  scenes. 

Among  the  cities,  Namur  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  in  the  Low  Countries,  its  origin  being 
traced  to  the  time  of  the  ancient  Germans.  It  lies  in  a  beautiful  valley  bordered  by  high 
mountains,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Sambre  and  Meuse.  The  castle,  on  a  high  rock,  was 
formerly  considered  almost  impregnable,  and  stood  many  sieges,  till  Joseph  II.  dismantled, 
and  the  French  afterwards  almost  demolished  it.  The  cathedral  and  the  Jesuits'  church 
are  fine  edifices,  and,  unlike  the  other  churches  of  the  Low  Countries,  of  Grecian  architec- 
ture. Namur  has  in  its  neighbourhood  extensive  iron  mines,  which  employ  many  of  the 
inhabitants ;  the  manufactures  of  the  city  consist  in  working  up  this  metal  into  fire-arms, 
cutlery,  &c.  Ascending  the  Meuse  towards  the  French  frontier,  we  come  to  the  small  forti- 
fied towns  of  Dinant  and  Charlemont. 

The  provinces  of  Liege  and  Limburg,  which  are  much  intermingled  with  each  other, 
form  the  eastern  frontier  of  Belgium.  They  run  from  north  to  south  along  the  ]\Ieuse,  front- 
ing Germany,  and  are,  indeed,  half  German.  On  the  banks  of  the  Meuse,  and  in  some  par- 
ticular districts,  the  territory  is  broken  and  rocky;  but  most  of  it  consists  of  an  extended 
and  highly  cultivated  plain.  The  eastern  district  is  distinguished  by  the  peculiar  richnesa 
of  its  pastures,  which  produce  butter  and  cheese  of  great  value.  Its  manufactures,  also, 
especially  tliose  of  fine  woollens,  are  very  flourishing. 

Of  the  cities  in  these  two  provinces,  Liege,  once  the  seat  of  a  sovereign  bishop,  is  ancient 
and  large,  but  upon  the  whole  ill  built  and  gloomy ;  and  though  some  of  its  buildings  are 
large,  they  do  not  display  the  taste  conspicuous  in  other  Belgic  cities.  The  church  of  St. 
Paul  is,  however,  admired,  as  was  that  of  St.  Lambert,  till  it  was  destroyed  during  the  revo- 
lution. Liege  has  a  manufacture  of  fine  woollen  cloths,  which  sell  at  a  high  price.  The 
town  of  Limburg,  now  included  in  Liege,  has  lost  much  of  its  population  and  industry;  and 
a  great  part  of  its  precincts  is  in  ruins.  Spa,  situated  amid  romantic  rocks,  is  one  ot  the 
most  celebrated  watering  places  in  Europe.  The  resort,  though  much  diminislied,  is  still 
considerable,  and  composed  of  persons  of  distinguished  rank.  The  inhabitants  work  the 
beechwood,  which  grows  in  the  neighbourhood,  into  a  variety  of  toys,  for  which  they  find  a 
ready  sale  among  the  visiters.  St.  Tron  and  Tongres  are  ancient  towns,  the  former  having 
a  celebrated  Benedictine  abbey.  Eupen,  like  Verviers,  has  flourishing  manufactures  ot  cloth. 
Herve  is  the  chief  market  for  the  Limburg  cheese,  which  goes  by  its  name.  Stavelot  is 
noted  for  its  leather. 

SiTisECT.  2. — Holland. 
The  province  of  Holland  is  of  paramount  importance,  including  all  the  great  cities  ana 
principal  scats  of  commerce;  so  that  its  name  was  most  usually  given  to  the  whole  republic. 
It  forms  a  long  narrow  strip,  almost  everywhere  enclosed  and  penetrated  by  water ;  on  one 


512 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PaktIU. 


side  it  is  washed  by  the  North  Sea ;  on  the  other,  by  the  Zuyder  Zee ;  in  its  centre  it  has 
whe  large  lake  called  Haarlem-Meer ,  while  the  Rhine  and  the  Lech  intersect  its  nnmeroiis 
channels.  The  whole  country  is  so  low,  that  it  is  habitable  only  by  means  of  enormous 
dikes,  which  exclude  the  sea :  when  tiiese  give  way,  the  waters  rush  in,  and  inundate  the 
whole  territory.  The  country  forms,  in  fact,  one  vast  well-watered  meadow  scarcely  any 
where  subjected  to  the  plough,  though  e.\tensivc  gardens  are  cultivated,  both  for  use  and 
ornament.  But  the  chief  products  are  cattle,  butter,  and  cheese,  for  the  supply  of  the  popu- 
lation of  tiie  cities,  and  for  export. 

Amsterdam  (Jig.  3G0.),  the  capital  of  the  province  and  kingdom  of  Holland,  is  situated  at 
the  point  of  confluence  of  the  river  Amstel  with  the  Y,  an  arm  of  the  Zuyder  Zee.    It  was 


360 


considerable  town  in  the 
fourteenth  century ;  but  it  was 
not  until  the  sixteenth  cen- 
■'ury,  when  the  persecutions 
of  the  Spaniards  in  Belgium 
proved  fatal  to  the  trade  and 
navigation  of  Antwerp  and  the 
southern  provinces,  tliat  Am- 
sterdam attained  to  the  dis- 
tinction which  slie  enjoyed 
till  about  tlie  middle  of  the  last 
Amsterdam.  ccutury,   of   being    the    first 

commercial  city  of  Europe.  It  is  but  justice,  however,  to  state  that  her  extraordinary  pro- 
gress depended  as  m.uch,  or  more,  on  the  liberal  and  enlightened  policy  of  her  rulers,  as  on 
external  events.  Every  individual,  whatever  might  be  his  country  or  liis  religion,  was 
received  with  open  arms  at  Amsterdam ;  and  acquired,  by  means  of  a  trifling  payment,  the 
right  of  citizenship,  and  the  enjoyment  of  all  the  privileges  of  a  native.  All  the  public  insti- 
tutions were  calculated  to  promote  commerce ;  and  at  a  time  wlien  trade  and  industry  in 
other  countries  were  oppressed  by  prohibitions,  in  Holland  they  were  comparatively  free. 
Wlien  most  prosperous,  Amsterdam  is  supposed  to  have  contained  about  210,000  inhabitants; 
but  at  present  the  population  is  not  supposed  to  exceed  200,000.  Being  built  in  a  marsh,  the 
foundations  of  the  city  are  laid  on  piles;  and  it  is  a  common  complaint  tliat  a  house  costs 
as  much  below  as  above  ground.  Tlie  three  principal  streets  are  parallel  to  each  other,  and 
are  not  easily  to  be  matched  for  length,  breadth,  and  the  magnificence  of  the  houses;  many 
of  vvhicli,  though  antique,  are  splendid,  and  are  kept  in  the  best  possible  repair.  The  city 
is  intersected  by  an  immense  number  of  canals,  communicating  by  draw-bridges,  and  having 
eluices  for  the  purpose  of  regulating  the  level  of  the  water:  these  canals  are  for  the  most 
part  bordered  by  fine  trees.  The  expenses  incurred  in  keeping  the  sluices  in  order,  and  in 
clearing  the  canals  and  port  of  mud,  are  very  heavy.  The  matchless  industry  and  perse- 
verance of  this  wonderful  people,  are  in  nothing  so  signally  displayed  as  in  their  works  and 
contrivances  for  conquering  the  difliculties  incident  to  their  situation,  and  making  tlie  waters, 

which  threaten  to  overv/helm  tliem,  con- 
361  tribute    to   their  comfort.     Tlie    stadt- 

house  {fig.  361.),  now  the  royal  palace, 
is  the  finest  building  in  the  city  ;  and  is, 
indeed,  one  of  the  noblest  any  ivhere  to 
be  met  with :  it  is  of  large  diinensions, 
and  is  adorned  with  pillars,  and  with 
sculptures  emblematical  of  commerce 
and  navigation.  Above  13,000  piles 
are  said  to  have  been  employed  in  form- 
ing its  foundation.  The  harbour  is  in- 
convenient, large  ships  being  obliged  to 
lighten  before  they  can  pass  the  Pam- 
pus  or  bar  at  the  month  of  the  Y,  and  the  navigation  of  tlie  Zuyder  Zee  is  also  difficult.  To 
remedy  these  inconveniences,  the  large  canal  to  the  Helder,  already  alluded  to,  lias  been 
constructed.  The  trade  of  Amsterdam  has  increased  considerably  within  the  last  few  years; 
and  about  2200  ships  now  annually  clear  out  for  foreign  countries.  None  of  the  water  from 
the  canals  is  made  use  of  for  culinary  purposes ;  the  town  being  supplied  with  fresh  water, 
conveyed  in  carts  from  the  Vecht,  about  five  or  six  miles  distant ;  but  most  of  the  houses 
have  cisterns,  where  the  rain-water  is  collected.  There  is  a  national  museum  of  pictures, 
which  contains  many  fine  specimens  of  the  Dutch  school.  The  various  prisons  and  houses 
of  correction  and  industry  at  Amsterdam  are  said  to  be  managed  on  more  approved  princi- 
ples than  similar  institutions  in  most  parts  of  Europe.  The  police  is  excellent;  crimes  rare ; 
and  no  beggars  to  be  seen  in  the  streets.  The  inliabitants  seem  vigorous  and  healthy ;  but 
the  mortality,  thougli  materially  diminished  within  the  last  thirty  or  forty  years,  is  still  greater 


Stadt-House,  Amsterdam. 


Book  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM. 


613 


than  in  most  European  cities ;  a  consequence,  probably,  of  the  humidity  of  the  climate,  and 
of  the  effluvia  arising,  in  summer,  from  the  canals. 

Rotterdam  (Jif^.  ^02.),  the  second  city  in  Holland,  is  more  conveniently  situated  for  com- 
merce than  Amsterdam,  having  a  readier  access  to  the  sea ;  and  the  Maese  on  which  it  is 
situated,  being  so  very  deep  as  to  admit  vessels  of  the  largest  draught  of  water  to  lie  close 


3G3 


364 


Rotterdam.  Siatue  of  Erasmus. 

to  the  quays.  Its  commerce  is  rapidly  increasing.  Its  principal  exports  are  geneva  and 
madder ;  and  it  carries  on  the  business  of  sugar-refining  on  a  large  scale.  It  has  all  the 
characteristics  of  a  Dutch  town;  being  neat,  clean,  uniform;  the  houses  high,  and  built  of 

very  small  bricks.  The  canals  inter- 
secting it  are  numerous,  deep,  and, 
unless  in  a  few  of  the  most  crowded 
streets,  connected  by  draw-bridges. 
Rotterdam  boasts  of  being  the  birth- 
place of  Erasmus ;  to  perpetuate 
whose  memory,  she  has  erected  a 
handsome  statue  {fig.  363.). 

The  Hague  {fig.  364.),  though 
ranking  only  as  a  village,  is,  in  fact, 
one  of  the  handsomest  cities  in  Eu- 
rope. The  streets  and  squares  are  well  built,  bordered  with  fine  walks  and  avenues  of  trees. 
Neither  the  old  nor  the  new  palace  can  boast  of  any  splendid  architecture ;  but  the  former 
is  large,  and  contains  some  valuable  collections.  An  avenue  of  two  miles  leads  to  the  neat 
fishing  town  of  Scheveling,  whence  the  dealers  are  daily  seen  bringing  their  commodities 

in  little  carts  drawn  by  large  dogs. 


h 


365 


yden. 


Leyden  {fig.  865.)  is  a  fine  old  city, 
situated  in  the  heart  of  the  Rhine- 
land,  where  this  ancient  bed  of  the 
river  is  cut  into  an  infinity  of  canals, 
which  render  this  the  ricliest  mea- 
dow land  of  Holland.  The  beer, 
the  butter,  and  the  bread  of  this  dis- 
trict are  held  in  the  highest  e.stima- 
tion.  Leyden,  during  the  war  with 
Spain,  was  the  most  important  city 
in  Holland,  and  on  the  r  vent  of  its 
siege  the  fate  of  tliat  country  was 
supposed  to  depend.  The  Spaniards, 
by  a  lengthened  and  strict  blockade, 
reduced  it  to  the  last  extremity;  while  the  Dutch  could  muster  no  force  adequate  to  its 
relief  It  was  then  that  they  formed  the  magnanimous  resolution  of  breaking  down  their 
dikes,  and  admitting  the  ocean.  It  was  some  time  before  tiie  fiill  cfP?ct  was  produced ;  but 
at  lengtii,  impelled  by  a  violent  wind,  the  soa  rushed  in,  overwhelmed  all  the  works  of  the 
besiegers,  and  forced  them  to  a  precipitate  flight.  The  little  fleet  of  boats  whicli  had  been 
prepared  for  the  relief  of  Leyden,  immediately  sailed  over  the  newly  formed  expanse,  and 
trivmiphantly  entered  the  city.  The  Prince  of  Orange  ofl'cred  to  Leyden  the  option  of  two 
benefits, — an  immunity  from  taxes  for  a  certain  period,  or  tlie  foundation  of  a  university  in 
tlie  cit}'.  The  citizens  crowned  their  former  glory  by  choosing  the  latter  alternative,  and 
a  university  was  accordingly  founded,  which  speedily  became  one  of  the  most  eminent  schools 
in  Europe;  and,  though  much  injured  by  the  numerous  rivals  which  have  since  sprung  up, 
it  continues  to  maintain  a  high  reputation,  pnrticularly  as  a  classical  school.  Leyden  is  still 
a  haudsonie  and  flourishing  town ;  carries  on  the  woollen  manufacture  with  success,  though 
on  a  diminished  scale;  and  is  a  great  market  for  butter  and  cheese.  Haarlem  {fig.  366.)  is 
another  city  of  ancient  importance.  In  the  great  slrup-gle  for  independence,  it  stood  a 
Vol.  I.  '  3  P 


&14 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  in. 


26G 


267 


tnemorable  siege  of  seven  months;  when  it  surrendered  upon  lionourahle  terms,  wliich  were 
basely  violated  by  the  Duke  of  Alva.  Haarlem  is  still  spacious  and  flourishing,  and  excels 
peculiarly  in  the  bleaching  of  linen  and  cambric,  which  it  performs  for  all  the  neighbouring 

provinces.  The  matchless 
and  brilliant  whiteness  of  the 
Haarlem  linens  has  been  im- 
puted to  a  peculiar  quality  in 
tlie  water,  but  is  more  pro- 
bably the  result  of  the  ex- 
treme skill  of  the  inhabitants, 
acquired  by  long  practice. 
Flowers  are  principally  raised 
for  sale  in  the  vicinity  of  Haar- 
lem. Delft,  an  ancient  gloomy 
^'^'"■'"='"-  town,  was  formerly  celebrated 

for  the  manufacture  of  the  ware  which  bears  its  name ;  but  this,  as  already  observed,  has 
been  almost  entirely  supplanted  by  English  earthenware.  Dort  or  Dordrecht,  enclosed  by 
branches  of  the  Maese,  was  the  ancient  capital  of  Holland,  while  the  main  commerce  of  that 
country  continued  to  centre  in  this  its  most  natui-al  quarter.  It  still  retains  very  considera- 
ble traces  of  this  early  importance.  The  town-hall  and  great  church  are  magnificent  struc- 
tures. There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  goods  coming  down  the  Rhine,  particularly  floats  of 
timber,  so  large  that  one  of  them  has  been  valued  at  350,000  florins.  Gouda  is  a  large 
flourishing  village,  in  a  rich  country,  and  carries  on  an  extensive  manufactory  of  tobacco- 
pipes.     It  is  celebrated  for  the  excellence  of  its  cheese. 

North  Holland  forms  a  considerable  peninsula,  almost  entu-ely  encircled  by  the  Zuyder 
Zee  and  the  North  Sea,  and  bordered  by  sand-hills  of  some  elevation ;  but  the  interior  is 
covered  with  rich  pastures,  on  which  are  fed  large  herds  of  cattle.  The  ancient  and  not 
ungraceful  costumes  (Jig.  267.)  of  the  Dutch  peasantry  are  preserved  with  greater  exact- 
ness in  this  sequestered  part  of  Holland, 
than  in  any  other;  and  the  fishery,  for 
which  their  situation  is  peculiarly  adapted, 
is  carried  on  with  great  activity.  Alk- 
maar  is  an  agreeable  town,  with  a  great 
traffic  in  butter  and  cheese,  and  a  manu- 
facture of  nets.  The  most  important 
places  in  North  Holland  are  the  Holder 
and  the  Texel,  two  grand  naval  stations ; 
the  one  a  strong  fort,  commanding  the 
entrance  of  the  Zuyder  Zee  ;  the  other  an 
island  opposite,  in  which  the  Dutch  fleets 
used  to  rendezvous,  from  the  facility  it 
afforded  for  their  getting  to  sea.  Along  the  coast  of  the  Zuyder  Zee  are  the  considerable 
towns  of  Hoorn  and  Enkhuisen,  and  the  smaller  ones  of  Edam  and  Purmerend. 

Zealand  is  a  region  more  completely  enclosed  by,  and  sunk  below,  the  level  of  the  water, 
than  any  other  part  of  the  United  Provinces.  It  consists  of  nine  islands,  formed  and  envi- 
roned by  branches  of  the  Maese  and  the  Scheldt,  as,  passing  from  tlie  state  of  rivers  into  friths, 
they  unite  with  the  ocean.  The  mariner,  in  approaching,  sees  only  points  of  the  spires 
peeping  above  the  immense  dikes  which  defend  them  from  inundation.  The  soil  is  moist 
and  rich,  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  madder.  The  damp  air,  however,  and  the 
exhalations  from  the  waters,  render  these  islands  unhealthy,  and  even  fatal  to  foreigners,  as 
was  dreadfully  experienced  by  the  British  troops  while  quartered  at  Walcheren ;  but  the 
natives  do  not  experience  the  same  pernicious  efliccts.  Middleburg  is  a  considerable  city, 
with  a  town-hall  and  several  churches,  which  afford  fine  specimens  of  Gothic  arcliitecture. 
Flushing  is  an  eminent  naval  station,  and  has  a  considerable  trade  and  fishery.  The  island 
of  Schowen  has  Zierikzee,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  counts  of  Zealand ;  and  South  Beve- 
land  has  Goes,  or  Tergoes,  with  a  considerable  trade  in  salt. 

Utrecht,  a  more  inland  province  tlian  Holland,  forms  a  continuation  of  the  same  tract  of 
flat  meadow  land,  interspersed  with  gardens  and  country  residences.  Utrecht,  the  capital, 
is  a  remarkably  agreeable  city,  and  being  a  little  elevated,  the  view  from  its  ramparts  and  the 
top  of  its  cathedral  over  the  vast  plains  and  broad  waters  of  Holland  is  extensive  and  de- 
lightful. The  Romans  called  it  Ulpii  Trajectum,  as  commanding  an  important  passage  over 
the  Rhine ;  and  in  the  middle  ages  it  was  held  by  the  warlike  bishops  of  Utrecht.  In  this 
city  was  concluded  the  treaty  of  confederation,  in  1.597,  by  which  the  United  Provinces 
were  constituted,  and  also  the  celebrated  treaty  of  1715,  which  terminated  tiie  long  war  of 
the  Spanish  succession.  Amersfoort,  pleasantly  situated  on  the  Ems,  and  noted  as  the 
birth-place  of  Barneveldt,  has  considerable  fabrics  of  dimity  and  bombazeen,  and  extensive 


Peasantry  in  Holland. 


Book  I.  HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM.  515 

bleaching  grounds.     Naarden,  a  small  town,  forms  the  key  of  all  the  water  communications 
of  Holland. 

Nortli  Brabant,  comprising  that  which  was  the  Dutch  part  of  the  province,  is  a  flat,  sandy, 
marshy  tract,  not  distinguished  by  either  the  natural  fertility  or  manufacturing  industry  so 
conspicuous  in  the  rest  of  Holland  and  Belgium.  Forming,  iiowever,  tlie  barrier  by  which 
the  Dutch  maintained  their  independence,  it  contains  several  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in 
Europe,  which  have  indeed  the  reputation  of  being  almost  impregnable.  Breda  is  one  of 
the  most  conspicuous.  After  Prince  Maurice  of  Nassau  took  it  by  surprise,  in  1.590,  its 
fortifications  were  greatly  extended,  and  the  surrounding  country,  being  intersected  by 
rivers  and  marshes,  can  be  laid  under  water.  It  is  an  agreeable  city,  commanding  from  the 
ramparts  a  fine  view,  and  both  its  church  and  its  town-hall  are  admired  Gothic  edifices. 
Bois  le  Due,  or  Herzogenbosch,  on  the  Domrael,  so  named  from  an  old  hunting-wood  of  the 
Dukes  of  Brabant,  is  a  large  town,  and  equally  strong.  It  is  so  intersected  by  canals,  that 
eighty  bridges  are  required  to  cross  them ;  in  winter  the  place  is  entirely  surrounded  by 
water,  and  can  be  approached  only  in  boats.  Bergen-op-Zoom,  farther  to  the  west,  is  similar 
as  to  strength,  and  was  esteemed  the  masterpiece  of  the  celebrated  Cohorn,  The  disastrous 
attack  made  upon  it  by  the  British  in  the  last  war  is  well  remembered. 

The  outer  provinces  of  Guelderland,  Friesland,  Overyssel,  Drenthe,  and  Groningen, 
which  lie  between  the  Zuyder  Zee  and  the  Ems,  are  rather  appendages  than  integral  portions 
of  Holland,  and  form  by  their  situation  part  of  the  great  level  plain  of  northern  Germany. 
The  country  is  similar  to  Holland,  however,  in  its  aspect  and  the  general  state  of  cultiva- 
tion, though  a  somewhat  greater  proportion  of  the  land  is  employed  in  the  raising  of  grain. 
Friesland,  has  a  very  fine  breed  of  horses  and  horned  cattle ;  and  the  linen  manufacture 
flourishes  to  a  considerable  extent.  In  these  provinces,  particularly  in  Guelderland  and 
Overyssel,  there  is  a  large  extent  of  sandy  and  marshy  ground,  which  is  not  forced  into  cul- 
tivation with  the  same  minute  care,  as  in  the  central  provinces.  Much  benefit,  however,  is 
expected  from  the  pauper  colonies  lately  established  there. 

The  towns  of  this  region  are  pretty  numerous  and  considerable,  though  none  are  of  tho 
first  class.  Nimeguen,  in  Guelderland,  is  ancient,  strong,  and  handsome,  commanding  a 
noble  view  over  the  Rhine.  Zutphen  is  an  old  imperial  city,  dreadfully  pillaged  in  1.572  by 
the  Duke  of  Alva.  It  has  a  magnificent  church ;  and  the  fens  around  it  have  been  so  com- 
pletely drained,  as  to  render  the  air  no  longer  unwholesome.  Arnheim  is  a  large  and  beau- 
tiful town,  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  of  Veluwe,  and  forming  a  great  thoroughfare  into  Ger- 
many. Deventer,  in  Overyssel,  is  an  ancient  member  of  the  Hanseatic  league,  and  has  a 
venerable  cathedral.  Zwoll,  on  the  Yssel,  is  strong,  large,  and  well  built.  Assen,  though 
capital  of  the  new  province  of  Drenthe,  is  only  a  village.  In  Friesland,  Leuwardcn,  on 
the  Ee,  is  a  large  and  populous  town,  in  a  country  surrounded  and  intersected  with  canals, 
which  enable  it  to  communicate  with  tlie  sea,  and  to  carry  on  a  considerable  trade.  Cam- 
pen,  an  ancient  Hanse  town,  has  lost  its  importance,  the  harbour  being  now  choked  up. 
Harlingen,  Franeker,  Dokkum,  Bolsward,  are  ports  on  the  Zuyder  Zee,  and  manufacturing 
places  of  some  importance.  Groningen,  capital  of  the  provinces  of  the  same  name,  is  the 
most  important  of  all  the  towns  east  of  the  Zuyder  Zee.  It  is  well  built,  and  adorned  with 
noble  edifices ;  and  its  university  was  once  distinguished  among  Dutch  seminaries.  Large 
vessels  can  ascend  the  Hunse  from  the  Zuyder  Zee. 

Luxemburg,  an  extensive  province,  though  political  revolutions  attached  it  to  the  Nether- 
lands, and  now  to  Holland,  forms  part  of  Germany,  entitling  the  king  to  a  vote  in  the  Ger- 
manic diet.  Its  character  is  every  way  in  decided  contrast  to  the  rest  of  Holland  and  Bel- 
gium. Instead  of  a  dead,  rich  flat,  traversed  by  navigable  streams  and  canals,  Luxemburg 
presents  almost  throughout  high  mountains  and  woods,  forming  scenes  of  savage  grandeur, 
similar,  though  on  a  smaller  scale,  to  those  of  Switzerland.  The  country  is  destitute  of 
water  communications,  is  imperfectly  cultivated,  and  does  not  contain  a  population  of  more 
than  sixty-six  to  the  square  mile.  Its  breeds  of  cattle  and  sheep  are  of  small  size ;  but,  as 
usual  in  mountain  pastures,  of  delicate  flavour.  The  horses  are  active  and  liardy  ;  and  the 
tract  which  borders  on  the  Moselle  produces  valuable  wine. 

The  cities  and  towns  are  by  no  means  on  the  same  scale  as  those  in  the  rest  of  the  king- 
dom. Luxemburg,  the  capital,  situated  on  two  rocks,  whose  steep  sides  form  a  glacis,  while 
the  river  Else,  at  their  feet,  serves  as  a  wet  ditch,  is  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in 
Europe.  The  horse  and  cattle  markets  are  considerable.  Theux  has  in  its  neighbourhood 
mines  of  a  beautiful  black  marble.  Maestricht,  the  principal  town  of  Limburg,  has,  along 
with  all  the  part  of  that  province  east  of  the  Mouse,  been  assigned  to  Holland.  It  is  large, 
handsome,  and  well  fortified.  Ruremonde  and  Venlo,  also  neat  towns  of  some  strength,  are 
included  in  the  same  district. 


516 


MAP  OF  FRANCE— wEsrr  part. 


Fig.  209. 


Eagliih  Mill 


5  Longitude  West  4  trom  Greenwich    I 


1  Lougilude  1^1 


Fia.  269. 


MAP  OF  FRANCE— EAST  part. 


517 


B   I  T   E  K  R  ^ 


Vol.  I. 


4  Longitude  Eut      6  from  Greeawlch  6 

44 


^18 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  in. 


CHAPTER  Vm. 

FRANCE. 

France  is  a  great  and  powerful  kingdom,  placed,  as  it  were,  in  the  centre  of  the  civi- 
lized world,  and  for  several  centuries  distinguished  by  the  conspicuous  part  which  it  has 
acted  on  the  theatre  of  Europe.  Its  population,  military  power,  central  situation,  vast  re- 
sources, and  active  industry,  render  it  peculiarly  deserving  of  an  attentive  survey. 


References  to  the  Map  of  France. — West  Part. 


■  NORTH  PART. 

Prcivinoe  <if 

AR'I'OIS. 

Department  of 

I.  Srrail  of  Calais. 

(Pas  (le  Calais.) 

1.  Palais 

2.  Boulogne 
•J.  Siinier 

4.  Munireuil 

Prnvincp  of 

PICAUDY. 

Dcpartiiicnl  of 

11.  Somine. 

5.  Crcssy 

6.  Rue 

7.  Si.  Vallery 
a  Abbeville 
9.  Airaines 

Province  of  ihe 
I.  OF  FRANCE. 

Departments. 
Ill.Oise 

IV.  Seine  and  Oise. 
10.  Grandvillers 
J  I.  St.  Clair 

12.  Meulaii 

13.  Rambouillet 

14.  Iluiidaii 

15.  Manies 

Province  of 
NORMANDY. 
Denartments. 
V.  Lower  Seine 
VI.  Eiire 
VII   Orne 
VIII.  Ca.Vados 
IX.  'J"be  Channel. 
(La  .Manche.) 

16.  Vernon 

17.  Andeleys 

18.  Gonrniiy 

19.  Neulchatel 
2U.  Blangis 
21.  Eu 

25.  Dieppe 
2:t.  Si.Valery 
24.  Fecamp 

2i.  Havre  de  Grace 

26.  Hnlbec 

27.  Yveiol 

28.  Rouen 
2!l.  ElbiEuf 

30.  Luuviera 

31.  Briitnne 

32.  Ponl  .\ndenier 
3:t.  Poni  I'Eveque 

34.  Lisieux 

35.  Caen 
3<i.  Bayeux 

37.  Isieny 

38.  St  Lo 

39.  Carentan 

40.  Val.icnes 

41.  Biifl."ur 

42.  ("berbourg 
4"l.  Les  Pteii.v 
44.  Barneville 
4.1.  Creaiiee 
4li.  Cuutances 

47.  Granville 

48.  Vi  ledieu 

49.  Vire 

50.  Thoriany 

51.  St. Germain 
5-2.  P..nt  d'Ouilly 
bX  Falaise 

.54.  Argentaa 
5.i.  Gaco 

56.  Orbec 

57.  Bernay 

58.  Ruglea 

59.  Kvreux 

60.  Ivry 

61.  Vcmeuil 


62.  T/Aigle 
6:t.  Moriagne 
C4.  Belesme 
65.  ."Mencon 
CO.  Domfront 
67.  Tinrlicbray 
ft?.  Moitain 

69.  Avranches 

70.  Poulorson 

Province  of 
BRETAGNE. 

Departments. 

X.  Ii:e  and  Vi- 

laiiie 

XI.  North  Coast 

XII.  Finislerre 

Xin.  Moibiban 

XIV.  Lower  Loire 

71.  Anirain 

72.  St.  Malo 

73.  Oman 

74.  St.  Brieiix 
75  GuiiiganDp 

76.  Painipol 

77.  I^annion 
'   78.  Belle  lie 

79.  Morlaix 

80.  Liinnilia 

81.  Brest 

82.  I.anderneao 

83.  Chateaulin 

84.  Andicrne 

85.  aoiinper 
Pfi.  (iuiinperle 

87.  Gourin 

88.  Carbaix 

89.  Rnslrenen 
<I0.  Uzel 

91.  Loudeac 

92.  Broona 

93.  Monlfort 

94.  Hede 

95.  Rennea 

96.  St.Aubin 

97.  Fmigeres 

98.  Vitre 

99.  La  Guerche 

100.  Chaieaubriant 

101.  Cervin 

102.  Carentoire 

103.  Rcdon 

104.  Malelroit 
10.5.  Ploerinel 

106.  Band 

107.  Poiitivy 

108.  Henncbon 

109.  L'Orient 
no.  Vanneg 

111.  Roche-Bernard 

112.  N..7.ay 

113.  Ancenis 

114.  Nantes 
11.5.  Savenay 

116.  Guerrande 

117.  Pnimboeuf 

118.  Boiirgneuf 

119.  Cliesou 

Province  of 
ANJOU. 

Department  of 


Departments. 
XVI.  Mayenne 
XVII.  SarUie. 

129.  Craon 
liO.  Chateau  Gon- 
lier 

131.  Sable 

132.  La  Fleche 

133.  Chateau  de 

Loir 

134.  St.  Calais 

135.  I,e  Mans 

136.  Vaiges 
1.37.  Laval 
l.f8.  Jiivigno 

139.  Mayenne 

140.  Khron 

141.  Prez  en  Pail 
]4->.  Frenay 

143.  Man.ers 

144.  La  Ferte  Ber- 

nard 

145.  Monlmirail 


33.  Uzerche 
31.  Treignac 

35.  Tulle 

36.  Turenne 

37.  Dunzenac 

Province  of 
GUIENNE. 
Departments. 
VI.  Lot 

VII.  Tarn  and  Ga- 
ronne 
VIII.  Lot  and  Ga- 
ronne 
IX.  Dordogne 
X.  Boideaux 


Province  of 
ORLEANAIS. 
Departments. 
XVIIl.  Eure  and 

L.iir 
XIX.L<iiret 
XX.  Loir  and  Cher.  ou).  Mauze 

146.  Brou  211.  Sauze 

147.  Nogent  !e  Ro- 

148.  All'i'erB 

149.  Dreux 
l-W.  Maintenon 

151.  Chartres 

152.  Ronneval 
1.53  Toury 
154.  .'Nrlenay 
1.55.  Chaleaudun 
156.  Mondoubleau 
1.57.  Vendoino 

158.  Blois 

159.  Melun 
KiO.  Orleans 
161.  Cosson 
162    Chambord 

163.  Romorantin 

164.  St.Aignan 

165.  Chaumont 


XXV.  Vendee. 
184.  La   Roche 

Pusay 
1R5.  Chateilerault 

186.  Loudun 

187.  Moncontour 

188.  Thouars 

189.  Bres.«iire 

190.  Chatillon  sur 

S<^vfe 

191.  Pouzange 

192.  Montaitfu 

193.  Heauvoir 

194.  S'.Gillessur 

Vie 

195.  Sables  d'Olonne 

196.  Talmont 

197.  Bourbon-Ven- 

dee 

198.  Lticon 
199   Fonlcnay 

200.  Chataigneraye 

201.  Paribenay 

202.  Vivoiine 

203.  Poiiiers 

204.  St.  Savin 
20.">.  Monimorillon 
206.  L'lsle  Jourdain  49!  Meri'oc 
sSii-  Vr'i?*'  50.  Lesparre 
W^,-  ^r""?  51.  Casielnau 
209.  Niort  52.  La,Tete  de  Buch 

53.  Le  Barp 
54   Cas'res 
c-xrirrri  n  »  o'l       55.  Bordeaux 
SOUTH  PARI.    5(i.  Creon 
Province  of  57.  La  Reolle 

S.AINTONGE      .58.  Marmande 


38.  Thiviers 

39.  Nontron 

40.  Braniome 

41.  Petiirueu.x 

42.  .Mareuil 

43  Riberac 

44  Mucidan 

45.  Libourne 

46.  Coulras 

47.  Blaye 

48.  Bourg 


AND    AUNIS.     .59.  Castillonez 
Department  of      ™-  Bergerac 
I.  Lower  Charente.  Hi-  i'.^.Jhi^l 

1.  .Marans 

2.  La  Rochello 

3.  liochefort 
1.  St.  .lean  d'An- 

gely 


Province  of 

TOURAINE. 

Department  of 

XXI.  Indre  and 

Loire. 

166.  Chateau  Reg- 

nault 

167.  Tours 

168.  Savigne 

169.  Langeais 

170.  Chin.in 

171.  La  Haye 

172.  Montbazon 

173.  Loches 

174.  Beaulieu 

Province  of 

BERRI. 

Department  of 

XXII.  Indre. 


5.  Saintes 

6.  Marennes 

7.  Royan 

8.  Pons 
S.  Jonzac 

10.  Mivambeau 

11.  Monliou 

Province  of 

ANGOUMOIS. 

Department  of 

II.  Charente 

12.  Aiibelerre 

13.  Barbizieux 

14.  Cognac 

15.  Angonleme 

16.  La  Rochefou- 

cauld 

17.  Mansle 

18.  Ruffec 

19.  Confolcns 

Provinces  of 

MARCHF,  AND 

LIMOUSIN. 

Departments. 


62.  Miremont 

63.  .^^arlat 

64.  Domme 

65.  Catus 

66.  Gciuidon 

67.  Marlel 

68.  St.  Cere 

69.  F'iseac 

70.  Concots 

71.  St.  Antonin 
72  Cahors 

73.  Caussade 

74.  Miiniauban 

75.  Verdun 

76.  Castelsarasin 

77.  Moissac 

78.  Moncuq 

79.  Fiimel 

80.  ViMencuve- 

d'Agen 

81.  A  gen 

82.  Nerac 

83.  Castel-Geloux 

84.  Bazas 

85.  Captieux 

Province  of 
GASCONY. 
Departments. 
XI.  Landes 
XII.  Lower  Py- 
renees 


XV.  Mayenne  and   175.  Chatillon  sur 


Loire. 

120.  Beaupreau 
lil.  Chollet 

122.  Chalonne 

123.  Vihiers 

124.  Saumur 
125  Bauge 

126.  Angers 

127.  Ingrande 

128.  Segre 

Province  of 

MAINE  AND 

PERCHE. 


Indre 

176.  Levroux 

177.  Valencay 

178.  Valan 

179.  Chaieauroux 

180.  La  Chatre 

181.  Argenlon 

182.  St.  Benoit 

183.  Le  Blanc 

Province  of 

POITOU. 

Departments. 

XXIIL  Vienne 

XXIV.  Two  Sevres 


III.  Upper  Vienne    XIII.  Gers. 

IV.  Cnnuze 
V.  Creuse. 

20.  Bellac 

21.  Le  Dor.at 

22.  Siiulerraine 

23.  Gueret 

24.  Bourganeuf 

25.  Eymontiers 

26.  Si.  Leonard 

27.  Limoges 

28.  St.  Junien 
2tl.  Rocbechouart 

30.  Cbalus 

31.  St.  Yrieix 

32.  Pieiie  Buffiere 


86.  Sore 

87.  Murat 

88.  Mimizan 

89.  La  Bouliere 

90.  Roquefort 

91.  Eauze 

92.  Condom 

93.  Lecioure 

94.  Fleurance 

95.  Isle  en  Jourdain 

96.  Lombez 

97.  Auch 

98.  Mirande 

99.  Vic  Ferenzac 
100.  Nogaro 


101.  Aire 

102.  Mont  de  Marsan 

103.  Si.  Sever 

104.  Monfort 

105.  Dax 

lOtj.  St.  Vincent 

107.  Pcyrehorade 

108.  St.  Esprit 

109.  Bayonne 

110.  Si.  Jean  Pied  de 

Port 

111.  Maulcon 
112  Oleron 

113.  Navarreins 

114.  Orlhes 
11.5.  Garlin 

116.  Pau 

117.  Atudi 

118.  Nai 

Province  of 
BEARN  AND 

FOIX. 
Departments. 
XIV.  Upper  Pyre- 
nees 

XV.  Arricge 

119.  Tarbes 

120.  Argellez 

121.  Luz 

122.  Bagneres 

123.  Sairancolin 

124.  Bagneres  du 

Luchon 

125.  Si.  Girons 

126.  Tarascon 

127.  Ax 

128.  Foix 

129.  Pamiers 

Province  of 
LANGUEDOC. 
Departments. 

XVI.  Upper  Ga- 
ronne 

XVII.  Tarn. 

130.  Casielnaudary 

131.  Villefranche 

132.  Lavaur 

133.  St.  Sulpice 
]."14.  Grenade 
1.35.  Toulouse 
]:«).  St.  Lys 

137.  Muret 

138.  Rieux 

139.  ('nzeres 

140.  Si.  Gaudens 

141.  St.  Beat 

Rivers. 
a  Seine 
b  Dives 
c  Oure 
d  Vire 
e  Oust 
f  Vilaine 
g  Loire 
n  Mayenne 
i   Saithe 
i    Loire 
k  Beanvroa 
1    Le  Cher 
m Indre  . 
n  Creuse 
o  Vienne 
p  Charente 
q  Dronne 
r   Isle 

B  Dordogne 
t  Vezere 
u  Lot 
V  Garonne 
w  Aveyron 
X  Tarn 
y  Adour 
z  Gave  de  Faa 


Book  I. 


FRANCE. 


519 


Sect.  I. — General  Outline  and  Aspect. 
France  is  bounded  on  the  North  by  the  Channel,  which  separates  it  from  England,  and 


NORTH  PART. 

ridvinre  (if 
FLANDERS. 
Dcnartment  of 
I.  The  North. 

1.  Maulioijge 

2.  Avesnes 

3.  Lanrtrecy 

4.  Le  Cateau 

5.  Cambrai 

C.  Valenciennes 

7.  Douay 

8.  St.  Amand 
g.  l.ille 

10.  Hazebrouck 

11.  Cassel 

12.  Dunkirk 

13.  Gravelines. 

Province  of 

ARTOIS. 

Department  of  the 

II.  Strait  of  Calais. 

14.  Ardres 

15.  St.  Omer 

16.  Aire 

17.  Fauquemberg 

18.  Hesdin 

19.  St.  Pol 

20.  Bethune 

21.  Arras 

22.  Bapaume. 

Province  of 

PICARDY. 

Depiirtment  of 

III.  Somme. 

23.  Doulens 

24.  Amiens 

25.  Peronne 

26.  Roye 

27.  Montdidier 

28.  Poi-K. 

Province  of 
THE  ISLE  OF 

FRANCE. 
Departments. 
IV.  Oise 
V.  Seine 

VI.  Si-ine  and  Oise 
VII.  Snino  and 

Marne 
VIII.  Aisne. 
20.  Breteuil 

30.  Beauvais 

31.  Clermont 

32.  Nciyon 

33.  Compiegne 

34.  Crospy 

35.  Scniis 

36.  Meru 

37.  Pontoise 

38.  St.  Denis 

39.  Luzarches 

40.  Danimartin 

41.  Mcaux 

42.  ('iiulnmmier 

43.  Marolles 

44.  Paris 
4.5.  Sceaux 

46.  Versailles 

47.  Corbeil 

48.  Etampes 

49.  Melun 

50.  Fontainebleau 
.5!.  Nemours 

52.  M'intereau  Fault 

Yiinne 

53.  Rosoy 
54   Proving 

55.  Chatpau  Thiery 
56  La  FiTte  Mi  Ion 
.57.  Villers  Coterets 

58.  Siiissons 

59.  Laon 

60.  l.a  Fere 

61.  St.  Quentin 
6-:;.  (Jni-^e 

6!!.  Sissonne 
64.  Verving. 

Province  of 
CHAMPAGNE. 

Devnrtments. 
IX.  Ardennes 

X.  Marne 
XI.  Aiibe 
XII.  Upper  Marne 
6.5.  Rocroy 

66.  Charleville 

67.  Mfzieros 

68.  Sedan 

69.  Grand  Pre 


70.  Vouziers 

71.  Altigny 

72.  Rethel 

73.  Asfeld 

74.  Rheims 
7.5.  Courlagnon 

76.  Valmy 

77.  Si.  Menehoud 

78.  Chalons 

79.  Epernay 

80.  Dormans 

81.  Monimirail 

82.  Sezanno 

83.  V.;rius 

84.  Vitry  sur  Marne  jg^'  p 


References  to  the  Map  of  France.—East  Pari. 
XX.  Doubs 
XXI.  Jura. 
1.53.  Lure 
154.  Lu.\euil 


8.5.  St.  Remy 
86.  Raniaru 


155.  Jussey 

156.  Vesoul 

157.  ('hamplitte 

158.  Dumpierre 
1.59.  Gray 

160.  Gy 

161.  Baume 

162.  Monibeliard 

163.  St.  Hypolite 

164.  Le  Russey 
iivant 


ll>6.  Ornans 
Q-j    A  .    1      167.  Besancon 

87.  Arcissur  Aube   ifja   r)„in.r,.v 

88.  Marsilly  i)S-  Jf",'"fe''-y 

89.  Nogent  sur 

Seine 

90.  Troyes 

91.  Chaource 

92.  Bar  sur  Seine 

93.  Clairvau.x 

94.  Bar  sur  Aube 

95.  Montierender 


169.  Dole 

170.  Poligny 

171.  Salins 

172.  Rochi'jean 
17.3.  Neuve 
174.  Cluircvaiix 


233.  Sanccrre 

234.  Vierzon 

235.  Bourses 

236.  Cbateauneuf 

237.  Cliaieau  Med- 

iant 

238.  St.  Amand 

239.  Blet 

240.  Sanccrgues. 

Province  of 
NIVERNAIS. 
Depnrluifnt  of 
XXVllI.Nievre. 

241.  Nevers 

242.  La  Charite 

243.  Cosne 

244.  Clamecy 
24.5.  Champlemi 
24().  Corbicny 


42.  Riom 

43.  Tillers. 


Province  of 
LYON  N  A  IS. 

Depart  mettts. 
VI.  Loire 
VII.  Rhone. 

44.  L'Hopiial 

45.  Pacudiere 

46.  Roanne 

47.  Aiaueperso 

48.  Thizy 

49.  Villefranche 

50.  Lyons 

51.  Iseron 

52.  Monlbrison 

53.  St.Riimbert 

54.  St.  Eiienne 


247.  Chateau Chinon    5.5.  St.  Chamond 

248.  Moulins  en  Gil-   56.  Brignaia. 
hert 


249.  Decizo 


17.5.  LonsleSaulnier  250.  St.  Pierre  lo 


96.  Va.ssy 

97.  .loinville 
9S.  Chaumont 
99.  Auberive 

100.  Lanares 

101.  Fay  le  Billot 

102.  Bourbonne  les 

B:iins 

103.  Bourmont. 

Province  of 
LORRAINE. 
Departments. 

XIII.  Vosges 

XIV.  Mcurihe 
XV.  Meuae 

XVI.   Moselle. 

104.  Sieneville 

105.  Plombieres 

106.  Epinal 

107.  Remiremont 
103.  Gcrardmer 

109.  St.  Die 

110.  Romberviller 

111.  Mirecourt 

112.  Nenfchaleau 

113.  Gondrccourt 

114.  Bar  le  Due 
11.5.  Vaucouleurs 

116.  Conimcrcy 

117.  Toulon 

118.  Nancy 

119.  Luneville 

120.  Raon 

121.  Sirrcbourg 


176.  Dortan 

177.  St.  Claude. 


Province  of 
BURGUNDY. 
Departments. 
XXII.  Ain 
XXIU.  Saoneand 

Loire 
XXrV.  Coled'Or 
XXV.  Yonne. 

178.  Nanlua 

179.  Fort  del'Ecluso  2.50.  Casset 


Mouiier. 

Province  of 
BOURBONNAIS. 

Drvnrtment  of 

XXIX.  Allier. 

251.  Bourbon  I'Ar- 

chambault 
2.52.  Moulins 

253.  Donjon 

254.  Varenne.? 
2.55.  La  Palisso 


Province  of 
DAUPHINY. 
Depart ments  of 
VIII.  here 
IX.  Upp^r  Alps 
X.  Drome. 

57.  Vienne 

58.  Peas 


Province  of 
1.ANGUED0C. 

J^niurtinents. 
XV  Gard 
XV'l.  Ardeche 

A VII I.  Lozere 
XIX.  Ilerault 
XX.  Tarn 
XXI.  Aude. 

122.  Aigues-mortes 

123.  Sommieres 

124.  Nisnies 
125   Uzes 

126.  Pont  St.  Esprit 

127.  Bariac 

128.  Alais 

129.  (Jenoilhac 

130.  Vdlefort 

131.  L'Argentiore 

132.  Viviers 

133.  Aubenas 

134.  Privas 

1.35.  Tournon 

1.36.  Annonay 
137.  St.  Apreve 
1.38.  Yssingeaux 

139.  Si.  .lulien  de 

Chap 

140.  Le  Puy 

141.  Brioud 

142.  Lan::eac 


2.57.  Gannat 

2.58.  St.  Pourcam 
259.  Herisson 
200.  Mont  Lucon. 


180.  Seyssel 

181.  Belley 

182.  Poncin 

183.  Mount  Luel 

184.  Trevoux 

185.  Chalamont 

186.  Bourg 

187.  Macon 

188.  Port  de  Vaux 

189.  Cluny 

190.  Semur  en  Bri- 

onnois 

191.  Charolles 

192.  Roiirboh-Lancy    4.  Auznnce 

193.  M.St.  Vincent    5.  Anhusson 


SOUTH  PART. 
Province  of 
MARCHE. 

Department  of 
1.  Creuse. 
i.  Boiissac 

2.  .larnaHe 

3.  Chambon 


59.  Cote  St,  Andre   )4;'t:  f 'iicly  d'Ap 
bU.  Bourgoin  344.  ,||,v,ils 

61.  Cremien  14.5   Lan"oene 

62.  La  Tour  du  Pin  ]4i;.  Marvejols 

63.  Voiron  147.  M,,nde 

M  Si.Barraux        148.  Canourgue 
b.5.  Grenoble  ]4<)  piuiiic 

66.  Marceliin  jso.  Mcyrueis 

67.  La  Mure  151.LeViEan 
^.  Bourg  d  Oysans  15.2.  Anduze 

69.  Briancon  \^\  Gangi  s 

70.  Montdauphin      \fi\,  Monipelier 
iX-  P.'-  Bo""et  1.55   Balaruc 
'2.  Die                       1,56.  Pezenas 

73.  Beaufort  ]57   I^(„|pve 

74.  Si.  .leandeRoi  ].58,  Bedarrieux 
1.59.  I,a  Caune 


194.  Tournus 

195.  Romenay 

196.  Louhans 

197.  Chalonne 

198.  Chalons 

199.  Nolay 

200.  Montcenis 

201.  Aiilun 

202.  Saul 


6.  Felleiin 

7.  Courtine. 


122.  Chateau  Salins  20!.  Arnay  le  Due 


123.  Nomeny 

124.  Gorze 

125.  Frenes 

126.  Si.  Mihiel 

127.  Vaubecourt 

128.  Verdun 

129.  Varennca 
1.30.  V'Mwm 

131.  Montmedy 

132.  L<m«wy 

133.  Bricy 

134.  Meiz 
13.5.  Thionville 

136.  St.  Avoid 

137.  Sarreguemines 

138.  Bitche. 
Province  of 
ALSACE. 

Departments. 
XVII.  Lower  Rhine 


XViii  Upper  Rhine  |^;|-^^„^  Yonne 


139.  Weissemburg 

140.  Hagueniiu 

141.  Bouqiienon 

142.  Savernc 

143.  Sirashwrg 

144.  Molsheim 

145.  Scliflstat 

146.  Si.  Marie  aux 

Mines 

147.  Colmnr 

148.  Neiif  Brisach 

149.  Mnlhaiisen 
1.50.  Abkirch 

151.  Chmn 

152.  Giromagny. 
Province  nf 

FRANCHE- 

COMTE. 
Departments. 
XIX.  Upper  Saone   232.  Aubigny 


Province  of 

LIMOUSIN. 

Department  of 

II.  Correze. 

8.  Ussel 

9.  Port 

10.  Egletons. 

Province  of 

GUIENNE. 

Department  of 

111.  Aveyron. 

11.  Fiireac 

12.  Livienac 

13.  Villefranche 

14.  St.  Sernin 

15.  St.  AlVique 

16.  Si.  Rome 

17.  Milhau 

18.  Rodez 

19.  Sevrr,TC 

20.  St.  Geniez 

21.  Guiolle 

22.  Fnlrai2ues 

23.  Espalion 
VilleneuverAr-  24.  ViUe  Contal. 

hevcque  _       .  . 

Province  of 

AUVERGNE. 

D'parlmrnts. 

IV.  Cantul 

V.  Dome. 

25.  Mount  Saivy 

26.  Maiirs 
Aurillac 


204.  Beauiie 

205.  Nuits 

206.  Dijon 

207.  Is  sur  Til 

208.  Semur 

209.  Avalon 

210.  Coulange  le& 

Vinces 

211.  Auxr-rre 

212.  Virmanton 

213.  Ravieres 

214.  Monibard 
21.5.  Baisneux 

216.  Chatillon  sur 

Seine 

217.  Tonnerrc 

218.  St.  Florentin 

219.  .loigny 
220  


223.  St.Juhen. 
Province  of 

ORLEANAIS. 
Drpnrtnient  of 

XXVI.  Loiret. 

224.  Courtenay 
2-'5.  Chatillon 

226.  Moniargis 

227.  Boyne 
22^.  Pithiviers 

229.  (^>mbreux 

230.  Sully 

231.  Gien. 

Province  of 

BFRRI. 

Department  of 

XXV II.  Cher. 


75.  Isere 

76.  St.  Vallier 

77.  Valence 

78.  Crest 

79.  Montelimart 

80.  Nions 

81.  Largu 

82.  Ariiencon 

83.  Gap 

84.  Embrun. 

Province  of 

PROVENCE. 

Departments. 

XI.  Vaucluse 

XII.  Lower  Alps 

XIII.  Var 

XIV.  Mouths  of  the 
Rhone. 

85.  Bnrcelonnetle 

86.  Colmars 

87.  Digne 

88.  Sisteron 

89.  Forcalquier 

90.  Sault 

91.  Vaison 

92.  Orange 

93.  Carpentras 

94.  Avisnon 

95.  Orgcm 

96.  Cavaillon 

97.  Lambcse 
m.  Ant 
99.  Mnnn.s(iu9 

100.  Lps  Mees 
101    Riex 

102.  Cnslcllnne 

103.  Entrovaux 
104  Si.  Auban 
10.5.  Vence  • 

106.  Aniibes 

107.  Giasse 


28.  Chr.ndes  Aigues  108.  IVaffoignan 

29.  Si.  Flour  109.  Frc.ius 


30.  Mas 

31.  Moiat 

32.  Manriac 
.33.  Seignes 
34.  Bos.o 
.35.  Issoire 

36.  Anibf-rt 

37.  Billom 

38.  Clfimont 
.39.  Roch.-lort 
40.  Pont  Gibnud 
41  Muiitaigu 


110.  Si.Tropez 
111    Le  Luc 

112.  Hieres 

113.  B'i-nollc 

114.  Si.MMximi 
11.5.  Toulon 

116.  La  Cioiat 

117.  Marseilles 
lis.  Aix 

119.  Marliguea 

120.  Salon 

121.  Aries 


160.  A I by 

161.  Cast  res 

162.  Pnis  Laurens 

163.  Mazamet 
]n4.  St.  Pons 

165.  Bcziers 

166.  Narbonne 

167.  t'Hunes 

168.  Carcassonne 

169.  Si.Papnul 

170.  Faiijeaux 

171.  AIpI 

172.  Roriome 

173.  auillan 

174.  La  Gras« 

Province  of 
ROU.^SILLON 
Dennrtment  of 
XXII.  Easi.rn  Py- 
renees. 

175.  Rivnsaltes 

176.  Prades 

177.  Ml.  Louis 

178.  Pral?  de  Molo 

179.  Ccret 

180.  Perpignan. 

Risers. 
n  Rhine 
b   Mosrila 
c  Mense 
d   Aisne 

e  Escaut  or  Scheldt 
f  Somme 
g  Oise 
h  Marne 
i   Sci.^e 
j    Aube 
k  i'erain 
1   Yonne 
m  Loire 
n   Allier 
o  Le  Cher 
p  Lot 
q  Tarn 
r  Aude 
s  Rhone 
t   Duranco 
u  Is  re 
V  Ain 
w  Saono 
X  pignon 
y  Doubs 
z  Loue, 


5-20  DESCRIPTI\T:  geography.  Part  HI. 

by  part  of  the  frontier  of  the  Netlierlands.  On  the  east  it  is  bounded  by  Germany,  from 
\vhich  it  is  divided  by  the  Riiine,  and  by  Switzerland  and  Italy,  which  lie  on  the  other  side 
of  the  mighty  barrier  of  the  Alps.  Its  southern  limits  are  the  Mediterranean  and  the  broad 
isthmus  tilled  by  the  Pyrenees,  on  the  other  side  of  which  extends  the  Spanish  peninsula. 
On  the  west  is  the  Atlantic,  and  more  especially  that  vast  gulf  called  the  Bay  of  Biscay. 
The  southern  extremity,  on  the  line  of  the  Pyrenees,  falls  in  42°  30'  N.  lat.  the  northern 
beyond  Dunkirk  in  51°  10',  making  in  length  eight  and  a  half  degrees  of  latitude.  The 
breadth  may  be  from  8°  20'  E.  long.,  to  4°  40'  W.  long,  making  thirteen  degrees  of  longi- 
tude. This  will  give  dimensions  nearly  square  of  595  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  550 
from  east  to  west.  The  superficial  extent  is  about  205,000  English  square  miles,  or  somewhat 
above  130,000,000  acres. 

The  surface  of  this  very  extensive  territory  is  in  general  level,  although  it  borders,  and 
is  encroached  upon  by  the  greatest  mountain  ranges  of  Europe.  The  Alps  cover  the  full 
half  of  its  eastern  frontier,  and  their  branches  extending  into  Dauphiny  and  Provence,  render 
them  very  rugged  and  romantic  regions.  The  Pyrenees,  which  rank  second  among  the 
chains  of  the  Continent,  range  along  tlie  souiiiern  border,  and  cover  with  their  branches 
Roussillon  and  Gascony.  On  the  east,  where  France  reaches  to  the  Rhine,  are  the  V^osges 
and  other  chains  of  moderate  height,  parallel  to  that  river.  The  only  range  exclusively  French, 
is  that  of  Auvergne,  in  the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  which  not  only  includes  all  that  province 
where  it  rises  to  the  height  of  5000  or  GOOO  feet,  but  stretches  by  a  winding  line  along  the 
left  bank  of  the  Allier  to  Languedoc,  parallel  to  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  where  it  is 
called  the  Cevennes.  But  by  far  the  greater  part  of  France,  including  the  whole  north  and 
the  whole  west,  is  one  widely  extended  plain,  which  yields  in  very  high  perfsction  all  the 
fruits  and  products  of  the  temperate  zone. 

The  rivers  of  France,  though  not  of  the  first  magnitude,  are  noble  and  commodious. 
Traversing  almost  every  part  of  the  kingdom,  they  afford  ample  means  of  internal  navigation ; 
and  the  broad  plains  whicii  border  on  them  yield  the  most  luxuriant  harvests.  The  Loire, 
which  is  the  principal,  rises  in  the  soutii,  on  the  borders  of  Provence,  and  flows  for  .sometime 
nearly  north,  parallel  to  the  course  of  the  Rhone  and  the  Saone,  though  in  an  opposite  direc- 
tion. Near  Nevers  it  receives  the  Allier,  which  in  a  parallel  and  nearly  equal  stream  ha3 
hitherto  accompanied  it;  it  now  gradually  bends  round  into  a  westerly  course,  which  it  fol- 
lows through  tiie  plains  of  Orleanais  and  Touraine,  the  garden  of  France,  till  after  a  course 
of  700  miles,  it  falls  into  the  sea  a  little  below  the  great  commercial  city  of  Nantes.  The 
Rhone  is  not  at  first  a  French  river  :  it  rises  in  the  heart  of  Switzerland,  amid  the  eternal 
snows  and  glaciers  of  the  Grimsel  and  the  Shreckhorn,  and  rolls  its  earliest  course  beneath 
the  mighty  mountain  walls  of  St.  Gothard,  Monte  Rosa,  and  the  Simplon.  It  now  expands 
into  the  Leman  lake,  from  whence  it  emerges  near  Geneva,  where  it  soon  enters  France, 
and  rolls  direct  towards  Lyons.  At  that  great  city,  it  receives  the  Saone,  bringing  down  an 
ample  stream  from  the  Vosges,  swelled  by  that  of  the  Doubs  from  the  Jura.  The  Rhone, 
now  following  the  direction  of  its  tributary,  turns  directly  south,  and,  after  a  rapid  course 
through  Dauphiny  and  Provence,  enters  the  Mediterranean  by  several  mouths.  In  this  course, 
the  Alps  transmit  it  to  the  Isere,  and  the  classical  stream  of  the  Durance  :  its  entire  length 
may  be  500  miles.  The  Seine,  tiiough  of  inferior  magnitude,  claims  distinction  as  flowing 
by  the  metropolis :  it  rises  on  the  frontier  of  Burgundy,  and  runs  almost  due  north  till  it 
receives  the  parallel  and  nearly  equal  Aube,  when  their  united  waters  flow  west  and  north- 
west. Before  reaching  Paris,  it  receives  from  the  south  the  Yonne,  and  from  the  north, 
almost  under  the  walls  of  the  capital,  its  greatest  tributary,  the  Marno.  At  Paris  it  is  navi- 
gable for  vessels  of  considerable  burden.  Beyond  Paris,  the  Seine  makes  some  extensive 
windings,  and  is  augmented  from  the  north  by  tiie  waters  of  the  Oise  bringing  those  of  the 
Aisne.  It  then  passes  the  fine  and  flourishing  city  of  Rouen,  and,  spreading  into  an  estuary, 
joins  the  English  Channel  at  tlie  ancient  port  of  Havre.  The  Garonne  has  a  course  of  still 
less  extent,  though  its  broad  navigable  stream,  flowing  through  a  magnificent  plain,  the  most 
productive  in  valuable  wine  of  any  in  France,  gives  it  a  high  commercial  importance.  It 
rises  near  the  eastern  Pyrenees,  and  flows  northward  to  Toulouse,  where  it  assumes  a  steady 
north-west  course,  during  which,  swelled  from  the  north  by  the  Aveyron,  the  Lot,  and  the 
Dordogne,  and  passing  the  great  haven  of  Bordeaux,  it  becomes  an  estuary,  capable  of  re- 
ceiving the  largest  vessels.  The  Rhine  is  to  France  only  a  limitary  river  for  somewhat 
above  100  miles  ;  but  its  great  tributaries,  the  Moselle  and  the  Mouse,  rise  and  have  most 
of  their  early  course  within  its  territory.  The  important  Belgic  river,  the  Scheldt,  also  rises 
witiiin  the  French  territory. 

France  has  no  lakes,  which,  in  a  general  view,  seem  worthy  of  mention. 

Sect.  II. — Natural  Geography. 

SuBSECT.  1. —  Geology. 
Primitive,  and  tram^ition  districts.     In  France  there  are  six  districts  where  the  older 
ocks,  or  those  of  the  primitive  and  transition  classes,  prevail :  viz.  Western  Normandy,  with 


Book  I.  FRANCE.  521 

Britany  and  Anjou;  the  northern  side  of  the  Pyrenees;  the  departments  of  the  Lower  Alps, 
Upper  Alps,  and  part  of  tlie  Isere  ;  Central  France,  or  the  table-land  of  France  ;  central 
part  of  the  Vosges  ;  and  the  Ardennes. 

(1.)  Western  Normandy,  Brilany,  and  Anjnu.  In  this  region  the  rocks  are  partly  Nep- 
tunian, partly  Plutonian :  the  Neptunian  strata  are  gneiss,  mica  slate,  clay  slate,  grey- 
wacke,  quartz  rock,  and  limestone ;  the  Plutonian  rocks  are  granite,  syenite,  greenstone, 
and  porphyry. 

(2.)  Northern  side  of  the  Pyrenees.  On  the  French  side  of  the  Pyrenees  the  central 
rocks  are  of  primitive  formation,  and  consist  of  mica  slate,  clay  slate,  limestone,  or  marble ; 
reposing  upon  these,  and  forming  the  great  body  of  the  range,  are  rocks  of  the  transition 
class ;  viz.  clay  slate,  greywacke,  and  transition  limestone. 

(.S.)  Departments  of  the  Lower  and  Upper  Alps,  and  part  of  Isere.  In  this  mountainous 
region  there  are  magnificent  displays  of  many  of  the  more  interesting  formations  of  the 
primitive  and  transition  classes. 

(4.)  Central  table-land  or  plateau  of  France.  The  centre  of  France  is  occupied  by  a 
vast  table-land  or  plateau  of  old  rocks,  in  general  granite,  which  forms  the  mountains  of 
Burgundy,  the  Limousin,  Aveyron,  Ardeche,  and  the  Cevennes.  It  is  more  than  eighty 
leagues  in  breadth  from  the  heiglits  of  Limoges;  but  in  proceeding  towards  the  south,  it  gra- 
dually thins  off,  and  terminates  in  a  point  which  connects  it  with  tlie  Montague  Noire. 
This  latter  group  of  old  rocks  forms  a  kind  of  peninsula,  which  is  separated  from  the 
Pyrenees,  by  a  longitudinal  basin  of  secondary  and  tertiary  formations.  The  acclivities  of 
tliis  central  granitic  table-land,  and  some  of  its  hollows,  are  covered  more  or  less  densely 
with  newer  rocks  of  various  descriptions.  Besides  these,  there  occurs  on  its  eastern  part  a 
splendid  display  of  volcanic  rocks.  The  primitive  and  transition  rocks  of  this  table-land  are 
the  following ;  viz.  granite,  porphyry,  talc  slate,  serpentine,  gneiss,  clay  slate,  greywacke, 
and  limestone. 

(.5.)  Central  part  of  the  Vosges.  The  oldest  rocks  in  this  range  of  mountains,  and  which 
are  said  to  belong  to  the  transition  class,  are  the  following :  granite,  syenite,  hornblende 
rocks,  greenstone,  red  <iuartziferous  porphyry,  augitic  porphyry,  dolomite,  diallage  rock, 
serpentine,  talc  slate,  clay  slate,  greywacke,  with  anthracite,  granular  and  compact  marble 
or  limestone. 

(6.)  Ardennes.  That  part  of  this  range  of  mountains  included  within  the  limits  of  France, 
which  belongs  to  the  older  part  of  tlie  geognostical  series,  is  composed  of  various  clay  slates, 
with  greywacke,  all  of  which  seem  to  belong  to  the  transition  class. 

Secondary  districts.  The  lower  and  flatter  parts  of  France  which  extend  from  the  primi- 
tive and  transition  districts,  are  composed  of  secondary  and  tertiary  deposits,  more  or  less 
covered  witli  alluvial  matters;  and  in  some  quarters  intermingled  with  volcanic  rocks.  The 
secondary  formations  are  arranged  in  the  same  order,  and  exhibit  similar  relations  with 
tliose  already  described  in  our  account  of  Britain.  The  mountain  limestone  and  coal  forma- 
tions form,  when  contrasted  with  their  abundance  in  Britain,  but  a  small  portion  of  the  sur- 
face of  France ;  while  the  new  red  sandstones,  with  the  series  of  the  Jura  limestone,  in- 
cluding the  oolites,  form  great  tracts  of  country.  Chalk,  or  uppermost  rock  of  the  secondary 
series,  occurs  in  vast  abundance,  forming  two  basins,  the  one  the  northern,  extending  in 
length  from  the  northern  extremity  of  Artois  to  the  southern  limit  of  Touraine,  and  in  breadth 
from  Havre  de  Grace  to  near  Bar  ie  Due.  The  northern  side  of  the  southern  basin  extends 
from  Rochefort  to  Cahors,  and  the  southern  side  ranges  along  the  northern  face  of  the 
Pyrenees. 

Tertiary  districts.  France  is  remarkable  on  account  of  the  great  extent  of  its  tertiary 
deposits;  of  these  the  following  may  be  considered  as  the  principal  ones: — 1.  That  of  which 
Paris  forms  the  central  point ;  which  extends  towards  the  north  as  high  as  Laon,  and  south- 
ward to  Blois;  while  it  stretches  across  from  Pontoise  on  the  west  to  Epernay  on  the  east. 
2.  The  great  southern  deposit,  wliich  extends  from  the  south  side  of  the  river  Gironde  to  the 
south  bank  of  the  river  Adour.  3.  The  south-eastern  deposit,  which  covers  part  of  the  De- 
partments of  Herault,  Gard,  Mouths  of  tlie  Rhone,  Var,  and  Vaucluse.  4.  The  deposit  in 
tiie  valley  of  the  river  Allier,  and  tliat  in  the  upper  part  of  the  course  of  the  Loire.  5.  The 
great  deposit  in  the  course  of  the  Rhine  and  Stione,  extending  from  about  Valence  to  Dijon. 
G.  The  tract  along  the  Rhine,  extending  from  Basle  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Carlsrhue. 

Volcanic  districts.  True  volcanic  rocks  occur  in  France  only  in  the  great  central  table- 
land or  plateau ;  in  the  Departments  of  Loire,  Upper  Loire,  Cantal,  and  Puy  de  Dome.  The 
volcanic  rocks  are  basalt  and  basalt  tuffa;  trachyte  with  its  tuffa;  and  lava,  with  its  tuffas, 
scoria?,  &c.  The  newest  of  these  rocks  are  the  lavas ;  while  the  basalt  and  tracliytes  appear 
of  more  ancient  date,  although  still  not  very  old,  as  we  find  them  breaking  through  rocks 
of  the  tertiary  class. 

Alluvial  districts.  Alluvia  of  every  description  occur  in  France.  Diluvium  or  the  old 
alluvium  forms  extensive  tracts  in  many  quarters  of  the  kingdom,  where  it  contains  remains 
of  extant  species  of  animals,  of  which"  the  most  characteristic  are  those  belonging  to  the 
order  pachvdcnna,  as  the  elephant,  rhhioceros,  &c.     Diluvium  is  also  found  in  caves  along 

Voil.  L  44*  3Q 


5^  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

with  bones  of  extinct  animals,  particularly  of  the  carnivorous  genera;  and  rents  and  fissures 
in  strata  are  sometimes  filled  up  with  a  diluvium  also  containinor  remains  of  extinct  animals, 
of  which  the  most  characteristic  are  the  small  herbivora.  Bone  caves  and  bone  breccia 
occur  at  St.  Antonin  and  St.  Julien  near  Montpelier;  at  Billargues,  Vendargues,  and  Peze- 
nas-Herault ;  at  Anduze  and  St.  Hippolyte,  in  Gard ;  at  Aix,  in  the  department  of  the 
Moutiis  of  the  Rhone ;  at  Villefranche  and  Lauraguais,  in  the  Upper  Garonne ;  and  at  Per- 
pignan,  in  the  Eastern  Pyrenees.  This  diluvium  is  covered,  to  a  greater  or  less  depth,  with 
the  various  well-known  kinds  of  modern  alluvium  and  of  vegetable  soils. 

Mines  and  Quarries. 

Coal  mines.  Coal  of  various  descriptions,  as  glance,  bituminous,  and  brown  coal,  are 
mined  in  the  following  departments  in  France,  aftbrding  annually  but  a  small  return  for  so 
vast  a  country : — Allier,  Aveyron,  Mouths  of  the  Rhone,  Calvados,  Gard,  Herault,  Isere, 
Upper  Loire,  Lower  Loire,  Mayenne  and  Loire,  Moselle,  Nievre,  North,  Pas  de  Calais,  Puy 
de  Dome,  Upper  Rhine,  Lower  Rhine,  Lower  Saone,  and  Tarn. 

Iron  mines.  Iron  mines,  some  of  them  of  considerable  importance,  occur  in  the  following 
departments : — Ardennes,  Charente,  Cher,  Cote  d'Or,  Dordogne,  Doubs,  Eure,  Euro  and 
Loir,  Forets,  Indre,  Indre  and  Loire  Isere,  Jura,  Lower  Loire,  Upper  Mame,  Moselle, 
Nievre,  North,  Orne,  Upper  Rhine,  Lower  Rhine,  Upper  Saone,  Saone  and  Loire,  and  Vosges. 

Mines  of  silver  and  lead.    The  principal  lead  mines  and  silver  mines  are  the  following : — 

Minrs  of  Qnint.ils  of  Lead  Marcs  of  Silver 

Fiiiisterre Poii  llauen about    8,000 1200 

Ditto IIut'liToet 3,000 1(00 

Lozere Villefort ..Ig.OCO 1500 

Isere Vienne 1,500 — 

Copper  mines.  These  are  situated  in  the  following  departments : — Upper  Alps,  Rhone, 
Rhnie  and  Moselle. 

Mines  of  manganese.  This  metal  is  mined  at  Romaneche  and  St.  Micaud,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Saone  and  Loire ;  at  Suquet  in  Dordogne ;  in  the  mountain  of  Tholey  in  Mo- 
selle ;  at  Laveline,  near  Saint  Dier,  in  the  Vosges ;  and  at  Saint  Jean  de  Gardonenque  in 
the  Cevennes. 

Mines  of  antimony.  Antimony  occurs  in  the  provinces  of  Charente,  Upper  Loire,  La 
Vendee,  Cantal,  Allier,  Gard,  and  Puy  de  Dome. 

Mines  of  vitriol  and  alum.  The  principal  mines  of  sulphate  of  iron  or  vitriol  are  those 
of  Saint  Julien  de  Valgargue,  near  Alais,  which  furnishes  annually  30,000  quintals ;  and 
that  of  Becquet  and  of  Goincourt,  near  Beauvais,  which  in  some  years  aflbrds  15,000  quin- 
tals ;  that  of  Ural,  in  the  department  of  Aisne,  and  of  Gersdorf,  in  the  department  of  Lower 
Rhine.  There  are  celebrated  manufactories  of  alum  at  Montpelier,  and  at  Javelle  near 
Paris.  Some  considerable  beds  of  rock-salt  have  been  discovered  at  Vic,  in  the  department 
of  Meurthe.  One  of  these  is  upwards  of  fourteen  yards  thick,  and  another  has  not  as  yet 
been  cut  through.  Altliough  cobalt,  arsenic,  nickel,  and  tin  also  occur  in  France,  no  consi- 
derable mines  of  those  minerals  have  been  established. 

Quarries.  The  most  extensive  quarries  are  those  of  marble,  building-stone,  slate,  gyj>- 
sum,  millstone,  and  flint.  Different  kinds  of  marble  are  raised  at  Givet,  Brabancon,  Mons, 
Namur,  Boulogne  sur  Mer,  Caen,  Troyes,  Montbar,  Cosne,  Tournus,  Narbonne,  Aix.  Mar- 
seilles, Tarb,  and  in  many  valleys  in  the  Pyrenees.  There  are  quarries  of  excellent  building- 
stone  in  the  departments  of  La  Manche,  Calvados,  Moselle,  Cote  d'Or,  Yonne,  Oise,  Seine, 
Loire,  Dordogne,  and  in  many  departments  in  the  south.  Vast  slate  quarries  are  worked  in 
the  departments  o£  La  Manche,  Meuse,  Ardennes,  Maine  and  Loire,  and  at  the  foot  of  the 
Pyrenees.  In  many  other  places,  and  particularly  in  Champagne,  &c.,  there  are  quarries 
and  pits  of  clay  for  brick  and  tile-making.  The  gypsum  of  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris,  the 
chalk  of  the  departments  of  Marne  and  Seine,  the  talc  named  chalk  of  Briancon,  the  mill- 
stone or  buhr-stone  of  Ferte  sons  Jouarre,  are  objects  of  considerable  commercial  importnnce. 
The  departments  of  Yonne,  Cher,  and  Lower  Charente,  supply  all  France  and  different 
foreign  nations  with  gun-flints.  Among  the  clays  met  with  in  France,  that  of  Forges  les 
Eaux,  was  formerly  in  great  repute  in  Holland  for  the  manufacture  of  pipes;  tlie  clay  or 
eartli  of  Belboeuf,  near  Rouen,  is  considered  an  excellent  material  in  the  purifying  of  sugar; 
and  the  potters'  clay  of  the  vicinity  of  Beauvais  and  Montereau,  and  the  porcelain  earth  or 
kao-lin  of  Saint  Yrieix,  near  Limoges,  are  highly  esteemed. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Botany. 
Having  devoted  already  so  great  a  portion  of  our  space  to  preliminary  remarks  upon  vege- 
table geography  on  its  more  extended  scale,  and  to  that  of  Great  Britain  in  particular,  we 
must  content  ourselves  with  a  more  limited  account  of  the  plants  of  other  countries,  other- 
wise we  should  greatly  overstep  the  bounds  prescribed  to  us  by  the  natuie  of  the  present 
work.  Following  the  plan  here  adopted  for  the  arrangement  of  the  different  countries, 
France  comes  next  under  our  notice ;  and  a  more  interesting  field  for  the  geographical  bota- 
nist does  not  exist  in  Europe ;  not  only  because  of  its  extent  and  vast  variety  of  surface,  the 


Book  I.  FRANCE. 


523 


great  height  of  its  mountains,  and  its  geological  structure ;  but  because,  by  the  labours  o\" 
its  naturalists,  especially  Lamarck  and  De  Candolle,  the  vegetable  productions  of  France 
have  been  better  explored  than  those  of  almost  any  other  country  in  the  world.  All  that  we 
can  do  here,  however,  is  to  notice  in  general  those  that  are  the  most  interesting,  from  tiieir 
utility,  their  beauty,  or  some  circumstances  connected  with  their  history  ;  or  as  showing  how 
vegetable  forms  or  groups  are  situated,  in  regard  to  their  distribution,  upon  the  surface  of 
the  eartli. 

France,  extending,  as  it  does,  from  lat.  42°  30'  to  51°  N.,  or  nearly  to  the  latitude  of 
London,  and  from  9°  east  longitude,  to  5°  west,  is  bounded  by  the  Mediterranean,  and  the 
great  chain  of  the  Pyrenees  on  the  south;  by  the  Atlantic  on  the  west;  by  the  British 
Channel  and  the  Netherlands  on  the  north  ;  and  on  the  east  by  Savoy,  Switzerland,  and  Ger- 
many, which  form,  for  its  entire  length,  a  vast  mountain  barrier.  Such  an  alpine  region 
cannot  fail  to  exert  a  manifest  influence  on  the  vegetation  of  a  country ;  not  only  because 
of  its  own  peculiar  productions,  depending  in  part  on  their  elevation,  and  in  part  on  their 
soil  and  geological  structure,  but  by  their  exposure  even  at  the  same  elevation,  on  two  oppo- 
site sides ;  that  of  the  south  will  be  found  to  exhibit  very  different  vegetable  forms  from  that 
of  the  north ;  and  such  mountains  often  exercise  a  more  powerful  influence  in  limiting  the 
surrounding  vegetation,  than  even  seas  and  rivers. 

Lamarck  and  De  Candolle,  in  a  very  interesting  Botanical  Map  which  accompanies  their 
Flore  Franqaise,  3d  edit.,  have  divided  France  into  five  regions : — 

(1.)  The  region  of  maritime  plants,  which  of  course  extends  everywhere  along  the  coast, 
from  Ostend  to  Bayonne  on  the  north  and  west,  and  from  Perpignan  to  Oueille  on  the  Medi- 
terranean ;  together  with  the  Salines  of  Dieuze  and  Chateau  Salins  near  Nancy,  and  those 
of  Durkheim  and  Frankensthal  near  Mayence  in  the  interior.  Thus  we  find  that  a  vegeta- 
tion similar  to  tliat  of  the  sea-shore  exists  in  the  interior,  whenever  that  interior  yield3 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  marine  salt.  All  the  maritime  plants  of  the  north  of  France,  accord- 
ing to  M.  de  Candolle  (and  they  have  the  greatest  affinity  with  those  of  England),  are 
equally  found  in  the  south;  but  the  reverse  does  not  hold  good;  for  a  very  large  proportion 
of  the  French  Mediterranean  plants  of  the  sea-shore  grow  very  sparingly,  if  at  all,  upon  the 
shores  of  the  Ocean,  principally  indeed  on  the  coast  of  Gascony,  and  reach  no  higher  than 
the  mouth  of  the  Loire,  or  at  most  to  the  middle  of  Britany. 

(2.)  The  region  of  mountain  and  alpine  plants.  When  the  French,  by  their  conquests, 
included  the  Pyrenees,  the  Alps,  and  Savoy  within  the  range  of  the  floras  of  their  own 
country,  this  region  constituted  the  very  richest  of  any  flora  in  Europe ;  for  it  included  a 
country,  not  only  of  considerable  extent,  but  mountains,  and  in  very  southern  latitudes,  many 
of  whose  crests  rise  greatly  beyond  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  As  France  is  now  limited, 
the  mountains  of  the  Vosges  near  Strasburg,  and  of  the  Cevennes,  and  those  of  Auvergne, 
whose  origin  is  volcanic,  exhibit  its  most  alpine  scenery:  among  the  latter,  the  Puyde  Sasi, 
one  of  the  Monts  d'Or,rises  to  an  elevation  of  6300  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
Plomb  du  Cantal  is  estimated  at  6200,  and  the  Puy  de  Dome  at  5000  feet.  If  the  summits 
of  the  Pyrenees  and  of  thd  Jura  be  considered  as  forming  the  natural  barrier  of  France,  as 
constituting  her  line  of  separation  from  the  adjacent  territories,  she  will  still  possess  an 
exceedingly  rich  alpine  flora  in  the  northern  side  of  tlie  former  and  the  western  side  of  the 
latter  mountains.  But  the  line  of  demarcation  of  this  region  is  nevertheless  not  so  distinctly 
marked  as  in  the  preceding  region.  The  valleys  exposed  to  the  sun  often  participate  in  the 
vegetation  of  the  southern  provinces,  while  the  cooler  valleys  exhibit  a  growtli  wh-ich  has 
more  in  common  with  the  vast  plain  in  the  north  and  centre  of  France.  However,  it  is 
undeniable  that  these  same  districts  do  contain  a  very  considerable  number  of  plants  which 
are  peculiar  to  them,  and  found  on  almost  all  the  more  elevated  mountains  of  France ;  for 
whatever  differences  the  chain  of  the  Vosges  and  the  Jura  may  present  from  those  of  Au- 
vergne, the  Cevennes,  and  the  Pyrenees  in  the  south,  it  is  allowed  that  the  aspect  of  their 
vegetation  offers  considerable  traits  of  similarity,  and  that  the  greater  part  of  the  mountain 
plants  are  alike  found  on  the  different  cliains. 

(3.)  A  third  region,  and  a  very  important  and  interesting  one,  is  that  of  the  Mediterranean 
plants:  this,  of  course,  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  stretches 
inland  till  you  come  to  the  foot  of  tlie  mountains,  or  following  the  course  of  the  Rhone, 
extending  north  as  far  as  Montelimart  on  tiiat  river ;  or  it  may  be  said  to  occupy  or  constitute 
the  great  basin  of  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone. 

(4.)  A  vast  region  is  occupied  by  the  plains,  whose  vegetation  is  very  uniform.  This 
comprises  more  than  one-half  of  France,  and  especially  all  the  plain  country  situated  to  the 
north  of  the  chains  of  mountains.  Many  of  these  plants  are  found  in  other  regions  already 
indicated  ;  but  it  wants  the  species  which  are  peculiar  to  each  of  those  respectively. 

(5.)  and  lastly — MM.  Lamarck  and  De  Candolle  indicate  an  intermediate  region,  which 
includes  plants  partaking  of  the  nature  of  tlie  plains  of  the  north  and  the  provinces  of  the 
south.  This  occupies  a  large  portion  of  the  south-west  of  France,  and  some  districts  up  the 
valley  of  the  Rhone  between  Montelimart  and  Lyons. 

The  map  just  alluded  to  has  these  different  regions  represented  in  diflierent  colours,  and 


524 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


is  attended  with  tliis  advantage,  that,  by  the  slightest  inspection,  a  general  idea  is  conveyed 
of  the  prevailing  nature  of  vegetation  in  any  given  district.  We  see  that  the  plants  of  the 
Bouthern  provinces  resemble  more  those  of  tiie  north  as  you  advance  by  the  west  side  of 
France  tiian  by  the  east ;  that  the  floras  of  Mans  on  the  border  of  Normandy,  and  of  Nantes 
upon  the  Loire,  in  lat.  47'^  and  48°,  scarcely  differ  from  those  of  Dax  and  Agen,  between  lat. 
43°  and  44°;  whilst  on  the  east  side  of  France,  the  productions  of  Dijon  and  Strasburg  vary 
considerably  from  those  of  Montpelier  and  Aix,  situated  at  nearly  similar  relative  distances 
from  each  other.  All  this  is  accounted  for  on  the  principles  we  have  already  laid  down, 
namely,  that  the  stations  of  plants  are  mainly  influenced  by  temperature ;  and  that  the  mean 
temperature  of  a  place  is  greatly  determined  by  distance  from  the  equator,  and  elevation 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  According  to  M.  de  Candolle,  an  altitude  of  460  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea  affects  the  temperature  nearly  to  the  same  extent  as  a  degree  of  latitude 
nearer  to  the  north  in  the  eastern  hemisphere. 

By  comparing  the  western  provinces  of  France  with  the  eastern,  we  see  that  the  surface 
of  the  former  is  but  little  raised  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  for,  even  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  coast,  the  hills  scarcely  exceed  300  feet;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  upon 
the  western  side,  in  tJie  midst  of  a  mountainous  region,  the  plain  has  generally  an  elevation 
of  from  1300  to  1600  feet.  Tiiis  height  diminishes,  it  is  true,  on  the  Belgian  frontier;  but 
there  the  temperature  is  sensibly  affected  by  the  second  cause  adduced,  namely,  the  distance 
from  the  equator.  Thus,  tliere  is  nothing  but  what  is  conformable  to  physical  laws,  in  the 
southern  plants  having  a  greater  resemblance  to  those  of  the  north  upon  the  west,  than  on 
the  east  side  of  France. 

But  even  where  tlie  mean  temperature  is  the  same,  the  distribution  of  plants  between 
these  two  parts  of  France  may  yet  be  very  different,  on  account  of  the  different  degrees  of 
temperature  at  particular  seasons  of  the  year.  We  have  already  stated  that,  the  latitudes 
being  the  same,  maritime  countries  enjoy  a  more  equal  temperature  than  districts  removed 
from  the  sea ;  in  other  words,  that  the  summers  are  less  warm,  the  winters  less  cold :  thus, 
the  provinces  of  the  west  of  France,  which  are  all  maritime,  experience  this  degree  of  uni- 
formity; which  cannot  take  place  in  the  east,  being  far  from  the  sea,  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  mountains. 

Plants  now,  in  what  concerns  climate,  maybe  divided  into  two  classes:  those  which 
suffer  from  a  severe  winter  cold,  but  which,  during  summer,  do  not  require  an  excess  of 
heat ;  and  those  which  can  endure  great  severity  of  cold  in  winter,  but,  during  summer, 
require  a  great  proportion  of  heat.  In  the  first  class,  M.  de  Candolle  places  all  those  trees 
which,  without  being  resinous,  preserve  their  leaves,  and  consequently  their  sap,  through  the 
winter;  in  fact,  the  greater  proportion  of  the  trees  of  the  south  being  found,  whether 
indigenous  or  naturalised,  towards  the  north  in  the  maritime  provinces ;  such  as  the  Live 
Oak,  the  Cork  Tree,  the  Kermes  Oak,  the  Strawberry  Tree  (Arbutus),  the  Bay,  the  Fig, 


270 


The  Olive. 


The  Vine. 


the  Phillyrea,  &c.     On  the  other  hand,  in  the  second  class,  that  is  to  say,  among  such  as 
can  brave  a  great  degree  of  cold,  and  do  so  because  the  movement  of  the  sap  is  interrupted 


Book.  I. 


FRANCE. 


525 


272 


by  the  fall  of  the  foliage,  is  the  Vine,  &c.,  and  those  that  avoid  cold  becanse  the  plants,  or 
at  least  their  stems,  are  annual,  such  as  Maize.  It  may  be  readily  supposed  that  the  indi- 
viduals belong-ing  to  the  second  class  will  flourish  better,  and  become  more  easily  naturalised 
on  tile  east  tlian  on  the  west  coast  of  France. 

Let  us  apply  this  law  to  a  peculiarity  in  regard  to  the  cultivation  of  those  most  precious 
vegetable  productions  of  France,  namely,  the  Olive  {fis^.  270.),  the  Maize,  and  the  Vine 
(Jiii;.  271.).  Mr.  Artliur  Young,  during  his  travels  in  France,  paid  great  attention  to  agri- 
culture and  the  mode  of  cultivation  adopted  there,  and  put^lisiied  a  map  of  the  country,  in 
which  he  represented,  by  three  nearly  parallel  lines,  the  northern  limits  of  the  three  plants 
just  alluded  to,  the  Olive,  the  Maize,  and  the  Vine.  It  e.xcited  tlio  surprise  of  many,  that 
tlie  lines  sliould  ascend  most  to  the  north  on  the  east  side  of  the  country,  or,  in  other  words, 
that  the  plants  in  question  should  grow  fartlier  north  in  the  eastern  than  in  the  western 
districts;  directly  tlie  reverse  of  what  takes  place  in  regard  to  the  aboriginal  native  produc- 
tions of  the  soil.  Tliis  apparent  contradiction  is  reconciled  by  the  twofold  comparison  of  the 
piiysical  nature  of  the  east  and  west  of  France,  and  of  the  character  of  the  plants  cultivated, 
as  compared  with  the  wild  species. 

Tlie  nature  of  the  cultivated  productions  in  question  forms  a  striking  feature,  which  can- 
not fail  to  arrest  the  attention  of  a  traveller  while  journeying  tlirough  the  districts  thus 
appropriated,  and  forcibly  to  exhibit  their  agricultural  riclies.  In  the  e.xtreme  soutli  of 
France,  between  a  line  drawn  from  Narbonne,  in  lat.  43°  N.  and  in  tlie  meridian  of  Paris, 
to  a  little  below  Grenoble,  he  will  find  the  plains,  parched  and  dry  as  they  naturally  are, 
rendered  still  more  melancholy  by  the  lurid  green  of  tlie  olive-groves.  Between  that  line 
and  another  drawn  from  the  mouth  of  the  Garonne  rather  below  46°,  to  near  Strasburg,  in 
the  north-west,  he  will  observe,  together  with  the  vine,  which  is  by  no  means  wanting  in 
all  the  southern  provinces,  fields  where  tlie  gigantic  maize  {_fi!r.  272.)  takes  tlie  place  of 

what  we  usually  term  bread-corn;  again,  between  it  and  a 
line  extending  fi'om  the  mouth  of  the  Loire  to  the  Rhine, 
passing  at  about  an  equal  distance  between  the  Meuse  and 
the  Moselle,  he  will  find,  intenningled  with  vineyards, 
fertile  fields  of  com,  wheat  {Jifi:.  273.),  oats,  and  barley ; 
whilst,  north  of  that  line,  there  exists  a  most  perfect  simi- 
larity in  agriculture  with  that  which  prevails  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  England.  Fruit  trees  of  all  the  kinds 
that  are  grown  in  Britain,  here  attain  a  much  greater  degree 
of  perfection  tlian  in  that  country,  because  of  the  increased 
heat  of  the  summers. 

Thus,  in  wJiat  concerns  a  great  portion  of  the  territory 
of  France,  its  vegetable  productions  much  resemble  those 
of  the  southern  parts  of  Great  Britain. 

It  is  not,  perhaps,  generally  known  that  that  most  useful 
root,  the  Potato,  was  cultivated  in  almost  every  part  of 
Europe  before  its  value  was  appreciated,  and  its  culture 
became  general,  near  the  capital  of  France.  To  England 
is  due  the  credit  of  first  growing  it  upon  a  large  scale. 
Upon  the  Continent  it  was  introduced  between  the  years 
1714  and  1724  into  Swabia,  Alsace,  and  the  Palatinate ; 
and  in  1730  to  the  vicinity  of  Berne.  In  1774,  potatoes 
were  known  on  the  mountains  of  the  Cevennes,  where  they 
now  constitute  a  main  portion  of  the  food  of  the  people:  but 
The  Maize.  it  is  principally  to  the  famous  M.  Parmenticr  that  France 

owes  the  general  use  of  potatoes.  The  following  anecdote 
may  give  some  idea  of  the  assiduity  with  which  this  philantliropic  individual  laboured  to 
generalise  their  culture ;  it  is  well  attested  that  he  farmed  some  spots  of  ground  in  the 
vicinity  of  Paris  for  this  sole  purpose,  though  the  prejudice  against  potatoes  was  then  so 
strong,  that  few  of  the  poor  persons  to  whom  he  offered  the  roots  would  accept  of  them. 
However,  M.  Parmentier  soon  suspected  tliat  people  occasionally  stole  his  potatoes  to  eat 
them :  he  was  well  pleased  at  this,  and  continued  to  plant  what  he  hoped  would  be  purloined, 
rightly  concluding  that  the  experience  of  the  thieves  would  contribute  to  diminish  the 
established  prejudice.  After  much  trouble  and  many  years,  he  had  succeeded  in  propagating 
potatoes  in  several  situations,  wlien  the  dreadful  scarcity,  the  consequence  and  effect  of  the 
revolutionary  disturbances,  suddenly  rendered  their  cultivation  universal ;  and  now  they 
form  so  constant  an  article  of  food,  that  the  common  people  generally  believe  them  to  be 
aboriginal  natives  of  the  country. 

The  mountains  of  Franco  exhibit  the  British  alpine  plants,  with  many  others  that  are 
peculiar  to  themselves,  and  which  they  possess  in  common  with  the  higher  Alps  of  Switzer- 
land, Savoy,  Germany,  and  the  Pyrenees. 
Of  the  intermediate  region,  as  De  Candolle  tenns  it,  a  great  portion  lying  in  the  south- 


526 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


west  of  France,  embraces  a  country  called   the   Landes,   where   the   shepherd-peasantry 
whether  walking,  or  at  rest  during  the  day,  live  upon  stilts  {xcangues,  in  the  lan^guage  of 

1,4"    ^' 


Wheat,  OatB,  and  Barley. 

the  country):  tliis  custom  gives  them  the  opportunity  of  viewing  the  land  around  in  search 
of  their  slieep,  for  a  great  extent,  of  wading  through  the  numerous  shallow  lakes  of  water; 

and  by  tliese  means  it  is  said  they  can  tra- 
verse triple  the  space  of  ground  they  could 
do  by  the  ordinary  mode  of  walking;  when 
tliey  stop,  tlicy  support  themselves  by  a  long 
stick  behind.  In  this  same  district  a  vast 
extent  of  flat  land  near  the  ocean,  and  ex- 
tending from  Bayonne  in  the  south  to  the 
Tete  de  Buch  in  the  north,  and  for  a  dis- 
tance of  from  four  to  twelve  leagues  inland, 
is  occupied  by  forests  of  Pine  {Pinus  mari- 
tim(i)  (Jiff.  274.)  :  these  are  called  Pigna- 
das,  and  they  give  a  remarkable  feature  to 
the  Landes,  in  conjunction  with  the  habits 
of  the  people  and  their  dress,  the  latter 
consisting  entirely  of  sheep-skins  with  the 
hair  outwards,  little  different  in  outward 
appearance  from  the  flocks  which  it  is  the 
great  object  of  their  lives  to  tend.  The 
resinous  substances  of  tlie  pine  are  extract- 
ed in  immense  quantities;  in  doing  which, 
one  man  takes  care  of  3000  trees.  The 
country  being  so  dry,  tliese  pignadas  are 
liable  "to  alarming  conflagrations;  one  of 
them  that  took  place  in  1803,  continued 
burning  for  two  montiis.  The  mode  adopt- 
ed for  extinguishing  them  is  remarkable : 
when  one  part  of  tlie  forest  is  in  flames,  it 
is  customary  to  set  fire  to  another  spot,  at 
a  greater  or  less  distance,  according  to  the 
magnitude  of  the  evil;  a  current  of  air 
soon  takes  place  between  the  burning 
masses,  which  drives  the  conflagration 
from  both  sides  on  the  intei-mediate  trees ; 
"^''^  ^'"^-  these  are  shortly  consumed,  the  fire  dies 

out  for  want  of  fuel,  and  the  rest  of  the  forest  is  preserved. 

But  the  Mediterranean  region,  which  we  have  already  mentioned,  and  whose  vegetation 
partakes  of  wliat  is  found  to  characterize  the  whole  shores  of  that  vast  inland  sea,  has  many 
plants  so  difft-rent  tram  those  of  the  rest  of  France,  that  it  would  be  unpardonable  did  we  not 
particularise  some  of  them. 

Almost  everywhere  in  this  region,  the  soil  is  described  as  consisting  of  the  secondary 
limestone  of  the  Jura,  extending  to  the  very  brink  of  the  sea,  forming  arid  coasts,  often 
utterly  destitute  of  vegetation,  or  clothed  with  Wild  Olives  and  Uie  Aleppo  Pine  CPinus 


Book  I. 


FRANCE. 


527 


halepensis),  with  Evergreen  Oak,  Pistachio-Nut,  Myrtles,  and  numerous  species  of  Cistus. 
Here,  too,  is  found  one  species  of  Palm,  the  Chamsrops  humilis  (Palmetto  or  Dwarf  Palm)  ; 
but  It  grows  principally  in  the  environs  of  Nice.  At  the  opposite  extremity  of  the  Medi- 
terranean region,  namely,  about  Roussillon  and  Provence,  and  there  only  in  tlie  liotter  parts, 
are  seen  the  Indian  Fig  {Cactus  Tuna),  and  the  American  Aloe  {Agave  aviericaaa)  :  the  intro- 
duction of  these  is  due  to  the  Spaniards,  who  brouglit  them  to  Europe  from  the  New  World. 
Scliouw  regards  the  Mediterranean  shores  in  general  as  the  kingdom  of  the  Caryophyllece 
and  Labiatffi ;  this  latter  family  especially  abounds  in  the  south  of  France,  and  particularly 
the  genera  Phlomis,  Teucrium,  Thymus,  Lavandula,  and  others,  remarkable  for  their  aro- 
matic qualities.  In  the  same  places,  and  always  on  very  stony  ground,  tlie  elegant  Coris 
monspeliensis  excels  the  heaths  of  Britain  in  beauty.  The  mulberry  is  cultivated  through- 
out this  territory ;  and  among  other  useful  fruits,  the  Fig,  the  Jujube,  the  Pomegranate,  The 
Date,  and  the  Pistachio,  all  arrive  at  great  perfection.  The  Orange  can  scarcely  be  said  to 
be  cultivated  without  shelter  in  any  part  of  France.  It  is  grown,  however,  and  somewhat 
extensively,  at  the  Isles  d'Hieres,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Nice,  that  happy  climate  which  is 
probably  unequalled  by  any  part  of  Europe.  Corn,  which  is  but  a  secondary  article  of  cul- 
ture, ripens  at  a  very  early  period ;  so  much  so  that  it  is  not  unfi-equent  to  carry  barley  which 
has  been  reaped  on  the  coast  into  the  mountains,  where  the  seed  is  sown,  and  a  second  crop 
is  produced  the  same  year.  Many  plants  may  be  here  enumerated  whicli  this  country  pos- 
sesses in  common  with  Greece  and  Italy,  and  even  the  Spanish  peninsula,  and  which  seenj 
to  accompany  the  Olive.  Mirbel  has  drawn  up  the  following  list  of  woody  kinds,  which 
inhabit  these  provinces : — Pinus  Pinaster,  and  Pinea,  Juniperus  phccnicea  and  O.xycedrus, 
Quercus  Ilex,  Suber  and  coccifera,  Celtis  australis,  Ficus  Carica,  Osyris  alba,  Laurus  nobilis, 
Fraxinus  Ornus,  Phillyrea  latifolia  and  angustifolia,  Jasmir.um  fructicans,  Vite.x  Agnus- 
castus,  Nerium  Oleander,  Diospyros  Lotos,  Styrax  officinale,  Arbutus  Unedo,  Viburnum 
Tinus,  Tamarix  gallica  and  africana,  Myrtus  communis,  Punica  Granatum,  Philadelphus 
coronarius,  Crataegus  Azarolus,  Mespilus  pyracantha,  Ceratonia  siliqua,  Cercis  Siliquastrum, 
Rhus  Cotinus  and  Coriaria;  Pistacia  Lentiscus,  Terebinthus,  and  vera;  Riiamnus  Alater- 
nus,  oleoides,  and  infectoria ;  Zizyphus  vulgaris,  Paliurus  australis,  Capparis  spinosa,  Melia 
Azedarach,  Acer  monspessulanum,  &c. 

Hitherto  the  attention  of  naturalists  in  the  study  of  vegetable  geography  has  been  direct- 
ed to  those  plants  that  grow  upon  tlie  surface  of  the  earth :  Humboldt  alone,  in  his  Cnrte 
Geographiqiie  des  Plantes,  has  indicated  the  station  of  some  subterranean  Fungi,  and  in  a 
275  general  way  has  marked  the  ocean  as 

the  habitat  of  Ulvse  and  Fuci  (Jig: 
275.).  It  remained  for  M.  d'Orbigny 
tc  describe  to  a  certain  e.^tcnt  at  least, 
the  Zones  and  Bands  inhabited  by  the 
marine  Algae  (Sea-Weeds).  This  he 
accomplished  upon  the  coasts  in  the 
Gulf  of  Gascony,  and  particularly  on 
the  shores  of  La  Vendee  and  the  Lower 
Charente,  partly  by  diving  to  consider- 
able depths  in  the  sea,  and  partly  by 
means  of  drag-nets  fixed  to  graduated 
cords ;  and  the  results  of  his  observa- 
tions are  given  in  the  Meinoires  du 
Museum  d'Histoire  Naturelle,  vol.  vi. 
With  extracts  from  this,  as  we  shall 
scarcely  have  again  the  opportunity  of 
touching  on  this  beautiful  and  interest- 
ing tribe  of  plants,  we  shall  conclude 
this  sketch,  already  too  much  extended,  of  the  vegetable  geograpliy  of  France.  Maritime 
plants,  says  M.  d'Orbigny,  grow  in  the  most  opposite  temperatures:  every  country,  every 
latitude,  and  every  situation  possessing  some  which  are  peculiar  to  itself.  Still,  climate 
and  temperature  appear  almost  alike  to  many  of  these  productions,  wliich  are  found  by 
voyagers  in  every  different  ocean,  while  others  require  particular  sjwts  and  climes :  some 
few  preferring  the  mouths  of  rivers,  and  the  brackish  waters  of  salt  marshes,  where  the 
bitterness  of  the  sea  is  modified  by  the  admixture  of  fresh  water,  and  in  such  situations 
attaining  to  an  enormous  size,  as  Ulva  lactuca  var.  altissima,  while  to  the  greater  number 
of  these  plants,  fresh  water  proves  absolutely  destructive. 

As  for  those  kinds  which  grow  indifferently  everywhere  in  the  sea,  they  seem  to  be 
increased  without  any  attachment  to  solid  bodies,  as  Fucus  natans,  <ic.  Banks  of  great 
extent  formed  by  this  plant,  are  often  found  within  the  tropics  of  such  dimensions  as  to 
retard  the  progress  of  navigation.  Some  individuals  among  these  groups  may  frequently  be 
seen  which  bear  the  appearance  of  having  been  originally  fixed  to  rocks,  their  flattened, 
disc-like  stem  yet  retaining  a  portion  of  such  substance.  There  seems  to  be  ground  tor  the 
supposition  that,  though  these  sea-weeds  are  capable  of  livmg  and  growing  in  the  water, 


Ulvce  and  Fuci. 


528  DESCRIPTRT:  geography  Part  III. 

unattached  to  any  soil,  yet  that  they  must  primarily  spring  from  some  solid  body,  as  no  young 
plants  of  this  kind  are  ever  found  between  the  tropics. 

Some  of  the  Algte  prefer  the  southern  sides  of  rocks,  others  affect  an  eastern,  western,  or 
northern  exposure;  but  they  change  their  position  according  to  the  difference  of  latitude: 
those  which  are  found  on  the  southern  side  in  cold  climates,  being  generally  seen  on  the 
nortiiern  in  the  warm  or  temperate  regions.  Certain  species  live  near  the  surface,  and  close 
to  the  sea-beach :  others,  at  various  degrees  of  depths:  the  first  would  seem  to  enjoy  the 
regular  exposure  to  light  and  heat  which  they  experience  during  the  turnings  of  the  tide ; 
the  second,  on  the  contrary,  shun  the  influences  of  the  atmosphere;  and,  growing  and  fructi- 
fying in  depths  where  the  light  can  scarcely  ever  penetrate,  they  bear,  without  receiving 
any  injury,  both  llie  enormous  column  of  water  which  constantly  presses  upon  them,  and  the 
severe  cold  which  exists  in  those  regions.  There  are  even  parasitical  Alga,  which  grow 
indifferently  upon  all  the  others,  and  some  which  only  affect  peculiar  species. 

Many  sea-weeds  prefer  such  spots  as  are  exposed  to  the  fury  of  the  waves  and  the  action 
of  the  currents,  where  they  are  perpetually  lioating  in  an  agitated  medium :  others  dwell 
in  the  hollows  of  rocks,  or  in  marine  gulfs,  where  the  water  is  generally  calm.  The  lapse 
of  a  few  days  puts  a  period  to  the  existence  of  some  kinds,  whilst  the  tempests  of  successive 
winters  fail  to  destroy  others.  The  general  aspect  is  apt  to  change  in  several  individuals, 
so  that,  were  it  not  for  more  stable  cliaracters,  derivable  from  their  fructification,  texture,  &c. 
they  might  be  mistaken  for  novel  species. 

A  number  of  the  more  delicate  marine  plants  are  quickly  destroyed  by  a  removal  from 
their  native  place  of  growth ;  but  the  greater  proportion,  being  coriaceous,  and  insoluble  in 
salt  water,  live  for  a  length  of  time  in  different  situations ;  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find, 
upon  our  own  shores,  the  Algce  of  the  most  distant  regions,  which  have  traversed  the  ocean, 
and  yet  remain  unchanged  in  tlieir  general  appearance.  We  must  thence  necessarily  infer  that 
it  is  not  all  the  Alga  tliat  are  found  in  any  country  that  may  be  said  to  belong  to  that  country. 

The  proportions  of  marine  plants  are  as  variable  as  those  of  terrestrial  ones.  Some  are 
barely  discoverable  with  the  highest  magnifiers ;  while  others  rise  from  the  various  depths 
of  the  mighty  ocean,  and,  forming  at  its  surface  an  angle  of  greater  or  less  acuteness  accord- 
ing to  the  force  and  velocity  of  the  currents  and  the  tides,  then  suffer  their  long  summits  to 
float  on  the  waves,  and  receive  the  benign  influences  of  atmospheric  light  and  lieat.  Durinor 
the  great  equinoctial  floods,  the  sea  often  forsakes,  periodically,  certain  rocks,  which  are 
only  uncovered  at  such  times.  If,  during  that  interval,  the  sun  sliines  forth,  or  the  north 
wind  blows,  many  of  the  minute  and  delicate  Algce,  thus  exposed,  dry  up  and  die;  while 
others,  though  equally  circumstanced,  revive  immediately  upon  the  return  of  the  genial  fluid. 

A  certain  proportion  of  marine  plants  are  natives  of  the  French  seas,  while  we  must  refer 
the  accession  of  many  species  to  the  force  of  the  winds,  waves,  and  currents,  especially  to 
that  whicli  generally  goes  under  the  name  of  Gulf  Stretun,  and  is  called  by  the  French  the 
Mexican  Current.  Almost  all  the  northern  Alg(B  grow  in  the  Gulf  of  Gascony.  It  is  not 
so  with  those  from  the  Mediterranean  and  Southern  Ocean ;  a  very  small  number  of  them 
are  there  seen  in  a  living  state,  and  their  almost  nonhern  limit  never  exceeds  the  mouth  of 
the  Loire,  or  at  farthest  the  rock  of  Morbihan.  Independently  of  the  influence  of  tem- 
perature, this  circumstance  may  be  attributed  in  a  measure  to  the  current,  which,  generally 
setting  in  on  these  shores  from  nortli  to  south,  brings  the  seeds  and  plants  themselves  of 
northern  seas  to  tliese  rocks,  while  those  of  southern  growth  are  wafted  by  the  same  current 
to  Africa  and  the  Atlantic. 

But  few  are  the  kinds  of  sea-weed  which  prefer  any  peculiar  spot,  or  show  a  predilection 
for  one  substance  above  another  whereon  to  fix.  Deriving  no  nutriment  from  their  roots  or 
points  of  attachment,  they  need  nothing  farther  than  a  temporary  support;  thus,  they  cling 
indiscriminately  to  any  solid  marine  body,  equally  to  granitic  and  calcareous  rocks,  to  floating 
or  simken  pieces  of  wood,  to  the  bones  of  terrestrial  or  marine  animals,  to  shells,  polypi,  &c. 

Notwithstanding  that  many  highly  respectable  naturalists  have  averred  that  tiie"  growth 
of  these  plants  proceeds  witli  most  vigour  on  sucli  and  sucli  substances,  on  some  or  other 
peculiar  rock,  in  the  vicinity  of  rivers,  or  in  the  open  sea;  it  has  been  fully  ascertained,  by 
a  great  number  of  observations,  that  marine  weeds  do  grow  with  equal  vigour,  though 
pla,nted  upon  rocks  or  substances  of  very  different  natures;  and  that,  if  we  except  some  few 
Ulva:,  which  affect  brackish  water,  those  which  vegetate  in  situations  where  fresh  water 
mingles  with  the  salt,  are  generally  bleached,  produce  little  or  no  fructification,  have  a  thin 
and  weak  texture,  and  contain  but  little  soda.  The  qualities  requisite  for  the  different  uses 
of  which  I  shall  treat  hereafter,  are  only  found  united  in  such  sea-weeds  as  grow  in  pure 
sea-water,  where  they  have  found  a  spot  which  is  sufficiently  tenacious  to  fix  them  in  that 
zone  of  habitation  which  they  prefer. 

_Some  kinds  certainly  prefer  sand  or  mud ;  but  then  their  roots  become  elongated,  and 
strike  deep,  till  they  meet  with  some  stone  or  shell  or  other  body  which  may  serve  them  as 
a  point  of  attachment,  and  offer  the  requisite  degree  of  resistance. 

If  the  nature  of  the  bottom  appears  indifferent,  in  a  great  measure  to  maritime  plants;  it 
is  not  so  with  the  level  which  they  select  in  the  ocean,  or  with  the  distance  of  their  birth- 
place fi'OJn  the  surface.     Every  speoies  of  maritime  vegetable  appears  to  affect,  to  as  great 


Book  I.  FRANCE.  529 

an  extent  as  tlie  terrestrial  kinds,  certain  zones  or  regions  of  different  depths  in  the  sea ; 
places  where  ihe  superincumbent  weiglit  of  water,  and  the  relative  proportion  of  light  and 
caloric  are  adapted  to  its  peculiar  organs.  Tiiose  individuals  which  are  found  towards  the 
centre  of  their  proper  zone  contain  all  the  elements  requisite  for  their  perfect  developement, 
and  generally  show  an  active  state  of  vegetation ;  they  are  vigorous,  they  fructify  at  the 
season  suitable  to  their  degree  of  immersion,  while  those  which  grow  at  the  e.xtreme  limit, 
or  out  of  the  bounds,  of  this  same  zone,  prove  languishing,  fructify  imperfectly,  are  always 
covered  with  marine  animals  whicii  destroy  them,  and  live  but  a  short  time  in  comparison 
with  their  well-situated  congeners.  The  seeds  wliich  escape  from  these  plants  would  appear, 
by  their  various  specific  weights,  to  gain  an  equilibrium  equivalent  to  the  column  of  water 
which  they  displace,  or,  in  other  words,  to  float  in  that  peculiar  zone  which  the  future  Alffce 
would  prefer  to  inhabit.  Those  which  become  developed  either  above  or  below  it,  are  ine- 
vitably driven  from  their  spot  of  nature  or  of  election,  by  the  agitation  in  the  waves  at  the 
vicinity  of  the  coasts. 

Lower  down  than  a  hundred  feet  from  the  surface  of  the  sea,  (taking  a  medium  between 
the  high  and  low  tides,)  it  is  rare  to  find  living  sea-weeds  in  the  Gulf  of  Gascony,  and  even 
tliese  are  attached  to  portions  of  rock  severed  from  more  elevated  rocks,  and  before  long 
they  inevitably  perish. 

It  may  be  observed  that  the  lower  we  investigate  the  sea,  the  fewer  will  tlie  number  of 
plants  appear,  and  the  more  numerous  tlie  polypi.  For  instance,  below  forty  feet  from  the 
surface  of  the  water,  but  very  few  Ulvtc  are  found;  beyond  sixty  feet,  no  living  Ceramium; 
and  after  having  descended  to  the  depth  of  a  hundred  feet,  not  a  Fucus  is  to  be  seen,  and 
the  vegetable  kingdom  wholly  ends. 

1st  Zone,  extending  from  one  foot  above  the  medium  height  of  the  sea  to  twenty  feet 
below,  is  inhabited  by  Ulva  conipressa  var.  /3 ;  U.  intestinalis,  ventricosa,  Lactuca  var.  a; 
Fucus  pygin8eus,amphibius,  &c. 

2d  Zone,  from  five  feet  below  the  medium  height  to  thirty  feet : — Ulva  articulata,  Nostoc, 
bullata,  fistulosa,  Lactuca  var.  3,  umbilicalis,  lanceolata,  purpurea,  Linza,  contorta,  serrata, 
dichotoma,  crispa,  pavonia,  atomaria  (!) ;  Fucus  vesiculosus,  spiralis,  ceranoides,  serratus, 
canaliculatus,  ctespitosus,  laceratus,  hybridus,  longissimus,  pinnatifidus,  viridis,  arbuscula, 
fastigiatus,  tenuisshnus  (?),  confervoides ;  Ceramium  spongiosum,  rupestre,  Mertensii,peni- 
cillatum,  fucoides,  noduiosum,  gracile,  linum ;  Zostera  marina  and  mediterranea  ;  Diatoma 
rigidum,  flocculosum,  &c. 

3d  Zone,  from  fifteen  to  thirty-five  feet  below  the  medium  surface.  Ulva  ocellata,  pal- 
mata,  lingu!ata,polypodioides,caulescens;  Fucus  longifructus,  lumbricalis,bifiircatus, ericoides, 
barbatus,  abrotanifolius,  vermicularis,  norvegicus,  obtusus,  asparagoides,  Wigghii,  verrucosus, 
helminthocortos;  Ceramium  simplicifolium,  casuarina,  cancellatum,  coccineum,  incurvum, 
elongatum,  polymorphum,  forcipatum,  filum,  capillare,  glomeratum,  elegans,  &c. 

4th  Zone,  from  twenty  to  forty  feet  below  the  medium  surface : — Ulva  Phyllitis,  saccha- 
rina,  digitata,  bulbosa,  ciliata,  edulis;  Fucus  nodosus,  uvarius,  furcatus,  ciliatus,  alatus, 
plocamium,  plumosus,  corneus,  gigartinus,  aculeatus,  plicatus ;  Ceramium  verticillatum, 
equisetifolium,  sericeum,  scoparium,  &c. 

5th  Zone,  from  thirty  to  sixty  feet : — Fucus  siliquosus  var.  a,  purpurascens,  ligulatus, 
pistillatus;  Ceramium  coccineum,  segagropihim,  &c. 

6th  Zone,  from  forty  to  a  hundred  feet : — The  flattened  Fuci;  F.  siliquosus  var.  j3,  loreus, 
sanguineus,  fibrosus,  coronopifolius,  &c.,  and  Ulva  tomentosa,  which  is,  in  fact,  a  polypus. 

SuDSECT.  3. — Zoology. 
The  zoology  of  France  assimilates  less  to  that  of  central  than  of  southern  Europe.     Not- 
Mnthstand  ng  the  narrowness  of  its  separation  from  Great  Britain,  it  possesses  many  animals 
unknown  as  natives,  or  even  as  visiters,  of  that  island.     With  regard  to  quadrupeds,  thia 
circumstance  is  not  surprising ;  for  any  channel  of  the  sea,  however  narrow,  forms  an  insur- 
mountable obstacle  to  the  wanderings  or  migration  oF  purely   terrestrial   species:   while 
olhers,  of  a  semiaquatic  nature  are  too  small  and  feeble  to  effect  the  passage.     These  con- 
siderations, however,  are  insufficient  to  explain  the  limited 
276  -  range  of  the  smaller  birds,  hitherto  found  only  upon  the 

Continent.  The  distribution  of  insects  is  dependent,  in  a 
great  degree,  upon  that  of  plants ;  and  the  numbers  of  both 
common  in  France,  but  unknown  in  Britain,  are  nearly 
proportionate  ;  on  the  calculation  that  has  been  made  of 
six  species  of  insects  to  one  of  plants. 

Among  the  wild  quadrupeds  of  France  is  the  wolf  (Jiff. 
276.),  which  is  still  not  uncommon  in  the  wooded  and 
mountainous  districts:  when  pressed  by  iiungor,  it  de- 
scends to  the  farms,  and  even  attacks  the  inhabitants. 
The  VVolf  "  ^'^"-^"^  The  beaver  is  said  still  to  exist  in  the  southern  parts, 
and  probably  the  wild  boar  may  not  be  wholly  extirpated 
Vol.  I.  45  3  R 


530 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  HI. 


277 


from  the  existing  forests.     Bears  were  once  common,  while  three  or  four  of  tlie  smaller  quad- 
rupeds appear  peculiar  to  France. 

Several  interesting  and  beautiful  birds,  unknown  or  but  rarely  met  with  in  Britain,  are 
here  not  uncommon ;  such  as  the  wood-cliat  {Jig-.  277.),  shrike  {Lanius  riifits  T.)  the  gross- 
beak  or  hawfinch,  tlie  blue-throated  warbler,  and  several  others  of  the  same  family.  In 
siiort,  from  the  connection  of  this  country  with  the  central  and  southern  kingdoms  of  Europe, 
the  ornithologist  might  probably  discover  in  France  more  than  three-fourths  of  all  the  conti- 
nental birds. 

The  marine  productions  of  those  provinces  bordering 
on  the  Channel,  as  may  be  expected,  do  not  offer  any 
marked  difference  from  those  of  the  British  coasts ;  but 
on  the  warm  shores  of  Nice  and  Marseilles  the  natu- 
ralist meets  with  numerous  productions,  indicative  of 
the  rich  stores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  ento- 
mology of  these  southern  provinces,  in  like  manner, 
presents  us  with  many  of  those  more  striking  insects, 
which  properly  belong  to  the  tauna  of  Italy.  The  beau- 
tiful Papilio  Podalirius  {fs;.  278.)  so  rare  in  England 
that  its  existence  there  is  still  doubted,  is  here  a  common 
insect.  France  has  long  stood  foremost  in  promoting  and  illustrating  the  study  of  nature ; 
and  a  society  comprising  some  of  her  most  able  zoologists  is  at  this  moment  engaged  in 
publishing  a  Fauna  Gallica.  An  able  and  indefatigable  naturalist,  M.  Risso,  has  particu- 
cularly  illustrated  the  fishes  and  Crustacea  of  Nice.     It  was  near  this  place  that  one  of  the 


279 


The  Wood-Chat. 


Mitia  Zonata. 


Papilio  Podalirius. 


rarest  and  most  beautiful  shells  of  Europe,  the  Mitra  zonata  (Jiff.  279.)  was  fished  up  by 
the  anchor  of  a  vessel ;  only  one  specimen  is  known  to  e.xist  in  collections. 

Among  the  domestic  animals,  the  French  horses  are  not  very  excellent;  yet  those  used 
in  the  public  stages  are  strong,  active,  and  compactly  made;  nor  have  their  masters  copied 
the  ridiculous  and  barbarous  custom  of  disfiguring  these  animals,  by  cutting  off  their  tails 
or  ears.  The  stallions  of  England  are  much  prized,  and  have  been  judiciously  used  to  im- 
prove the  native  breeds. 

The  oxen  are  of  two  races ;  the  one  called  bcevfs  de  haut  crii  are  of  a  middle  or  small 
size,  with  a  fierce  look,  thick  hide,  and  coarse  hair;  they  are  principally  bred  in  the  moun- 
tainous provinces  of  Gascony,  Auvergne,  &c.  The  others  are  called  bcevfs  de  nature,  and 
are  larger,  with  a  mild  aspect,  thin  hide,  and  soft  hair :  they  fatten  easily,  and  belong  to  the 
plains. 

The  native  breeds  of  sheep,  not  in  themselves  good,  have  been  of  late  sedulously  and 
successftilly  improved.  The  Flemish  breed,  common  both  to  France  and  the  Netherlands, 
is  generally  hornless,  with  long  legs,  and  is  derived  from  an  intermixture  with  those  of 
Barbary.  The  Soloffuot  are  mostly  without  horns,  and  the  wool  is  curled  only  at  the  ends. 
The  Berichonne  are  likewise  hornless,  but  are  known  by  their  long  neck :  the  face  is  covered 
with  wool ;  that  on  the  body  being  fine,  white,  close,  short,  and  curled.  The  RoussUlonne 
is  derived  from  the  mermo  race ;  and  has  very  fine  wool,  the  filaments  of  the  piles  being 
twisted  spirally.  Lastly,  the  Ardennoise  is  homed,  and  bears  a  very  fine  fleece :  this  breed 
likewise  extends  over  part  of  the  Netherlands.     {Ham.  Smith.) 

A  large  and  elegant  variety  of  the  Domestic  Cat  is  very  common  in  some  parts  of  France  ; 
it  is  nearly  double  the  size  of  the  common  cat,  and  is  bearded  much  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  lynx. 

Sect.  III. — Historical  Geography. 
The  Gauls,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  France,  and  the  chief  among  the  Celtic  nations, 
were  an  active,  powerful,  and  ambitious  people.  Their  emigrant  hordes  repeatedly  crossed 
ihe  Alps,  possessed  the  whole  north  of  Italy,  once  sacked  the  imperial  city,  and  even  pene- 
trated into  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  Both  Switzerland  and  Belgium  were  then  included  aa 
part  of  Gaul.     The  people,  though  still  barbarous,  had  made  some  steps  toward  civilisation. 


Book  I.  FRANCE.  531 

The  nobles  and  Druids  enjoyed  high  power  and  influence,  and  had  reduced  the  body  of  the 
nation  almost  to  a  state  of  vassalage.  They  combated  with  obstinacy,  and  made  a  long 
resistance  to  the  progress  of  the  Roman  arms ;  but  being  opposed  to  Csesar,  the  greatest 
of  the  Roman  captains,  after  a  war  of  twenty  years,  they  were  entirely  and  permanently 
subjected. 

Tlio  conversion  of  Gaul  into  a  Roman  province,  though  it  humbled  the  chiefs  and  quelled 
the  martial  spirit  of  the  people,  was  attended  with  many  beneficial  changes.  Peace  was 
established ;  cultivation  and  industry  promoted  ;  Roman  and  even  Greek  literature  intro- 
duced ;  and  the  people  finally  converted  to  the  Christian  faith. 

The  irruption  of  the  Teutonic  tribes,  on  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire,  was  early  felt 
in  Gaul,  where  the  Goths,  the  Heruli,  the  Burgundians,  and  the  confederacy  called  the 
Franks,  overwhelmed  and  ravaged  the  whole  kingdom,  and  drove  the  Celtic  population  and 
language  into  its  remote  and  mountainous  corners.  From  amid  a  chaos  of  convulsions,  the 
vigorous  hand  of  Clovis  established  the  undisputed  supremacy  of  the  Franks,  and  founded  the 
monarchy  of  France. 

The  reign  of  Charlemagne,  son  and  successor  to  Pepin,  who  from  mayor  of  the  palace  had 
occupied  the  throne,  formed  the  most  brilliant  period  in  French  history.  That  eminent  and 
powerful  prince  not  only  placed  on  his  head  the  iron  crown  of  Lonibardy,  but  reduced  to  his 
dominion,  after  a  long  and  obstinate  resistance,  the  intractable  tribes  of  Germany,  who  had 
defied  the  utmost  efforts  of  the  Roman  eagle.  He  penetrated  also  into  Spain  ;  but  the  fierce 
encounter  of  the  Saracens,  and  the  disastrous  adventure  of  Roncesvalles  on  his  return,  com- 
pletely stopped  his  career  in  that  direction.  Charlemagne,  though  himself  illiterate,  made 
some  eflibrts  to  rekindle  the  declfning  light  of  science  and  letters  in  Europe. 

The  contests  among  the  successors  of  Charlemagne  were  attended  with  the  most  violent 
and  bloody  convulsions,  and  with  continual  changes  in  the  position  of  the  three  great  king- 
doms which  composed  his  empire.  At  length  it  fell  entirely  to  pieces.  Germany  retained 
the  title  of  empire,  and  the  claim  to  the  dominion  of  Italy ;  and  in  France  the  Carlovingian 
dynasty,  or  that  of  Charlemagne,  having  become  extinct  under  Louis  Outremer,  the  throne 
was  seized  by  the  Capets,  the  most  powerful  among  the  noble  French  families. 

Hugh  Capet,  having  in  967  assumed  the  title  of  king,  the  real  power  attached  to  which 
had  already  been  exercised  by  his  father,  Hugh  the  Great,  founded  the  present  dynasty.  The 
administration,  however,  was  long  marked  by  a  strong  feudal  character,  and  a  high  spirit  of 
independence  among  the  great  nobles,  of  whom  the  counts  of  Provence  and  Britany,  and  the 
dukes  of  Burgundy,  ranked  altogether  as  separate  and  often  hostile  princes.  The  feudal  age 
of  France  was  also  marked  by  chivalric  and  eventful  wars  with  England,  which  long  held 
several  of  the  finest  provinces,  and  whose  king,  Henry  V.,  was  crowned  at  Paris;  but  from 
that  seemingly  approaching  downfall,  the  monarchy,  through  the  romantic  exploits  of  ijie 
Maid  of  Orleans,  suddenly  revived,  and  became  more  mighty  than  before. 

The  establishment  of  monarchical  power  in  its  plenitude  was  chiefly  effected  by  the  pro- 
found and  insidious  policy  of  Louis  XL,  favoured  by  the  circumstances  of  the  age.  All 
France  was  united  under  the  sway  of  the  kings,  who  were  thus  enabled  to  form  great  armies, 
which,  under  Charles  VIIL  and  Louis  XII.,  overran  nearly  the  whole  of  Italy.  But  it  was 
under  the  gay  and  enterprising  reign  of  Francis  I.  that  its  energies  were  fully  developed. 
It  then,  however,  came  into  collision  with  the  house  of  Austria,  whose  extensive  possessions 
in  Germany,  Spain,  the  Netherlands,  and  Italy,  wielded  by  a  powerful  hand,  secured  to  it 
during  this  period  a  decided,  though  not  overwhelming,  ascendant. 

The  civil  wars  arising  out  of  the  persecution  of  the  Protestants  agitated  France  for  a  very 
long  time,  and  produced  scenes  of  the  most  bloody  and  calamitous  description.  They  lasted 
for  a  hundred  years;  for  the  popular  reign  of  Henry  IV.  could  scarcely  be  considered  as  more 
than  a  trnre.  At  length  Richelieu,  by  the  reduction  of  Rochelle,  terminated  tiie  long  strug- 
gle of  the  Protestants' for  religious  liberty,  which  in  France  alone,  of  all  the  countries  where 
it  was  maintained  upon  a  great  scale,  "had  this  fatal  issue.  At  the  same  time,  this  daring 
and  despotic  minister  finally  crushed  the  power  and  pretensions  of  the  nobles,  and  formed 
France  into  a  simple  monarchy. 

The  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  during  which  a  single  hand  wielded  all  the  energies  called 
forth  during  the  prior  struggles,  exhibited  France  more  powerfiil  than  she  had  been  since 
Charlemagne.  The  house  of  Austria,  now  divided  into  the  German  and  Spanish  branches, 
of  which  1;he  latter  had  become  weak  and  inert,  was  humbled  by  repeated  blows,  which  at 
length  almost  threatened  her  existence.  France  seemed  advancing  in  the  career  of  univer- 
sal monarchy,  when  the  interposition  of  England  and  the  victories  of  Marlborouarh  turned 
the  tide  of  success,  and  rendered  the  last  days  of  Louis  humiliating  and  disastrous.  The 
final  issue,  however,  by  which  a  Bourbon  was  placed  on  the  throne  of  Spain,  and  the  conse- 
quent family  alliance,  gave  to  France  an  increased  weight,  especially  in  the  maritime  con- 
cerns of  Europe.  . 

The  Frencii  revolution  was  an  event  attended  with  awfi^il  and  mighty  vicissitudes,  so  fresh 
inJthe  memory  of  the  world,  tlmt  it  would  be  quite  superfluous  to  attempt  to  enumerate  them. 
After  tearing  up  France  by  the  roots,  and  holdmg  all  Europe  in  chains;  after  exhibiting 


582  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III 

durinc  twenty  years  the  vicissitudes  of  republicanism,  total  anarchy,  and  pure  despotism ;  at 
lenftli,  by  a  mighty  re-action,  it  terminated  nearly  at  the  point  from  which  it  commenced. 
France,  liowever,  obtained  checks  on  the  arbitrary  power  of  her  monarchs,  xvhich,  notwith- 
etanding  their  opposition,  she  rendered  more  and  more  effective.  At  length  Charles  X., 
having  raslily  attempted  to  break  through  all  the  limits  placed  on  his  authority,  was  driven 
fi-om  his  throne,  which  was  filled  by  Louis-Philippe,  head  of  the  collateral  line  of  Orleans, 
under  tlie  tit'e  of  King  of  the  French. 

Sect.  IV. — Political  Geography. 

The  political  constitution  of  France,  prior  to  the  Revolution,  was  almost  purely  despotic. 
The  privileges  of  the  nobles  consisted  nearly  altogether  in  unjust  exemptions  from  taxation, 
and  in  corvees,  or  iniquitous  and  oppressive  claims  upon  tlie  labour  of  the  peasantry.  The 
only  very  salutary  limit  to  the  royal  authority  consisted  in  the  parliaments,  hereditary  bodies, 
by  whom  the  laws  were  very  fairly  and  honourably  administered ;  and  the  parliament  of 
Paris  had  even  the  important  privilege  of  registering  every  new  tax  before  it  could  become 
leo-al.  The  exorbitant  powers  vested  in  the  sovereign  being  however  inconsistent  with  the 
growth  of  national  intelligence  and  the  augmented  force  of  the  tiers  e.tat,  a  collision  took 
place,  the  most  terrible  on  record,  which  ended  in  the  temporary  subversion  of  the  throne. 
Wlien  the  Bourbons  were  restored. by  foreign  victories,  they  felt,  and  were  warned,  tliat 
France  could  no  longer  be  governed  by  the  former  absolute  system ;  and  they  bestowed  by 
charter  a  representative  government  formed  on  tlie  admired  model  of  England.  The  nobles 
and  parliaments,  however,  had  been  entirely  swept  away  in  the  late  convulsions,  and  left  no 
hereditary  aristocracy  out  of  which  an  upper  house  could  be  composed.  A  Cliamber  of  Peers 
was  formed,  by  the  royal  appointment,  of  a  body  of  individuals,  many  distinguished  rather 
by  talents  and  influence  than  by  birth ;  and  in  the  number  were  included  some  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  Napoleon's  generals.  Pensions  were  assigned  to  support  tlie  dignity  of  the 
PeersT  which  was  at  first  hereditary,  but  by  a  recent  enactment  is  to  continue  only  for  life. 
The  Chamber  of  Deputies,  corresponding  to  the  House  of  Commons,  is  chosen  by  electors 
united  in  certain  bodies  called  electoral  colleges.  These  include  all  persons  paying  a  certain 
amount  of  direct  taxes;  which  limits  the  right  of  voting  to  the  middling  class,  and  to  an  entire 
number  throughout  France  scarcely  exceeding  130,000.  The  number  of  Deputies  is  430. 
The  functions  of  tlie  French  chambers  are  high.  Their  annual  vote  grants  all  the  supplies  of 
the  year,  and  the  expenditure  of  the  preceding  one  is  submitted  to  their  rigorous  examina- 
tion. No  taxes  can  be  imposed,  or  loans  contracted  for,  without  their  concurrence.  Their 
debates  are  regularly  made  public,  and  an  arrangement  is  enacted  by  law  for  the  convenience 
of  the  reporters.  Yet  the  chambers  want  some  of  the  functions  of  a  British  parliament. 
They  cannot  fix  the  amount  of  the  army,  unless  by  limiting  the  funds  to  be  employed  in  its 
maintenance;  nor  can  they  call  in  question  the  engagements  held  by  government  with 
foreign  powers,  unless  by  withholding  the  funds  necessary  to  fulfil  them.  The  liberty  of 
the  press  was  professedly  granted  by  the  charter ;  but  there  has  been  much  fluctuation  in  its 
exercise ;  it  was  even  repeatedly  made  subject  to  a  censorship :  even  since  the  last  great 
change,  its  freedom  has  not  been  established  on  as  ample  a  basis  as  in  Britain. 

The  administration  of  justice  in  France,  which,  before  the  Revolution,  was  still  more  com- 
plicated than  in  England,  has  been  simplified  in  a  very  remarkable  degree.  The  National 
Assembly  early  applied  themselves  to  form  a  new  series  of  codes,  which  might  supersede 
those  vast  and  voluminous  records  in  which  the  law  was  formerly  contained.  They  pro- 
jected five  codes,  respectively  referring  to  civil  law,  civil  procedure,  commerce,  criminal 
law,  and  penal  infliction.  These  were  completed  under  Bonaparte,  who  gave  to  the  whole 
the  name  of  Code  Napoleon :  it  is  comprised  in  a  moderate  volume,  sold  for  a  few  francs. 
All  the  jincient  parliaments  and  seigniorial  authorities  being  swept  away,  a  new  system  of 
jurisdiction  has  been  formed.  Of  the  judicial  authorities,  the  lowest  class  are  the  jvges  de 
pnix,  who  amount  to  nearly  3000.  They  have  salaries  of  800  to  1000  francs,  and  decide 
finally  on  all  cases  where  the  question  at  issue  does  not  exceed  fifty  francs.  Immediately 
above"  them  are  the  tribunals  de  premiere  instance,  before  whom  all  questions  and  charges 
come  hi  the  first  instance,  and  who  judge  finally  respecting  any  property  not  exceeding  1000 
francs.  There  are  360  of  these  courts,  and  the  judges  are  supposed  little  siiort  of  3000. 
To  them  are  attached  the  tribunal  of  correciional  police,  which  has  cognizance  of  all  minor 
offences.  Above  these  rank  the  coiirs  royales,  sometimes  called  cours  d'appel,  because  an 
appeal  lies  to  them  from  the  inferior  courts.  They  are  twenty-seven  in  number,  attached 
to  the  chief  cities  in  the  kingdom.  They  consist,  in  populous  towns,  of  twenty,  thirty,  and 
in  Paris  of  fifty  members;  who,  in  that  case,  are  divided  into  several  chambers.  Attached 
to  them  are  the  cours  d'assise,  or,  as  we  would  call  them,  jury  courts,  to  which  all  criminal 
cases  of  importance  are  referred  by  the  cours  roxjalrs.  A  French  jury  consists  of  twelve, 
and  a  simple  majority  decides.  From  the  decisions  of  the  cours  royales  an  appeal  lies  to  the 
court  of  cassation,  tlie  highest  tribunal,  which  also  exercises  a  general  jurisdiction  over  the 
other  judicial  bodies.  All  the  judges  are  appointed  by  the  crown,  but  hold  their  offices  for 
life. 


Book  I. 


FRANCE, 


533 


[The  following  tables  from  official  documents  contain  important  data  illustrative  not  less 
of  the  moral  history  of  mankind,  than  of  the  state  of  society  in  France. 

I.  Statement  of  the  Number  of  Persons  charged  witli  Criminal  OvTences  before  the  Courts  of  Assize,  in  each  year 

from  1828  to  18:!2. 


Crimes  against  the  Person. 
Acainst  the  State  ami  Pub'ic  Officers  . 

Miir<ier  and  Manslaughter 

Parricide 

Infanticide 

Cuttins  and  Wounding 

Assaults  upon  Women 

"    -Children 

Pi'rjnry  and  Subornation  of  Perjury  . 

BiL'amy 

Other  Crimes 


Totals  . 


Crimes  against  Property. 

Coining 

Forgery  of  Commercial  Papers  .  . 

Other  Forgeries 

Robbery  and  Theft  in  Churches  . . 

"  "  oh  Highways  . 

"  "  by  Domestics . 

Other  kinds  of  Robbery 

Fradnlent  Bankruptcy 

Incendiarism 

Other  Crimes 


Totals 

General  Totals. 


178 
5-20 

15 

99 
5:n 
lf)7 
157 

73 
9 

52 

1,844 


29 
99 

323 
47 

188 

966 

t,5fl2 

89 

96 

123 


5,552 


7,390 


178 

528 

14 

91 

456 

184 

139 

79 

11 

64 


3C5 
469 
4 
109 
309 

i:« 

107 

71 

7 

52 


1,791 


78 
102 
332 

67 

185 

1,215 

3,2)5 

1)5 

88 
175 


5,582 


■,373 


1,666 


48 

fiO 

.  281 

47 

135 

1,016 

3,2e0 

84 

138 

177 


5,296 


618 
G05 

15 

86 
340 
115 
103 

7^2 
2 

54 


2,046 


105 

73 

301 

35 

123 

939 

3,481 

67 

122 

314 


5,560 


1832. 


1,088 
641 
23 
88 
342 
131 
111 
104 
G 
83 


2,644 


81 

88 
327 

:i8 

168 

958 

3,352 

70 
169 
342 


5,593 


8,237 


II.  Statement  showing  the  Degree  of  Instruction  of  Persons  charged  with  Crimes  before  the  Courts  of  Assize,  ic 

each  year,  from  1828  to  1832. 


Year. 

Unable  to  read  or  write. 

Able  to  read  or  w 

rite  imperfectly. 

Crimes  against 

Crimes  agai.ist 
Property. 

Total 
Accused. 

Acquitted. 

Convicted. 

Crimes  a^inst 
Persons. 

Crimes  against 
Properly. 

Total 
Accused. 

Acquitted. 

Convicted. 
1,143 

1828 

1,009 

3,157 

4,166 

1,539 

2.627 

505 

1,353 

1,858 

715 

1829 

l,0li3 

3,460 

4,523 

1,696 

2,827 

496 

1,451 

1,947 

787 

1,110 

1830 

990 

3,329 

4,319 

1,654 

2,6('5 

4C5 

1 ,3(il 

1,820 

766 

1,0(0 

1831 

1,144 

3,456 

4,roo 

1,948 

2,f52 

568 

1,479 

2  047 

1,000 

1,047 

1832 

1,333 

3,416 

4,749 

1,883 

2,666 

850 

l,e06 

2,456 

1,1C2 

1,294 

Total  in 
Five  years. 

5,539 

16,818 

22,357 

8,720 

13,637 

2,884 

7,250 

10,134 

4,430 

5,704 

Able  to  read 

and  write  well. 

Received  a  deg 

Tee  of  Instructio 

0  beyond  me 

re  reading  ai 

d  writing. 

1828 

215 

565 

780 

.342 

438 

36 

82 

118 

77 

41 

1829 

185 

544 

729 

325 

404 

46 

124 

170 

89 

81 

1830 

174 

514 

f88 

330 

358 

37 

92 

129 

82 

47 

1831 

234 

533 

767 

426 

341 

98 

S2 

190 

132 

58 

1832 

292 

583 

775 

373 

402 

169 

88 

257 

1C2 

95 

ToUl  in 
rive  years. 

1,100 

2,639 

3,739 

1,796 

1,943 

386 

478 

864 

542 

322 

Am.  Ed.J 

Financial  system.  During  the  period  of  the  Revolution,  France  shook  off  the  heavy 
burden  of  debt  which  had  been  a  main  instrument  in  bringing  on  that  catastrophe.  Yet  the 
amount  of  taxes  had  not  exceeded  550,000,000  livres,  and  the  nation  was  crushed  rather  by 
the  arbitrary  and  injudicious  modes  of  levying  the  imposts,  than  by  their  actual  amount. 
Napoleon,  to  support  his  continual  wars,  laid  on  large  additional  taxes,  chiefly  in  tlie  form  of 
land  assessment,  and  contracted,  a  debt  of  3,000,000,000  francs.  Tliis  was  augmented  by  the 
events  of  1815,  and  the  occupation  of  the  French  territory  by  the  allied  armies  at  tlie  expense 
of  France.  The  debt  is  now  expressed  in  the  form  of  rentes  or  annuities,  which  in  the 
budget  of  1830  amounted  to  249,496,000  livres :  this,  with  other  funds  for  whicli  govern- 
ment were  responsible,  was  considered  as  representing  a  capital  of  4,988,738,000  francs. 
The  statement  of  receipt  and  expenditure  for  the  year  1830  is  as  follows: — 

RECEIPT.  Francs.                                                           EXPENDITCRE. 

Direct  Ta.ves,  chiefly  on  Land 2!'0.2i!5,S19 

Registration  Stamps,  and  Domains 187,225,038 

Custom-houses  and  Salt 154,231,103 

Liquors,  Sundry  Duties,  Tobacco  and  Gun- 
powder    193,081,582 

Post  Office        ..' 33,469,030 

Falls  of  Timber 24,0r0.n97 

Salt-works 1,200,000 

GamiriL'-honses 4,338.888 

Royal  Lottery 10,042,799 

Coi  n  a  ?e 14 1 .381 

Sundry  proceeds 11,585,418 

Extraordinary  resources 48.402,241 

Deductions  on  Receipts 25,900,000 

983,944,066 


Francs. 

7,666,669 
799.999 
600,000 

3,655.209 


45* 


Civil  List 

Chamber  of  Peers 

Chamber  of  Deputies 

Lejrion  of  Honour 

Sinking  Fund 41,6(-5,050 

Debt 276,356,668 

Justice 19,5'6,020 

Foreign  Affiiirs 8,778.000 

Rclision  and  Public  Instruction 38,9iu.500 

Interior 126,122.-16 

War 23.3,31  3,,^]7 

Marine 38„V27,474 

Finance 22,877,167 

Administration  of  Revenue 129,072,351 

Repayments ■     46.300,808 

1,064,268.445 


534 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pakt  nl 


The  army  of  France  is  no  longer  that  vast  and  terrible  mass,  which  for  so  manj'  years 
held  the  wiiole  of  continental  Europe  in  thrall.  The  events  of  1815  having  proved  too 
clearly  the  attachment  of  the  old  troops  to  their  former  master,  they  were  nearly  all  dis- 
banded, and  their  place  supplied  by  fresh  conscription.  The  government  has  the  power  of 
levying  (50,000  men  in  the  year.  By  a  regulation,  breathing  still  the  republican  spirit,  one- 
third  of  tlie  officers  must  be  raised  from  tlie  ranks.  The  army  in  tlie  year  1832  was  on  a 
very  formidable  footing.  It  amounted  in  all,  including  10,036  officers,  and  3794  children  of 
soldiers,  to  411,816  men.  Of  these,  the  infantry  consisted  of  9505  officers  and  264,141  men; 
the  cavalry  of  2805  officers  and  51,335  men;  the  artillery  of  1190  officers  and  32,594  men, 
besides  gendarmerie,  engineers,  &c. 

Tlie  French  navy,  wliich,  in  1791,  amounted  to  seventy-four  sail  of  the  line  and  sixty-two 
frigates,  lost  half  during  the  war ;  and  those  which  remained,  having  never  ventured  for 
many  years  to  stir  out  of  port,  lost  all  their  experience  and  efficiency.  At  present,  it  consists 
of  55  ships  of  the  line,  66  frigates,  30  corvettes,  103  smaller  vessels,  17  steam-vessels, 
numerous  armed  transports,  &c.  The  French  navy  is  now  in  a  high  state  of  efficiency,  and 
is  rapidly  increasing. 

Sect.  V. — Productive  Industry. 

France,  with  regard  to  internal  economy,  is  one  of  the  richest  and  most  flourishing  coun- 
tries in  the  world.  In  point  of  industry  she  ranks  third  after  Britain  and  the  Netherlands , 
while  she  possesses  a  greater  extent  and  more  natural  advantages  than  either  of  those  great 
seats  of  commerce  and  manufacture. 

Agriculture  is  the  most  flourishing  branch,  yet  is  not  in  so  advanced  a  state  as  in  Great 
Britain.  It  lias  gained  greatly  by  the  French  revolution,  in  consequence  of  the  abolition  of 
feudal  rights,  corvees,  and  tithes.  The  great  possessions  of  the  nobility  were  then  broken 
up,  and  during  the  grand  emigration,  the  farmers,  or  neighbouring  little  proprietors  and 
capitalists,  were  able  to  purchase  at  a  very  cheap  rate  portions  of  the  forfeited  domains.  It 
has  become  a  rage  in  France  for  every  one  to  possess  a  little  spot  of  land ;  and  tlie  division 
of  a  man's  property  among  his  children,  which  the  law  enforces,  tends  to  split  it  perpetually 
more  and  more  into  minute  portions.  Travellers  have  even  observed  three  or  four  pro- 
prietors obliged  to  join  in  keeping  a  common  plough.  In  vineyards  and  other  garden  cul- 
tures, where  nice  care  and  diligence  are  chiefly  requisite,  this  miimte  partition  seems 
advantageous.  Chaptal  even  calculates,  that  a  small  vineyard  cultivated  by  the  proprietor's 
own  hand  will  yield  double  the  quantity  of  that  which  is  leased  out  by  a  large  proprietor. 
But  in  corn  lands,  where  a  considerable  capital,  good  machinery,  strong  and  well-fed  cattle 
are  necessary,  the  cultivation  is  thus  kept  down  to  a  much  lower  standard  than  it  would 
otherwise  reach.  The  little  occupants,  also,  are  by  no  means  prompt  in  discovering  any 
improved  processes,  or  in  adopting  those  discovered  elsewhere.  Artificial  grasses,  and  the 
rotation  of  crops  which  they  facilitate,  are  by  no  means  generally  diffiised;  and  an  old 
vicious  circle,  of  wheat,  oats,  and  fallow,  is  still  very  generally  adhered  to.  In  short,  all 
operations  on  a  great  scale,  and  requiring  a  considerable  outlay,  are  deficient  in  France. 
M.  Dupin,  in  a  discourse  on  the  effects  of  public  instruction,  in  the  introduction  to  his  normal 
course  of  lectures  on  geometry,  has  drawn  a  striking  contrast  between  northern  and  southern 
France.  Although  the  former  produces  neither  the  olive,  the  vine,  nor  any  of  the  finer 
fruits,  yet  it  pays  of  taxes  127,630,000  francs  on  a  surfoce  of  18,690,000  hectares;  while  the 
south  pays  only  125,410,000  francs  upon  34,840,000  hectares.  Even  in  the  south,  the  dis- 
tricts least  favoured  by  nature  are  both  the  most  enlightened  and  the  most  industrious;  the 
high  Alps,  the  high  Pyrenees,  and  the  departments  immediately  adjoining  to  them. 

Grain,  notwithstanding  the  imperfection  in  its  cultivation,  is  produced  with  such  diligence 
as  to  yield  enough  in  ordinary  years  to  supply  the  extensive  population  of  France  with  food. 
The  only  exception  is  in  part  of  its  southern  coast,  which,  when  permitted,  draws  a  supply 
from  Odessa.  France  is  not  distinguished  for  any  very  superior  quality  of  grain,  nor  is  it  an 
exporting  country.  It  seems  to  have  attended  less  than  most  other  countries  of  Europe  to 
the  culture  of  potatoes,  which  are  still  planted  only  in  gardens,  along  borders,  or  in  tracts 
unfit  for  grain.  Maize  is  mixed  with  wheat  in  the  southern  departments.  Chaptal  has 
given  the  following  statement,  calculated  on  an  average  of  twelve  years,  from  1800  to  1812, 
of  the  entire  products  of  this  branch  of  French  agriculture: — 


Hectolitres. 

Wheat 51.500,200 

Rve 30,2  O.Ifil 

Maize r),302,:ill) 

Buckwheat 8,40U,4T3 


Hectolitres. 

Barley 12,57ti,603 

Potatoes 10,800,741 

Oats 32,0li6,587 

n;o,y4ii,o8i 


A  more  recent  estimate,  in  a  memoir  read  to  the  Society  of  Statistics  in  1830,  makes  the 
average  produce  of  the  years  1825  to  1828  amount  to  60,553,000  hectolitres  of  wheat ; 
114,733,000  of  other  grains;  46,238,000  of  potatoes  and  chestnuts. 

Wine  ranks  next  in  importance  to  grain,  and  forms  a  most  valuable  part  of  French 
industry.     The  wines  of  France,  though  not  so  strong  as  those  of  more  southern  climates, 


Book  I.  FRANCE.  535 

are  generally  accounted  the  most  delicate  in  the  world.  Those  of  Burgundy  and  Champatrne 
are  without  a  rival,  if  we  except  a  few  rare  specimens  of  Tokay.  The  wines  of  the  Garonne 
do  not  rank  quite  so  high ;  but,  from  their  light,  safe,  and  agreeable  qualities,  are  drunk  more 
fre-.ly,  and  exported  on  a  larger  scale.  The  finest  and  strongest  of  these  wines  are  cultivated 
chiefly  to  supply  the  consumption  of  Britain  and  the  otiier  northern  nations.  The  interior 
consumption  of  France  consists  chiefly  of  the  light  wines,  drunk  at  table,  nearly  as  our  beer. 
Two  elaborate  attempts  have  been  made  to  estimate  the  produce  of  tiie  French  vineyards ; 
one  by  Chaptal,  in  his  "  General  Treatise  on  French  Industry,"  and  the  other  in  the  report 
of  a  committee  of  the  Chamber  of  Peers,  presented  in  1824  by  tiie  Due  de  Dodeauville 
They  differ  pretty  considerably.  Chaptal  supposes  that  1,631,000  hectares  are  employed  iii 
producmg  wme  to  the  average  annual  amount  of  35,i500,000  hectolitres.  The  table,  how- 
--ever,  given  by  the  duke,  of  the  produce  of  each  department  does  not  exceed  31,630,000 
hectolitres.  The  difference  as  to  value  is  still  more  remarkable.  Chaptal,  after  leaving  out 
a  sixth,  as  made  into  brandy,  estimates  the  remainder  at  678,000,000  francs :  he  supposes 
that  there  are  800,000  worth  each  200  francs;  1,600,000  worth  50 ;  gradually  descending 
till  he  comes  to  10,500,000  worth  only  7|  francs.  Dodeauville  does  not  bring  the  amounl 
to  more  than  480,000,000.  The  highest  average  value  he  assigns  to  tlie  wines  of  any 
department  is  to  those  of  the  Oise  (champagne),  36  francs;  those  of  tlie  Marne,  Yonne,  and 
Cote  d'Or  (burgundy),  26  to  24;  of  the  Gironde,  and  Lot,  and  Garonne  (claret),  19  to  21 ; 
the  rest  from  17  to  9.  His  estimate,  however,  seems  too  low ;  since  M.  Dupin  (Forces  Pro- 
ductives,  cf-c.  de  la  France)  calculates  the  value,  according  to  the  tax  paid  to  government, 
at  543,155,078  francs.  The  brandy  into  whicii  one-sixth  of  the  above  produce  is  made,  is, 
like  the  wine,  the  finest  in  the  world,  and  a  grand  staple  of  French  trade.  Chaptal  estimates 
the  value  distilled  at  40,000,000  francs.  M.  Dupin  states  the  quantity  at  469,817  hectolitres; 
that  of  other  spirits  at  90,000,  He  calculates  also  8,868,218  hectolitres  of  cider,  and  2,965,022 
hectolitres  of  strong  beer. 

Live  stock  does  not  form  the  most  approved  part  of  French  husbandry.  Chaptal  considers 
that  the  animals  are  too  few,  whether  for  culture,  for  use,  or  for  the  production  of  manure ; 
and  also  that  the  measures  taken  to  improve  the  breed  have  been  very  partial  and  defective. 
The  number  of  horses,  including  mules,  in  1827,  was  2,-550,000.  Of  these  it  was  reckoned 
that  300,000  were  employed  in  riding,  posting,  the  artillery,  &c.  The  stock  requires  to  be 
kept  up  by  an  importation,  which  in  1809  to  1812  was  valued  at  3,541,000  francs  annually, 
but  according  to  M.  Senac  had  risen,  in  1822  to  1825,  to  7,500,000.  In  return,  there  is  an 
extensive  breeding  of  mules  on  the  Pyrenean  frontier,  and  they  are  exported  to  Spain  to  the 
value  of  1,400,000  francs.  France  had  in  1812,  214,000  bulls,  1,701,000  oxen,  3,909,000 
cows,  856,000  heifers.  The  importation  at  that  time  amounted  to  only  2,360,000  francs,  but 
in  1825  it  was  7,680,000.  The  exportation  is,  however,  considerable.  Sheep  are  a  species 
of  stock  very  considerable  in  amount,  particularly  in  the  departments  bordering  on  the  Alps 
and  Pyrenees,  in  those  which  compose  the  mountain  district  of  Auvergne,  and  on  the  pastoral 
banks  of  the  Eure  and  the  Cher.  The  number  of  sheep  in  1812  wa»  766,310  merinos, 
3,578,000  mixed,  and  30,843,000  native  or  unimproved.  The  first  introduction  of  merinos 
was  in  consequence  of  the  treaty  of  Basle,  which  stipulated  that  4000  of  these  highly  prized 
animals  should  pass  into  France.  An  experience  of  thirty  years  has  shown  that  the  breed 
might  be  preserved  and  extended  in  full  perfection;  but  the  above  statement  will  show  that 
the  diffusion  of  it  is,  as  yet,  very  partial.  Pure  merinos  are  valued  at  thirty  francs,  mixed 
at  twelve  francs,  and  native  sheep  at  only  five  francs.  The  number  of  swine  in  France  is 
estimated  by  Balbi,  in  1826,  at  4,000,000.  The  ass  is  considered  by  M.  Senac  to  be,  from 
the  poverty  of  his  owners,  in  an  almost  hopeless  state  of  degradation ;  and  the  fowls,  the 
bees,  and  the  pigeons  to  demand  a  thoroughly  improved  system  of  rearing.  Chaptal  has 
not  attempted  to  estimate  the  winged  species,  but  has  guessed  their  entire  value  at  about 
51,000,000  francs. 

Among  the  materials  of  manufacture,  the  most  important  is  silk,  which  was  at  first  intro- 
duced near  Tours,  but  was  soon  found  to  be  well  suited  only  to  the  most  southern  districts. 
The  amount,  according  to  Chaptal,  is  about  11,400,000 lbs.,  and  the  value  15,440,000  francs; 
but  this  is  only  about  two-fifths  of  the  quantity  consumed  in  the  manufactures,  so  that  a  large 
importation  is  necessary  from  Lombardy.  Hemp  and  flax  are  cultivated  universally,  but 
always  on  a  small  scale,  every  farmer  having  his  little  patch  for  domestic  use.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  estimate  these  ;  but  Chaptal  guesses  the  value  of  hemp  at  30,000,000  francs,  and  flax 
at  20,000,000  francs.  Vegetable  oils  are  produced  to  the  supposed  extent  of  1,300,000  quin- 
tals, worth  about  75,000,000  francs ;  yet  so  great  is  the  quantity  consumed  in  domestic 
use,  and  in  the  different  manufactures,  that  they  are  imp<jrted  to  the  value  of  nearly  twenty- 
five  millions. 

There  are  certain  tropical  and  colonial  productions  which  it  was  the  eager  wish  of  Napo- 
leon that  France  should  cultivate,  in  order  that  she  might  be  independent  of  commerce. 
One  of  his  favourite  projects  was  the  culture  of  the  beet-root,  for  the  extraction  of  sugar, 
an  article  of  consumption  with  which  Europeans  can  least  dispense.  The  admission  of  colo- 
nial and  foreign  sugars,  under  reasonable  duties,  after  the  overthrow  of  the  continental  sys- 


536  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

tem,  gave  a  severe  check  to  this  spurious  branch  of  industry.  To  prevent  its  decline,  heavy 
additional  duties  were  laid  on  colonial  and  foreign  sugars  in  1816  and  1822;  and,  in  conse- 
quence of  this  encouragement,  the  production  of  beet-root  sugar  has  been  rapidly  increasing 
during  the  last  five  years,  and  is  now  supposed  to  amount  to  about  8000  tons,  or  8,960,000  lbs. 
The  art  hcis  been  a  good  deal  improved ;  and  it  is  supjiosed  by  many  that  it  will,  at  no  dis- 
tant period,  be  so  much  ameliordted  that  the  beet-growers  will  be  able  to  Avitlistand  the 
competition  of  the  West  India  planters  under  the  same  duties:  but  any  such  expectation 
seems  to  us  to  be  quite  visionary.  The  entire  consumption  of  sugar  in  France  amounts,  at 
present,  inclusive  of  that  from  the  beet-root,  to  about  72,000  tons  a  year;  being  not  much 
more  than  a  third  part  of  the  consumption  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  which  amounts  to 
about  190,000  tons.  Tobacco,  after  the  removal  of  tiie  renie  or  royal  monopoly,  rose  to 
50,000,000  lbs. ;  but  since  the  restoration  of  the  regie  in  1812,  it  has  fallen  to  5,000,000. 

Wood  is  an  important  article,  especially  in  a  country  which  is  nearly  destitute  of  any 
other  fuel.  Chaptal  estimated  the  woodlands  at  7,072,000  hectares  (about  17,500,000  acres); 
but  according  to  a  more  recent  memorial  in  1824,  by  M.  Herbin  de  Halle,  sub-administrator 
of  the  forests,  it  is  only  6,-521,000  hectares  (about  1.6,000,000  acres).  Of  this,  1,122,000 
hectares  belong  to  the  state,  1,896.000  to  the  communes,  65,969  to  the  crown,  192,000  to 
princes  of  the  royal  family,  and  3,243,000  to  private  individuals.  Woods  thus  occupy  a  little 
more  than  an  eighth  part  of  the  soil.  The  greatest  proportion  exists  in  the  departments 
bordering  on  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees,  and  along  the  Rhine,  the  Moselle,  the  Saone,  the 
Marne,  and  other  eastern  rivers.  Chaptal  estimates  the  value  of  the  annual  cuttings  at 
about  141,000,000  francs ;  but  if  this  be  reduced  according  to  M.  de  Halle's  estimate,  it  will 
give  only  130,000,000.  Fruit  trees  are  also  of  importance,  especially  chestnuts,  cultivated 
on  a  krge  scale  in  several  provinces,  and  valued  by  Chaptal  at  about  10,000,000  francs. 
He  estimates  the  fruit  growing  open  in  orclmrds  at  22,500,000  francs,  and  that  on  walls,  or 
in  rows  as  single  trees,  at  68,750,000.  He  is  afraid  that  this  last  will  be  thought  too  low ; 
we  should  rather  apprehend  an  opposite  error  in  this  instance,  as  well  as  in  that  of  reckoning 
the  herbs  which  grow  in  328,000  hectares  of  garden  ground,  at  200,000,000  francs. 

On  the  whole,  Chaptal  calculates  that  in  the  52,000,000  hectares  of  which  France  con- 
sists, twenty-three  are  arable;  ten  woods,  vines,  fruit-trees;  seven  pasturage;  the  rest 
waters,  roads,  buildings,  waste.  He  makes  tlie  annual  average  produce  of  an  acre  28  francs. 
By  this  and  other  estimates,  the  annual  territorial  produce  comes  to  about  1,. 500,000,000 
francs.  The  entire  agricultural  capital  he  estimates  at  37,500,000,000  francs.  M.  Dupin, 
in  1827,  reckons  the  territorial  revenue  at  1,626,000,000  francs. 

The  manufactures  of  France,  though  they  do  not  present  the  immense  results  of  those  of 
England,  are  considerably  more  productive  than  tJiose  of  almost  any  otlier  nation.  Colbert, 
the  celebrated  minister  of  Louis  XIV.,  finding  this  branch  in  a  very  depressed  state,  com- 
pared with  its  prosperous  condition  in  some  neighbouring  countries,  bestowed  on  it  almost 
an  exclusive  attention.  Chaptal  calculates,  that  during  the  Revolution  it  made  still  greater 
progress  than  agriculture.  He  regards  as  almost  miraculous  the  advance  made  in  the  cotton 
and  other  fabrics.  The  miracle,  however,  was  wrought  solely  by  the  rigid  exclusion  of 
British  goods;  and  amid  all  the  boasted  proofs  of  French  ingenuity,  he  is  obliged  to  confess, 
that  when,  as  minister  of  the  interior,  he  sought  eagerly  the  means  of  introducing  new 
manufactures,  he  could  find  no  effectual  expedient,  except  that  of  alluring  Enijlish  manu- 
facturers into  France,  and  of  copying  their  processes.  However,  tliese  prohibitions,  which 
have  been  continued  to  a  great  extent  under  the  roval  system,  have  in  fact  forced  a  number 
of  matuifactures  wiiich  could  not  otherwise  have  withstood  British  competition. 

Silk  has  been  lon2:  one  of  the  most  prominent  objects  of  French  manufacture.  Even  the 
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  thouorh  it  drove  many  of  the  most  industrious  citizens  out 
of  the  kingdom,  left  that  branch  of  industry  still  very  flourishing.  It  suffered  more  from  the 
dreadful  calamities  wliich  befell  Lyons,  its  cliief  seat,  during  the  height  of  the  revolutionary 
mania.  The  15,000  establishments  that  existed  in  1788  for  the  manufacture  of  silk,  were 
reduced  in  1800  to  3500:  but  amounted,  in  1831,  to  about  15,000,  employinsf  above  21,000 
workmen.  It  is  chiefly  in  cloths  that  this  city  excels  all  others,  both  as  to  the  brilliancy  of 
the  dyes,  and  the  richness  and  beauty  of  the  stuffs.  Nismes  excels  in  taffetas,  mixed  silk 
and  cotton  stuffs,  gauzes,  and  crapes;  Tours  in  fijrniture  stuffs;  Avignon  in  satins,, levan- 
tines,  &c.  The  Cevennes  are  famous  for  bonnets,  while  almost  all  the  silk  ribands  are  fabri- 
cated in  the  department  of  the  Loire.  The  entire  value  of  the  manufacture  is  estimated  at 
12.3,000,(K)0  francs,  of  which  30,000,000  is  exported. 

The  woollen  manufacture  is  still  more  extensive  and  valuable  than  that  of  silk.  The 
woollens  of  France  are  either  very  coarse  or  very  fine ;  the  former  are  established  chiefly  in 
the  hilly  tracts  of  the  southern  border,  where  the  sheep  yield  abundance  of  coarse  wool,  and 
the  shepherds  spend  the  leisure  of  winter  in  workinof  it  up  into  serges,  friezes,  and  similar 
stuffs.  On  the  other  hand,  at  Sedan,  Louviers,  Abbeville,  are  manufactured  finer  cloths 
than  any  of  those  of  Britain,  though  the  latter  produces  a  much  larger  quantity  of  good  and  sub- 
stantial cloth.  Althounfii  France  produces  84,000.000  lbs.  of  wool,  she  vet  imports  to  the 
value  of  12,000,000  or  14,000,000  of  francs :  Chaptal  estimates  the  whole  unmanufactured 


Book  I.  FRANCE.  5^ 

wool  at  93,000,000  francs,  and  the  finislied  work  at  238,000,000,  of  which  the  exports 
amount  to  about  25,000,000. 

The  making'  of  linen  is  as  widely  scattered  as  the  culture  of  hemp  and  flax.  The  coarse 
cloths  are  chiefly  fabricated  by  the  peasantry,  each  out  of  the  produce  of  his  own  little  patch 
of  land.  There  are,  however,  large  manufactures  of  plain  useful  cloth  in  Normandy  and 
Dauphine,  the  latter  from  hemp;  and  great  (juantities  of  sailcloth  are  made  in  the  maritime 
countries.  In  the  departments  along  the  Belgic  border  there  are  extensive  fabrics  of  lawns, 
cambrics,  and  lace ;  which  last,  though  not  of  equal  reputation  with  that  of  Brussels  and 
Mecldin,  forms  yet  an  important  object  of  trade.  We  may  reckon  the  raw  material  of  hemp 
at  37,000,000  francs ;  the  finished  manufacture  at  nearly  110,500,000;  fla.x,  raw  material, 
20,000,000,  the  finished  fabric,  75,000,000.  The  exportation  is  about  37,500,000,  almost 
wholly  of  the  finest  kinds  of  the  manufacture. 

The  cotton  manufacture  was  established  in  France  during  the  continental  system ;  and 
has  been  propped  up  since  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  by  the  prohibition  of  importation 
from  abroad.  In  1810  the  imports  of  raw  cotton  amounted  to  above  25,000,000  lbs.,  and 
during  the  next  ten  years  they  were  more  than  doubled.  But  thef  high  price  of  machinery 
in  France,  the  scarcity  of  coal,  and  the  want  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  workmen,  seem  to 
oppose  almost  insuperable  obstacles  to  the  further  progress  of  the  manufacture.  It  is  at  pre 
sent  in  a  very  depressed  state,  and  the  following  account  shows  that  it  has  been  nearly  sta- 
tionary during  the  last  ten  years : — 

Imports  of  Cotton  Wool  into  France. 


1822 61 ,758,300 

1823 50,(153,500 

1824 75,322,200 

1825 01,371  GOO 

1S26 : 90,052,200 


lljs.  lbs. 


1827 87,185,100 

1828 61,839,000 

1829 72,669,000 

1830 84,825.600 

1831 65,517,900 


[In  1834,  it  again  rose  to  279,674  bales,  or  about  73,2.50,000  lbs. ;  and  in  1835,  to  314,350 
bales,  or  about  94,000,000  lbs.— Am.  Ed.] 

Of  the  secondary  objects  of  manufacture,  that  of  leather  is  perhaps  the  most  extensive, 
though  not  peculiarly  French.  It  is  supposed  that  in  France  the  annual  product  amounts  to 
857,000  cow-hides;  110,000  horse-hides,  and  2,032,000  calf-skins.  There  are  31,000  shoe- 
makers  in  Paris,  who  make  upwards  of  eight  millions  of  pairs  of  shoes  yearly,  not  only  for 
the  city  itself,  but  the  provinces,  and  even  foreign  countries.  Chaptal  reckons  the  whole 
produce  of  tanning,  currying,  shoemaking,  and  all  processes  connected  with  leather,  at 
143,000,000  francs.  Hard  soap  was  formerly  supplied  by  Marseilles  to  ah  France  and  the 
colonies,  but  its  produce  of  225,000  quintals  is  now  reduced  by  a  third ;  owing  partly  to  the 
reduction  of  the  colonial  demand,  and  partly  to  the  more  general  diffusion  of  the  manufacture. 
It  is  thought  still  to  amount  to  30,000,000  francs.  Starch,  including  hair-powder,  may  amount 
to  18,000,000  pounds.  There  are  sundry  little  matters  of  jewellery,  trinkets,  flirniture,  per- 
fumery, scented  waters,  volatile  salts,  which  elsewhere  are  only  petty  trades,  but  which  taste 
and  fashion  in  France  raise  to  the  dignity  of  manufactures,  the  whole  produce  of  which  ia 
reckoned  at  upwards  of  100,000,000  francs.  Crystal,  glass,  and  pottery  are  branches  in 
which  the  French  have  recently  made  great  progress;  and,  from  being  dependent  on 
foreigners  for  these  articles,  are  now  able  to  export  them.  The  first  two  branches  are  esti- 
mated at  21,000,000;  porcelain  made  at  Sevres  and  other  places,  at  5,000,000;  pottery  in 
imitation  of  Engli.sh,  a  little  more;  coarse  pottery  for  the  lower  ranks,  1.5,000,000. 

Mineral  kingdom.  France  yields  in  abundance  the  most  solid  and  useful  of  all  metals, 
iron.  There  are  about  400  forges  in  the  kingdom,  chiefly  in  the  Pyrenean  and  Alpine  de- 
partments, and  along  the  heads  of  the  Marne,  the  Moselle,  and  the  Saone. 

The  nroduce  which  M.  Chaptal  reckoned  only  81,000,000  kilogrammes,  had,  according  to 
M.  Dupin,  risen  in  1825  to  161,000,000  (about  161,000  tons),  the  value  of  which  would  be 
about  75,000,000  francs.  Chaptal  supposed  the  workmanship  bestowed  even  on  the  smaller 
quantity  produced  in  his  time  sufficient  to  raise  the  value  to  200,000,000  francs.  Nearly  all 
the  copper  and  lead  employed  in  France  is  imported  from  abroad.  Salt  is  extracted  on  the 
southern  coast  from  sea- water  evaporated  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  in  the  north  fi-om 
brine-springs  artificially  evaporated.  During  the  period  when  salt,  relieved  from  the  old 
oppressive  monopoly,  was  left  entirely  free,  its  production  and  use  rose  to  the  extraordinary 
height  of  upwards  of  20  millions  of  quintals.  Since  the  re-establi.'^hmpnt  of  the  tax,  it  has 
fallen  to  not  quite  two  millions ;  upon  which  there  is  paid  a  duty  of  45,000,000  francs.  This 
astonishing  diminution  seems  chiefly  owing  to  the  disuse  of  it  in  agriculture;  a  circumstance 
however  very  injurious  to  that  branch  of  industry.  Other  mineral  products,  with  their  sup- 
posed value,  are,  alum,  2,500,000;  saltpetre,  3,000,000;  nitric  acid,  6,000,000;  muriatic 
acid,  2.50,000.  .         . 

Tiie  total  value  of  the  products  of  the  mines  and  manufactures  of  France  is  estimated  at 
2,000,000,000  francs.  The  particulars  are  about  4-50  millions  of  home  raw  materials;  225 
millions  of  foreign  raw  materials;  900  millions  of  workmanship ;  225  millions  of  general  ex- 

Vol.  I.  3  ^ 


538 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


P.UIT  III 


pense,  as  implements,  repairs,  lighting,  interest  of  fixed  capital ;  200  millions  for  the  profit 
of  the  manufacturer. 

The  couiuierce  of  France,  while  all  the  other  branches  of  industry  were  thus  advancing, 
has  perceptibly  declined.  It  was  reduced,  indeed,  to  a  state  of  teniporarj'  annihilation  by 
the  violent  policy  of  Napoleon,  who  absolutely  lined  the  coast  with  troops,  that  not  a  single 
vessel  might  enter.  Thus  all  the  commercial  ties  of  France  were  broken,  every  channel 
closed  by  which  she  was  accustomed  to  exchange  lier  commodities  with  those  of  foreign 
countries.  Indeed,  the  anti-commercial  spirit  seems  to  have  become  rooted  in  the  mind  of 
the  nntion;  and  when  we  find  even  the  enlightened  mind  of  Chaptal  extolling  the  prohibi- 
tory system,  and  considermg  every  thing  as  a  source  of  loss  to  France  which  she  imports 
from  abroad,  there  can  appear  little  prospect  of  any  amendment.  That  writer  considers  the 
year  1789  as  the  most  flourishing  period  of  French  commerce ;  when  the  exports  amounted 
JO  18,200,000/.  sterling,  and  the  imports  to  26,500,000/.  This  extraordinary  excess  of 
miports,  a  result,  according  to  old  ideas,  considered  so  disastrous,  he  explains  by  observing, 
that  the  imports  include  ten  millions  from  the  colonies,  while  tlie  exports  thither  were  only 
four,  and  also  two  millions  and  a  half  in  gold  and  silver.  Whether  this  explanation  be  sound 
or  otherwise,  we  have  no  idea  that  there  could  be  any  permanent  or  extensive  diflerence  be- 
tween the  two  branches.  Chaptal  has,  with  grief,  declined  to  give  any  record  of  the  feeble 
eflbrts  at  revival  made  by  the  French  commerce.  Since  the  appearance  of  Chaptal's  work, 
however,  it  has  considerably  improved.  In  1827,  the  import  trade  was  carried  out  by  3350 
vessels,  under  the  French  flag,  tonnage  353,000,  value  of  cargoes  230,140,000  francs ;  and 
by  4439  foreign  vessels,  tonnage  474,000,  value  of  cargoes  136,041,000  francs.  There  were, 
besides,  imported  by  land,  goods  to  the  value  of  199,621,000  francs;  making  the  imports  in 
all,  565,802,000  fi-ancs. 

In  the  same  year  the  export  trade  was  carried  on  by  3522  French  vessels,  tonnage 
346,000,  value  of  cargoes  235,120,000  francs;  and  4141  foreign  vessels,  tonnage  also 
346,000,  value  of  cargoes  167,728,000  francs.  The  exports  by  land  amounted  to  156,767,000 
francs ;  making  in  all,  559,615,000  francs. 

The  following  was  the  value  of  the  leading  articles  of  import  and  export : — 


IJIPORTS. 

Francs. 

Raw  hides 8,700,000 

Wools 11,140,000 

Feathers 1,580,000 

Bilks 32.270,000 

Tallow 2.500,000 

Fruits  to  plant 1,2-20,000 

Tobacco 7,t).50,000 

Vegetable  juices 2,270,000 

Oils,  not  for  food 21,430,000 

Medicines 2,130,000 

Wood 17,01:0,000 

,  ornamental 2.900,000 

Hemp 4,210,000 

Flax 56,000 

Cotton 51 ,910.000 

Gems 8,200,000 

Sulphur 1,290,000 

Coal 8,0(^.000 

Cast-iron 1,170.000 

Copper 9,1 10.000 

Ti  n 2,130,000 

P,-)t  ash 3,420,000 

IndiKO 14.880,000 

Horses 3,3C0,000 

Sheep 6.400  000 

Horned  cattle 2,520.000 

Butter 1,960,000 

Eess 3,830,000 

Grain 7,150,000 

Cheese 3,140.000 

Fruits ]6,200.0(M) 

Suear 3<5,000.000 

Coffee lO.OOn.OOO 

Straw-hats 4.550.000 

Linen,  or  hemp  stuffs 15.880.(X)0 

Mercery 2,170,000 


EXPORTS. 

Francs. 

Dye  stufis 8,300,000 

Gems 2,120,006 

Horses 1,2!10,000 

Mules 4,840,000 

Sheep 1,420,000 

Horned  cattle 2,520,000 

Refinedsuear 4,550,000 

Wine,  ordinary 41,510,000 

,  liqueurs 5.720,000 

Brandies 22,970  000 

Straw-hats 2,0: 0.000 

Porcelain 3,(;80,000 

Glass 2,e00.000 

French  books 3,140,000 

Paper 3,P60,000 

Perfumery 5,390,000 

Cloths,  wool 26,920,000 

,  silk 90.8CO.000 

,  ribands 24.380.000 

,  cntton 46,020.000 

,  linen 17,370,000 

Cambric  and  lawn 16.580,ft00 

Plaque 3,170.000 

Clock  and  watch-work 4,240,(X)0 

Tabletterie 3,7!I0,000 

Mercery • 6.880,000 

Modes 2.300,000 

Made  clothes 6,480,000 

Parisian  articles 5,690,000 


Mercantile  navy.     In  1827,  the  mercantile  navy  of  France  consisted  of  <  14,530  vessels, 
of  the  burden  of  700,000  tons.     Of  these  there  belonged  to — 


Ships. 

Bordeau.\ 431  . 

Marseilles 711  . 

Havre 359  . 


Tons.  1                                                            Ships. 

.77,000         Nantes 5:17. 

.65,000         Rouen 254. 

.62,000         Dunkirk 229. 


Tons. 
.56,<K)0 

.28,000 
.17,500 


The  interior  commerce  must  be  very  extensive,  though  it  is  difficult  to  estimate  its  amount, 
as,  notwithstandingr  considerable  advantages  for  navigation,  the  bulk  of  it  is  carried  on  by 
land.  The  old  medium  of  fairs  has  been  not  only  preserved,  but  greatly  extended.  M.  Bottin, 
upon  documents  furnished  by  the  minister  of  the  interior,  calculates  that  there  are  26,314 


Book  I.  FRANCE.  539 

fairs  in  France.  Some  of  these  are  held  on  the  frontier  of  a  province  or  kingdom,  others 
round  a  great  cathedral  or  noted  place  of  pilgrimage ;  some  at  the  foot  of  high  mountains  on 
the  melting  of  the  snows,  which  have  kept  the  inliabitants  imprisoned  for  several  months. 
Sometimes  they  open  with  burlesque  representations,  as  processions  of  giants,  of  flying 
dragons,  or  monstrous  fishes.  The  fair  of  Longchamps,  held  in  spring  at  Paris,  those  of 
Eeaucaire  in  Languedoc,  and  of  Guibray  in  Normandy,  are  the  most  extensive. 

The  canals  of  France  were  long  entirely  undertaken  by  the  government,  which  carried 
on  these  vvorks  with  some  spirit.  The  earliest  was  the  Canal  of  Briare,  to  unite  the  Seine 
and  the  Loire.  It  is  about  38  miles  long,  4  feet  deep,  has  40  locks,  and  cost  1,000,000 
francs.  The  canal  of  Languedoc  is  on  a  much  greater  scale,  and  was  considered  in  its  day 
a  stupendous  undertaking.  It  was  intended  to  unite  the  Mediterranean  with  the  Atlantic, 
and  is  170  miles  long,  6|  feet  deep,  with  100  locks.  The  cost  was  32,000,000  francs,  which 
would  have  been,  at  least,  doubled  had  the  work  been  executed  in  the  present  day.  It  was 
considered  the  largest  canal  in  Europe,  till  it  was  eclipsed  by  the  Caledonian,  which  is  three 
times  as  deep,  and  admits  ships  of  war ;  whereas  the  canal  of  Languedoc  has  afforded  a 
mere  inland  navigation,  along  which  pass  1900  vessels  of  100  to  120  tons;  but  it  has  not, 
for  the  most  common  merchant-vessels,  superseded  the  necessity  of  going  round  by  the 
Straits  of  Gibraltar.  Tiie  Canal  of  the  Centre,  joining  the  Saone  and  the  Ix)ire  by  a  line 
of  70  miles,  was  completed  in  1793,  at  an  expense  of  10,000,000  francs ;  but  only  5  feet 
deep.  The  Canal  of  Picardy,  from  the  Oise  towards  Lille,  remarkable  for  its  long  tunnel 
near  St.  Quintin,  was  completed  in  1810,  at  an  expense  of  10,600,000  francs.  Still,  France, 
in  this  grand  national  improvement,  remained  far  behind  England,  which,  by  M.  Dupin's  es- 
timate, made  a  few  years  ago,  had  more  than  four  and  a  half  times  as  much  canalization  in 
proportion  to  its  surface.  Very  recently,  however,  France  has  displayed  an  extraordinary 
activity  in  planning,  and  a  considerable  diligence  in  executing,  designs  of  this  nature.  This 
too  has  been  displayed  not  by  government  only,  but  by  private  associations,  asking  only  aid 
and  advances  from  the  state.  Independent  of  the  finisiied  works  above  stated,  twelve  great 
new  canals  are  in  progress.  These  are, — 1.  Tlie  Canal  Monsieur,  joining  the  Rhine  and 
the  Rhone  by  the  Saone  and  the  Doubs ;  length  180  miles.  2.  Of  Burgundy,  joining  the 
Saone  to  the  Loire  by  tlie  Yonne,  145  miles.  3.  Of  Angoulem.e,  making  the  Somme  navi- 
gable to  Amiens.  4.  A  lateral  canal  along  the  Loire,  to  avoid  the  difficulties  of  its  naviga- 
tion, from  Dijon  to  Briare,  120  miles.  5.  From  Nantes  to  Brest,  with  a  view  of  provisioning 
the  ports  of  Britany,  220  miles.  6.  Of  Ille  et  Ranee,  joining  Nantes  to  Brest  and  St.  Malo. 
7.  Of  Nivernais,  joining  the  Yonne  to  the  Loire.  8.  Of  the  Duke  of  Berri,  joining  the  Cher 
to  the  Upper  Loire.  9.  Ardennes.  10.  Blanet.  11.  Aries.  12.  Oise.  Several  canals,  on 
a  still  more  magnificent  scale,  have  been  recently  contemplated,  and  what  the  French  call 
the  studies  of  them  are  even  far  advanced ;  but  no  part  of  the  works  has  yet  been  com- 
menced. Doubts  are  even  entertained  if  they  will  repay  the  immense  expense  required  for 
their  completion.  The  principal  of  these  are, — 1.  A  maritime  canal  from  Paris  to  the  sea, 
avoiding  the  circuitous  navigation  of  the  Seine,  and  admitting  ships  of  large  burden  to  that 
capital.  The  estimate  is  1.50,000,000  francs,  and  1,-500,000  francs  for  a  harbour  at  Paris. 
2.  A  canal  from  Paris  to  Strasburg ;  which  would  become,  as  it  were,  the  French  Grand 
Trunk,  and  might  easily  be  extended  to  tlie  Danube.  The  length  would  exceed  300  mdes. 
1.  The  Pyrenean  Canal,  from  Toulouse  to  Bayonne,  forming  a  more  direct  communication 
from  sea  to  sea  than  at  present.     Length,  210  miles. 

The  roads  of  France,  at  least  the  high  roads,  have  been  chiefly  supported  by  government. 
They  are  broader,  more  spacious,  more  direct,  and  on  the  whole  of  grander  aspect,  than  the 
English  roads ;  but  they  have  not  been  kept  in  such  good  condition  for  travelling.  Roads 
have  been  made  and  repaired  rather  for  political  and  military  purposes,  from  solicitation  and 
favour,  than  for  objects  of  real  utility.  The  system  seems  to  have  been,  to  neglect  them  as 
lono-  as  possible,  till  the  clamour  of  the  district  became  irresistible,  and  then  to  give  them  a 
thorough  repair ;  to  which  Dupin  justly  prefers  the  system  of  keeping  roads  constantly  m  a 
good  state  by  small  repairs  as  the  necessity  arises.  The  French  roads,  however,  have  been 
greatly  improved  since  1810,  and  the  maintenance  of  a  great  proportion  of  them  has  been 
undertaken  by  the  departments ;  so  that  they  are  now  divided  into  royal  and  departmental. 
Tlie  royal  roads,  in  1828,  extended  8631  leagues,  and  there  was  expended  on  them 
199,000,000  francs ;  but  this  was  chiefly  on  repairing  and  extendmg  diflerent  parts  ot  them. 
It  was  thus  divided : —  Tnaa. 

To  maintain  4205  leaeues,  cost «i'n^i'nnn 

Torepair         SKiO    ditto ^o  loVnnn 

To  complete  614  ditto ::::::::■.■;:::.■::::  fA^^m 

Toopen  446    ditto •• 50,696,000 

Works  of  art ' . 

190,403,000 

The  departmental  roads,  in  1828,  extended  7704  leagues,  of  which  6040  had  been 
opened,  and  to  complete  the  remaining  1664  would  require  an  expenditure  of  ll^,OUU,uuu 
francs. 


540  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  UI. 

There  are  several  rail-roads  in  PVance,  but  of  no  great  extent ;  the  principal  are  that  of 
Andrezieux  and  Roanne,  50  miles  in  length ;  that  of  St.  Etienne  and  the  Loire,  15  miles ; 
and  thai  of  St.  Etienne  and  Lyons,  45  miles.    ' 

Of  the  bridges  of  France  several  are  liandsome,  as  those  over  the  Ix)ire  at  Orleans, 
Tours,  and  Nantes ;  over  the  Seine  at  Paris,  Neuilly,  and  Rouen  ;  over  the  Rhone  and 
Saone  at  Lyons ;  and  over  the  Garonne  at  Bordeaux.  Bridges  of  suspension  have  been  con- 
structed at  Paris  in  front  of  the  Hotel  des  Invalides,  and  over  the  Rhone,  between  Tain  and 
Tournon.     These  operations  have  been  entirely  in  the  hands  of  government. 

Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State. 

The  population  of  France,  which  in  1780,  by  the  enquiries  of  Necker,  appeared  to  be 
24,800,000,  was  found  by  the  census  of  1791  to  amount  to  26,363,000 ;  by  that  of  1817,  to 
upwards  of  29,000,000 ;  and  by  that  of  1820-21,  to  30,616,000,  including  Corsica  and  the 
army.  According  to  the  royal  ordonnance  of  March  15th,  1827,  it  amounted  to  31,851,545. 
There  were  in  that  year  965,634  births ;  of  which  898,329  were  legitimate,  and  67,305  ille- 
gitimate. The  births  consisted  of  498,187  boys,  and  467,447  girls.  The  marriages  were 
229,613,  the  deaths  772,428.  At  an  average  the  proportion  of  male  births  in  France  to  female 
births  is  as  16  to  1.5;  the  marriages  are  to  tiie  population  as  1  to  133;  the  births  are  to  the 
marriages  nearly  as  4  to  1 ;  and  to  the  population  as  1  to  31.53 ;  the  deaths  are  to  the  popu- 
lation as  1  to  39.4.  The  extraordinary  improvement  since  1780  in  the  condition  of  the  people 
is  obvious  from  the  fact  that  at  the  last-mentioned  period  the  deaths  were  to  the  whole  popu- 
lation as  1  to  30.2 :  so  that  while,  in  1780,  one  individual  died  annually  out  of  every  30 
individuals,  in  1832  one  only  died  out  of  about  39.* 

The  French  national  character  has  very  marked  features,  and  has  been  the  object  of 
mingled  admiration  and  contempt  to  the  neighbouring  nations.  In  the  eyes  of  Frenchmen, 
especially  of  the  old  scliool,  la  belle  France  is  the  centre  of  all  that  is  refined  and  polished 
in  human  existence,  and  whatever  lies  beyond  its  sphere  is  marked  with  a  deep  taint  of  bar- 
barism ;  while  their  rougher  neighbours  brand  them  as  artificial,  effeminate,  and  fantastic. 
The  art  of  living  in  society  seems  certainly  carried  to  greater  perfection  than  in  any  otlier 
country ;  and  the  manners  are  characterised  by  a  peculiar  gaiety,  amenity,  and  courtesy. 
The  polish  of  the  higher  ranks  seems  to  have  descended  even  to  the  lowest  circles.  "  The 
man  who  breaks  stones  upon  the  road  takes  off  his  hat  to  the  woman  that  leads  her  cow  in  a 
string;  the  tinker  and  the  shoeblack  whip  off  their  hats  to  each  other."  A  certain  openness 
and  kindness  of  disposition  is  certainly  evinced  in  the  custom  of  whole  families,  with  married 
sons  and  daughters,  continuing  to  dwell  under  the  paternal  roof  The  Frenchman  lives  as 
it  were  in  public :  his  house,  for  a  part  of  the  day,  is  open  to  a  large  circle  of  acquaintance. 
He  enjoys  society  without  expense  and  ceremony.  He  resorts  habitually  to  the  theatre, 
spectacles,  and  scenes  of  public  amusement.  In  more  serious  points  of  view,  the  French 
possess  estimable  qualities.  Intoxication  is  a  vice  confined  to  the  lowest  ranks ;  and  swear- 
ing is  repelled  at  least  as  a  mark  of  barbarism.  The  French  are  ingenious,  acute,  active,  and 
intelligent.  If  they  have  not  what  can  strictly  be  called  patriotism,  they  have  at  least  a 
very  strong  national  feeling.  To  exalt  the  glory  and  promote  the  influence  of  France,  is  the 
prevailing  impulse  which  actuates  the  mind  of  almost  every  Frenchman.  It  is,  however, 
alleged,  that  there  is  a  want  of  that  sterling  principle,  that  openness  and  integrity,  which 
forms  the  boast  of  the  English  cliaracter.  Dissimulation  and  insincerity  seem  widely  dif- 
flised  through  the  intercourse  of  the  higher  circles.  Tiie  honesty  of  the  lower  classes  is, 
however,  remarkable  ;  and  the  system  of  higgling  in  siiops,  is  a  consequence  of  the  contracted 
state  of  commerce.  The  deportment  of  the  female  sex,  liowever  embellislied  by  toitrnure, 
and  the  graces,  does  not  accord  witli  our  ideas  of  social  and  domestic  propriety.  The  young 
ladies  are  strictly  watched,  and  held  in  almost  monastic  seclusion;  but  the  era  of  marriage 
is  the  signal,  if  not  of  positive  irregularity,  at  least  of  a  system  of  regular  flirtation,  which 
we  cannot  reconcile  to  the  conjugal  and  matronly  character.  It  is  probable,  however,  tiiat 
the  impression  of  the  general  dissoluteness  of  French  manners  has  been  cliicfly  derived 
from  the  opulent  circles  of  the  capital;  while,  as  a  late  writer  has  observed,  Paris  and  the 
provinces  form  entirely  separate  worlds.  Among  the  peasantry,  and  even  among  the  trading 
class  in  the  cities,  there  appears  to  be  much  that  is  respectable  and  amiable.  The  great 
activity  and  prominent  station  of  the  female  sex  are  everywhere  conspicuous:  they  are  seen 
managing  the  shops,  carrying  on  great  manufactories,  and  joining  in  the  hardest  toils  of  the 
loom  and  the  field.  It  is  not  at  all  uncommon  upon  a  farm  to  see  the  master  sowing,  his 
wife  guiding  the  plough,  and  a  fine  girl  filling  the  dung-cart.  Such  avocations  divest  the 
fair  sex  in  the  provinces  of  any  great  portion  of  beauty.  Indeed,  the  gay  hilarity  of  the 
French  character  does  not  seem  quite  so  universal  as  is  generally  supposed.  Travellers  in 
the  south,  from  Arthur  Young  to  those  of  later  date,  complain  rather  of  a  singular  gravity 
and  taciturnity.     Air.  Matthews  remarks  in  his  "Diary  of  an  Invalid,"  that  a  very  con- 

f*  The  population  in  1833  was  32,500,000.— Am.  Ed.] 


Book  I.  FRANCE.  541 

siderable  change  of  manners  has  taken  place  since  the  Revolution.  All  the  distinctions  of 
rank  have  been  cut  down  like  the  old  trees  of  the  forest,  and  the  new  generation,  like  the 
coppice,  are  all  on  a  level.  "  You  will  seek  in  vain,"  lie  says,  "for  tiiat  high-bred  polish  of 
manners,  which  has  been  so  much  boasted  as  peculiar  to  the  haul-ton  of  France.  A  re- 
publican spirit  prevails,  and  shows  itself  in  an  mdependent  roughness  of  manner,  savouring 
of  sans-culottism." 

The  Roman  Catholic  has  been  the  ruling  religion  in  France,  ever  since  the  fatal  issue  of 
the  long  struggle  for  religious  liberty.  Previously  to  the  Revolution,  however,  a  general 
scepticism  pervaded  all  the  well-informed  classes,  both  as  to  the  Catholic  tenets,  and  as  to 
religion  in  general.  This  was  doubtless  one  great  cause  both  of  the  Revolution  and  of  many 
of  the  fatal  and  disastrous  aspects  which  it  assumed.  A  furious  anti-religious  fanaticism 
reigned  ;  all  form  of  public  worship  was  suspended,  and  even  prohibited ;  the  churches  were 
rifled  and  defaced  in  a  barbarous  manner.  At  this  time  the  vast  domains  of  the  church,  by 
wliich  so  many  dignitaries  and  so  many  convents  were  supported  in  splendour,  were  voted 
the  property  of  the  nation,  and  sold  at  a  low  price  to  supply  its  necessities.  Napoleon  had 
the  merit  of  re-establishing  religious  worship,  and  on  a  very  liberal  footing;  an  allowance 
being  made  for  the  support  of  the  Protestant  clergy,  proportioned  to  the  number  who  still 
hold  that  faith,  and  who  amount  to  about  1,500,000.  As  all  the  former  funds  however  had 
disappeared,  the  establishment  is  supported  out  of  the  public  revenue,  and  is  frugal,  and  even 
scanty,  both  as  to  numbers  and  salary.  In  1831,  there  were  four  cardinals,  ten  archbishops, 
and  sixty-six  bishops.  After  the  intermediate  classes  of  vicars  and  canons  come  the  cureSy 
or  parish  priests,  amounting  to  3000,  with  incomes  of  1000  or  1500  francs;  but  the  chief 
labour  devolves  upon  23,000  desservans,  or  acting  curates,  who  starve  upon  400  or  600 
francs  a  year  with  the  addition  of  only  some  small  fees.  The  whole  church  expenditure,  in 
1823,  amounted  to  1,575,000  livres,  but  in  1832  was  reduced  by  a  third  ;  and  the  church 
has  been  in  a  somewhat  unsettled  state.  The  Bourbons  were  supposed  to  aim  at  restoring 
it  to  all  its  former  power,  splendour,  and  privilege;  a  course  viewed  with  extreme  jealousy 
by  the  republican  party.  The  high  church  party  endeavoured  to  remedy  the  deficiency  of 
the  establishment  by  sending  sound  missionaries  who  were  listened  to  by  the  people  with 
enthusiastic  delight.  The  author  of  "  Four  Years  in  France"  mentions  one  who  in  depart- 
ing from  a  city  had  his  cassock  torn  off  his  back,  and  cut  into  pieces  to  be  distributed  as 
relics.  The  liberals  deride  them  as  ignorant  fanatics ;  but  some  travellers  who  cannot  be 
charged  with  superstition,  report  them  as  displaying  a  good  deal  of  natural  eloquence,  and 
that  their  doctrines  appeared  really  very  edifying,  since  many  persons  who  had  been  guilty 
of  thefts,  even  at  remote  periods,  were  induced  by  them  to  come  forward  and  make  confession 
and  restitution. 

The  intellectual  character  of  the  French  has  been  brilliant,  and  since  the  age  of  Louis 
XIV.  has  had  a  powerful  influence,  in  matters  of  taste,  on  the  general  literature  of  Europe : 
that  prince,  ambitious  of  glory  in  every  form,  extended  a  munificent  patronage  to  letters  and 
arts.  The  French  Academy,  though  its  endowments  were  not  very  splendid,  and  though 
intrigue  often  influenced  its  admissions,  gave  a  fixed  and  high  place  in  society  to  men  of 
letters ;  who,  amid  all  the  frivolity  of  French  character,  were  received  even  among  the  highest 
ranks  with  a  distinction  not  accorded  to  them  in  any  other  modern  country.  The  aim  of 
Louis  to  make  the  French  a  sort  of  universal  language  was  in  a  great  measure  successftil ; 
it  became  the  established  dialect  at  all  the  courts,  and  the  chief  medium  by  which  the  difl^erent 
nations  communicated  with  each  other.  The  departments  in  which  the  writers  of  that  age 
excelled,  were  chiefly  pulpit  eloquence,  poetry  of  a  light  and  satirical  character,  and  the 
drama  in  a  somewhat  fettered  and  artificial  form.  The  writers  of  the  following  age  took  a 
bolder  and  more  varied  flight,  and  sought  to  turn  the  opinion  of  mankind  into  new  channels 
upon  all  subjects.  The  wit  and  varied  talent  of  Voltaire,  the  eloquence  of  Buftbn  and  Rousseau, 
the  comprehensive  views  of  Montesquieu,  and  the  science  of  D'Alembert,  gave  a  new  turn 
to  the  ideas  of  the  thinking  world  throughout  Europe.  These  writers,  with  tlieir  successors 
of  the  same  school,  had  a  powerful  influence  in  bringing  on  this  revolution,  in  the  ruins  of 
whicii  several  of  them  were  buried.  Learning  was  for  some  time  almost  extinguished  in 
France ;  but  as  soon  as  the  revolutionary  frenzy  abated,  the  National  Assembly  constituted 
a  new  body  called  the  National  Institute,  round  which,  under  the  changed  appellations  of 
Imperial  and  Royal,  all  the  highest  names  in  science  have  since  continued  to  rally.  The 
French  during  this  period  did  not  shine  in  poetry  or  general  literature ;  but  in  mathematics, 
physics,  and  chemistry,  the  labours  of  Lavoisier,  Laplace,  Lalande,  Chaptal,  and  a  number 
of  others,  have,  notwithstanding  the  powerful  rivalry  on  the  otiier  side  of  the  Channel,  raised 
them  perhaps  to  the  very  first  place.  Recently  France  has  produced  some  very  eminent 
historians,  and  popular  poets  of  a  peculiar  character  ;  there  has  been  also  a  remarkable  exten- 
sion of  the  habits  of  reading.  The  periodical  sheets  printed  were  in  1814  only  45,000 ;  in 
1826,  they  were  144,000.  The  most  solid  and  useful  branches  also  are  those  which  have 
most  increased,  as  appears  from  the  following  table,  formed  by  M.  Dupm  :— 

Vol.  I.  46 


542 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pari  III. 


Tlieolnsy 

Lciislative 

Sciences 

Pliilnsophy 

Politir.il  Ecnnoniy.. 


No.  of  Sheets  printed. 


1814. 


1826. 


4,074,000 
1,374.000 
2,540,000 
753,000 
1,  634,000 


23,2r,>i,000 
18,(05,000 
12,]t)0,000 
3,032,000 
2,097,000 


Military  Subjects 

Fine  Arts 

Belles  Lettres 

Hi.«fnry,  Travels,  &c. 

Varieties,  Almanacs,  fee. 


No.  of  Sheets  printed. 


1814. 


441.000 

773.000 

13.352.000 

lC,22(i.000 

3,(00.000 


lfc26. 


1,445.000 

l,!«i'.i.lH)0 

27,704,000 

4I>,545.000 

7,li<.>fl,0flO 


Tho  literary  and  pcientific  collections  of  Paris  are  the  most  splendid  in  Europe:  the  royal 
library  contains  800,00{)  pi  ,.ited  volumes,  100,000  manuscripts,  5000  volumes  of  engravinjrs, 
and  1,000,000  historical  documents.  There  are  sixteen  other  libraries  in  Paris,  containing 
800,000  volumes.  The  Museum  of  Natural  History  and  the  Jardin  dcs  Plantcs  are  equally 
copious  in  their  respective  departments.  All  these  are  opened  to  the  public  in  the  most 
liberal  manner.  The  provincial  collections  are  also  respectable,  though  they  do  not  equal 
those  of  the  minor  princes  of  Germany ;  and  France  is,  on  the  whole,  less  rich  in  this  species 
of  treasure. 

Among  the  establishments  for  public  education  in  France,  the  universities,  which  are 
twcnty-si.x  in  number,  hold  the  first  rank.  That  of  Paris  is  perhaps  the  most  celebrated  in 
Europe,  and  was,  even  in  llie  dark  ages,  the  grand  theatre  of  those  dialectic  combats,  which 
then  usurped  the  honours  of  science.  Though  destroyed  during  the  fury  of  the  Revolution, 
it  has  been  re-establislied  on  a  great  scale,  and  with  a  larger  appointment  of  professors  than 
any  other  in  Europe ;  it  attracts  students  from  every  part  of  the  kingdom,  as  none  of  the 
rest  enjoy  equal  repute,  and  indeed  bear  at  present  only  the  name  of  academies.  The  Lycees, 
now  called  royal  colleges,  are  an  institution  of  Napoleon ;  the  expense  of  board  and  educa- 
tion is  from  350  to  750  francs  a  year ;  but  they  enjoy  a  very  unwarrantable  monopoly  of  the 
right  to  teach  Latin;  they  were  attended,  in  1825,  by  10,000  pupils.  Primary  schools 
intended  for  the  general  instruction  of  the  people  amounted  in  1825  to  22,900,  and  were 
attended  by  116,000  scholars.  Lancasterian  schools  have  since  been  introduced,  and 
amounted  in  1820  to  800,  attended  by  80,000  scholars.  M.  Dupin  remarks  striking  local 
diiferences  in  this  respect.  In  the  north,  13,000,000  of  inhabitants  send  to  school  740,000 
children ;  while  in  the  south,  18,000,000  send  only  375,000 :  even  in  the  south,  the  propor- 
tion is  largest  in  tho  districts  least  favoured  by  nature,  the  Upper  Alps  and  the  Upper 
Pyrenees ;  while  in  Touraine,  emphatically  called  tlie  garden  of  France,  it  is  only  one  in 
229.  All  these  establishments  are  under  the  patronage  and  control  of  the  government,  which 
grants  annually  about  5,000,000  francs  for  their  support.* 

The  fine  arts  were  zealou.sly  promoted  by  the  regent  duke  of  Orleans,  and  by  Louis  XIV. ; 
and  though  they  never  reached  the  splendour  of  the  Italian  or  even  of  the  Flemish  schools, 
yet  they  could  boast  several  masters  of  tlie  first  class ;  the  Poussins  and  Claude  Lorraine, 
having  fixed  their  residence  and  even  found  their  scenery  in  Italy,  became  half  Italian.  Le 
Brun  and  Le  Sueur  were  the  chief  artists  decidedly  French :  of  whom  the  former  enjoyed 
the  favour  of  the  king,  and  the  chief  direction  of  the  great  works ;  but  the  latter  has  been 
pronounced  by  posterity  to  be  his  superior.  After  this  the  French  school  sunk  greatly,  and 
was  employed  in  delineating  only  the  artificial  forms  of  court  society ;  but  within  the  last 
thirty  years  a  new  school  has  sprung  up,  in  which  David,  Gerard,  Guerin,  Girodet,  and  their 
followers  have  sought,  not  without  success,  to  imitate  the  highest  classical  models.  The 
French  school  has  produced  a  series  of  very  eminent  engravers ;  and  the  names  of  Desnoyers, 
Bervic,  and  Massard  still  support  its  reputation,  though  it  no  longer  surpasses,  or  perhaps 
equals,  those  of  England  and  Italy.  The  French  galleries'of  art  have  passed  through 
many  vicissitudes:  before  the  revolution  they  were  certainly  the  first  out  of  Italy.  During 
that  convulsion,  all  the  collections  of  the  princes  and  nobles  were  put  up  to  sale ;  the  entire 
Orleans  collection  was  carried  to  England;  the  Crozat  went  to  Russia;  various  minor  col- 
lections shared  the  same  fate.  When  the  rVench,  however,  over-ran  Italy  and  the  Nether- 
lands, they  were  seized  with  the  desire  of  enriching  Paris  with  treasures  of  art,  and  carried 
off  whatever  could  be  removed  from  among  the  masterpieces  of  the  Flemish  and  Italian 
masters,  and  of  ancient  sculpture.  Thus  was  assembled  in  the  Louvre  a  display  of  all  that 
is  most  brilliant  in  art,  such  as  nothing  before  existing  in  the  w'orld  could  have  rivalled.  But 


*[It  appears  from  official  dnctiments,  that  in  1833  the  number  of  children  between  the  ages  of  two  and  six 
years,  was  2,744.524.  of  whom  about  250,000  attended  infant  schools ;  of  those  between  si.x  and  fifteen  years,  there 
were  4.9H7.2r>l.  nf  which  2,440,725  attended  the  primary  schools  ;  and  of  persons  above  fifteen,  there  were  22,900,170, 
of  whom  ]4.3.55,?5()  could  neither  read  nor  write;— so  that  there  were  nearly  10.400,000  persons  above  the  ase  of 
two  years,  who  received  no  instruction  at  all.  The  same  papers  jrive  the  following  statements  of  the  schools 
existing,  and  of  the  number  required  to  educate  the  whole  population : — 

Infant  Schools 1.000  actual  number.        40,000  required  number. 

Primary  do ." 30,407  "  54,284 

Female  Working  do 1.000  "  20,000  " 

Adultdo 2,361  "  54,840  " 

Totals 34,828  169,134  Am.  Ed.] 


Book  I.  -  FRANCE.  543 

a  dire  reverse  awaited  the  nation.  The  allied  armies  who  conquered  at  Waterloo,  and  thence 
advanced  to  occupy  Paris,  determined  to  exact  full  restitution  of  all  this  brilliant  booty.  The 
Venus,  Apollo,  and  Transfiguration  were  sent  off  for  Rome ;  tlie  Descent  from  the  Cross  for 
Antwerp;  and  numberless  other  masterpieces  were  restored  to  tlieir  ancient  possessors.  The 
unseemly  jraps  thus  left  were  filled  up  by  native  productions  and  others  taken  from  the 
palaces;  and  the  gallery  presents  a  coup  d'ceil  almost  as  brilliant  as  ever;  the  intrinsic  value, 
however,  is  vastly  diminished ;  though  since  the  purchase  of  the  Borghese  collection  it  still 
comprises  some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  ancient  sculpture. 

The  houses  in  France  under  the  former  regime  presented  a  great  variety ;  for  while  tiie 
mansions  of  the  nobles  displayed  a  proflise  splendour  and  luxury,  and  might  be  characterised 
as  palaces,  those  of  the  body  of  the  people,  compared  with  the  English,  were  very  deficient 
in  neatness  and  comfort;  the  rooms  being  dark,  the  passages  stragglin"-,  the  floors  of  stone, 
the  doors  and  windows  by  no  means  well  finished.  The  palaces,  however,  can  no  longer 
be  maintained  as  such  by  their  impoverished  owners ;  and  all  the  fine  old  chateaus  througiiout 
France  are  converted  into  barracks,  prisons,  or  manufactories.  On  the  other  hand,  the  habita- 
tions of  the  peasantry,  as  well  as  their  general  condition,  appear  to  be  sensibly  improved. 

Amusement  used  to  form  as  it  were  the  life  of  a  Frenchman,  and  was  sought  for  in  every 
various  and  possible  shape ;  but  since  the  Revolution  a  very  great  change  has  taken  place  in 
this  respect.  Paris  still  claims  to  be,  as  it  were,  the  centre  of  gaiety  to  the  civilized  world. 
The  Parisians  go  from  home  in  search  of  amusement  much  more  than  their  neighbours ;  almost 
all  their  leisure  is  spent  in  places  of  public  resort,  which  are  open  on  terms  that  render  them 
accessible  to  all  classes.  Dancing  is  an  exercise  peculiarly  French,  in  which,  as  to  agility, 
and  perhaps  grace,  they  excel  most  nations.  Much  of  their  time  is  also  spent  in  the  open 
air;  and  the  extensive  ranges  of  gardens  in  Paris  are  provided  with  every  recreation  suited 
to  the  tastes  of  its  citizens.  Although  many  improprieties  doubtless  mingle  with  these  enter- 
tainments, especially  in  Paris,  there  is  less  of  intoxication,  turbulence,  or  quarrelling,  than 
in  the  amusements  of  the  lower  orders  in  England :  so  far,  even  as  concerns  the  public  places, 
there  are  fewer  open  violations  of  decorum. 

Dress  is  a  particular  in  which  the  French  long  claimed,  and  were  allowed  to  give  the  law 
to  the  rest  of  Europe.  Paris  has  been  for  ages  the  grand  ii.ugasin  des  modes.  In  that 
capital  seems  to  have  originated  the  system  which  js  termed  fashion,  and  which  consists  in 
the  continual  change,  according  to  a  prescribed  model,  of  the  form  and  construction  of  every 
part  of  the  human  attire.  Such  light  and  constant  changes,  however,  while  they  indicate 
an  inordinate  attention  to  the  object,  seem  as  inconsistent  with  the  formation  of  a  pure  and 
elegant  taste,  as  the  immutable  costumes  of  our  ancestors  and  of  the  East.  The  empire  of 
Paris  seems  considerably  shaken  by  the  extinction  of  its  brilliant  societies,  and  its  long  separa- 
tion by  war  from  the  other  countries ;  but  its  influence  remains  still  very  considerable  in  this 
department. 

In  the  preparation  of  food,  the  French  equally  boast  of  a  refinement  and  recherche  supe- 
rior to  that  of  the  other  European  nations.  Instead  of  plain  joints  presented  in  their  natural 
form,  French  cookery  delights  in  what  are  called  made  dishes,  stews,  fricassees,  and  ragouts, 
which  retain  few  traces  of  the  original  material.  On  the  merits  of  this  system  various  opin- 
ions have  been  entertained ;  but  at  present  the  fashion  of  this  cookery  out  of  France  is  on 
the  decline,  and  the  time  seems  past  when  it  was  considered  a  matter  of  state  that  the  tables 
of  the  great  should  be  covered  with  French  dishes. 

Sect.  Yll.^— Local  Geography. 

The  local  divisions  of  France,  prior  to  the  Revolution,  were  provinces,  thirty-two  in  num- 
ber, most  of  which  had  formed  independent  states,  and  even  little  kingdoms,  when  they  were 
merged  into  the  mass  of  the  French  monarchy.  The  National  Assembly,  however,  super- 
seded this  division  by  one  much  more  minute,  into  departments ;  which  has  been  retained  by 
the  Bourbons,  and  is  the  basis  of  all  administrative  operations.  It  is  indeed  very  convenient, 
being  founded  upon  natural  divisions  of  rivers  and  mountains:  all  the  departments  are  toler- 
ably equal  as  to  magnitude,  and  each  has  its  seat  of  administration  nearly  in  the  centre.  All 
the  exclusive  privileges  and  restraints  upon  internal  communication,  which  were  attached 
to  the  arrangement  into  provinces,  have  been  happily  removed.  Yet  these  divisions  must 
still  be  kept  in  view,  not  only  because  they  are  necessary  for  the  understanding  of  history, 
but  because  they  remain  rooted  in  the  mmd  of  the  nation,  and  often  mark  striking  differences 
of  race,  of  manners,  and  even  of  language.  It  would  not  consist  with  our  limitvS,  or  be 
interesting  to  readers  out  of  France,  to  enter  into  a  detailed  description  of  each  department; 
but  the  following  tables  will  exhibit  a  very  comprehensive  view  of  their  respective  statis- 
tical details.  The  first  exhibits  the  departments  in  their  relation  to  the  ancient  provinces, 
their  extent  according  to  the  report  of  the  commission  of  the  Cadastre,  their  population 
according  to  the  census  of  1827,  and  their  chief  cities  and  towns.  The  square  French  league 
may  be  reduced  to  the  square  English  mile  by  multiplying  by  8,  or  more  closely,  7.84. 

The  following  table  exhibits  both  the  provinces  and  the  departments  as  nearly  as  possible  in 
their  relation  to  each  other,  with  their  extent  in  square  leagues,  and  tlie  population  of  the  capi- 
tal and  prmcipal  towns  accordmg  to  the  estimate  formed  by  the  French  government  in  1827  • 


544 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III, 


Provincai  and  Deparlnients. 


Flanders...     Nord 


Artois  ■ . . 
Picardy . . 


Noruiandy . 


Isle  of 
France  .  ■ 


Champagne 

Lorraine  .  ■ 
Alsace 


Britany. . 


Maine  and 
Perclie.  .. 

Anjou 

Touraine . . 


Orl6anai 


•A 


Berri 

Nivernais 


Burgundy. 


Pas  de  Calais  . . . 

Sonune  

Lower  Seine. .. . 

Calvados  

Manche 

Orne 

Euro  

Seine 

Seine  and  Oise. . 

Oise 

Seine  and  Marne 

Aisne 

Marne 

Arilciines 

Aube 

Upper  Marne  .  • . 

Mi-use 

MDsclle 

Miiirtlie 

V.ISL'I'S 

Upper  Rliine. . . . 
Lower  Rhine  .  . . 
Ille  and  Vilaine. 
Cutpsdu  Nord... 

Fiiiislerre 

Mi)rl)ihnii 

Lower  Loire. . . . 

Mavenne 

Sar'the 

Maine  and  Loire 
Indre  and  Loire. 

Loirct 

Enre  and  Loire  • 
Loir  and  Cher. .. 

Indre 

Cher 

Nievre 

Yonne 

Cote  d'Or 

Saone  and  Loire 

.\iu 


Franche- 
conite 


\ 


Upper  Saone. 

D.iubs 

Jura 


March 
mo  I 


he.Li-  ^ 
usiu  .  .1 

Aunis.Sain.  \ 
tonge.  An-  \ 
goumois  . .  ) 

Auvcrgne  .  j 
Lyonnais.  .< 

Dauphiny. .} 

Guienne. 
Bourbonnais 


Upper  Vienne. . 
Correze 


Vendee 341 

Two  Sevres 20r> 

Vienne |349 

Creiize 265 

2:!0 
278 

Charente 280 

Lower  Charente  307 

Piiy  lie  Dome  .  ..^409 
Cantal 274 

Rhone 141 

234 
420 
27.5 
331 
4 


Gascony 
and  Beam 


Foi.t  

Roussillou . 


Languedoc. 


Corsica .... 


Loire 

Isere  

LTpper  .Mp 
Drnnie. . . . 
Diirdosne . 

Gironde '517 

Lot  and  Garonne  24' 

Lot 203 

Aveyron 

Tarn  and  Ga 

ronne 

Allier 

Landes 

Gers :3I2 

Upper  Pyrenees .  233 

Lower  Pyrenees.  386 

Arriece '287 

Eastern  Pyrenees  205 


45(1 


LTpper  Garonne  . 

Aude 

Tarn 

Herault 

Card 

Lozere 

Upper  Loire  .... 

Ardeche 

Lower  Alps 275 

Months  of  the 


Rhone. 

Var 

Vauclusc 
Corsica  .  . 


Population. 


Cilies  and  Towns,  with  tiieir  Population  in  1S27. 


002,048  Lille C9,8C0 


282  Amiens 42 

2<i5  Rouen  90, 

9oO;Caei 38. 

200SI.LO 8, 

379i.\lencon 14, 

OCSlKvrei'ix 

,373[Paris 

,871  Versailles . . 
124  Beaiivais. . . 

209[Mdun 7, 

5l,0|Laon 7, 

045!chalons 12 

()24  Mezieres 4, 

702, Troves 25, 

823Chaumont. ...  0 

3.!nBar  le  Due  ...  12, 

1.55  Metz 4, 


648,909]  Arras 

526. 

088, 
500, 
Oil, 
434, 
421, 
1,013 
440 
385, 
318, 
489, 
325 
28] 
241, 
244 
300, 

40:), 

403, 
379 
408 
535, 
553 
581, 
502, 
427, 
457, 
354, 
446, 
458, 
290, 
304, 
277, 
230! 
237, 
248, 
271, 
342, 
370, 
515 


22,173 


890 


12 


Nancy 29, 

Epinal 7, 

Colmar 1, 

Sirashurg 49, 

Rennes 29, 

()84|St.  Brieux 9, 

851  auiinper 10, 

454  Vannes 11, 

05)0  Nantes 71, 

138[  Laval 15, 

5I9|Le  Mans 19, 

074(  Angers 29, 

160  Tours 20, 

228  Orleans 40, 

Chartres 13, 

BInis 11, 

Chateaurou.v  .  10,i 

Bourges 19, 

277JNevers 15, 

llO.Auxerre 12, 

943  Dijon  23, 

776  Macon 10, 

6^3   \  Bourg-en-    )  „ 

"-"f  )      Bresse  . .  j  "' 

641  Vesoul 5, 

312!Besancon 28, 

,282.Lons  le  Saulnier  7, 


j  Douay 

/  Dunkirk  . .. 

(  Btnilogne... 

)  !?t.  Onier  . . . 

Abbeville 

Havre 

Bayeux  

Cherbourg. . .. 
Argentan  .  .. . 

Louviers 

Sceaux 

Etam'pes 

Complegne  . . . 
Foiitaineblcau 
St.  Cluentin  . . 

Rheiins 

Sedan 


]9,8p0 

24,517 

19,314 

19,019 

19,520 

21,049 

10,060 

17,000 

0,044 

0,242 

1.529 

7,867 

7.302 

7400 

17,061 

34,862 

12,008 


Valenciennes. 
Canibrai  . .  . 
Calais 


St.  Quentin 

Dieppe 

Falaise 

Coutances. . 


St.  Denis . . 


Meaux . . 

Soissons 
Epernay 
Rocroy . . 


Langres 7,180 

Verdun 

Thionville  ...     5,821 

Luneville 12.378  Toul 

St.  Die 7,3:» 

Befort 4,803 

Sa  verne 4,993  Weissemburg. 

St.  Malo 9,838 

Diiiant 7,175 

Brest 26,655  Morlaix 

L'Orient 15,310 

Mayenne 9,799 

Sauniur 10,314 

Cherson 4,406 

Mo  n  t  a  rgis . . . .     6,653 

Dreux 6.247 

Vendome  ....     6,805 
Issoudun 11,223 


gens 8,685 

Si  nmr 4,220 

Autun 9,930  Chalons 


19,841 
17,031 

8,854 

12,351 
17,07 
10,303 
9,032 


5,731 


7,836 
7,483 
5.080 
3,500 


9,882 
7,507 

6,146 

9,761 


Gray 7,203 

Ponlailier 4,549 


322,826JBourl)on-Vendce  3,129    |  ^J^e'comfe  \     '^''^^^ 
Chdtelleraull  .     9,241 


288,260  Niort ].'5,799 

267,670  Poitiers 21.562 

252,932  Gueret 3,448 

276,35r  Limoges 25,612 

284,8821  Tulle 8,479 


353,653  Angouleme.  .. 
424,147  Rochelle 

566.573; 
262,013 


Clerninnt 

.\urillac 

S  Lyons,with 
I      suhnrhs     ] 

Montbnson  . . 

Grenoble  ...    . 

Gap 

Valence 

Piaigueux  . . . . 

Bordeaux  .  . .  . 

Affen 

Caliors 

Rhodcz 


15,306  Cognac 3,017 

11,073  Saintes 10.300  Rochefort 

30.010  Riom 12,736  Thiers  ... 

9,,')70  St.  Flour 6,640 

170,875  Trevoux 2,452 

.5,156  St.  Etienne...  30.615 

22,149  Vienne 13,780 

7,015  Enihnin 2,300 

10,283  Mnntelimar  ..  7,589 

8.588  Bergerac 8,412 

93.549 

11,971  Villeneuve  ...  9,495 

12,413 

7,747  Villefranche..  9,521 


12,909 
11,613 


416,575 

369,298 
525,984 
125,329 
285,791 
464,074 
538,151 
336,886 
280.515 
350,014 

241.5-u  Moiitauban  ..     20,460  Moissac 10,115 

285.302  Mouliiis 14.525 

26.5,30»| Mont  de  Marsan  3.088  Dax 5,045 

307.6011  A  iich 10,844 

2*2,059  Tarbes 8,712  Baeneres 7.037 

412,469;Pau 11,701    (  Bavonne  ...  13,498  Orthes 


Oleron 6,423 

4,9.58 
15.3.57 
53.319 

17,775  Narbonne 10,097 

10,993  Castres 15,663 

35.842  Beziers 16,515  Soden  , 

.5.50  Nismes 39.068  Alais 10,252 

778  Mende 5,445 

673  Le  Puven  Velay  14.998 

4P'Privas 4.109  Arge'itiere  . ..     2,707 

003  Digue 3,055  Sisteron 3,920 

115,943  Aix 23,132  Aries. . 


6,834 


932iFoix 

,372  Per|)ignan. . . . 

OlolToiiloiise 

,991  Carcassonne. . 

665  Alhy 

.560  Montpelier . 


247, 
151 
407 
265, 
327, 
339 
347, 
138, 
285, 
328, 
153, 
326,302,  Marseilles. 

31 1,095  Toulon 30,171  Draguignan  . .     8,016  Grasse 

233,048  Avignon 31,180  Orange 8,81)4  Carpentras  . 

185,079iAjaccio 7,658  Bastia 9,527 


19,868 

12,716 
9,756 


FRANCK 


545 


Boor  1. 

Th^  following  statistical  table  exhibits  a  comparative  view  of  the  state  of  culture  and  pro- 
duction in  the  different  departments  of  France.  The  amounts  of  g'-f^^'^.^^tle  and  wool  are 
furnished  by  Chaptal.  The  wine  is  drawn  from  the  report  presented  to  the  peers  by  the  Due 
dc  Dodeauville,  and  the  forests  from  the  memorial  of  the  sub-admm.strator,  M  Herbur  de 
H-ille  The  entire  annual  amount  of  land  revenue  is  derived  trom  an  estimate  ot  the  aver- 
ac.e  produce  of  the  arpent  in  each  department,  founded  upon  the  Cadastre  or  general  survey 
of  the  kingdom.     It  is  furnished  by  Chaptal :— 


The  We  of  France,  now  divided  into  ^X''l^XST^^^i<!'S!^'''i^^^'''^^^ 
toinint  tiie  capilal.  It  is  not,  stnctly  ^Pi^'f  f '4" 'f"  ^terLcted  by  very  numerous  r.ver 
Surf  the  0,se,,tl,e  Marne  tire  A--;»i'^-„^,  ".'^  J^S    lud  bLeatl  tire  s„rr.ce.ra 

^rriirfiji;:urs:c:;iii:5iar:x^^^ 

Vol.  I. 


546 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


Part  III. 


Paris,  the  capital  of  France,  has  also  made  pretensions  to  he  considered  as  the  general 
capital  of  the  civilized  world.  London  can,  in  fact,  alone  dispute  its  claim,  heinjr  more 
extensive,  more  wealthy,  and  the  seat  of  a  much  more  extended  commerce ;  yet  the  central 
situation  of  Paris,  the  peculiar  attractions  rendering  it  the  crowded  resort  of  strangers,  and 
its  brilliant  and  polished  society,  especially  under  the  old  monarchy,  gave  to  this  eity  a  gayer 
aspect,  and  rendered  it  a  more  conspicuous  object  in  the  eyes  of  Europe.  Paris  is  not  only 
less  populous  than  London,  but  in  proportion  to  its  population  it  covers  less  ground.  It  forms 
on  both  banks  of  the  Seine  an  ellipse  of  about  four  miles  in  length  and  three  in  breadth. 
The  principal  streets  are  long,  narrow,  bordered  by  high  houses,  which,  like  those  of  Edin- 
burgh, are  each  occupied  by  several  families.  Tiie  streets  of  shops  are  further  encumbered 
by  tiie  exhibition  of  the  merchandise  in  front  of  the  doors,  a  practice  only  tolerated  in  the 
most  obscure  districts  of  British  cities.  Paris  thus  presents  generally  a  more  gloomy  and 
confused  aspect  than  London ;  nor  has  it  any  structure  which  can  match  the  grandeur  of  St. 
Paul's,  or  perhaps  the  beauty  of  Westminster  Abbey ;  yet  some  of  its  quarters  contain  long 
ranges  of  superb  and  stately  edifices,  which  London  cannot  rival.  The  palaces  of  Paris,  in 
particular,  far  excel  those  of  the  rival  metropolis.  The  most  distinguished  is  the  Louvre, 
finished  with  the  utmost  splendour  in  the  style  that  distinguished  the  age  of  Louis  XIV.  Its 
fi"ont,  525  feet  long,  is  a  model  of  symmetry,  th-e  effect  of  which  is  only  injured  by  the  want 
of  space  before  it.  The  Louvre  is  not  now  occupied  as  a  palace,  but  as  a  grand  depot  of  the 
objects  of  taste  and  art.  The  gallery,  which  is  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long,  and  the 
walls  of  which  are  entirely  crowded  with  paintings  that  are  still  fine,  forms  a  magnificent 
coup  d'ceil.    The  hall  of  statues  is  still  adorned  with  some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  ancient 

sculpture.  The  Tuileries,  which  is 
the  present  royal  residence,  was  be- 
gun at  an  earlier  period  than  the 
Louvre,  and  carried  on  at  successive 
times ;  whence  it  exhibits  varied  and 
sometimes  discordant  features,  but  is 
on  the  whole  a  noble  and  venerable 
edifice,  surrounded  with  fine  gar- 
dens and  avenues.  The  palace  of  the 
Luxembourg  {Jig.  280.),  on  the  south 
of  Paris,  and  the  Palais  Bourbon  on 
the  west,  are  edifices  of  great  taste 
and  beauty.  The  former,  now  strip- 
ped of  the  famous  series  of  paintings 
by  Rubens,  which  has  been  transferred  to  the  Louvre  gallery,  affords  in  one  part  a  place  of 
assembly  for  the  Chamber  of  Peers,  and  in  another  apartments  for  the  exhibition  of  paintings 
by  living  artists;  while  the  Palais  Bourbon  is  in  part  occupied  by  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 
281  v.i^     The  Palais  Royal  (fig.  281.)  is  no  longer 

exclusively  a  palace,  but  is  in  part  leased 
out  to  sundry  persons,  for  purposes  partly 
of  business,  but  much  more  of  pleasure : 
it  is  filled  with  shops,  coffee-houses,  tav- 
erns, gaming-tables,  and  every  form  of 
gaiety  and  dissipation  which  can  find  ac- 
ceptance in  such  a  city.  Notre  Dame,  the 
ancient  cathedral  of  Paris,  is  somewhat 
heavy  and  massive,  but  the  interior  is  richly  decorated.  The  modern  church  of  St.  Gene- 
vieve, called  during  the  Revolution  the  Pantheon,  was  highly  extolled  during  its  erection 
as  destined  to  eclipse  both  St.  Peter's  and  St.  Paul's  ;  and  such  was  the  expectation  enter 
tained  m  France,  till,  the  scaffolding  being  removed  and  the  front  thrown  open,  its  inferi- 


Tlie  Luxembourg. 


Royal. 


282 


Church  of  St.  Genevieve. 

liant  points  of  view  to  be  found  m  any  city. 


ority  became  apparent :  however,  it  is 
still  an  edifice  of  a  high  class  (fig.  282.) 
St.  Sulpice  is  also  a  modern  structure. 
Paris  has  no  fine  streets,  nor  any  of  those 
ample  squares  which  are  so  great  an  or- 
nament of  London.  It  boasts,  however, 
of  its  places,  which,  without  having  the 
regular  form  or  dimensions  of  a  square, 
command  admiration  by  tlie  ranges  of 
noble  buildings  that  surround  them.  In 
particular,  the  Place  Louis  Quinze, 
standing  in  a  central  situation  among  the 
palaces,  presents  one  of  the  most  bril- 
This  capital  possesses  also  great  advantages  in 


Boor  J. 


FRANCE. 


547 


the  wide  ornamented  open  spaces  which  lie  in  the  very  lieart  of  the  city.  The  Boulevards, 
the  ancient  rampart  of  Paris,  when  it  was  circumscribed  within  a  much  narrower  compass] 
a-re  now  converted  into  a  walk  adorned  with  rows  of  trees,  and  filled  with  numerous  exhi- 
bitors and  venders  of  every  thing  that  can  conduce  to  public  amusement.  The  gardens  of 
the  Tuileries,  and  the  embellished  spot  called  the  Champs  Elysees,  are  also  open  to  the 
public. 

The  statistics  of  Paris  have  been  carefully  illustrated  in  a  series  of  interesting  works  by 
the  Count  de  Chabrol.  The  population,  in  1821,  amounted  to  713,966,  but  has  now  risen  to 
890,431.  The  births,  in  the  three  years  ended  1821,  averaged  24,700;  the  deaths  22,680; 
leaving  thus  2000  as  tlie  annual  excess  of  births.  A  third  of  all  the  births  were  illegiti- 
mate, and  of  these  only  a  third  were  acknowledged  by  the  parents.  The  still-born  children 
were  averaged  1365.  The  average  of  marriages  in  the  three  years  was  about  6000.  In 
the  three  years  732  died  of  small-pox,  and  only  one  child  out  of  twenty-five  was  vaccinated. 
The  violent  deaths  averaged  350,  half  of  whom  were  married  persons,  and  the  most  com- 
mon cause  was  domestic  chagrin.  Drowning  was  the  most  frequent  mode :  170  persons 
were  drowned  annually  by  accident.  The  consumption  of  Paris  consisted,  in  1823,  of 
76,689  oxen;  8142  cows;  74,759  calves;  361,946  sheep.  The  taxes  paid  in  Paris  amount 
to  110,000,000  francs.  House-rent  amounts  to  80,000,000  francs.  The  number  of  houses, 
in  1821,  was  27,000,  with  an  average  of  thirty-four  doors  and  windows  in  each.  The  loans 
made  on  pledges  by  the  charitable  establishment  called  the  Mont  de  Piete  amount  to 
19,500,000  francs,  upon  1,000,000  articles,  of  which  14,500,000  are  redeemed.  There  are 
fourteen  hospitals  for  the  sick,  and  eight  hospices  for  the  infirm.  The  former  received 
annually  42,500,  of  whom  about  40,000  went  out  cured ;  the  latter  18,500.  The  annual 
expense  is  about  7,000,000  francs.  There  is  besides  an  office  of  charity  in  each  of  the 
twelve  arrondissemens,  the  aids  of  which  are  administered  by  "  sisters  of  charity,"  who 
divide  the  poor  among  themselves,  make  regular  lists  of  them,  and  pay  frequent  visits. 
They  make  an  annual  collection  in  their  district,  the  produce  of  which  is  transmitted  to  the 
office.  The  annual  distributions  made  by  the  offices  of  charity  amount  to  1,250,000  francs 
in  money;  747,000  quartern  loaves;  270,000 lbs.  meat;  19,000  ells  of  cloth,  &c.  The 
manufactures  of  Paris  are  considerable.  The  principal  are  of  works  in  gold  and  silver, 
which  employ  7000  or  8000  workmen,  and  yield  a  value,  according  to  M.  Dupin,  above 
125,000,000  francs.  There  are  manufactured  also,  by  2000  workmen,  80;000  gold  and  40,000 
silver  watches,  with  15,000  clocks,  which  may  be  worth  19,000,000  francs.  Sugar  refinery 
is  also  supposed  to  produce  20,000,000  lbs.,  worth  32,000,000  francs.  Eighty  printing-oflices 
employ  600  presses  and  3000  workmen,  and  use  annually  280,000 reams  of  paper;  supposed 
value  8,750,000  francs.  Of  the  various  articles  above  enumerated,  there  are  exported  to  the 
value  of  neariy  50,000,000  francs.  Paris  is  visited  by  12,000  or  13,000  boats,  of  which  1000 
are  from  the  lower  Seine,  and  the  rest  from  the  upper.  Twenty  are  steam-boats.  The  city 
has  lOOOboats  of  its  own. 

The  environs  of  Paris  are  not  covered  with  those  numerous  villas  and  country  residences 
which  have  been  constructed  to  gratify  the  rural  taste  of  the  citizens  of  London.  Immedi- 
ately  beyond  the  gates  they  present  a  flat  open  corn  country.  They  are  chiefly  marked  by 
the  royal  ])alaccs;  superb  fabrics,  the  works  of  successive  kings,  and  on  which  millions  have 
been  expended.     The  most  elaborate  and  most  splendid  is  Ver.sailles  (Jig.  283.).     It  was 

283 


begun  by  Louis  XIIL  who  found  it  little  more  tlian  a  village ;  but  its  chief  ornaments  are 
due  to  Louis  XIV.,  who,  during  twelve  years,  expende<l  immense  sums  in  surrounding  it 
with  every  kind  of  magnificence.  The  front  is  highly  elegant,  built  of  polished  stone,  and 
approached  by  three  great  avenues.  The  interior'  consists  of  spacious  apartments  embel- 
lished in  the  most  costly  manner,  and  many  parts  of  them,  and  of  the  staircases,  are  covered 
with  frescoes  executed  by  eminent  French  painters.  The  mterior  and  the  gardens  are  filled 
with  crowds  of  statues,  partly  antique  and  partly  the  work  of  French  sculptors.  Water 
was  at  first  deficient ;  but  it  has  been  conveyed  in  such  abundance  as  to  be  lavished  in  fan- 
ciful and  fantastic  forms,— fountains,  jets  d'eau,  cascades,  with  which  Versailles  is  more  pro- 
fusely embellished  than  anv  other  royal  residence.  The  two  palaces,  called  the  Great  and 
Little  Trianon,  are  in  the  vicinitv,  and  are  celebrated,  particularly  the  last,  for  gardens  laid 
out  in  the  English  style.  The  long  residence  of  the  court  at  Versailles  assembled  round  it 
a  splendid  city  formed  by  the  courtiers  and  great  nobles,  who  considered  it  necessary  to  have 


548 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


P.VRT  III. 


at  least  a  mansion  there.  Since  the  tragic  scenes  of  October,  1789,  the  palace  has  never 
been  inhabited ;  though  the  Bourbons,  after  their  return,  placed  it  in  repair.  Hence  tlie 
city  has  declined  in  population,  and  the  late  mansions  of  the  nobles  are  in  a  great  measure 
occupied  by  English  residents.  St.  Cloud,  four  or  five  miles  distant  from  Paris,  is  particu- 
'arly  admired  lor  its  gardens  and  extensive  woods,  an  excursion  to  whicli  forms  a  popular 
amusement,  especially  on  festival  days.  It  was  the  favourite  residence  of  Napoleon,  whose 
court  was  tlience  called  the  cabinet  of  St.  Cloud.  Fontainebleau  is  the  hunting-seat  of  the 
monarchy,  being  surrounded  by  a  forest  of  nearly  30,000  acres.  The  palace,  built  by  suc- 
cessive monarchs,  from  Francis  I.  to  Louis  XV.,  is  chiefly  noted  for  its  long  and  numerous 
galleries.  Among  the  few  towns  in  this  country,  Meaux  is  distinguished  not  only  by  the 
beautiful  choir  of  its  catliedral,  but  by  having  been  the  see  of  the  celebrated  Bossuet,  whose 
tomb  it  contains.     Melun  is  a  considerable,  but  ill-built  and  gloomy,  old  town. 

Tlie  northern  departments,  comprising  the  provinces  of  French  Flanders,  Picardy,  and 
Normandy,  compose  together  an  extensive  plain,  the  richest,  most  flourishing,  and  most 
highly  cultivated  in  the  kingdom.  The  farms^  though  of  various  size,  are  generally  larger 
than  in  the  rest  of  France ;  the  improved  English  processes  are  gaining  ground,  and  the 
introduction  of  artificial  grasses  has  in  a  great  measure  supplanted  the  routine  of  wheat, 
oats,  and  fallow.  This  region  is  also  the  chief  seat  of  manufactures.  These  provinces  have 
produced  many  men  of  distinguished  talent,  and  knowledge  is  very  generally  diff'used  in 
them.  The  Flemings  retain  tlicir  national  character,  distinct  from  that  of  the  French ; 
heavy,  phlegmatic,  industrious,  addicted  to  pretty  close  drinking  and  long  rustic  festivals. 
The  Norman  .still  partakes  the  adventurous  spirit  of  his  forefathers;  he  loves  expeditions 
and  journeys,  readily  engages  in  any  enterprise,  and  eagerly  pursues  it. 

The  cities  througliout  all  this  part  of  France  are  large  and  flourishing.  Those  of  French 
Flanders,  or  the  Aord,  rank  among  the  strongest  fortresses  in  Europe,  and  are  the  bulwarks 
of  the  monarchy.  Lille  perhaps  holds  among  these  the  very  first  place,  being  considered 
the  master-piece  of  Vauban.  It  was  reduced  by  INIarlborough  only  after  a  long  blockade, 
and  is  considered  in  any  other  way  almost  impregnable.  It  is  also  well  and  regularly  built, 
and  the  Rue  Royale  is  a  very  splendid  street.  Lille  has  also  a  very  considerable  variety 
both  of  manufacturing  and  commercial  industry,  with  institutions  both  for  literature  and  the 
arts.  Douay  is  an  ancient  and  strong  town  on  the  Scarpe,  and  enjoys  some  celebrity  as  a 
seat  of  rather  antiquated  and  scholastic  learning.  Its  university  consists  of  three  colleges, 
now  united,  one  of  which  is  called  the  English  college,  and  is  resorted  to  from  all  the  three 
kingdoms  as  a  place  of  Catholic  education.  Cambrai  is  a  very  ancient  and  celebrated  city, 
the  capital  of  the  Nervii  in  Caesars  time,  and  afterwards  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks. 
Here  was  concluded,  in  1.397,  the  league  of  Cambrai,  which  caused  the  downfall  of  Venice ; 
and  it  was  the  scene  of  other  important  diplomatic  transactions;  but  perhaps  the  name  is 
best  known  from  its  having  formed  tlie  archiepiscopal  see  of  Fenelon.     It  ranks  still  as  a 

fortress  of  the  first  class,  and  was  one  of  those  held 
by  the  army  of  occupation,  after  the  peace  of  Paris, 
in  1815.  Valenciennes  is  another  ancient  bulwark 
of  the  kingdom,  which  yielded  to  the  allies  in  1793, 
after  a  long  siege ;  but  they  did  not  derive  any  advan- 
tage from  their  success.  It  has  some  fine  manufac- 
tures of  lace,  gauze,  and  cambric. 

In  Picardy  and  the  part  of  the  Isle  of  France  bor- 
dering on  it,  there  are  several  large  and  flourishing 
cities.  Amiens  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  manu- 
facture of  coarse  woollens,  as  serges,  plush,  velvets 
for  furniture,  and  carpets;  also  coarse  linens.  Here 
was  concluded  the  peace  of  1801,  between  Britain 
and  France.  Its  catliedral  {Jig.  284.)  is  one  of  the 
most  spacious  and  most  highly  ornamented  in  France 
or  in  Europe.  Abbeville  is  celebrated  as  one  of  tlie 
few  seats  of  the  manufacture  of  very  fine  woollen 
cloth,  which  surpasses  even  the  English  ;  it  deals  most 
extensively  in  sailcloth,  sheeting,  and  other  coarse 
fabrics  fi-om  hemp  and  flax.  St.  Quentin,  the  scene 
of  the  great  victory  of  Philip  II.,  enjoys  a  more  hum- 
ble and  useful  distinction  as  one  of  the  most  thriving 
manufacturing  places  of  France.  Its  manufactures 
consist  in  lawns,  cambrics,  and  still  more  of  late  in  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  cotton ;  all 
which  employ  in  the  town  and  neighbourhood  upwards  of  50,000  persons.  The  citizens  ot 
St.  Quentin  display  an  enterprise  and  an  activity  in  pushing  every  new  and  promising  branch 
of  industry,  which  are  not  usual  in  France.  A  canal  is  here  cut  from  the  Oise  to  tliat  of 
Douay,  remarkable  for  its  extensive  tunnels.  Laon  is  an  ancient  town,  with  a  stately  cathe- 
dral.    Soissons  is  distinguished  in  French  history,  and   its  bishop  had,  second  to  that  of 


Amiens  Cathedral. 


Book  [. 


FRANCE. 


549 


Rheims,  the  right  of  cro\vning  the  king  of  France.     It  does  not  now  present  any  striking 
features.     Beauvais  is  thriving  and  industrious. 

The  ports  of  Picardy  and  French  Flanders  are  also  very  deserving  of  notice.  Dunkirk, 
being  the  only  one  which  opens  into  the  North  Sea,  was  always  considered  of  great  import- 
ance. Louis  XIV.  having  delinitively  obtained  this  place  in  1(362,  made  if  one  of  the 
strongest  harbours  in  Europe.  It  soon  became  so  annoying  to  British  trade,  that  advantage 
was  taken  of  the  triumphs  of  the  war  of  succession,  to  require,  at  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  its 
entire  demolition.  By  canals  and  other  means,  tlie  Frencli  contrived  always  to  replace  it  in 
an  eft'ective  state ;  but  by  successive  treaties,  the  demolition  of  the  fortifications  on  tlie  side 
of  the  sea  v/as  again  and  again  stipulated,  till  the  circumstances  of  tiio  peace  of  1783  obliged 
England  to  cease  from  exacting  it.  From'that  time  Dunkirk  became  tlie  main  centre  of  ihe 
privateering  system.  It  has  also  a  considerable  share  of  fishery  and  of  the  Baltic  trade.  A 
memorable  era  in  its  history  was  its  siege  by  the  British  in  1793.  They  were  compelled 
abruptly  to  raise  it,  and  this  formed  the  commencement  of  a  long  series  of  reverses  sustained 
by  the  allied  arms.  Dunkirk  has  a  good  harbour  in  the  centre  of  the  city,  entered  by  a 
canal  of  a  mile  and  a  half;  it  is  rather  well  built,  but  for  want  of  springs  the  inhabitants  are 
obliged  to  use  rain-water.  The  neighbouring  territory  is  low  and  marshy,  only  preserved 
from  tlie  inundation  of  the  sea  by  a  ridge  of  downs,  and  only  cultivated  by  means  of  numer- 
ous draining  canals.  Calais  is  well  known  as  the  point  of  communication  with  England, 
which  so  long  held  it  as  the  key  of  France,  even  after  her  aims  at  the  entire  conquest  of 

that  monarchy  had  ceased.  At  present, 
it  is  chiefly  supiwrted  by  tlie  packet 
intercourse,  its  indifferent  liarbour  {fig. 
285.)  unfitting  it  for  any  commerce  on 
a  great  scale.  Calais  is  in  a  very  flat 
country,  intersected  by  canals,  by  which 
it  might  be  even  inundated.  Boulogne 
has  more  maritime  importance ;  though 
its  port,  choked  with  sand,  will  no  longer 
receive  vessels  of  any  size,  unless  at 
high  tide.  It  has  lost  altogether  the 
forced  consequence  given  to  it  by  the 
construction  of  the  grand  flotilla,  des- 
tined to  subdue  the  British  empire,  but 
now  abandoned  to  rot.  Its  proximity,  however,  to  the  coast  has  rendered  it  a  great  resort 
of  Eno-lish  families,  who  inhabit  it  to  the  amount  of  several  thousands.  The  fishery  of 
herring,  mackerel,  &c.  varies  in  value  from  1,000,000  to  2,000,000  francs. 

The"  cities  of  Normandy  are  larger  and  more  important  than  those  already  described. 

Rouen  is  one  of  the  noblest  in  France.  Its  manu- 
foctures  are,  perhaps,  the  most  enterprising  and  indus- 
trious in  the  kingdom,  and  from  their  vicinity  to  Eng- 
land have  had  peculiar  facilities  in  borrowing  her  pro- 
cesses. The  main  staple  is  cotton-spinning  and  weav- 
ing, which  are  supposed  to  occupy  two-thirds  of  the 
55^000  workmen,  and  so  to  constitute  the  same  pro- 
portion of  the  two  millions  sterling  of  manufactured 
goods  annually  prqduced.  The  cathedral  {fig.  286.), 
commenced  by  William  the  Conqueror,  was  considered 
one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  ecclesiastical  architec- 
ture in  France,  till  the  late  disaster,  which  overthrew 
a  great  part  of  it.  The  streets  are  excessively  narrow 
and  dirty,  thoun-h  those  adjoining  to  the  Seine  are 
a.Treeable.  That  river  was  long  crossed  only  by  a 
pSntoon,  composed  of  nineteen  large  barges,  strongly 
moored  together  by  iron  chains ;  but  as  this  had  niany 
inconveniences,  a  handsome  stone  bridge  has  been 
lately  substituted.  At  Elboeuf,  near  Rouen,  is  a  manu- 
factory of  fine  cloth,  almost  equal  to  that  of  Louviers. 
Caen  "is  a  very  ancient  city,  of  great  historical  name, 
the  favourite  "residence  of  William  the  Conqueror,  and 
the  frequent  head-quarters  of  the  English  armies.  It 
is  still  a  considerable  place,  rather  unusually  well  built  for  a  French  town,  containing  a 
andsi„^c^"tle  the  oi^ly  re'maining  part  of  "its  t-^ifications,  and  some  im^olcnirc^^^ 
Its  manufaccures  are  numerous,  but  none  of  them  very  eminent  except  that  of  ^^^  ""cI. 
givis  employment  to  about  20,000  females  in  this  place  and  ^^^^,f'f'\^°»tTaun  verity 
^ome  eminence  as  a  seat  of  literature,  gave  birth  ^^/I^"^^'"';^  j'"^  .So^h^  been  res^^^^^^^^ 
of  considerable  reputation,  which,  though  suppressed  during  the  Revolution,  has  been  restor.a 


Rouen  Cathedral. 


650  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  IH. 

ill  full  lustre.  Havre,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Seine,  is  the  port  of  Paris,  and  one  of  the  most 
active  seats  of  French  commerce.  The  custom  duties,  m  1824,  amounted  to  somewhat  above 
a  million  sterling,  and  its  trade  has  since  been  greatly  augmented.  The  chief  fabric  of  the 
town  and  ncig-hbonrhood  is  that  of  printed  cottons.  It  is  a  gloomy  town,  the  streets  narrow, 
and  the  houses  often  built  of  a  framework  of  wood  filled  up  with  mortar.  Dieppe,  St.  Valerj', 
Fecamp,  and  Honflcur  are  very  active  stations  for  fishing;  wliich  is  not,  however,  carried  on 
with  the  same  energy  and  adventure  as  before  the  Revolution.  The  immense  eftbrts  made 
to  render  Cherbourg  a  naval  station  of  the  first  rank,  have  proved  nearly  abortive.  The 
French  government,  after  tlie  peace  of  1783,  began  to  erect  a  series  of  cones,  with  tlie  view 
of  breaking  the  force  of  llie  waves;  but  these  were  overwhelmed,  and  retain  no  vestige  of 
their  original  form  :  they  lie  under  water,  a  shapeless  ruin,  which  Bonaparte  in  vain  attempted 
to  make  the  foundation  of  a  regular  breakwater.  After  two  millions  had  been  spent  in  this 
undertaking,  he  employed  other  five  millions  in  forming  an  interior  basin  and  a  wet  dockj 
but  all  these  mighty  works  remain  unfinislied. 

Britany  forms  a  peninsula  distinguished  by  many  marked  features  from  the  rest  of  France-! 
its  rude  surface,  composed  in  a  great  measure  of  forests,  marshes,  and  heaths,  enabled  it  not 
only  to  preserve  a  large  portion  of  its  original  Celtic  population,  but  to  give  shelter  to  fugi- 
tives from  Britain,  whence  it  received  its  name.  After  being  long  a  separate  duchy,  it  was 
united  to  France  by  the  marriage  of  its  heiress  with  Louis  XII.  It  retained,  however,  down 
to  the  era  of  the  Revolution,  its  feudal  states,  which  assembled  every  two  years.  The  Bas 
Breton  is  a  Celtic  dialect.  The  people  are  very  numerous  and  very  poor.  The  country  is 
divided  into  small  properties  or  farms,  seldom  exceedmg  twelve  acres,  cultivated  by  the 
manual  labour  of  the  occupants,  according  to  antiquated  and  unskilful  processes,  to  which 
they  adhere  with  the  most  fixed  determination.  The  peasantry  reside  in  small  huts,  gloomy, 
dark,  and  damp;  they  are  strongly  attached  to  their  homes;  ignorant  and  superstitious,  but 
at  the  same  time  frank,  brave,  hospitable,  constant  in  their  friendships,  and  faithfijl  to  their 
word.     They  are  stubborn  and  hardy,  and  those  on  the  coast  make  bold  sailors. 

Of  the  cities  of  Britany,  Renncs,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Rhedones,  is  the  first  in  dignity, 
and  was  the  place  of  meeting  for  the  states,  the  discontinuance  of  which  has  diminished  its 
importance.  It  is  still  rather  a  fine  and  handsome  city,  liaving  been  regularly  rebuilt  since 
a  great  fire  in  1720 ;  and  its  cathedral  of  St.  Peter  is  adorned  with  lofty  towers.  There  is 
a  library  of  30,000  volumes,  a  fine  botanic  garden,  a  museum  of  natural  history,  and  e.xtensive 
collections  in  the  fine  arts.  It  carries  on  some  trade  by  the  river  Vilaine,  which  admits 
barges  of  considerable  size.  Vannes,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Veneti,  is  a  much  smaller 
and  poorer  town,  though  its  vicinity  to  tlie  sea  gives  it  some  commerce  and  fisliery.  Morlaix 
and  Quimper  are  rather  good  towns  in  the  western  departments :  but  the  finest  city  in 
Britany  is  undoubtedly  Nantes,  which  seems  almost  to  belong  to  the  rich  provinces  on  the 
Loire ;  it  is  situated  on  a  hill  above  that  river,  twenty-seven  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  has 
the  advantage  of  delightful  walks  and  environs.  Its  situation,  at  the  mouth  of  the  greatest 
river  in  France,  is  very  favourable  to  commerce,  which  was  carried  on  to  a  vast  extent,  till 
ruined  by  the  disastrous  influence  of  Napoleon's  continental  system ;  but  Nantes  is  begin- 
ning again  to  rear  its  head.  The  W'^est  India  trade  and  the  cod  fishery  were  the  most 
extensive  branches.  Mueli  ship-building  is  carried  on  for  the  merchant  service,  and  vessels 
of  1000  tons  are  occasionally  built  Its  manufactures  are  various,  and  were  formerly  exten- 
sive, especially  sugar  refinery,  cotton,  woollen,  and  linen  cloths,  and  earthenware.  It  is 
connected  with  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  by  a  noble  bridge,  which,  uniting  five  difl^erent 
islands,  extends  in  its  entire  length  more  than  two  miles.  In  its  construction  Nantes  exhibits 
the  usual  faults  of  old  cities;  the  most  agreeable  parts  are  tiie  suburbs,  and  the  islands  are 
thickly  planted  with  trees  and  houses. 

Brest,  on  the  western  coast  of  Britany,  is  the  chief  naval  station  of  France  on  the  ocean, 
as  Toulon  is  on  the  Mediterranean.  It  was  selected  for  this  purpose  in  1631  by  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  in  consideration  of  its  harbour,  which  is  secure  from  every  wind,  and  of  a  spacious 
roadstead,  affording  anchorage  to  .500  ships  of  war.  From  Brest  issued  the  fleet  which  was 
totally  defeated,  in  1792,  by  Lord  Howe ;  and  during  the  whole  of  the  subsequent  war 
between  England  and  France,  this  port,  with  the  na\'y  which  it  contained,  was  held  in 
almost  constant  blockade.  The  works  of  Brest  are  very  strong,  and  the  attempt  made  in 
1691  to  carry  them  by  storm,  was  repulsed  with  considerable  disaster.  The  town,  though 
modern,  having  been  built  in  haste,  and  with  a  sole  view  to  utility,  is  crowded  and  dirty ;  but 
within  the  last  half-century  there  has  been  built  a  handsome  suburb,  called  La  Recouvrance. 
Brest,  besides  its  naval  importance,  carries  on  a  considerable  fishery. 

There  are  other  maritime  stations  of  considerable  magnitude  in  Britany.  L'Orient  has 
been  made  a  depot  for  naval  stores,  and  strongly  fortified ;  it  derived  much  importance  from 
being  the  almost  exclusive  seat  of  the  commerce  of  the  East  India  Company ;  but  since  that 
trade  has  been  nearly  annihilated,  this  port  has  greatly  declined.  St.  Malo  contains  a  race 
of  bold  and  hardy  mariners,  actively  employed  in  the  Newfoundland  and  other  fisheries  ;  and 
who,  in  time  of  war,  exercised  briskly  the  trade  of  privateering.     Morlaix  carries  on  a  con- 


Book  I.  FRANCE.  551 

Biderable  trade  with  the  north  of  Europe.     Quimper,  though  ranking  above  Brest,  as  capital 
of  the  department  of  Finisterre,  is  now  only  an  old  town  of  little  importance. 

The  provinces  on  the  Loire,  in  its  course  from  cast  to  west,  comprehending  Orleanais, 
Tourame,  Anjou,  to  which  may  be  added  those  of  Maine  and  Perclie,  adjoining  on  the 
nortli,  are  the  most  central  and  perhaps  the  richest  in  the  kingdom.  A  great  pari,  indeed, 
especially  of  Anjou  and  Maine,  is  covered  with  those  wide  wastes,  overgrown  with  brush- 
wood and  heath,  which  occupy  so  much  of  the  French  soil.  But  tiie  banks  of  the  Loire 
around  Orleans  are  generally  considered  the  garden  of  France  ;  they  consist  of  unbounded 
plains,  through  which  the  magnificent  Loire  wmds  its  stately  course,  and  which  are 
variegated  with  rich  meadows,  vineyards,  gardens,  and  forests.  On  this  theatre  were  acted 
many  of  the  greatest  events  in  the  history  of  the  monarchy,  particularly  its  rise  from 
the  apparent  peril  of  total  subjection,  through  the  inspiring  uitluence  of  Joan  the  Maid  of 
Orleans. 

The  cities  of  this  region  are  celebrated  and  magnificent.  Orleans,  in  former  times, 
ranked  almost  as  a  second  capital :  though  it  exhibits  the  usual  characters  of  anticpiity,  it  is 
a  superb  and  beautiful  city.  A  very  fine  stone  bridge  of  nine  arches  opens  to  the  rue  r'nyale, 
spacious  and  handsome,  which  extends  to  the  fine  square  in  tlie  centre ;  here  is  placed  a 
statue  of  Joan,  tlie  sculpture  of  which  is  not  altogether  so  elegant  as  might  be  desired.  The 
cathedral  is  a  very  fine  edifice,  the  choir  of  which  was  raised  by  Henry  IV.  From  its  steeple 
is  an  almost  unbounded  view  over  the  magnificent  plain  of  the  Loire.  Situated  in  the  centre 
of  France,  and  dividing  as  it  were  the  Lower  from  the  Upper  Loire,  Orleans  enjoys  a  great 
transit  trade.  Blois  is  almost  equal  to  Orleans  in  historical  celebrity  ;  its  ancient  edifices, 
placed  on  a  hill  above  the  Loire,  have  a  most  commanding  appearance.  The  castle,  on  a 
rock  overhanging  the  river,  is  an  immense  and  lofty  pile,  full  of  windows  of  aN  shapes  and 
sizes,  balconies,  galleries,  buttresses,  and  "  a  strange  incongruous  assemblage  of  buildings 
destined  for  ornament  in  peace  and  defence  in  war."  All  the  parts  are  little ;  but  the  whole 
is  so  vast  as  to  be  almost  sublune.  In  this  edifice  the  states-general  once  assembled.  The 
glory  of  Blois  has  now  entirely  passed  away :  its  streets  are  narrow,  gloomy,  and  dismally 
dirty.  Tours,  equally  ancient,  is  now  much  more  flourishing ;  its  plain  is  pre-eminent,  even 
among  the  other  districts  on  the  banks  of  the  Loire.  The  silk  manufacture,  first  introduced 
here,  has  been  in  a  great  measure  transferred  to  Lyons,  but  it  still  employs  7000  or  8000 
persons.  Happily  for  the  beauty  of  the  city,  a  great  part  of  it  was  consumed  50  years  ago, 
and  occasion  was  taken  to  build  a  new  street,  running  its  whole  length,  of  fine  hewn  stone, 
broad,  and  on  an  elegant  design ;  it  is,  perhaps,  the  finest  in  France.  It  is  connected 
with  a  bridge  of  14  arches,  which  till  of  late  was  considered  equally  unrivalled ;  and  also  «- 
with  a  fine  promenade  bordered  with  trees.  The  metropolitan  church  was  almost  entirely 
demolished  during  the  revolutionary  excesses;  only  two  of  its  lofty  spires  remain.  The 
beauty  and  abundance  of  the  country  around  Tours  have  attracted  such  numbers  of  English 
residents,  that  Mrs.  Carey  was  asked  on  the  road  what  great  convulsion  was  agitating  Eng- 
land, that  her  people  were  flying  from  it  in  such  crowds.  Saumur,  once  highly  flourishing 
and  industrious,  lost  two-thirds  of  its  population  by  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes. 
Angers  is  a  large,  old,  steep,  ill-built  town,  but  has  a  considerable  trade ;  its  monuments 
have  been  dreadfully  shattered  during  the  Revolution.  Le  Mans,  capital  of  Maine,  on  the 
Sarthe,  is  very  old,  but  large  and  clean,  with  a  spacious  market-place  and  some  considerable 
manufactures. 

The  provinces  between  the  Loire  and  the  Garonne,  Poitou,  Berri,  Limousin,  and  the 
Marche,  are  of  diversified  and  somewhat  peculiar  aspect :  they  present  none  of  those  bound- 
less plains  which  characterise  France  north  of  the  Loire ;  they  are  everywhere  traversed  by 
valleys  and  ridges  of  hills,  never  rising  into  mountains,  but  giving  to  the  country  a  broken  and 
variegated  aspect.  This,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  is  sometimes  rude  and  dreary, 
sometimes  gay  and  smiling.  Mr.  Young  ranks  the  Limousin  as  the  most  beautiful  district 
in  all  France,  such  is  the  variety  of  hills,  dales,  streams  and  woods  whicli  compose  its 
landscape.  Mrs.  Carey  describes  Marche,  beyond  Argenton,  as  singularly  pastoral;  the 
hills  covered  with  sheep,  goats,  kids,  and  lambs,  the  last  of  which  at  evening  come  down 
bleating,  and  are  received  into  the  houses.  Poitou,  a  part  of  which  is  so  fatally  celebrated 
under  its  new  name  of  La  Vendee,  is  a  rough  country,  a  great  part  of  which  is  covered 
with  a  forest  called  the  Bocage.  All  these  districts  are  more  productive  of  cattle  than  of 
grain,  though  they  are  cultivated  by  a  simple  peasantry  with  hardihood  and  vigour,  but  quite 
in  the  antique  style,  and  with  a  strong  antipathy  to  all  modern  improvements.  In  Poitou, 
the  proprietors,  being  small,  and  residing  much  on  their  estates,  excited  feudal  feelings  and 
attachments,  that  were  extinct  in  the  rest  of  France ;  hence  the  formidable  war  which  they 
waged  single-handed  in  defence  of  the  ancient  regime. 

The  cities  in  this  range  of  provinces,  though  ancient,  are  neither  large,  nor  distinguished 
by  much  industry.  Poitiers  is  of  high  antiquity,  and  presents  some  interesting  Roman  re- 
mains; in  modern  times  it  is  distinguisho<l  by  the  signal  victory  gained  here  by  the  Black 
Prince.  The  city  is  of  great  extent,  but  comprises  many  empty  spaces  and  gardens.  Limoges 
IS  an  ill-built  town,  with  many  houses  of  timber,  roofed  with  tiles,  and  projecting  eaves,  but 


552 


DESCRIPTrV^  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paiit  III. 


there  are  several  handsome  squares  and  fountains,  and  the  public  walks  command  a  beautiful 
view  of  the  Vienne  flowing  down  a  charming'  valley.  Its  cathedral,  said  to  have  been  built 
by  the  English  during  their  temporary  possession  of  this  part  of  France,  suffered  much  during 
tJie  revolution,  and  has  only  one  tower  letl  standing.  Bourges,  the  ancient  Biturgia',  is  very 
ill-built,  but  adorned  witli  a  fine  cathedral,  and  distinguished  for  its  university,  and  as  the 
birth-place  of  Bourdaloue,  and  of  the  Jesuit,  Father  d'Orleans.  Chdteauroux  is  gloomy,  but 
has  a  large  woollen  manufacture. 

The  two  departments  of  the  Charente,  watered  by  the  fine  river  of  that  name,  form  a 
region  different  in  character  from  those  now  described ;  level,  and  extremely  fertile,  though 
in  some  parts  marshy  and  unhealtiiful.  A  great  part  of  the  produce  of  its  rich  vineyards  is 
at  Cognac  converted  into  brandy,  wliicli  bears  an  unrivalled  reputation,  though,  probably, 
the  name  is  applied  with  a  fraudulent  latitude  to  inferior  liquors.  The  yellow  tinge  so 
generally  given  to  brandy  is  the  consequence  of  a  local  custom  at  Cognac.  Saintes  is 
ancient  even  as  a  Frencli  city.  An  ample  tlieatre,  an  aqueduct,  and  a  triumphal  arch  of 
white  marble,  attest  its  ancient  importance  as  a  Roman  city ;  and  the  cathedral  is  said  to 
belong  to  the  age  of  Charlemagne.  But  tlie  most  conspicuous  features  of  the  Charente  are 
Rochelle  and  Rochefort.  The  former  is  renowned  as  the  grand  and  last  bulwark  of  the 
Protestant  cause ;  and  its  reduction,  effected  by  the  almost  incredible  efforts  of  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  fixed  the  downfall  of  civil  and  religious  liberty  in  France.  Though  no  longer  a 
haven  of  the  first  magnitude,  its  colonial  trade,  prior  at  least  to  the  late  war,  was  very  con- 
siderable. The  town  is  handsome,  with  broad  streets,  many  of  the  houses  built  on  arcades, 
with  shops  beneath  as  in  Chester.  Rocliefort  has  little  trade,  but  is  one  of  tlie  principal 
French  naval  stations.  It  has  a  secure  harbour,  with  verv'  safe  and  extensive  docks. 
Being  one  of  the  few  towns  in  France  that  are  not  much  more  than  a  century  and  a  half 
old,  it  is  built  on  a  regular  plan,  with  broad  open  streets.  Angouleme,  in  the  interior, 
stands  on  a  rock  in  the  centre  of  a  charming  valley,  through  which  winds  the  silver 
stream  of  the  Charente.  It  is  a  clean  well-built  town,  having  a  cathedral  witii  five  cupolas, 
and  displaying  other  marks  of  historical  importance.  There  is  a  large  manufacture  of 
paper. 

Guienne  is  a  most  important  province,  which  for  several  ages  formed  an  appanage  of  the 
English  crown.  It  consists  of  a  magnificent  and  highly  cultivated  plain,  watered  by  the 
Garonne,  whose  broad  stream  here  resembles  an  arm  of  the  sea,  and  by  its  ample  tributaries, 
the  Tarn,  the  Lot,  and  the  Dordogne.  It  is  distinguished  by  various  rich  productions,  but 
more  especially  by  the  wines  bearing  the  name  of  claret,  which,  though  not  quite  so  ricii  and 
highly  flavoured  as  some,  are  so  light  and  agreeable  that  a  greater  quantity  is  drunk  at  the 
tables  of  the  opulent,  than  of  any  other.  M.  Frank,  in  a  late  work  published  at  Bordeaux, 
estimates  the  entire  produce  of  claret  at  250,000  tuns.  The  wines  of  the  farms  Laffitte  and 
Chateau-Margaux  are  the  most  esteemed ;  but  much  is  sold  under  these  names  which  has 
no  title  to  them. 

Bordeaux  (Jig.  287.),  near  the  mouth  of  the  Garonne,  is  one  of  the  grandest  emporia  in 

France,  and,  indeed,  in  Europe. 
287  Situated   at   the  mouth  of  the 

Garonne,  which  here  allows  the 
largest  vessels  to  ascend  to  its 
port,  it  exports  all  the  valuable 
produce  of  this  great  southern 
plain,  of  which  the  wines  are 
said  to  amount  to  100,000,  and 
brandy  to  20,000  pipes  annually. 
It  is  engaged  also  in  colonial 
trade,  and  in  the  cod  and  whale 
fisheries.  Recent  travellers  re- 
mark a  greater  display  of  wealth 
and  prosperity  in  this  than  in 
any  other  of  the  Frencli  com- 
mercial cities.  Every  thing  is 
on  a  grand  scale,^  and  buildings  are  in  progress  which,  when  finished,  will  leave  it  without  a 
rival  in  France.  The  theatre,  designed  after  that  of  Milan,  is  considered  a  model  of  archi- 
tectural beauty.  INIany  of  the  ecclesiastical  structures  were  founded  by  the  English.  A 
very  republican  spirit  is  said  to  prevail  at  Bordeaux.  " 

The  other  towns  of  Guienne  are  not  of  the  first  magnitude.  Montauban  embraced  with 
ardour  the  Protestant  cause,  and  had  a  distinguislied  university,  which  was  suppressed,  when 
the  place  was  taken  in  1629,  by  Louis  XIII.,  and  the  fortifications  razed.  This  seminary, 
however,  was  restored  by  Napoleon  in  1810.  ilontauban  is  well-built,  of  painted  brick, 
with  wide  and  clean  streets ;  and  an  elevated  walk,  which  commands  a  most  e.xtensive  view, 
reaching  to  the  Pyrenees.  Agen  is  a  very  dirty  ill-built  town,  but  famous  for  the  plums 
raised  in  its  vicinity.     Cahors  has  some  thriving  manufactures,  and  its  vicinity  produces  the 


Book  I,  FRANCE.  553 

vin  de  Grave,  which  is  held  in  high  estimation.  Rhodez,  on  the  Aveyron,  is  a  gloomy  old 
town,  but  the  seat  of  a  distinguished  bishopric. 

Gascony  is  a  large  province,  extending  to  the  Pyrenees,  and  consisting  chiefly  of  a  wide 
level  surlace,  of  peculiar  character,  called  the  landes.  These  are  plains  of  sand,  in  some 
places  loose  and  blowing,  but  mostly  covered  with  pine  trees,  sometimes  affording  pasturage 
for  sheep,  and  more  rarely  detached  tracts  fit  for  cultivation.  The  Gascons,  long  an  inde- 
pendent people  under  their  dukes,  are  a  peculiar  race,  fiery,  ardent,  impetuous,  and  prover- 
bially addicted  to  boasting ;  hence  the  term  gasconade.  Bayonne,  though  not  very  large,  is 
one  of  the  strongest  and  prettiest  towns  in  France.  Situated  at  the  "broad  mouth  of  the 
Adour,  it  has  a  considerable  traffic  in  exporting  the  timber  of  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Landes, 
and  sends  also  vessels  to  the  cod  and  whale  fisheries.  Mont  de  Marsan,  the  capital  of  the 
Landes,  is  but  a  small  and  poor  place. 

The  Pyrencan  departments  comprehend  some  interesting  features ;  Beam,  the  little  ori- 
ginal principality  of  Henry  IV.,  which  he  governed  with  paternal  kindness ;  and  Roussillon, 
which  underwent  several  revolutions,  alternately  belonging  to  France  and  to  Spain,  before 
it  was  finally  annexed  to  the  former.  Young  gives  a  delightful  view  of  the  state  of  this 
mountain  district.  It  is  divided  into  a  number  of  small  properties,  which  are  well  enclosed, 
well  cultivated,  each  comfortable  cottage  being  surrounded  by  its  garden  well  stocked  with 
fruit  trees ;  the  inhabitants  snugly  dressed,  like  Highlanders,  in  red  caps.  The  subdivision 
of  property,  though  great,  seems  not  to  have  gone  so  far  as  to  lead  to  misery.  Pau  is  a  con- 
siderable town,  in  a  romantic  situation,  and  celebrated  as  the  birth-place  of  Henry  IV., 
whose  cradle  is  still  shown  in  the  ancient  palace,  now  converted  into  a  prison.  It  makes  a 
good  deal  of  linen,  and  is  noted  for  its  excellent  hams,  which  are  exported  from  Bayonne. 
Tarbes,  capital  of  the  upper  Pyrenees,  and  Bagneres,  with  its  mineral  hot  springs,  a  place 
of  crowded  and  fashionable  resort,  are  delightfully  situated,  affording  an  approach  to  the  fine 
valleys  of  the  highest  Pyrenees.  The  slopes  of  the  neighbouring  mountains  are  richly  cul- 
tivated, and  often  well  enclosed.  Roussillon  is  Spanish  as  to  language  and  customs ;  but  the 
magnificent  roads  effected  in  defiance  of  natural  obstacles,  and  the  thriving  industry  of  the 
people,  mark  the  influence  of  a  more  active  and  enlightened  government.  The  extensive 
fortifications  of  Perpignan  render  it  a  barrier  of  the  kingdom.  It  is  gloomy  and  ill-built, 
but  has  some  manufactures. 

Languedoc,  the  ancient  Gallia  Narbonensis,  and  afterwards  the  domain  of  the  counts  ot 
Toulouse,  is  the  pride  of  France  in  regard  to  climate,  soil,  and  scenery.  The  air  along  its 
coasts  is  generally  considered  the  most  salubrious  in  Europe.  The  plains  of  Languedoc  are 
celebrated  ;  yet  they  are  encroached  upon  not  only  by  the  Pyrenees  on  the  east,  but  by  the 
Cevennes,  which  form  their  constant  northern  boundary,  and  in  many  places  reduce  them  to 
a  breadth  of  a  few  miles.  But  on  the  line  from  Beziers  by  Montpelier  to  Nismes,  the  plain 
is  of  much  greater  breadth,  and  displays  a  luxuriant  fertility  scarcely  rivalled  in  any  other 
part  even  of  this  happy  region.  Every  tiling  flourishes  here,  even  what  is  most  strictly 
denied  to  other  provinces ;  not  only  grain  and  the  vine,  but  the  silk-worm  and  the  olive. 

The  cities  of  Languedoc  are  not  of  the  very  first  magnitude ;  but  they  are  handsome  and 
finely  situated ;  and  they  present  some  interesting  Roman  monuments.  Toulouse  covers  a 
great  extent  of  ground,  but  it  has  suffered  in  consequence  of  the  discontinuance  of  its  par- 
liament, which  was  one  of  the  most  important  in  France.  The  cathedral  is  very  large,  but 
not  very  beautiful ;  and  many  of  the  churches  were  destroyed  during  the  Revolution.  There 
is  an  university  attended  by  1500  students,  and  two  large  libraries  open  to  the  public. 
Castres  is  a  well-built,  industrious,  large  town,  the  birth-place  of  Rapin  and  Madame  Dacier. 
Carcassonne  still  retains  some  of  the  bastions  and  towers  of  the  castle  on  its  hill ;  but  this 
ancient  quarter  is  almost  deserted  in  favour  of  the  neat  pleasant  town  built  beneath.  Beziers 
is  ugly  and  dirty,  but  has  a  handsome  cathedral,  and  is  important  fi-om  its  site  on  the  canal 
of  Languedoc.  Narbonne,  though  celebrated  as  a  Roman  capital,  presents  few  monuments 
of  that  people;  these  are  said  to  have  been  taken  down  at  the  building  of  the  walls.  Mont- 
pelier enjoys  an  unrivalled  fame  for  its  mild  and  salubrious  air;  but  late  travellers  have 
declared  themselves  unable  to  discover  on  what  that  renown  is  founded.  It  is  subject  to 
alternations  of  heat  and  cold ;  cloth  pelisses  must  be  worn  the  whole  winter,  and  fires  can- 
not be  discontinued  till  May.  It  is,  however,  an  agreeable  residence ;  the  public  walk  com- 
mands a  view  over  the  Mediterranean  and  the  surrounding  country,  scarcely  equalled  in 
Europe :  there  is  a  flourishing  medical  school,  with  good  practitioners,  and  a  library  of  40,000 
volumes.  Montpelier  is  not  uniformly  well-built;  but  it  presents  a  noble  Roman  aqueduct, 
a  fine  cathedral,  and  other  public  buildings.  Nismes  is  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  flour- 
ishing cities  in  tlie  south  of  France.  The  silk  manufacture,  as  already  noticed,  flourishes 
there  to  a  great  extent.  More  than  half  the  inhabitants  are  Protestant,  who,  as  may  be  well 
remembered,  were,  on  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  exposed  to  violent  outrages  on  the 
part  of  their  Catholic  fellow-citizens ;  but  these  disorders  were  disavowed  by  the  French 
court,  and  have  ceased.  The  city  is  ill-built,  ill-paved,  ill  laid  out;  but  there  is  a  fine  bou- 
levard bordered  with  trees ;  and  it  is  particularly  illustrious  for  the  magnificence  of  its  Ro- 
man monuments.     The  amphitheatre  is  nearly  entire,  and,  though  rather  smaller  than  that 

Vol.  I.  47     *  3  U 


554 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  III. 


288 


of  Verona,  from  its  massive  grandeur,  and  the  enormous  stones  of  wliich  it  is  constructed, 
suggests  tlie  idea  of  an  imperishable  fabric.  But  the  edifice  called  the  Maison  carree,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  temple  of  Augustus,  is  that  which  has  excited  the  admiration  of  all 

travellers,  from  its  extreme  elegance 
and  graceful  proportions,  wliich  ren- 
der it  almost  a  perfect  model  of 
architectural  beauty.  It  remains 
after  so  many  ages  quite  entire,  "  as 
if  savage  and  saint  had  been  alike 
awed  by  its  superlative  beauty." 
Near  Nismes  is  the  Pont  du  Gard 
(Jig.  288.),  an  ancient  bridge,  or 
rather  aqueduct,  forming  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  monuments  now 
extant  of  Roman  grandeur. 
Provence  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  and  interesting  of  the  French  provinces,  first,  as 
the  earliest  seat  of  wealth,  civilisation,  and  poetry;  next,  as  containing  the  ecclesiastical 
capital,  Avignon,  near  which  is  Vaucluse,  the  favourite  residence  of  Petrarch ;  lastly,  as 
including  Toulon  and  Marseilles,  the  greatest  naval  and  the  greatest  commercial  city  in  ihe 
kingdom.  The  classic  stream  of  the  Durance,  though  it  crosses  the  whole  region  from  its 
alpine  boundary  to  the  Rhone,  and  too  often  overflows  its  banks,  does  not  preserve  the  e.xten- 
sive  tracts  covered  with  rude  calcareous  hills  from  the  evils  of  aridity.  Although,  there- 
fore, the  products  of  this  province  are  various,  and  many  of  them  fine,  it  does  not  yield  corn 
sufficient  for  its  own  consumption,  nor  can  it  boast  of  e.xtensive  manufactures,  but  depends 
chiefly  upon  commerce. 

The  cities  of  Provence  rank,  in  all  respects,  among  the  greatest  and  most  interesting  of 
.he  kingdom.  Aix  is  not  the  largest,  but  is  reckoned  the  capital,  and  was  formerly  the  seat 
of  the  parliaments  of  Provence.  Its  name  is  contracted  from  that  of  Aqua;  Sextiae,  given  to 
it  by  the  Romans  from  the  copious  warm  baths,  in  whose  vicinity  numerous  medals  and 
inscriptions  have  been  discovered.  It  is  pleasant,  airy,  well  built,  m  a  fine  plain  encircled 
by  lofty  mountains.  The  coitrs  is  very  Ijeautiftil,  formed  by  two  rows  of  trees,  with  hot 
fountains  bubbling  up,  at  which  women  are  seen  washing  clothes.  Greater  celebrity  attaches 
to  the  name  of  Avignon,  for  some  time  an  ecclesiastical  capital,  and  still  more  illustrious  by 
association  with  the  names  of  Laura  and  Petrarch.  It  is  finely  situated  on  the  Rhone,  with 
many  handsome  houses;  but  the  streets  are  crowded  and  ill-paved.  In  the  centre  rises  an 
msulated  rock,  separated  by  the  river  from  a  range  of  hills  on  the  other  side,  and  in  'vhicb 
are  the  remains  of  the  palace  of  the  popes,  now  converted  into  barracks  and  prisons.  The 
cathedral  had  accumulated  immense  wealth  in  silver  and  other  offerings,  of  all  which  it  was 
rifled  at  the  Revolution ;  an  event  more  fatal  to  Avignon  than  to  any  other  city,  except 
Lyons.  Avignon  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  built  only  for  fiscal  purposes,  and  the  Rhone  is 
crossed  by  a  handsome  bridge  built  by  St.  Benezet  in  the  twelfth  century  fi-om  the  produce 
of  alms,  and  which  yields  50,000  francs  of  annual  toll.     It  would  be  profane  for  a  traveller 

to  leave  Avignon  without  visiting 
289  the   tomb  of  Laura  in  the  church 

of  the  Franciscans,  and  making  an 
excursion  to  the  beautiful  fountain 
of  Vaucluse  (Jig.  289.),  the  scene 
of  inspiration  to  Petrarch.  Aries 
was,  in  early  times,  one  of  the  most 
important  cities  in  the  south  of 
France ;  under  tlie  Romans  it  was 
the  seat  of  the  prffitorian  prefect ; 
in  the  ninth  century  it  was  the 
Fountain  of  Vaucluse.  Capital  of  a  separate  kingdom,  and 

afterwards  the  seat  of  an  archbi- 
shop, and  of  thirteen  successive  councils.  It  is  still  a  large  city,  and  presents  the  vestiges 
of  a  Roman  amphitheatre  (of  which  the  interior  area  is  now  built  upon),  once  capable  of 
containing  30,0()0  persons.  Tarascon  is  still  a  flourishing  place,  above  which  rises  the 
ancient  castle  of  the  counts  of  Provence,  now  converted  into  a  prison.  On  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  Rhone  is  Beaucaire,  distinguished  for  its  great  annual  fair,  at  which  are  still 
sold  goods  of  various  descriptions  to  the  value  of  about  7,500,000  francs.  Digne  and  Car- 
pentras  are  of  some  importance  as  capitals  of  districts. 

Marseilles  and  Toulon,  the  two  great  southern  havens,  form  now  the  most  important  fea- 
tures of  Provence.  The  commercial  fame  of  Marseilles  dates  from  early  antiquity,  when 
it  was  a  Greek  colony,  and  carried  on  almost  all  the  commerce  of  Gaul.  In  modern  times 
it  has  been  the  chief  centre  of  the  trade  to  the  Levant;  and  though  its  prosperity  suflfered 
a  total  eclipse  under  the  regime  of  Napoleon,  it  has  since  regained  much  of  its  former 


Book  I. 


FRANCE. 


555 


eplemlour.  The  harbour  is  spacious  and  secure,  but  it  is  somewhat  narrow  at  the  entrance, 
and  shallow.  It  is  bordered  by  extensive  quays  of  liewn  stone,  with  spacious  warehouses ; 
and  is  filled  with  all  the  shipping  peculiar  to  tiie  Mediterranean,  among  which  are  galleys' 
and  beautiful  pleasure-boats  with  silk  awnings ;  it  is  crowded  with  all  the  nations  of  that 
Bea,  Greeks,  Turks,  Jews,  Spaniards,  Italians,  and  loaded  with  the  produce  of  Asia  and  Africa. 
It  is  compared  by  a  late  writer  to  Liverpool :  the  districts  round  the  port  are  a  nucleus  ot 
trade  and  dirt ;  but  in  the  exterior,  the  streets  are  handsome,  airy,  and  well  built.  Among 
other  fine  public  buildings  is  the  hotel  de  ville,  with  its  magnificent  marble  staircase.  The 
cours  is  formed  by  two  rows  of  fine  trees  bordered  by  handsome  houses,  and  the  central 
walk  is  crowded  like  a  fair.  The  neighbouring  plain  is  finely  cultivated,  but  is  bounded  by 
bold  and  rugged  mountains  that  rise  above  the  range  of  vegetation.  Toulon,  though  not  a 
seat  of  connnerce,  is  the  chief  naval  station  of  France  on  the  Mediterranean.  Itlias  two 
ports,  the  old  and  the  new :  the  latter  alone  receives  ships  of  war,  and  is  bordered  by  most 
extensive  arsenals,  in  which  5000  men  are  constantly  employed.  This  port  can  contain  200 
sail  of  the  line ;  and  without  is  a  very  spacious  and  well-sheltered  roadstead.  It  is  defended 
by  tM'o  strong  forts,' which,  however,  were  occupied  in  1793  by  the  British,  who,  at  the  end 
of  the  year,  were  obliged  to  evacuate  the  place.  This  was  the  first  occasion  on  which  Bona- 
parte's military  talents  became  conspicuous.  Toulon  is  a  clean,  pleasant  town,  refreshed  by 
streams  of  water,  running  through  the  streets.  The  adjacent  country  is  wild  and  romantic, 
and  interspersed  with  some  cultivated  valleys. 

29Q  .  Dauphiny  is  a  region  completely  alpine,  the  two  depart- 

ments of  the  Upper  and  Lower  Alps  occupying  the  greater 
part  of  its  surface.  The  mountains  are  chiefly  calcareous, 
and  broken  into  the  most  picturesque,  peculiar,  and  ro- 
mantic forms.  Young  even  considers  the  scenery  of  Dau- 
phiny, particularly  along  the  Isere,  as  surpassing  that  of 
any  other  part  of  the  Alps.  In  one  of  the  most  awful  re- 
cesses of  ttiese  rocks  and  wilds,  at  a  distance  from  all  the 
smiling  scenes  of  earth,  St.  Bruno  erected  the  monastery 
of  the  Chartreuse  (fig.  290.),  of  which  Gray  has  drawn 
so  sublime  and  imposmg  a  picture.  There  are  other  scenes 
emphatically  termed  the  wonders  of  Dauphiny ;  as  the 
burning  fountain,  the  grottoes  of  Sassenage,  &c.  Although 
this  part  of  the  kingdom  cannot  be  considered  as  productive, 
yet  great  numbers  of  cattle  and  sheep  are  reared  on  its 
high  slopes  by  a  simple  race  of  men  resembling  the  mountaineers  of  Switzerland ;  and  even 
the  silk-worm  is  bred  in  its  lower  valleys. 

The  cities  do  not  require  very  particular  notice.  Grenoble  is  a  considerable  place,  not  ill 
built,  with  a  library  of  60,000  volumes,  and  some  other  literary  establishments.  It  took  a 
conspicuous  part  in  promoting  the  commencement  of  the  Revolution,  and  was  also  the  first 
town  that  opened  its  gates  to  Napoleon  on  his  return  from  Elba.  Gap  is  a  pretty  large  but 
poor  old  town,  in  a  deep  hollow,  amid  barren  mountains.  Vienne  is  a  Roman  city,  and 
presents  a  temple,  with  several  other  interesting  remains  of  that  people.  It  has  also  a  fine 
modern  cathedral  with  a  very  lofty  spire.  Valence  has  a  military  school,  at  which  Bonaparte 
was  educated.     Near  Tain  is  produced  the  celebrated  wine  called  Hermitage. 

The  Lyonnais  is  a  small  territory,  penetrated  by  branches  of  the  Alps,  in  some  places 
rough  and  stony,  in  others  finely  diversified  with  hill  and  dale.  Its  chief  interest,  however, 
centres  in  the  great  city  which  is  its  capital. 

Lyons  (fig-.  291.)  is  generally  con- 
sidered as  the  second  city  in  France, 
and  as  foremost  in  regard  to  com- 
merce and  industry.  It  is  on  the 
whole  a  noble  city.  The  quays  along 
the  Rhone  are  superb ;  the  hotel  de 
ville  is  held  to  be  second  only  to 
that  of  Amsterdam;  the  cathedral  is 
highly  ornamented  in  the  florid 
Gothic  style  ;  and  the  square.",  espe- 
cially the  Place  de  Bellecour,  with 
its  fountains  and  statues,  are  nowhere  surpassed.  On  the  other  hand,  the  old  streets  are 
narrow,  bordered  by  lofty  and  gloomy  walls,  and  divided  by  a  muddy  stream.  To  turn  into 
them  from  the  quays  hasbeen  compared  to  entering  subterraneous  passages,  watered  by  the 
sluices  of  Cocytus.  Lyons  suffered  dreadfully  under  the  sway  of  the  jacobins,  who  made  it  a 
chief  theatre  of  those  atrocities  that  rendered  them  the  horror  of  mankind.  To  say  nothing 
of  the  massacres  perpetrated  under  the  appellation  oi'fii.nlladfs  and  nnt/ades,  they  studiously 
broke  in  pieces  all  the  manufacturing  machinery,  while  with  barbarous  hands  they  defaced 
all  the  ornaments  of  the  city,  filled  up  the  fountains,  broke  the  statues   in   pieces,  and 


Grande  C.'.arlreuse. 


Lyons. 


556 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III, 


292 


demolished  the  whole  of  the  cathedral  except  the  walls.  Her  citizens  have  made  diligent 
efforts  to  restore  her  prosperity,  and  not  without  success;  still  the  want  of  capital  and  the 
stag-nation  of  trade  are  serious  obstructions,  and  cause  the  evils  of  poverty  among  a  large 
population  to  be  severely  felt.  The  Lyonnese  have  the  propensities  usually  observed  in 
manufacturing  places :  they  dislike  the  Bourbons,  and  the  sight  of  an  Englishman  is  worm- 
wood to  them. 

Auvergne,  to  tlie  west  of  the  Lyonnais,  is  the  only  mountainous  and  pastoral  tract  which 
France  has  peculiarly  its  own.  It  consists  of  a  continuous  range  of  mountains  which  liave 
evidently  been  in  a  state  of  volcanic  action,  the  country  being  covered  with  lava,  and  the 
houses  built  of  it.  From  an  elevated  and  extensive  plain  rises  the  great  Puy  de  Dome, 
nearly  5000  feet  high,  with  about  sixty  attendant  mountains,  called  in  the  country  the 
giantess  and  her  children.  The  country  is  diversified  with  many  rugged  and  precipitous  rocks, 
having  castles  and  even  towns  built  on  them.  Yet  Auvergne  is  not  a  barren  country.  The 
Puys  are  mostly  covered  with  herbage,  and  have  large  level  plains.  The  natives  are  labo- 
rious, and  rear  large  herds  of  cattle,  which  are  almost  wild ;  they  are  even  said  to  beat  off 
the  wolf,  the  low  of  the  animal  attacked  summoning  all  the  rest  to  its  assistance ;  but,  in 
return,  they  cannot  be  milked  unless  the  calf  be  on  the  other  side. ,  The  people  are  liomely, 
and  very  republican ;  they  form  themselves  into  a  number  of  societies,  of  whicii  the  princi- 
ple is  a  common  table,  attended  liowever  by  the  men  only.  In  winter  they  take  up  their 
abode  under  the  same  roof  with  the  cattle  which  occupy  each  end,  and  by  tiieir  heat  save 
fuel  which  is  scarce.  Clermont  is  a  considerable  town,  perched  on  the  top  of  a  hill,  and 
built  of  lava.  It  is  extremely  dirty,  and  Mr.  Young  compares  several  of  its  streets  to  chan- 
nels cut  in  a  dunghill ;  however,  the  mountain  breezes  purify  the  air.  The  cathedral,  which 
was  fine,  was  nearly  destroyed  during  the  Revolution.  In  the  surrounding  country  are  many 
curious  caverns,  petrifying  wells,  warm  springs,  cascades,  &c.     Aurillac  also,  Riom,  and 

Thiers  are  elevated  towns,  com- 
manding striking  views  of  the  rocks 
and  cones  of  this  remarkable  chain. 
Towards  Puy  en  Velay,  which  na- 
turally belongs  to  Auvergne,  the 
rocks  become  still  more  steep  and 
romantic;  and  among  the  castles  seat- 
ed in  them,  Mr.  Young  especially 
distinguishes  that  of  Polignac  {jig. 
292.),  the  form  and  site  of  which 
appears  to  him  so  striking,  as  to 
Ca^ii,;uf  Polignac.  ^^^^^  ^^^j  ^j^g  fgujjai  ages,  by  a  sort 

of  magic  influence,  to  rise  before  the  mind.  St.  Michael's  church,  in  the  centre  of  the  town 
of  Puy  itself,  stands  on  the  top  of  a  very  striking,  almost  precipitous  rock,  of  tower-like  form. 

Burgundy  and  Champagne,  with  the  small  adjoining  provinces  of  Bourbonnais  and  Niver- 
nais,  form  a  vast  plain  extending  north  of  the  provinces  last  described.  Burgundy,  however, 
is  traversed  by  branches  from  the  Vosges,  forming  hilly  tracts  of  moderate  elevation.  This 
is  the  great  country  of  wine,  producing  the  finest  in  France,  and,  with  very  few  exceptions, 
in  the  whole  world.  The  surface  of  the  wine-district  is  chiefly  red  sandstone  rock,  with 
very  little  soil.     The  vineyards  are  cultivated  by  small  proprietors,  who  do  not  usually  hold 

more  than  twenty  or  thirty  arpents.  It  costs  .500  francs  to 
plant  an  arpent  in  vines,  and  30  annually  to  keep  it  in  repair. 
Three  years  elapse  before  it  yields  any  wine,  and  six  before 
it  yields  good  wine.  Common  vineyards  sell  at  1.500  francs 
an  acre;  and  there  are  some  that  sell  so  hijrh  as  10,000. 
The  precariousness  of  the  crop,  however,  and  the  want  of 
capital,  render  this  branch  of  industry  a  poor  employment; 
and  the  cultivators  of  Burgundy  are  the  least  flourishing  of 
any  in  France.  Few  new  vineyards  are  now  laid  down; 
though  the  capital  invested  in  the  old  ones  is  a  sufficient 
reason  for  keeping  them  up. 

Of  the  chief  towns,  the  first  in  dignity  is  Rheimsi^  a  no- 
ble and  ancient  city,  the  ecclesiastical  capital  of  France, 
where  the  kings  were  crowned  and  anointed.  The  cathe- 
dral {fg.  293.)  has  been  considered  tlie  most  splendid  spe- 
cimen of  Gothic  architecture  existing,  though  some  of  its 
ornaments  are  not  in  the  purest  taste.  The  Hotel  de  Ville 
is  also  fine ;  and  the  streets,  unlike  what  is  usual  in  old 
towns,  are  broad,  straight,  and  well  built.  Rheims  is  still 
the  chief  mart  of  that  favourite  wine  called  champagne, 
and  from  thence  the  connoisseurs  of  Paris  take  care  to  pro- 
cure their  suppliss.     Troyes,  once  celebrated  for  its  great 


Cathedral  at  Rlicims 


Book  1, 


FRANCE. 


557 


fairs,  and  noted  as  having'  given  its  name  to  the  Troy  weight,  ranks  as  capital  of  Champagne, 
and  is  still  a  large  and  flourishing  town  on  the  Seine.  Chalons  sur  Marne  is  also  considera- 
ble, and,  by  a  seemingly  capricious  clioice,  is  the  capital  of  the  department  of  the  Marne, 
instead  of  Rheims.  Mezieres  and  Sedan  are  strong  frontier  towns ;  the  latter  celebrated  for 
its  manufacture  of  fine  woollen  cloth,  as  well  as  for  one  of  arms.  Rocroy  is  only  distin- 
guished for  the  signal  victory  of  1643,  which  first  established  the  superiority  of  the 
French  arms.  In  Burgundy,  Dijon  {fig.  294.),  with  its  numerous  and  lofty  spires,  presents 
a  noble  appearance  to  the  approaching  traveller ;  but  it  has  lost  much  of  its  ancient  impor- 


Auiun    Cathedral. 


Dijon. 

tance.  Its  churches,  now  too  numerous  for  the  place  in  its  reduced  state,  were  dreadfully 
defaced  and  mutilated  during  the  Revolution:  one  has  been  converted  into  a  market  for  fish, 
another  into  one  for  com.  The  streets,  however,  are  wide  and  clean.  Dijon  has  a  distin- 
guished university,  and  can  boast  of  giving  birth  to  Bossuet,  Butfon,  and  Crebillon.  Autun 
attracts  notice  by  a  temple  and  other  remains,  wliich  indicate  its  importance  as  a  Roman 
city,  also  by  a  fine  modern  cathedral  (Jig.  295.)  Auxerre  still  flourishes  by  the  excellent 
295        +  wine  produced  in  its  neighbourhood,  and  is  adorn- 

ed with  a  catliedral  and  several  lofty  spires. 
Chalons  sur  Saone  is  a  good  country  town.  Sens, 
the  see  of  an  archbishop,  and  formerly  the  seat 
of  several  councils,  presents  still  some  noble 
monuments  in  decay.  Moulins,  capital  of  the 
rich  plain  of  the  Bourbonnais,  though  not  hand- 
some, is  busy  and  cheerful,  having  a  considerable 
traffic  upon  tht^  Seine.  Nevers,  in  Nivemais,  is 
finely  situated  on  the  Loire,  but  is  an  ill-built  and 
dirty  town. 

The  provinces  of  Lorraine,  Franche-comte,  and  Alsace  are  less  an  integral  part  of  France 
than  a  series  of  appendages  obtained  by  conquest  chiefiy  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
They  remain  still  in  many  points  connected  with  Germany.  They  are  watered  by  the 
Meuse  and  the  Moselle,  tributaries  of  the  Rhine ;  they  are  traversed  by  the  chain  of  the 
Vosges,  connected  with  the  Swiss  Alps  and  the  Black  Forest ;  their  surface  is  rude  and 
irregular ;  their  wines  have  the  same  agreeable  acid  quality  as  the  Rhenish.  Even  yet 
Alsace,  both  as  to  language  and  manners,  is  altogether  German. 

The  cities  are, — Nancy,  capital  of  the  dukes  of  Lorraine,  a  race  of  gallant  and  accom- 
plished princes.  It  is  said  to  be  the  most  elegant  city  in  France,  especially  the  new  town, 
built  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  gates  appear  almost  like  triumphal  arches;  the  public 
buildings  are  numerous ;  the  place  royale  and  the  adjoining  area  are  superb.  The  place  is 
lighted  in  the  English  manner.  Rletz  is  a  larger  town,  and  now  more  important,  being  one 
of  the  strongest  of  the  French  fortresses.  It  is  nearly  enclosed  by  the  Moselle  and  the 
Seille,  and  entered  by  successive  drawbridges.  The  usual  complement  of  its  garrison  is 
10,000  men.  INIetz  is  celebrated  for  its  long  and  triumphant  defence  under  the  Duke  of 
Guise  against  the  army  of  Charles  V.  It  is  still  a  flourishing  town,  with  numerous  manu- 
factures, and  contains  a  library  of  60,000  volumes.  Luneville  was  for  some  time  the  resi- 
dence of  Stanislaus,  the  e.x-king  of  Poland,  who  considerably  embellished  it;  and  it  was  the 
scene  of  Bonaparte's  first  triumphant  treaty  in  1801.  It  is  now  rather  a  poor  place,  having 
few  manufactures.  Another  strong  fortress  is  Verdun,  a  name  flimiliar  to  English  ears,  as  the 
Bcene  of  the  detention  of  their  countrymen  in  1803.  It  is  well  situated  on  the  Meuse.  Salins 
flourishes  by  means  of  the  salt  extracted  from  the  brine-springs,  which  are  found  also  in 
other  parts  of  this  territory.  Besaiicon,  in  Franche-comte,  was  a  city  of  the  German  empire 
till  the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  when  it  was  ceded  to  the  Spaniards,  from  whom  it  was  wrested 
by  Louis  XIV.  It  is  a  large  and  industrious  place,  particularly  distinguished  by  a  manufac- 
ture of  clocks  and  watches,  introduced  towards  tlie  end  of  tlie  last  century,  and  employing 
about  1800  persons.  It  has  also  valuable  scientific  and  literary  establishments.  Dole  is 
likewise  a  very  ancient  town,  once  the  capital  of  Franche-comte.   Vesoul  and  Lons  le  Saul- 


558 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  IIL 


296 


nier  are  pretty  good  towns,  and  capitals  of  departments.  In  approaching  Switzerland,  the 
country  becomes  elevated,  and  the  towns  occupy  picturesque  sites.  Ornans  lies  in  a  deep 
dell,  skirted  by  green  rocky  hills,  like  Matlock.  Pontarlier  stands  on  a  height  having  a  strong 
castle  which  guards  the  passage  into  Switzerland.     Nantua  is  placed  in  a  nook  between  two 

enormous  mountains.  On  crossing  the  Vosges  appears 
the  rich  and  fruitful  plain  of  Alsace,  more  highly  cul- 
tivated than  any  otlier  part  of  the  kingdom  except 
French  Flanders.  Here  Colmar,  Haguenau,  Saverne, 
Weisemberg,  are  agreeably  situated  and  rather  Uiriving 
towns.  But  by  far  the  most  important  place  in  this 
part  of  France  is  Strasburg  {fig.  •ZVjii.).  It  was  early 
celebrated  as  an  imperial  city,  enjoying  extensive 
privileges,  and  enriched  by  tlie  navigation  of  the 
Rhine.  Its  prosperity  was  still  fartlier  promoted  in 
consequence  of  the  zeal  with  whicli,  along  with  the 
rest  of  Alsace,  it  embraced  the  reformed  doctrines. 
Strasburg  and  Alsace  suffered  a  severe  misfortune,  by 
being,  in  1G89,  subjected  to  France  by  Louis  XIV. 
Yet  the  city  retained  privileges  beyond  any  other  in 
France,  and  continued  to  be  distinguished  both  by 
wealth  and  intelligence.  Its  schools  were  considered 
second  only  to  those  of  Paris,  till  the  Revolution,  when 
siriisiiurg.  t,hey  were  severely  injured,  and  have  not  yet  been  fully 

restored.  Strasburg,  however,  has  still  valuable  institutions,  both  literary  and  economical, 
and  is  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  flourishing  cities  of  France.  Its  ancient  importance  is 
attested  by  its  cathedral  or  minster,  one  of  the  most  splendid  existing  monuments  of  the 
Gothic.  Its  tower,  470  feet  high,  is  said  to  be  the  most  elevated  structure  in  the  world,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Great  Pyramid  of  Egypt. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


SPAIN. 


Spain  forms  the  principal  pan  of  a  very  extensive  peninsula;  the  most  southern,  and  also 
the  most  western,  portion  of  Europe.  It  is  only  connected  by  an  isthmus  about  a  hundred 
Tiiles  broad,  traversed  by  the  Pyrenees,  a  chain  holding  the  second  rank  among  the  moun- 
tains of  Europe.     Spain  is  thus  almost  insulated  from  the  rest  of  the  continent. 

Sect.  I. — General  Outline  and  Aspect. 

The  boundaries  of  the  Peninsula  in  general  are,  on  the  north,  the  Bay  of  Biscay ,  on  the 
west,  the  Atlantic;  but  this  coast  tor  more  than  half  its  extent  is  occupied  by  Portugal, 
whose  interior  frontier  forms  to  that  extent  the  western  boundary  of  Spain.  The  most  south- 
ern point  near  Gibraltar  is  only  separated  by  a  narrow  strait  from  the  opposite  shore  of  Africa. 
Eastward  from  this  strait  is  the  Mediterranean,  along  which  the  coast  winds  in  a  north- 
easterly direction,  gradually  receding  from  Africa,  and  facing  at  a  great  interval  the  M'estern 
coast  of  Italy.  From  its  termination,  the  Pyrenees  stretch  across  to  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and 
form  the  lofly  limit  between  Spain  and  France. 

The  extent  of  Spain,  north  and  south,  is,  from  Tarifa  Point  in  the  straits,  in  36°  N.  lati- 
tude, to  Cape  Ortegal  in  Galicia,  43°  46';  about  540  English  miles.  From  east  to  west,  the 
extreme  points  of  the  peninsula  are  Cape  Creus,  in  Catalonia,  3°  17'  E.  longitude,  and  Cape 
La  Roca,  9°  30'  W.  longitude ;  implying  twelve  and  three  quarters  degrees,  which,  in  thi3 
latitude,  amounts  to  about  560  miles.  Thus  the  Peninsula  forms  almost  a  square;  allowance 
being  made  for  the  irregub.rity  of  its  outline;  and,  the  entire  extent  of  Portugal  being  taken 
off,  Spain  is  reckoned  to  contain  183,600  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  Spain  is  strikingly  irregular.  It  is  traversed  by  long  and  lofly  ranges  of 
mountains,  having  plains  of  vast  extent  between  them  and  the  sea.  These  mountains  may 
be  considered  as  part  of  the  great  range  which  crosses  Europe  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the 
Atlantic.  The  Pyrenees  common  to  France  and  Spain,  form  a  long  continuous  line  of  lofty 
summits,  the  most  central  and  elevated,*  of  which  is  Mont  Perdu  near  the  source  of  the 
Cinca,  which  the  accurate  measurements  have  fixed  at  upwards  of  11,160  feet.  Towards 
the  sea,  on  both  sides,  the  mountains  sink  into  a  more  moderate  elevation,  and  the  barrier 
between  the  two  kingdoms  is  less  formidable.     This  great  chain  shoots  lower  branches  into 


*  [The  bisliest  point  of  the  Pyrenees  is  now  known  to  be  La  Maladetta,  11.424  feet  in  height.  The  highest  peak 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  called  the  Cerro  de  Mulhacen,  is  still  more  elevated,  being  11,660  feet  above  the 
sea.— Am.  Ed.] 


Book  I.  SPAIN.  559 

Catalonia  and  Navarre,  presenting  also  some  striking  insulated  peaks,  amonrr  which  that  of 
Montserral  is  the  most  conspicuous.  From  the  western  extremity  of  the  Pyrenees,  a  <rreat 
chaui,  which  has  been  called  the  Iberian,  reaches  almost  due  south,  forming  the  boundary 
of  the  fine  plains  of  Aragon  and  Valencia.  All  the  other  rang-es  run  Irom  easr  to  west.  The 
Cantabrian  is  nearly  a  continuation  of  the  Pyrenees :  it  stretches  across  the  wliole  north  of 
Spain,  covering  the  provinces  of  Asturias  and  Galicia,  and  leaving  only  a  narrow  and  ruf^o-ed 
plain  along  the  sea-coast.  Parallel  to  this,  on  the  opposite  side  ofa  vast  i)lain  through  which 
the  Duero  flows,  is  another  transverse  range,  bearing  in  its  higliest  points  the  names  of 
Guadarrama  and  Somosierra,  and  enclosing  with  its  rugored  and  romantic  cliffs  the  elevated 
palaces  of  San  Ildefonso  and  the  Escurial.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  Tagus  and  of  the 
plain  of  Madrid  is  another  parallel  chain,  the  Sierra  of  Toledo.  It  borders  the^wide  elevated 
plain  of  La  Mancha;  on  the  southern  boundary  of  which  is  the  more  celebrated  chain  of 
Sierra  Morena,  the  lofty  barrier  of  the  rich  plains  of  Andalusia.  Beyond  these  rises  another 
longitudinal  chain,  of  a  peculiarly  bold  and  lofty  character,  called  the  Sierra  Nevada,  from 
the  snow  which  perpetually  covers  many  of  its  summits ;  between  which  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean only  a  narrow  though  beautiful  plain  intervenes.  These  long  and  lofty  rano-es,  as 
observed  already,  are  separated  by  very  extended  plains,  which,  in  the  interior,  are  of  great 
elevation,  and  even  Madrid  is  2170  feet  above  the  sea :  the  plains  along  the  Mediterranean, 
and  almost  on  a  level  with  it,  display  a  profuse  fertility,  and  abound  in  all  the  choicest  fruits 
of  a  southern  climate. 

The  rivers  of  Spain  form  as  important  and  celebrated  a  feature  as  its  mountains.  The 
Tagus  and  the  Duero,  rising  in  the  Iberian  chain,  on  the  frontiers  of  Aragon,  roll  along  the 
two  grand  central  plains,  receiving  numerous  thougli  not  very  large  tributaries  from"  the 
mountains  by  which  they  are  bordered.  Unfortunately  for  Spain,  they  terminate  in  the 
somewhat  hostile  realm  of  Portugal,  and  are  scarcely  navigable  above  its  frontier ;  so  that 
the  commercial  benefits  arising  from  them  are  of  little  importance.  Tiie  Guadiana  belongs 
to  La  Mancha,  and  on  its  approach  to  Portugal  forms  the  boundary  of  the  two  kingdoms ; 
but  the  high  tract  through  which  it  flows  is  only  distinguished  for  its  rich  pastures,  and  does 
not  render  its  port  of  Ayamonte  a  place  of  any  importance.  Beyond  the  Sierra  Morena,  the 
Guadalquivir  waters  the  plain  of  Andalusia,  and  has  on  its  banks  the  noble  cities  of  Cordova 
and  Seville;  while  Cadiz,  not  far  from  its  mouth,  forms  the  chief  emporium  of  Spain. 
Though  its  navigation  is  now  much  impeded,  and  practicable  for  large  vessels  only  to  Seville, 
it  is  the  only  river  in  Spain  of  much  commercial  importance.  The  Ebro,  which  derives 
from  its  position  a  greater  historical  celebrity  than  any  other,  rising  in  the  Cantabrian  moun- 
tains, nearly  crosses  the  breadth  of  north-eastern  Spain,  and  separates  Catalonia  and  Ara- 
gon from  the  extensive  regions  of  the  interior.  Its  banks  at  present  aflbrd  few  materials  for 
trade,  except  a  large  quantity  of  timber.  The  Guadalaviar  and  Xucar  in  Valencia,  and  the 
Miiio  in  Galicia,  are  also  rivers  of  some  magnitude. 

The  mountains  of  Spain  enclose  no  lakes,  their  waters  finding  a  ready  issue  along  the 
vast  plains  on  which  they  border. 

Sect.  II. — Natural  Geography. 
SuBSECT.  1. — Geology. 

The  principal  mountain  chains  in  Spain  diflx^r  not  only  in  their  external  aspect,  but  also 
in  their  internal  composition:  they  appear  more  as  different  individuals  than  as  members  of 
a  single  system.  They  have  this  in  common  with  one  another,  that  their  nucleus  consists, 
in  whole  or  in  part,  of  primitive  and  transition  rocks ;  but  not  only  the  species,  but  also  the 
relations  of  these,  vary  in  the  different  chains.  A  great  body  of  granite,  which  seldom 
reaches  the  highest  points  of  the  country,  and  contains  subordinate  beds  of  gneiss  and  other 
primitive  rocks,  ranges  through  the  Pyrenees  properly  so  called.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  pre- 
dominating mass  of  crystalline  slate  and  of  transition  rocks,  among  which  the  most  abundant 
are  clay  slate  and  limestone.  On  the  contrary,  on  the  v/estern  continuation,  in  the  Biscayan 
mountains,,  the  older  rocks  are  not  widely  distributed,  and  appear  first  in  Galicia,  at  the 
western  extremity  of  the  northern  mountain  chain,  where,  according  to  Humboldt,  granite, 
accompanied  by  crystalline  slates,  appears  again,  and  in  great  e.xtent.  The  principal  mass 
of  the  mountain  chain  which  separates  Old  from  New  Castile  is  composed  of  gneiss  and 
granite.  In  the  chain  of  mountains  extending  between  tlie  Tagus  and  the  Guadiana,  accord- 
ing to  Link,  the  principal  rock  is  granite.  The  long  ridge  of  the  Sierra  Morena  contains 
principally  transition  rocks ;  granite  breaks  out  on  its  southern  foot  towards  the  Guadalquivir. 
This  rock,  so  frequent  in  the  Iberian  peninsula,  appears  to  be  wanting  in  the  highest  southern 
chain.  The  middle  mountain  ridges  consist  of  mica  slate,  abounding  in  garnets,  which,  in 
the  ridges  lying  before  them,  passes  into  less  crystalline  mica  slate,  chlorite  slate,  and  clay 
slate,  which  sometimes  enclose  beds,  at  times  of  vast  magnitude,  of  compact  limestone, 
marble,  dolomite,  and  serpentine.  On  the  south  coast,  newer  transition  slate  and  greywacke 
slate,  witli  beds  of  flinty  slate,  lie  here  and  there  on  the  older  slate.  The  basis  or  funda- 
mental part  of  the  rock  of  Gibraltar  is  of  these  rocks. 


560 


MAP  OF  SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL. 


Pig.  297 


Book  I. 


SPAIN 


561 


The  structure  of  the  chains  of  mountains  corresponds  in  general  with  their  chief  direction. 
Not  only  the  alternation  of  the  different  rocks,  but  also  the  direction  of  the  strata,  are  con- 
formable with  the  direction  of  the  chains :  hence,  in  the  greater  part  of  Spain,  the  principal 
direction  of  the  slaty  rocks  is  from  S.W.  to  N.E.,  or  W.S.W.  to  E.N.E.  But  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  strata  varies.  In  the  Pyrenees,  properly  so  called,  the  dip  of  the  strata  is  con- 
formable with  the  two  acclivities  of  the  range.  In  the  Somosierra  and  Guadarrama  ranges, 
the  principal  mass  of  gneiss  dips  S.E.  towards  the  granite  lying  before  it.  In  the  Sierra 
Morena,  the  predominating  dip  of  the  slaty  strata  is  towards  the  N.W.,  so  that  they  appear 
to  rest  on  the  granite  which  breaks  from  under  them.  In  the  Sierra  Nevada,  the  dip  of  the 
strata  is  conformable  with  the  two  acclivities  of  the  cliain.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  how  the 
curvature  of  the  south  coast  of  Spain  obeys  the.direction  of  the  strata,  and  how  the  formation 
of  the  far-projecting  southern  point  of  the  land  also  stands  in  connection  with  the  direction 
of  the  strata.  At  the  foot  of  the  rock  of  Gibraltar,  the  slaty  strata  run  nearly  north  and 
south  with  a  rapid  dip  towards  the  east.  The  Gut  of  Gibraltar  is  therefore  nearly  at  right 
angles  to  the  direction  of  the  strata.  The  rocky  wall  between  the  Mediterranean  and 
Atlantic  Seas,  by  this  direction  of  the  strata,  must  have  opposed  the  strongest  resistance  to 
the  currents.  The  primitive  and  transition  rocks,  in  very  different  places,  are  rich  in  ores. 
The  present  mines  are  confined  principally  to  the  south-west  and  south-east  parts  of  Spain. 
The  mighty  lead-glance  veins  of  Linares  occur  in  granite ;  the  colossal  deposit  of  lead- 
glance  in  the  Sierra  de  Gador,  which  afforded,  in  the  year  1828,  600,000  cwt.  of  lead,  is 
distributed  in  masses  (putzen),  in  a  limestone  which  may  be  referred  to  the  oldest  transition 
rocks,  and  the  rich  mercury  mines  of  Almaden  are  contained  in  clay  slate.  The  secondary 
rocks  also  assist  in  forming  the  principal  Spanish  mountain  chains,  but  in  a  different  manner. 
They  ascend  to  a  great  height  on  the  Spanish  side  of  the  Pyrenees ;  even  some  of  the 
higliest  summits  are  of  secondary  rocks.  The  western  continuation  of  the  Pyrenean  chain 
consists,  in  the  Biscayan  provinces,  principally  of  secondary  rocks ;  and  it  is  probable  that 
tlie  lofty  limestone  mountain  ridges  which  separate  Asturias  from  Leon  are  a  continuatiao 
of  the  Biscayan  secondary  formation.     On  both  sides  of  Somosierra  t-he  primitive  rocks  are 


NORTH  PART. 

Gdltcia. 

1.  Camarillas 

2.  Coruiina 

3.  Beianzos 

4.  Ferrol 

5.  Mera 

6.  Tjiigo 

7.  La  Gesta 

8.  ?iin;iago 

9.  Vigo 

10.  Tiiy 

11.  RIbartavia 

12.  Aliahiiles 

13.  Orense 

14.  La  Rua. 

15.  lliano 
ir.  Oviedo 

17.  Gijon 

18.  Rivadacella 

19.  Lanes. 

I. ton . 
520.  Agiiilar  de  Cam- 
pos 

21.  Ilerrera 

22.  Saldana 
2.x  .Mmanza 

24.  Loon 

25.  Astoria 
2fi.  .*>an  .Iiisto 

27.  La  Miv.quita 

28.  Corvijal 
2il.  Miyorsa 

30.  Ar)usco 

31.  Pulenria 

.■^■2.  Villaciinancia 

33.  Vallailolid 

34.  Tordesillas 
3.5.  Toro 

36.  Z.imora 

37.  Fuentelsauca 

38.  Saliiinanca 
3i).  Malilla 

40.  Ciudad  Rodrigo 

41.  Cespedosa 
4"2.  Penaranda 

43.  Medina  del 

Campo. 
Old  Castile. 

44.  Arevalo 
4.'i.  Bonilla 

46.  Fspinar 

47.  Sosovia 

48.  Pednza 

49.  Cueila 
.50.  l^ernia 
51.  FrfFnillo 
,V2.  Barrona 
53.  Almazan 
54  Soria 
55.  Arnedo 


References  to  the  Map  of  Spain  and  Portugal. 


5fi.  Logrono 

57.  Naiera 

58.  Frias 

59.  Biicviesca 

60.  Bursros 

61.  Piilenzuela 
61*  Allea 

62.  Var^aa 
6't.  S:\niander 
64.  Oidiina. 

Biscay. 
6.5.  Bilboa 

66.  Deba 

67.  Tolnga 

68.  S'.  Sebastian 

69.  Vitloria. 

J^Tavarre. 

70.  Panipeluna 
71.Tudela. 

.Sragon. 

72.  Verdun 

73.  Jaca 

74.  Ainsa 
7.5.  Huosca 

76.  Saragossa 

77.  Garincna 

78.  Calatayud 

79.  Luco 

80.  Montalban 
81.TMruel 

82.  Sarrion 

83.  Ixar 

84.  Pina 

Catalonia. 
8.5.  Lerida 

86.  Balaguer 

87.  Orj^agna 

85.  Urnel 

89.  Figunraa 

90.  Cardona 

91.  Gerona 

92.  Barcelona 

93.  Tarragona 

94.  Cervera 

95.  Espital 

96.  Fiix 

97.  Tortosa 

SOUTH  PART. 
Kstremadura. 

1.  La  Cliva 

2.  Placentia 

3.  Galistea 

4.  Coria 

5.  .Alcantara 
C.  Caceres 

7.  F.I  Tersorero 

8.  BMdajos 

9.  niiva 

10.  Xercr 

11.  Llerena 

12.  Majacella 


13.  Merida 

14.  Acadera 
1,5.  Trn.\illo 
16.  Almaraz. 


Im  Manclia. 

67.  S.  Lorenza 

68.  Almagrn 

69.  Ciudad  Real 

70.  Madridejos 

71.  Malagon 

72.  Lehornia 


JVcKi  Castile. 

17.  Gaudalupe 

18.  Azutan 

19.  Oriipesa 

20.  Talavcradela 

Reyna 

21.  Toledo 

22.  Cavocra 

23.  F,l  Prado 

24.  Mostoles 

25.  Madrid 

26.  El  Escurial 

27.  El  Pardo 

28.  Guadala-Tara 

30.  La  Mota  de  Bel-    35  Cordova 

niont  gfi;  Ossuna 

31.  Secadon  p7.  Carmona 
Jz.  Canavara  fjg  Edja 
33.  V.'Lltablado  del  89!  Aracena 


.Andalusia. 

73.  Hemacar 

74.  Andujar 

75.  Linares 

76.  Baeza 

77.  Huescar 

78.  Ablox 

79.  Oullar 

80.  .Todar 

81.  Monasterio 

82.  Jaen 

83.  Montilla 
84-  Bujalance 


Rio 

34.  Hinoiosa 

35.  Frias 

36.  Cuenca 

37.  La  Parra 
.38.  Ynirsla 

39.  Requena 

Valencia. 

40.  Tuejar 

41.  Ademiiz 

42.  Forcnii 

43.  Morolla 

44.  Zurita 

45.  Prni.scnla 

46.  Ft  de  Sal 

47.  Orope?a 

48.  Almedixar 

49.  Morviedro 

50.  Valencia 

51.  Alcira 

52.  Fi  line 
53  Denia 

54.  Xizana 

55.  Alicante 

Murcia. 

56.  Rafat 

.57.  Cnrthaecna 
58.  Alinazarron 
.59.  Totana 
fiO.  ftliircia 

61.  Cf-h.-gin 

62.  lltllin 

63.  Velannera 

64.  Chinchilla 
6.5.  Ayna 

06.  C'hiclana 


^•0.  Axiarcollar 

91.  Almendro 

92.  Ayamonte 

93.  Huelva 

94.  Seville 

95.  S.Lucar 

96.  Rota 

97.  Cadiz 
flS.  Xf-rez 
99.  Tarifa 

100.  Gibraltar. 

Granada. 

101.  Giiocin 

102.  Marbella 

103.  Ronda 

104.  Antiquera 
10.5.  Malasa 

106.  V.lez  Malaga 

107.  La  Herradura 
lO.*^.  Motril 

109.  Granada 

110.  Aera 

111.  Almeria 

112.  Purchena 

113.  Mujacar. 

PORTUGAL. 

1.  Entrc  Vouro  e 

.Minho. 

1.  Viana 

2.  Braga 

3.  Amaranta 

4.  Oporto. 

H.  Tra.<:  03  Monica. 

5.  Cazabranca 
0.  Braganza 

7.  Miranda  de  Vita 


8.  Aldea 

9.  Mirandella. 

HI.  Bcira. 

10.  Almeida 

11.  Lamego 

12.  Alearcal 

13.  Villanova 

14.  Feira 
1.5.  Aveiro 

16.  Coimbra 

17.  Viseu 

18.  Trancoso 

19.  Guarda 

20.  Salvatieni 

21.  Castello  Branco 

22.  Sardoal 

23.  Abrantes. 

IV.  F.strcmadura. 

24.  Arega 

25.  Porta 

26.  Iiciria 

27.  Saniarem 

28.  Ohidos 

29.  Villafranca 

30.  Benevenle 

31.  Cintra 
;^2.  Lisbon 
.33.  Almada 

34.  Seiubal  or  St. 

Ubes 

35.  Alcacerdo. 

V.  .Ilemtejo. 

36.  Portalegro 
:r7.  Elvas 

38.  Olivencat 

39.  Povoa 

40.  Sorpa 

41.  Beja 

42.  Oiirique 

43.  Melides 

44.  S.  Andre 

45.  Villa  Nova 

46.  Serdao. 

VL  Algarve. 

47.  Seyja 

48.  Laffos 

49.  AHjofeira 

50.  Castro  Marino. 
Rivers  of  Spain. 
a  Tambre 

b  TTlla 
c  Minho 
d  Pil 
e  Navia 
f  Nalon 
e  Besaya 
h  Ebro 
i    Durango 
i    Araeon 
K  Gallego 
1    Cinca 


Vol.  I. 


f  Otivensa  is  withiu  the  Siiaoisb  limiti. 


m  Ribagorzano 
n  Segre 
o  Muga 
p  Ter 

q  LInbregat 
r   Francoli 
B  Martin 
t   Xiloca 
u  Dmiro 
V  Arlanza 
w  Arlaazon 
X  PIsuerga 
y  Carrion 
z  Esia 
a*  Orviego 
b*  Tormei 
c*  Coa 
d*  Zczere 
e*  Tagus 
f*   Alberche 
g*  Fresma 
h*  Hinaros 
i*   Tietar 
j*   Guadiana 
k*  Odiel 
1*    Tinto 
ni*  Guadalquivir 
n*  J  and  u  la 
o*  Guadaliraar 
p*  (luadix 
q*  Giguela 
r*  Xucar 
B*   Cobriel 
t*   Guadalaviar 
u*  Segura 
V*  Lorca 
w*  Guadajoz 
X*  Genii 
y*  Guadiaro. 
Rii'crs  of  Portugal 
a  Luna 
b  Tamaga 
c  Saliar 
d  Vouga 
e  Mnndego 
e*  Tagus 
f  Coa 
E  Zezore 
n  Loura 
i    Saldo 
j    Guadiana. 
BALEARIC 
ISLANDS. 
Ivica. 

1.  Ivica 

Majorca. 

2.  Palma 

3.  Sollor 

4.  St.  Lorenzo. 

.Minorca, 

5.  Mahon 

6.  Ciudadela. 

3V 


562  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  HI. 

skirted  by  tliose  of  tlie  secondary  class ;  but  they  are  far  from  the  middle  and  higher  parts 
of  the  mounUin  clmin.  When  we  follow  the  road  from  Madrid  to  Andalusia,  we  meet  with 
secondary  rocks  near  the  transition  clay  slate  of  the  passes  of  the  Sierra  Morena ;  but  we 
must  descend  very  low  on  the  south  side  before  we  meet  with  similar  rocks.  The  high 
mountains  of  Jacii  are  formed  of  secondary  rocks.  In  the  northern  vorgebirge  of  the  Siei-ra 
Nevada,  between  Granada  and  Guadiz,  there  are  secondary  deposits,  which  are  not,  how- 
ever, so  considerable  and  extensive  as  to  reach  to  the  high  ridges.  Also  in  the  vicinity  of 
Malaga  new  secondary  rocks  lie  on  the  foot  of  older  mountain  masses ;  and  the  ridges  of 
secondary  rocks  extend  from  the  hills  of  Ronda  towards  the  southern  extremity  of  Spain. 
The  wonderful  isolated  rock  of  Gibraltar  is  also  principally  composed  of  new  secondary  rock. 
The  distribution  of  the  rock  is  not  confined  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  higher  moun- 
tain cliains,  but  it  extends  from  the  one  to  tlie  other,  rises  or  falls  in  the  intermediate  spaces, 
and  forms  in  this  way  the  widely  extended  high  table-land. 

The  most  important  of  the  Spanish  secondary  rocks  are  the  following ;  viz.,  variegated 
sandstone  and  marl,  gryphite  limestone,  and  tlie  white  limestone  or  Jura  limestone.  The- 
first  of  these  exhibits  the  same  relations  as  in  Britain,  where  it  is  known  under  the  name  of 
new  red  sandstone  and  red  marl.  The  shell  limestone,  which,  in  Germany,  is  enclosed 
betvyeen  Werner's  variegated  sandstone  and  the  younger  marl  formations,  is  wanting  in 
Spain,  as  is  also  the  case  in  England.  The  sandstone  and  marl  is  rich  in  gypsum  and  masses 
of  rock  salt.  At  Vallecas,  near  Madrid,  and  in  some  other  places,  there  rests  upon  it,  in 
single  beds,  that  rare  deposit  consisting  of  meerschaum,  with  nests  of  siliceous  minerals.  It 
is  to  this  formation,  which  occurs  widely  spread  over  the  high  table-lands  of  Old  and  New 
Castile,  that  these  countries  owe  the  reddish-brown  colour  of  their  soil,  and  the  tiresome 
uniformity  of  their  surface.  The  lias  formation  is  widely  distributed  in  the  northern  pro- 
vinces of  Spain.  It  appears  to  reach  a  considerable  height  on  the  Spanish  side  of  the  Pyrenees. 
In  the  Biscayan  provinces  it  exhibits  the  same  characters  as  the  gryphite  limestone  of  the 
Weser,  and  is  so  widely  distributed  that  nearly  all  the  older  rocks  are  covered  by  it.  Here 
it  is  remarkably  prolific  in  an  excellent  iron  ore.  The  immense  mass  of  sparry  iron  ore,  con- 
verted by  decomposition  into  brown  and  red  iron  ores  of  Sommorostro,  near  Bilboa,  and  which 
probably  forms  the  ironstone  hills  mentioned  by  Pliny  in  tiie  34th  book  of  his  Natural  His- 
tory, belongs  to  this  formation.  Probably  also  the  vast  beds  of  coal  in  the  Asturias  are  sub- 
ordinate to  it.  The  white  Jura  limestone,  which  is  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  for- 
mations, is  also  of  great  geognostical  importance  in  Spain.  It  forms,  in  most  places,  the 
immediate  cover  of  the  variegated  sandstone  and  marl,  and  occurs  in  the  north,  and  also  in 
the  south  of  Spain,  in  single  ridges  and  great  mountain  masses.  This  formation  is  exhibited 
in  its  most  characteristic  forms  in  the  narrow  pass  of  Pancorbo  in  Old  Castile,  in  the  lacerated 
mountains  of  Jaen,  and  the  isolated  rocky  wall  of  Gibraltar.  Wherever  it  occurs,  its  presence 
is  announced  by  the  yellowish-brown  colour  of  the  soil  with  which  it  is  covered. 

Some  members  also  of  the  chalk  formation  occur  in  Spain.  The  sandstone  of  the  rocky 
ridge  of  the  southern  coast,  between  Cadiz  and  Gibraltar,  and  the  limestone  in  the  district 
of  Los  Barios,  bring  to  our  recollection  the  rocks  of  the  Saxon  Switzerland.  The  first 
agrees  with  the  German  quader-sandstein,  the  latter  with  the  Saxon  planer  limestone,  an 
equivalent  for  impure  chalk. 

Tertiary  deposits  occur  in  diflferent  parts  of  Spain.  In  the  south,  particularly  near  the 
sea-coast,  there  is  a  deposit,  filled  with  marine  organic  remains,  in  which  calcareous  sand 
and  pebbles  occur,  partly  in  a  loose  mass,  and  partly  more  or  less  firmly  compacted  by  means 
of  calcareous  cement.  Judging  from  the  included  petrifactions,  among  which  are  beds  of 
oyster-shells,  this  deposit,  on  which  Cadiz  stands,  and  whicli,  in  some  places,  rises  into  hil- 
locks and  low  hills,  belongs  to  the  upper  tertiary  sea-water  formation.  Probably  the  ter- 
tiary deposit  mentioned  by  Brongniart  as  occurring  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Barcelona 
belongs  to  the  same  deposit.  That  fresh-water  limestone  occurs  in  Spain  has  been  sufficiently 
proved  by  the  observations  of  Baron  Ferussac.  The  deposit  very  much  resembles  that  so 
generally  distributed  in  Germany,  and  is  found  in  different  parts  of  Spain,  both  in  the  inte- 
rior and  on  the  coast,  and  at  different  heiglits.  The  calcareous  breccia,  generally  with  a 
ferruginous  basis,  which  occurs  principally  in  the  south-west,  where  it  is  widely  distributed, 
belongs  to  the  latest  of  the  antediluvian  deposits.  It  not  only  incrusts  limestone  rocks  of 
different  formations  more  or  less  thickly,  but  also  fills  up  rents  and  fissures  in  them:  thus  it 
abounds  among  the  calcareous  rocks  of  Gibraltar,  where  it  sometimes  contains  bones  of  quad- 
rupeds no  longer  met  with  there.  The  formation  of  the  breccia  is  ascribed  to  a  catastrophe 
which  affected  different  parts  of  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  sea.  As  Professor  Haus- 
mann,  to  whom  we  owe  the  preceding  details,  had  not  an  opportunity  of  travelling  in  Mur- 
cia,  he  was  not  able  to  confirm  or  reject  the  accounts  of  Spanish  geologists,  who  maintain 
that  it  contains  true  volcanic  rocks.  The  occurrence  of  other  rocks,  which  are  conjectured 
to  have  come  from  below,  has  been  noticed  in  but  few  places.  Characteristic  basalt  occurs 
in  Catalonia.  The  porphyritic  and  basaltic-looking  rocks  extending  from  Cabo  de  Gata,  and 
from  Avila,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Guadarrama  range,  are  still  problematical.  Hypersthene 
rock  has  been  found  by  Professor  Garcia  in  the  vicinity  of  Salinas  de  Poza,  in  Old  Castile, 


Book  I.  SPAIN.  563 

in  contact  witli  Jura  limestone.  Professor  Hausmann  found,  in  the  mountains  of  Jaen,  near 
to  variegated  marl  containing  masses  of  gypsum,  rocks  of  greenstone.  Col.  Silvertop 
describes  tertiary  deposits  in  Granada. 

It  may  not  be  improper,  from  Professor  Hausmann,  to  point  out  the  influence  of  soil  and 
climate  on  the  other  departments  of  nature,  as  also  on  the  peculiarities  and  occupations  of 
man.  A  glance  at  the  whole  nature  of  Spain  discovers  a  threefold  principal  difference. 
The  northern  zone,  which  extends  to  the  Ebro,  differs  entirely  in  its  characters  from  the 
middle  zone ;  and  this  again  is  completely  different  from  the  southern  zone,  which  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Sierra  Morena,  and  a  part  of  the  Ostrandes.  The  northern  zone,  which 
includes  Galicia,  Asturias,  the  Biscayan  provinces,  Navarre,  the  northern  part  of  Aragon, 
and  Catalonia,  is  a  widely  extended  mountainous  and  hilly  country.  The  snow-fields  and 
glaciers  of  the  Pyrenees  on  the  one  side ;  and  on  the  other  the  north  and  nortii-west  winds, 
have  a  marked  influence  in  lowering  tlie  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  and  in  increasing 
the  supply  of  water.  The  increased  humidity  is  favourable  for  vegetation,  which,  on  the 
whole,  very  much  resembles  that  of  the  south  of  France ;  and  the  variety  of  rocks  contain- 
ing lime,  clay,  and  sand,  and  also  tlieir  frequent  alternations,  operate  beneficially  on  the  soil. 
The  soil  everywhere  invites  to  cultivation,  and  the  Catalonians  and  Biscayans  are  active 
cultivators  of  the  ground.  The  middle  part  of  Spain,  to  which  belongs  Old  and  New  Castile, 
a  part  of  Aragon,  Leon,  and  Estremadura,  is  not  so  favourably  circumstanced.  In  general, 
we  rarely  meet  with  either  beauty  or  variety  of  aspect.  The  extensive  and  loft;y  table-lands, 
destitute  of  trees,  are  dull  and  tiresome ;  their  uniform  and  monotonous  surface,  formed  by 
vast  deposits  of  horizontally  disposed  secondary  strata,  is  swept  across  by  the  wind,  and  burnt 
up  by  the  sun's  rays.  Whichever  way  the  eye  turns,  it  meets  with  scarcely  any  thing  but 
wretchedly  cultivated  cornfields  and  desert  heaths  of  cistus.  Seldom,  in  general,  more  in 
the  southern  than  in  the  northern  districts,  plantations  of  olive-trees  afford  a  meagre  shelter, 
and  vary  the  scenery,  although  in  an  inconsiderable  degree.  Nothing,  certainly,  has  so 
great  an  influence  on  these  properties  of  nature,  with  which  many  of  the  peculiarities  and 
modes  of  life  of  man  harmonise,  than  the  high  situation  of  the  widely  extended  table-lands, 
and  the  uniformity  of  the  rock  which  forms  the  support  of  the  soil.  It  is  owing  principally 
to  the  horizontal  stratification,  and  the  want  of  water,  that  the  great  Spanish  table-lands  are 
so  widely  extended,  and  so  little  intersected  by  deep  valleys.  The  rivers,  in  most  cases, 
carry  but  little  water  in  comparison  with  the  magnitude  of  the  land,  and  the  number  of  con- 
siderable mountain  chains ;  and  it  is  furtlier  surprising  how  insignificant  the  waters  of  most 
of  the  Spanish  mountain  groups  are,  even  when  the  qualities  of  the  rocks  favour  the  forma- 
tion of  springs.  The  causes  of  this  great  deficiency  of  water  are  principally  the  great  dry- 
ness of  the  atmosphere,  the  inconsiderable  cover  of  snow  on  the  mountains,  and  its  short 
continuance ;  the  absence  of  forests,  and  tlie  want  of  great  moors  on  the  heights,  and  the 
comparatively  inconsiderable  breadth  of  the  mountain  ranges.  The  southern  and  south- 
western part  of  Spain,  which  comprehends  Andalusia,  with  Granada  and  Murcia,  is  very 
different  from  that  just  described.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  Sierra  Morena  tlie  whole 
land  has  a  more  southern  and  foreign  aspect,  a  breathing  of  that  African  nature,  wh;ch  an- 
nounces itself  not  only  by  the  world  of  plants,  but  also  by  the  animal  world,  and  man  him- 
self. The  great  difference  of  climate  is  produced  by  the  southern  situation,  the  exposure  of 
the  acclivity  on  the  south  and  south-west  to  the  African  winds,  and  the  strong  reflection  of 
the  solar  rays  from  tlie  lofty,  naked  mountain  walls.  The  mountain  ranges  are  more  closely 
aggregated,  the  valleys  more  deeply  cut :  there  is  no  room  for  very  extensive  table-lands, 
and  tiie  more  limited  ones  that  occur,  as  those  of  Granada,  are  more  amply  supplied  with 
water  than  those  in  the  middle  of  Spain.  Along  with  this  arrangement,  there  is  greater 
difference  among  the  rocks,  and  also  of  their  position.  The  south  of  Spain,  therefore,  pos- 
sesses not  only  a  much  higher  temperature,  one  fit  for  the  orange  and  the  palm,  but  also  a 
more  varied  and  a  more  favourable  soil  for  cultivation.  But  these  relations  would  have  acted 
more  beneficially  if  the  air  had  been  more  humid,  and  moisture  had  been  everywhere  more 
abundant.  The  deficiency  of  moisture  is  the  principal  cause  not  only  of  the  striking  mea- 
greness  of  phenogamous  vegetation,  on  most  of  the  mountain  acclivities,  but  also  of  the 
remarkable  paucity  of  lichens  and  mosses  on  the  mountains  on  the  coast ;  and  in  connection 
with  this  is  the  fact,  that  the  weathering  of  the  rocks,  and  the  reforming  of  the  original  sur- 
face of  the  mountains,  assume  there  a  somewhat  different  course  from  what  is  observed  in 
places  which  are  moister,  and  provided  with  a  more  powerful  vegetation. 

ScBSECT.  2. — Botany. 

"  Oh!  Christ!  it  is  a  goodly  sieht  to  see 
What  Heaven  hath  done  for  this  delicious  land! 
"  What  fruits  of  frasrance  bhish  on  every  tree  ! 

What  ffoodly  prospects  o'er  the  hills  expand! 
(But  man  would  mar  them  with  an  impious  hand). 

"European  Spain,"  says  M.  de  Humboldt,  "situated  in  latitudes  under  which  Palm  trees 
{Phmnix  dactylifera  antl  Chamcerops  humilis)  grow  upon  the  plains,  presents  the  majestic 
spectacle  of  a  chain  of  mountains,  the  tops  of  which  shoot  up  into  the  region  of  everlasting 


564 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


r.^T  111. 


snow.  By  a  levelling  survey  executed  with  the  greatest  care,  it  has  been  ascertained  that 
in  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  Granada,  the  Pico  de  Veleta  rises  about  11,385  English  feet,  and 
the  Mulhacen  11,660  English  feet,  above  the  level  of  the  ocean.  None  of  the  mountains 
of  the  Pyrenees  are  of  so  great  a  height;  for  Mont  Perdu,  the  loftiest  of  the  Spanish  l^yre- 
nees  is  only  11,168  feet,  and  the  highest  of  the  French  Pyrenees  only  1722  fathoms.  The 
peak  of  IMulliacen,  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  Granada,  wants  only  76  fathoms  of  being  as 
high  as  the  Peak  of  Teneriife.  Yet  even  this  summit,  if  situated  in  the  same  latitude  as 
the  town  of  Mexico,  would  not  be  perpetually  covered  with  snow :  for  the  never-melting 
snows  begm  under  the  equator  at  2460  fathoms ;  under  the  twentieth  degree  of  latitude  at 
2350  fathoms ;  under  the  forty-fifth,  at  1300  fathoms ;  and  under  the  sLxty-second,  at  900 
fathoms." 

Thus  circumstanced  in  regard  to  climate,  and  the  elevation  of  its  mountains,  how  greatly 
is  it  to  be  regretted  that  no  country  in  Europe  has  been  so  little  investigated  in  regard  to  its 
botanical  productions !  Enough,  however,  is  known  for  our  purpose,  which  may  be  collected 
from  the  different  travels  in,  and  accounts  of,  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  from  the  Recherches 
sur  la  Distribution  Geographique  des  Vegetaux  Phanerogames  dans  VAncieji  Monde, 
already  alluded  to,  by  M.  de  Mirbel.  This  author  considers  the  whole  of  this  peninsula, 
with  the  exception  of  the  northern  part  of  Spain,  which  forms  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of 
Gascony,  and  which  belongs  to  the  temperate  zone,  as  entering  into  the  transition  zone.  If, 
therefore,  its  vegetation  has  any  affinity  with  that  of  France,  it  is  only  where  its  mountainous 
parts,  especially  the  Pyrenees,  resemble  the  mountains  of  France,  and  its  warm  districts  are 
like  the  extreme  south  of  France.  In  East  Valencia  and  ]\Iurcia,  in  the  south  of  Andalusia 
and  the  Algarves,  in  \Vestern  Alemtejo  and  South  Estremadura,  the  rich  and  varied  vege- 
tation calls  to  mind  the  fertile  plains  of  Syria.  In  Andalusia,  frosts  are  unknown,  and  the 
snow,  if  it  ever  falls,  melts  the  moment  it  touches  the  soil :  so  that  it  is  not  surprising  that, 
in  the  cultivated  parts,  the  Spaniards,  long  famous  for  their  voyages,  should  have  introduced 
many  vegetables  from  remote  parts  of  the  world ;  thus  giving  a  perfectly  tropical  appear- 
ance to  the  country. 

The  Erythrina  Corallodendron,  or  Coral  tree,  with  its  brilliant  scarlet  blossoms,  the 
Schimis  Molle,  with  its  gracefully  pinnated  foliage,  and  the  Phytolacca  dioica,  are  intro- 
duced, with  many  other  plants,  from  South  America.  Even  the  bananas  are  common  to  the 
south  of  the  Guadalquivir;  as  are  also  the  Cayenne  Pepper;  and,  in  gardens,  the  Convolvu- 
lus Batatas,  or  Sweet  Potato.  Everywhere  about  the  rural  habitations  of  the  Spanish  pea- 
santry, the  Date,  the  Orange  {Jig.  298.),  the  Lemon,  the  Olive,  the  Pomegranate,  the  Fig 


298 


The  Orange. 

{fg.  299.),  and  the  ^Mulberry,  flourish  nearly  as  well  as  in  the  native  soil. .  Link  notices  the 
trees  growing  about  Lisbon  ;  "  they  are  chiefly,"  he  says,  "  Olive  and  Orange  trees.  Cypress, 
Judas  trees  T  Elms  and  Poplars  appear  too.  But  of  Oak-s  Beeches,  and  Lime,  there  are 
none,  and  very  few  Willows ;  so  that  one  may  instantly  perceive  how  different  is  tlie  char- 
acter of  a  Lisbon  view  from  that  of  Germany."  The  Orange  is  the  most  striking  of  these : 
for  there  are  many  plantations  in  quinlas,  where  they  form  compact  groves,  and  also  scat- 
tered in  open  spots.  These  trees  require  much  artificial  watering,  and  they  are  propagated 
by  seed,  and  afterwards  by  grafting  upon  those  seedling  trees.  In  December  and  January 
the  fruit  begins  to  turn  yellow ;  and  at  the  end  of  January  and  in  February,  before  they  are 
ripe  and  sweet,  they  are  gathered  for  exportation.  Towards  the  end  of  March  and  April, 
the  oranges  are  very  good,  but  they  are  not  in  perfection  till  early  in  ]\lay.  In  July  and 
August,  they  are  scarce,  and  over-ripe.  At  the  end  of  April  and  May,  the  new  flowers  ap- 
pear, the  fragrance  of  which  extends  far  and  wide,  and  at  this  time  the  quantity  of  glittering 
fruit  embosomed  amid  the  dark  foliage,  "like  golden  lamps  in  a  green  night,"  relieved  still 


Booii  T.  - 


SPAIN. 


565 


300 


more  by  the  snowy  blossoms,  presents  an  object  which  continually  excites  new  admiration, 
though  it  is  one  of  daily  occurrence.  One  single  tree  frequently  bears  1.500  oranges,  and 
examples  are  not  wanting  of  their  bearing  2000,  and  sometimes,  though  rarely,  2500.  In 
the  provinces,  they  sell  for  half  a  farthing  apiece.  Figs  are  exported  largely  from  the  city 
of  Faro;  they  are  the  most  important  produce  of  the  Algarve,  and  are  brought  down  by  the 
country  people  to  the  merchants  in  immense  quantities.  They  are  tlirown  in  heaps  in  a 
building  prepared  for  the  purpose,  where  a  syrup  flows  from  them,  which  is  used  to  advan- 
tage in  making  brandy.  They  are  then  spread  to  dry  in  the  sun,  in  an  open  situation,  where 
they  are  left  for  a  few  days,  in  proportion  to  the  heat  of  the  weather ;  after  which  they  are 
packed  into  small  baskets  made  of  the  leaves  of  the  Fan  Palm,  and  exported.  "  Greece  and 
the  Algarves,"  M.  Link  observes,  "  are  the  only  countries  where  caprification  is  practised ; 
for  in  the  latter  country  are  some  varieties  of  Figs,  and  those  very  excellent,  that  lall  to  the 
ground  immature,  unless  punctured  by  gnats."  Two  ideas  prevail  respecting  the  effect  of 
this  operation ;  the  general  opinion  being,  that  the  little  insect,  on  entering  the  Fig,  (which 
is  known  by  botanists  to  be  a  fleshy  receptacle,  including  many,  and  often  only  barren 
flowers,)  carries  with  it,  from  other  figs  that  it  has  visited,  and  from  which  it  comes  loaded, 
the  farina  necessary  for  fertilisation  :  while  others  maintain,  and  among  them  M.  Link,  that 
the  puncture  caused  by  the  insect  gives  a  fresh  stimulus  and  a  new  movement  to  the  sap  or 
juices  of  the  fruit,  thereby  not  only  preventing  the  fall  of  the  fruit,  but  rendering  it  sweeter 
and  better  flavoured ;  and  it  is  certain  that  many  of  our  conniion  fruits,  when  pierced  by  in- 
sects, acquire  the  sweetest  flavour.  The  ancients  perfected  the  figs  in  the  Arcliipelago  by 
means  of  an  insect,  a  species  of  Cynips  (C.  Ficus).  In  Algarve,  besides  the  cultivated  kind, 
another  wild  sort  is  grown  ;  in  which  the  insects  abound.  These  trees  are  recalled  Fijos  de 
torn ;  and  branches  of  them  are,  at  the  proper  season,  broken  off,  and  suspended  over  those 
intended  to  be  fertilised,  when  the  little  animals  come  forth,  alight  upon  the  fruits,  puncture 
them,  and  aid  their  ripening. 

Formidable  fences  are  made  of  the  Cactus  Tuna  (fig.  300.),  and  the  Agave  americana, 
or  American  aloe.  The  former  is  often  mixed  with  the  Pome- 
gianate,  but  of  itself  it  constitutes  a  hedge  almost  impervious  to 
cattle.  In  Portuguese  it  is  called,  on  account  of  its  prickles, 
Fijo  do  inferno:  the  flowers  are  yellow  and  the  fruit  esculent; 
the  latter  is  by  no  means  unpalatable,  and  is  regularly  sold  in 
Lisbon.  Of  the  Agave  americana  we  have  already  spoken,  and 
shall,  therefore,  simply  mention  here,  that  its  leaves  undergo  a 
process  by  which  a  valuable  thread  is  extracted,  known  in  Por- 
tugal by  the  name  of  Filo  da  pita.  The  largest  and  most  per- 
fect leaves  are  cut  off,  laid  upon  a  board,  and  scraped  vyith  a 
square  iron  bar,  which  is  held  in  both  hands,  until  all  the  juices 
and  pulp  are  pressed  out ;  the  nerves  only  remaining,  when 
these  are  found  easily  separable  into  threads.  Where  pasturage 
is  scarce,  as  in  Algarve,  the  cattle  eat  the  foliage  of  this  plant, 
if  cut  into  thin  transverse  slices. 

In  La  Mancha  grows  the  Esparto  grele  (Stipa  tenacissima), 
of  which  cords  arc  made,  and  the  foliage  is  sent  in  large  quan- 
tities into  Portugal  for  this  purpose.     To  prevent  the  careless 
destruction  of  these  valuable  plants,  penalties  are  mflicted  on 
Cactus  Tuna.  ^ny  person  who  ventures  to  gather  them  before  the  month 

of  May,  when  they  are  in  perfection.  . 

The  Carob  tree  (fig.  301.)  Link  reckons  the  most  beautiful  of  European  trees.  It  attams 
a  considerable  height,  forming,  with  its  large  evergreen  pmnated 
foliage,  a  head  of  considwablf.  dimensions,  and  yieldmg  a  welcome 
shade.  Among  the  foliage  hang  down  the  numerous  long  pods, 
which,  when  ripe,  are  used  as  fodder  for  cattle,  especially  the 
mules,  and  as  meat  for  swine,  though  inferior  to  tlie  acorns  of  the 
Evergreen  Oak.  Before  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors,  the  Sugar 
CaneVas  cultivated  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  lately  it  has  been 
re-introduced,  at  San  Lucar,  into  a  garden  "d'acclmiation,"  to- 
gether with  Coffee,  Indigo,  and  Gum  Arabic.  A  vast  extent  of 
country  is  covered  by  the  Chamaerops  humilis  (Dwarf  Pahn  or 
Palmetto),  growing  in  waste  places.  This  vegetation,  m  part  ex- 
otic, follows  the  coasts  of  the  Spanish  peninsula,  to  the  cast  and  to 
the  west.  It  is  diffused  in  all  its  luxury  in  the  delicious  territory 
of  Valencia,  where  the  agriculture  of  the  Moors  is  still  held  in 
respect.  With  the  species  already  named,  are  here  cultivated  the 
Aloe  perfoliata.  Yucca  aloifolia.  Cassia  tomcntosa,  l\Ielia  Azcda- 
Carob  Tree.  ^.^^^^^  ^^^y  j-ji^dg  ^f  jNlimosa,  Annona,  &c.     In  the   environs  ot 

Alicant,  the  Date  harvest  is  very  abundant.     This  Palm  there  grows  in  large  plantations. 
Vol,  I.  48 


301 


566  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

and  often  attains  the  height  of  120  feet.  It  reaches  along  the  entire  coast,  to  the  40th  de- 
gree, and  perhaps  higher.  The  Agave  abounds  in  the  environs  of  Tarragona,  in  the  41st 
degree ;  and  tlie  Olive  continues  to  the  shore  of  France. 

In  general,  the  vegetation  of  the  east  of  the  Peninsula  differs  little  from  that  of  the  other 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  coasts  of  the  Ocean,  on  the  west,  are  less  hot,  according 
to  M.  Bory  de  St.  Vincent,  than  corresponding  latitudes  on  the  east  sides;  so  that  the  south- 
ern vegetation  does  not  extend  so  far  to  the  north.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  Date,  the  Lemon, 
the  Orange,  abound  in  Algarve  and  Alemtejo.  The  Orange  grows  plentifully  in  the  envi- 
rons of  Oporto,  in  41°  ;  and  the  Olive  extends  to  42°.  A  great  number  of  American  plants, 
the  seeds  having  been  probably  brought  in  ballast,  are  mmgled,  and,  as  it  were,  confounded, 
with  indigenous  species.  Upon  the  whole,  however,  the  vegetation  may  be  considered  as 
having  more  in  common  with  that  of  the  Atlantic  than  with  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean. Link  thus  pictures  the  climate  of  Portugal,  and  its  effects  upon  vegetation : — "  A 
heat,  equal  to  06°  of  Fahrenheit,  is  not  uncommon  in  this  country ;  and,  from  comparative 
observations,  it  appears  that  the  climate  is  warmer  here  than  in  Brazil,  though  the  heat  does 
not  continue  near  so  long.  From  Midsummer-day  to  ihe  middle  of  September,  rain  is  ex- 
tremely uncommon,  and  even  in  the  beginning  of  that  month  very  scanty ;  the  drought  often 
continues  much  longer.  Immediately  after  the  first  rains,  follow  the  autumnal  flowers,  the 
Meadow  Saffron  (CoZc/n"cf/,  two  species  but  little  known);  Saffron  (CVorws  salivus);  the 
Autumnal  Snowdrop  {Leucojum  aulumnalc') ;  the  sweet-smelling  Ranunculus  buUatus,  and 
many  others.  Tliese  appear  in  the  higher  lands  around  Cintra,  where  the  rains  are  earlier 
than  in  the  low  parts  near  Lisbon.  Immediately  after  the  autumnal  flowers,  come  the 
spring  plants,  owing  to  which  the  interval  between  spring  and  autumn  is  scarcely  percep- 
tible. In  October  the  young  grass  springs  up,  and  the  new  leaves  shoot  out,  rendering  it 
the  pleasantest  month  of  the  year.  In  November  and  December  fall  heavy  rains,  with  fre- 
quent storms.  Days  of  perpetual  silent  rain  are  very  rare,  for  in  general  it  comes  down  in 
torrents.  The  brooks  round  Lisbon,  which  it  was  a  little  while  before  easy  to  step  over,  and 
which  wholly  disappear  in  summer,  now  rush  like  torrents  down  the  hills.  This  swelling 
of  the  streams  renders  travelling  difficult  at  that  season,  and  would  retard  the  operations  of 
war  as  much  in  winter  as  the  drought  in  summer.  In  January,  cold,  clear  weather  often 
prevails,  but  becomes  milder  in  February,  which  is  generally  a  very  pleasant  month." 

The  most  common  vegetables  of  the  plains  of  Spain  are  the  Cork  tree  {Jig.  302.),  the 
Ilex,  and  Kermes  Oak  {fig.  303.),  the  Bay  tree,  the  Myrtle,  the  Philyrea  media  and  angus- 
^    i  302  ^  .  My^st.  303 


Iff 

i/"  Kermes  Oak. 

Cork  Tree. 

tifolia,  Juniperus  Sabina,  Celtis  australis,  Pistacia  Terebinthus  and  Lentiscus ;  Rhamnus  Ala- 
ternus,  and  many  other  species  of  this  genus  ;  Viburnum  Tinus,  Osyris  alba,  Paliurus  aus- 
tralis, the  Strawberry  tree,  the  common  and  shrubby  Jessamines,  the  Caper  plant,  and  a  great 
number  of  Cisti  {fig.  304.)  with  other  shrubs,  whose  foliage  is  of  an  evergreen  and  coriace- 
ous nature.  Immense  plains  are  clothed  with  Lygeum  Spartum,  and  the  running  streams 
are  bordered  with  Bupleurum  spinosum  and  Nerium  Oleander. 

But  it  has  been  justly  remarked,  that  no  country  in  Europe  presents  a  more  sorrowful 
aspect  than  the  interior  of  the  Peninsula.  "  No  man,  perhaps,  saving  a  botanist,"  says  Link, 
"could  travel  with  any  pleasure  in  the  barren  tracts  of  Old  Castile;  but  this  pursuit  can 
render  travelling  both  instructive  and  interesting,  even  in  these  apparently  sterile  wastes. 
Where  forests  have  existed  there,  they  have  yielded  lo  the  stroke  of  the  axe  ;  and  the  naked 
soil  remains  without  any  culture.  Vast  chains  of  mountains  spread  out  in  all  directions,  and 
between  them  are  extended  the  Parameras,  more  or  less  elevated  plains,  frequently  as  naked 
as  the  steppes  of  Siberia."  M.  Bory  estimates  at  from  1800  to  2000  feet  the  elevation  of  the 
Paramera  which  divides  the  sources  of  tlie  Douro  and  the  Ebro.  In  the  valleys  formed  by 
these  rivers  and  their  tributary  streams,  a  vegetation  of  great  beauty  is  found,  partaking  of 


Book  I. 


SPAIN. 


567 


that  in  the  more  temperate  climates  of  the  north.  Here  are  seen  small  fields  of  Maize,  and 
even  of  Rye  and  Barley,  more  rarely  of  Wheat,  surrounded  by  lofly  Oaks,  Chestnuts,  and 
Poplars,  every  tree  supporting  a  Vine,  vv^hich  spreads  over  it  and  not  unfrequently  reaches 
to  the  very  summit  of  the  highest  Oaks. 

304 


Chestnut. 

The  great  mass  of  the  forests  which  have  escaped  destruction  are  mostly  formed  of  Ever- 
green Oaks ;  among  which,  besides  the  other  species  already  enumerated,  are  found  the 
Quercus  Ballota,  segilopifolia,  faginea,  prasina,  crenata,  rotundifolia,  Immilis,  &c.  The  latter 
does  not  exceed  six  inches  in  height.  In  the  valleys  and  on  the  mountains  also,  grow  Tilia 
europsea  (platyphyllos  ?),  Fagus  syl  viatica,  Castanea  vesca  (Jig.  30.5.),  Taxus  baccata,  Pinus 
sylvestris,  PVaxinus,  Ornus,  &c.  The  commonest  forest  tree  on  the  plains  of  ihe  tempora^e 
zone,  namely  the  Oak  ( Quercus  Robur),  inhabits  the  southern  slope  of  the  Pyrenees.  It  is 
said  that  this  tree  occurs  also  in  some  parts  of  the  Peninsula. 

The  vegetation  which  prevails  on  the  lofly  mountains  in  the  interior  of  Spain  is  almost 
wholly  unknown  to  us.  M.  Ramond  has  made  some  interesting  observations  on  that  of  the 
Pic  du  Midi,  one  of  the  highest  of  the  Pyrenees ;  and  has  compared  the  plants  of  its  most 
elevated  summit,  estimated  at  about  10,000  feet,  with  that  of  Melville  Island,  as  described 
by  Mr.  R.  Brown.     The  similarity  is  very  striking. 


SUMMIT    OF   THE   PIC   DU   MIDI 

Cryptogamia. 

Fungi 0 

Lichens 51 

HcpaticcE 1 

Mosses 6 

Ferns 4 

—  62 

PAcenogamous. 

(lyperaceE • 3 

Crasses 7 

J  unci 0 

Polygonete 1 

riantagineee 1 

I'lunibagineEB 1 

Lysimachiae 4 

Peilicularinai 3 

I.abiatae 1 

Scrophularins 1 

Boraginea; 1 

Gentianes 2 

CampanulaceiE 1 

Cichoracece 3 

Cocymbifers 10 

Rubiacece 2 

Papaveraceae 1 

Cruciferx 6 

Caryophyllea: C 

FicoidesE 4 

SaxifiagetB    4 

Rosaceffi 4 

Lfiguminoss 4 

Amentaces ' 

—  71 

I33 


MELVILLE   ISLAND. 

Cryptogamia. 

Fungi 2 

Lichens 15 

Hepaticie 2 

Mosses 30 

Ferns 0 

—  ^ 
Phcenogamous. 

Cyperaces 4 

Grasses 14 

Junci 2 

PolygonecE 2 


Scrophularinae 1 

Ericea; 1 

Campanulacc.T 1 

CichoraceiE 1 

CorymbiferiE 4 

Ranunculacea; 5 

Papaveiaccffi 1 

Crucifera; 9 

CaryophylleiB 5 

Saxifragca; 10 

Rosacea: 4 

Leguniinosa! 2 

AinentaccK 1 

—  07 

lie 


569 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


European  Bee-Eater. 


307 


Of  lliese,  eight  of  the  Melville  Islands  lichens  and  one  of  its  mosses  are  found  on  the  sum- 
mit of  the  Pic  du  Midi;  five  others  of  the  lichens,  and  one  of  its  two  hepaticce,  and  six  of  its 
mosses,  grow  on  the  crags  of  the  peak,  or  in  its  immediate  vicinity. 

SuBSECT.  3. — Zoology. 
The  native  zoology  has  heen  so  little  investigated,  tliat  nothing  beyond  a  meagre  list  could 
be  furnislied  of  indigenous  animals.  In  the  mountains  of  Asturias  the  Ibex  is  not  uncommon, 
and  the  Alpine  Squirrel  (^Sciurus  alpinus)  is  only  found  in  the  Pyrenees.  In  the  soutliern 
parts,  bordering  on  the  African  shore,  a  few  species  of  warblers  have  recently  been  foimd, 
which  arc  as  yet  unknown  to  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  European  Bee-eater  (Jiir.  306.)  fre- 
306  quents  the  vicinity  of  Gibraltar  in  large  flocks  during 

the  season  of  migration. 

Among  the  domesticated  animals,  the  horse  and  slieep 
of  Spain  deserve  particular  notice,  as  liaving  been  long 
celebrated  throughout  Europe.  Tlie  best  horses  are 
generally  about  four  feet  six  or  eight  inches  high ;  they 
have  all  the  fire,  docility,  grace,  and  action  of  the 
beautiful  Arabians  of  Barbary  (generally  called  Barbs), 
and  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  these  noble  animals  having 
been  introihiccd  by  the  Moors,  and  crossed  with  the 
native  breed :  those  of  Andalusia,  Granada,  and  Estre- 
madura  are  tlio  most  distinguished.  At  Xeres  are  found 
two  perfectly  distinct  races ;  the  one,  which  possesses  the  fine  qualities  above  mentioned,  is 
still  preserved  in  all  its  purity  at  the  Chartreux.  The  other  race  is  larger,  stronger,  less 
elegant,  and  used  for  common  purposes.  Latterly  but  little  care  has  been  bestowed  in  keep- 
ing up  the  more  noble  breed,  so  that  fine  horses  are  not  so  common  in  Spain  as  formerly. 

The  mule,  in  so  mountainous  a  country,  is  particularly  useful,  and,  with  the  ass,  is  prin- 
cipally used  for  conveying  goods  in  the  interior ;  the  breeds  of  the  latter  are  very  fine,  and 
are  hardly  excelled  by  those  of  Egypt.  Spain  is  still  famous  for  its  merino  race  of  sheep 
(Jig.  307.).  The  flocks  are  kept  constantly  travelling  during  the  greater  part  of  the  sum- 
mer, but  are  carefully  pent  up  in  winter.     This  race,  subdivided  into  breeds,  is  extended 

over  the  greater  part  of  Spain ;  but  those  of  Cavage,  and 
Negrate,  are  the  best.  A  tliird  breed,  the  Soitan,  appears 
more  hardy,  and  passes  the  winter  in  Estremadura,  Anda- 
lusia, and  New  Castile :  these  three  constitute  the  Transhu- 
mante,  or  travelling  race,  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
Estantes,  or  those  of  a  somewhat  inferior  breed,  who  do  not 
jfj;«,  'mwfiS'aiJi^^  ^       migrate.     The  best  fleeces  are  those  which  appear  almost 

^^^iiffl^'ifl      ^^   fi1rr41A      black  on  their  surface,  caused  by  the  dust  adhering  to  the 

peculiar  greasy  pile ;  for  it  is  invariably  found  that  such 
fleeces  are  of  the  purest  white  beneath.  TJie  merinos,  dis- 
persed by  George  III.  over  England,  have  incalculably  im- 
proved the  native  races.  By  great  care  and  expense  on  the  part  of  the  native  graziers,  this 
valuable  race  has  likewise  been  introduced  in  the  distant  regions  of  Australia  with  equal 
success.  There  is  a  very  large  breed  of  oxen  in  tlie  country  round  Salamanca;  but  the 
cattle  of  Spain  have  been  much  neglected;  the  mountaineers  deriving  all  their  milk  and 
butter  from  goats.  The  spaniel  appears  to  be  a  breed  of  dogs  originating  from  this  country; 
and  the  Spanish  pointer  is  considered  to  have  a  greater  acuteness  of  scent  than  that  of 
Britain. 

Sect.  III. — Historical  Geography. 

The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Spain,  like  those  of  Gaul  and  Britain,  were  of  the  Celtic  race, 
and  from  the  river  Ebro  (Iberus)  were  called  Celtiberi.  The  whole  country  was  by  the 
Greeks  called  Iberia,  and  sometimes,  from  its  western  position,  Hesperia.  The  people,  like 
those  of  the  rest  of  Europe,  were  divided  into  a  number  of  small  tribes,  hardy  and  warlike, 
who  often  showed  a  peculiar  attachment  to  national  independence,  and  obstinacy  in  its 
defence. 

The  Carthaginians  were  the  first  civilised  people  who  occupied  Spain,  which,  for  several 
centuries,  was  considered  as  theirs.  They  founded  colonies  on  the  most  advantageous  points, 
worked  its  rich  silver  mines,  and  easily  allured  many  of  its  brave  but  poor  inhabitants  into 
their  mercenary  armies ;  they  were  far,  however,  from  having  thorouglily  subdued  tlie  Pen- 
insula, the  people  of  which,  on  the  rise  of  the  Roman  power,  endeavoured  by  its  alliance  to 
emancipate  themselves  from  the  Punic  yoke.  The  siege  and  fall  of  Saguntum  seemed  to 
have  extinguished  these  hopes,  and  to  have  secured  the  ascendency  of  Carthage ;  but  the 
events  whicli  marlced  the  close  of  the  second  Punic  war  completely  humbled  that  proud 
republic,  and  put  an  end  to  its  dominion  over  Spain. 

The  Romans,  by  the  capture  of  Numantia  in  b.  c.  134,  established  their  supremacy  over 
Spain,  undisputed  by  any  other  nation ;  but  the  complete  subjugation  of  its  inliabitants  was 
a  long  and  arduous  task,  to  which  the  utmost  exertions  of  Ceesar  and  his  lieutenants  were 


Merino  Sheep. 


Book  L  SPAIN.  560 

not  fully  adequate.  Spain,  however,  was  at  length  reduced  to  a  province,  divided  by  Augus- 
tus into  three  parts: — Tarraconensis,  the  north  and  east;  Baetica,  the  south;  and  Lusitaliia, 
Portugal.  The  Spaniards  even  became  civilised  and  peaceable  subjects;  so  that  when 
Rome,  sinking  under  its  own  weight,  was  unable  to  defend  them,  they  could  not  resume 
their  early  independence,  but  fell  a  prey  to  the  Vandals,  Goths,  and  other  barbarous  hordes 
that  poured  in  from  the  north  of  Europe. 

The  Goths,  in  this  terrible  struggle,  finally  prevailed ;  and  in  418  a  Gothic  dynasty  was 
fully  established  over  Spain.  These  barbarous  invaders  appear  here,  as  elsewhere,  to  have 
expelled  or  extirpated  the  native  people,  whose  features  and  language  are  recognised  only 
in  some  of  the  higher  mountain  districts.  After  a  sway  of  three  centuries,  the  Goths  were 
destined  to  yield  to  a  new  people,  coming  from  a  remote  quarter. 

The  Arabs,  rendered  invincible  by  fanaticism,  had  over-run  all  the  north  of  Africa,  and 
established  a  powerful  kingdom  in  Fez.  The  vengeance  of  Count  Julian  invited  them  over, 
and  opened  the  way  for  them ;  their  immense  host  covered  the  plains  of  Andalusia ;  Roderick, 
the  Gotliic  king,  was  totally  defeated.  The  invaders  then  over-ran  the  whole  kingdom,  with 
the  exception  of  some  mountain  recesses,  in  which  a  remnant  of  the  Gothic  chiefs  found 
shelter ;  they  even  passed  the  Pyrenees,  and  seemed  about  to  over-run  all  western  Europe. 
But  Charles  Martel  met  them  on  the  plains  of  Aquitaine ;  and,  after  a  dreadful  battle  of  tliree 
days,  they  were  signally  overthrown,  and  never  again  attempted  to  pass  the  Spanish  frontier. 
Meantime  Don  Pelayo,  and  other  chiefs  of  the  Gothic  race,  again  raised  the  national  standard 
in  the  mountains  of  the  Asturias :  then  commenced  a  contest  of  700  years,  distinguished  by 
numerous  heroic  achievements  and  memorable  events,  which  gave  to  the  Spanish  character 
that  romantic  and  adventurous  cast  which  it  has  never  wholly  lost.  The  Arabs  or  Moors 
still  retained  the  finest  provinces,  and  the  courts  of  Cordova  and  Granada  were  the  most 
splendid  and  polished  in  Europe.  The  Spaniards,  however,  under  a  succession  of  able  chiefs, 
and  particularly  of  their  great  hero  the  Cid,  gained  ground  :  new  kingdoms  were  successivelj 
founded ;  which  all  merging  into  those  of  Castile  and  Aragon,  comprehended  the  whole  ot 
Spain,  except  the  extreme  southern  kingdom  of  Granada.* 

Spain  was  again  formed  into  one  great  kingdom  by  the  union  of  the  crowns  of  Castile  and 
Aragon,  under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  in  1474,  and  by  the  final  overthrow  and  expulsion  of 
the  Moors.  From  this  period  commences  the  most  brilliant  era  of  her  annals.  The  dis- 
covery of  America,  the  conquest  of  the  golden  regions  of_Mexico  and  Peru,  and  of  other 
dominions  so  extensive  as  to  make  it  a  plausible  boast  that  the  sun  never  set  on  them,  threw 
an  almost  unrivalled  lustre  around  the  Spanisli  crown.  Under  Charles  V.  and  Philip  II., 
Spain  continued  the  most  powerful  kingdom,  and  her  armies  the  most  formidable,  of  any  in 
Europe.  The  throne  derived  even  an  addition  of  apparent  lustre  fi-om  the  subversion  of  the 
popular  part  of  the  government,  and  the  conversion  of  a  body  of  grandees,  once  the  proudest 
in  Europe,  to  the  condition  of  humble  vassals. 

The  decline  of  Spain,  tliough  its  causes  had  begun  to  operate,  did  not  become  perceptible 
till  after  the  death  of  Philip  II.  A  gloomy  indolence  and  degrading  superstition  now  marked 
her  councils ;  her  armies  were  vanquished  by  the  French  under  Conde  and  Turenne ;  she 
lost  her  place  and  rank  in  Europe.  The  trade  with  her  vast  colonies,  fettered  by  absurd 
restrictions,  became  profitable  only  to  the  industrious  nations  which  supplied  its  materials. 
The  war  of  the  succession  drew  notice  towards  this  country,  and  called  forth  some  displays 
of  national  energy  ;  but  the  Bourbon  dynasty,  which  it  placed  on  the  throne,  soon  relapsed 
into  the  characteristic  indolence,  and  Spain  became  little  more  than  a  dependency  of  France. 
We  know  not  whether  to  designate  as  an  era,  the  train  of  remarkable  events  which  have 

*ThR  Arabs  in  Spain,  like  the  Sa\ons  in  Ensland,  established  a  lastinj  niemnrial  of  their  dnminion  by  enerafl- 
in2  their  own  laneuase  on  that  of  the  country  which  they  subdued.  Of  this,  the  topography  of  the  Peninsula 
e.xhibits  innumerable  instances.  The  names  of  rivers,  mountains,  towns,  and  places,  were  either  totally  or  par- 
tially chancreil,  hv  the  victorious  invaders;  and  after  the  expulsion  of  their  descendants,  those  names  were  per- 
petuated, thouKh  with  alterations  in  some  in.stances  as  arbitrary  as  those  which  were  made  in  the  ancient 
topography  of  the  country:  thu.s,  the  Roman  station.  Pax  Jiugusta,  was  transformed  by  the  Arabs  into  Balalio, 
and  afterwards  by  the  Spaniards  into  Badajoz ;  C<csar  Augusta,  by  an  abbreviation  less  violent,  became  Saragassa, 
and  Emerila  Jlugusti  was  contracted  into  Merida. 

The  Arabic  term  JV/crfinn  (city)  survives  in  two  eminent  instances  among  the  titles  of  the  Spanish  nobility: 
Medina  Selim  (the  city  of  Splim)  is  recognised  in  the  dukedom  oi Medina- Cell ;  and  the  colony  probably  called  New 
Sidon,  is  that  of  Medina-Sidonia.  From  the  generic  term  gnad,  a  river,  and  relez  or  reled,  a  landed  estate  or  district, 
many  names  may  be  explained  which  at  first  view-  appear  capricious  and  arbitrary  :— 

Ex.     Gnad-al-aviar,. The  white  river. 

Guad-al-qni vir The  great  river. 

Guad-alhigiara,  now  Guadalaxara, The  river  of  rocks. 

yclez  and  Veled  arc  otten  conjoined  with  proper  names,  fr/rz  Malaga,  feled  Vlid,  now  Valladolid  :  thus,  Navairre 
and  Leon,  their  confines  never  having  been  occupied  by  the  .Arabs,  were  called  by  them  Vclcd  Mrronm.  the  land 
of  the  Romnn.-t.  Oezira  was  applied  inilifferently  to  an  island  or  a  peninsula  ;  hence  j^/gezira.  Mdea  means  what 
is  comprehended  under  the  English  term  a /ar;re.  It  is  of  common  occurrence  in  itineraries,  as  jJWca  rfc/ fiio, 
MIdrri  Giillega,  Mdeas  de  Fonsso.  From  chntara,  a  bridge,  we  account  for  the  emphatic  name  A/c^lntara.  Calujito, 
a  castle,  eut^rrs  more  or  less  prominently  into  the  composition  of  various  names ;  as  Co  Wa« -/Jy"'.  the  castle  of 
Ayat,  is  now  Calatayud;  CaU'at  Rahah.  the  castle  of  Rabali,  is  now  Calatrava  ;  Jil  Cah'.at,  simply  the  castle,  is 
now  Aliala.  Alcazar,  a  word  of  frequent  occurrence  in  Spanish  topography,  is  a  fortified  house  or  small  raslle  ; 
Almeria  is  an  observatory.  See  Description  of  Spain,  by  Gerif  Alhedris,  in  the  translation  of  Don  Jose  .\ntonio 
Condi,  whose  History  of  the  Domination  of  the  Arabs  in  Spain  is  esteemed  one  of  the  most  masterly  works  that 
have  appeared  in  the  present  age. 

Vol.  I.  49*  3W 


570  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

occurred  between  1808  and  1822.  The  Spaniards  excited  the  admiration  and  astonishment 
of  Europe  by  their  daring  defiance  of  the  power  beneath  which  the  greatest  sovereigns  liad 
been  reduced  to  tlic  ranii  of  vassals.  Their  subsequent  exploits  did  not  altogether  corre- 
spond to  this  boghuiing.  Still,  their  resistance,  considered  as  that  of  a  people,  was,  on  tlie 
whole,  obstinate  and  glorious ;  it  even  appeared  that  tliere  had  been  formed  a  body  attached 
to  popular  government,  and  eager  to  redress  the  political  grievances  under  which  Spain 
laboured.  Ultimately,  however,  the  eagerness  with  whicii  the  majority  of  the  nation  acqui- 
esced in  the  system  of  absolute  power,  re-establislied  by  foreign  interference,  tarnished  its 
honour,  and  reduced  it  again  to  that  imbecile  and  degraded  state  in  which  it  had  existed  for 
several  centuries. 

Sect,  IV. — Political  Geography. 

The  constitution  of  Spain,  ever  since  the  downfall  of  her  liberties  under  Charles  V.,  lias 
been  the  most  despotic  of  any  in  Europe,  except  Russia  and  Turkey.  The  Cortes,  that 
powerful  assembly,  whose  privileges  were  greater  than  those  of  any  other  European  repre- 
sentative body,  have  since  tliat  period  been  rarely  assembled,  and  then  only  partially,  on 
occasions  of  mere  form.  The  only  two  bodies  which  possess  any  influence,  are  tlie  council 
of  state  and  the  council  of  Castile ;  but  as  these  are  entirely  under  the  appointment  and 
direction  of  the  monarch,  they  form  little  more  of  a  check  upon  absolute  power,  than  the 
Turkish  divan. 

Two  attempts  to  restore  a  representative  form  of  government  have  lately  been  made,- 
under  circumstances  which  must  be  familiar  to  our  readers.  Unluckily,  tlie  leading  or  liberal 
party  were  hurried,  on  this  occasion,  into  an  opposite  extreme ;  adopting  the  system  of  uni- 
versal suffrage,  forming  themselves  into  one  house,  and  allowing  only  a  temporary  veto  to 
the  monarch.  This  system,  which  excluded  the  nobles  and  clergy,  the  most  wealthy  and 
influential  bodies,  was  from  the  first  decidedly  unpopular;  and  Ferdinand  found  it  easy,  first 
without,  and  afterwards  with,  foreign  aid,  to  subvert  it,  and  to  re-establish  in  fiill  plenitude 
the  despotic  sway  exercised  by  his  predecessors, 

[The  Cortes  were  convoked  anew  in  1834,  with  some  modifications  of  their  ancient  orga- 
nization. The  body  now  consists  of  two  houses ;  that  of  proceres  or  peers,  composed  in  part 
of  hereditary  members,  in  part  of  members  named  by  the  king  for  life,  and  the  procuradores 
or  deputies,  elected  by  colleges  of  electors,  who  are  chosen  by  the  principal  citizens.  The 
Cortes  have  extensive  legislative  powers,  but  their  existence  and  authority  have  emanated  from 
the  royal  will. — Am.  Ed.] 

The  grandees  and  other  privileged  orders  in  Spain  are  distinguished  for  their  pride  beyond 
any  others  in  Europe.  Even  Charles  V.  was  baffled  in  his  attempt  to  retrench  the  right 
of  wearing  the  hat  in  the  royal  presence.  The  Spanish  nobles  impair  their  fortunes  less  by 
extravagance  than  those  of  the  same  rank  elsewhere  ;  and  as  they  intermarry  only  with  each 
other,  the  number  of  titles  or  hats,  as  they  are  called,  continually  accumulates  upon  single 
heads.  The  dukes  of  Medina-Celi,  of  Alba,  of  Infantado,  of  San  Estevan,  of  Ossuna,  and 
some  others,  hold  possessions  truly  immense,  covering  whole  provinces.  They  are  adminis- 
tered, indeed,  in  the  worst  possible  manner,  being  kept  in  their  own  hands,  managed  by 
tribes  of  factors  or  intendants,  of  whom  some  nobles  keep  300;  so  that  it  is  truly  astonishing 
that  they  should  sometimes  yield  $25,000  or  .$40,000  a  year.  As  these  grandees,  however, 
Jive  not  on  their  estates,  but  in  the  cities,  in  secluded  pomp,  they  have  lost  all  their  feudal 
influence,  and  the  ties  which  united  them  with  the  greater  body  of  the  people.  The  hidalgos, 
claiming  nobility  by  descent  from  the  members  of  great  families,  are  much  more  numerous, 
and  form,  in  some  provinces,  a  large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants.  They  are  often  reduced 
to  great  poverty ;  in  which  they  display  that  union  of  pride  and  indolence  which  has  been 
supposed  characteristic  of  the  Spaniard.  Mr.  White  mentions  a  species  of  illustrious  birth 
quite  peculiar  to  this  country,  consisting  in  a  pure  Christian  descent,  without  any  mixture 
of  Jewish  or  Moorish  blood,  which  last  is  supposed  to  produce  so  deep  a  stain,  that  no  time 
can  eflTace  it.  The  clergy,  moreover,  exercise  a  paramount  influence  over  the  minds  par- 
ticularly of  the  lower  orders,  and  have  been  the  main-spring  in  all  the  movements,  good  or 
bad,  which  for  a  long  time  past  have  taken  place  in  the  Pcrn'nsula. 

The  revenue  of  Spain,  though  levied  witli  little  regard  to  the  comfort  and  well-being  of 
the  subject,  has  never  risen  to  any  great  amount.  Yet  slie  is  the  only  power  which  ever 
derived  any  from  her  colonies;  as  the  quinta,  or  royal  fifth  of  tlie  mines  of  Mexico  and  Peru, 
after  every  deduction,  brought  home  considerable  treasure;  but  this  source  of  wealth  is  now 
withdrawn.  Tlie  other  taxes  were  the  most  ruinous  to  industry  and  trade  ever  contrived 
by  any  government.  The  alcavala,  or  impost  upon  eacli  transference  of  commodities  fi"om 
one  liand  to  another,  seems  expressly  destined  to  impose  fetters  upon  commerce ;  while  the 
royal  monopolies  of  salt,  lead,  powder,  tobacco,  and  other  articles  in  general  use,  have  the 
usual  pernicious  efliects.  Combined  with  those  prohibitory  clauses,  by  which  Spain  endea- 
voured without  success  to  prevent  her  industrious  neighbours  from  supplying  the  wants  of 
her  American  colonies,  they  gave  rise  to  a  vast  contraband,  carried  on  in  almost  open  defiance 
of  government.     Hence  the  taxation  of  Spain,  though  highly  oppressive  to  the  nation,  yields 


Book  I.  SPAIN.  57^ 

very  little  to  the  crown;  being  m  a  great  measure  absorbed  by  the  support  of  the  individuals 
employed  in  its  collection,  who  are  said  to  amount  to  16,650.  Although,  therefore,  the  entire 
sum  taken  from  the  people  has  been  suspected  not  to  fall  short  of  12"000,000;.  sterling,  the 
receipt  by  government  m  1828  did  not  exceed  5,980,000Z.  The  expenditure  in  that  year 
was  tor  the  army,  2,650,000/. ;  navy,  400,000/. ;  marine,  1,445,000/. :  justice,  145,000/. ;  state, 
108,000/.;  royal  household,  505,000/.  At  the  same  time,  Spain  is  burdened  with  a  debt  of 
160,000,000/.  sterling,  of  which  the  revenue  would  be  wholly  inadequate  to  defray  the  inte- 
rest, had  not  more  tlian  half  consisted  of  the  royal  vales,  which  do  not  bear  any.  Under  the 
constitutional  government  a  considerable  addition  of  debt  was  incurred,  which,  however 
Ferdinand  VII.  cleared  off  by  refusing  to  acknowledge  it;  while  he  himself  ineffectually 
attempted  to  raise  a  loan  to  any  amount. 

The  navy,  at  the  commencement  of  the  late  war,  was  at  least  respectable,  and  a  formi- 
dable auxiliary  to  France.  The  fatal  days  of  St.  Vincent  and  Trafalgar,  and  the  fruitless 
expeditions  to  South  America,  reduced  it  to  a  feeble  state.  In  1826  it  consisted  of  ten  ships 
of  the  line,  sixteen  frigates,  and  thirty  smaller  vessels. 

The  army  of  Spain,  which  under  Charles  V.  and  Philip  was  the  bravest  and  most  formi- 
dable in  Europe,  has  for  a  century  and  a  half  enabled  her  to  rank  very  low  among  military 
nations.  It  is,  however,  at  present  the  best  organised  part  of  her  establishment.  According 
to  the  author  of  "  A  Year  in  Spain,"  it  consists  of  25,000  royal  guards,  and  55,000  troop's 
of  the  line  and  provincial  militia,  vi'hich,  being  commanded  by  experienced  officers,  formed 
during  a  period  of  protracted  warfare,  possess  a  considerable  degree  of  efficiency;  and  their 
discontent  being  an  object  of  dread,  every  effort  is  made  to  pay  them  regularly.  The  royalist 
volunteers,  amounting  to  about  300,000  men,  formed  a  band  of  armed  fanatics  almost  entn-ely 
under  the  command  of  the  priests  and  monks,  and  seeking  in  their  favour  to  lord  it  both  over 
king  and  people. 

Sect.  V. — Productive  Industry. 

In  respect  to  industry  and  wealth,  Spain,  which  had  every  opportunity  within  and  without 
of  becoming  the  foremost  nation  of  Europe,  is,  in  fact,  the  poorest  and  the  most  uncultivated. 
The  insecurity  of  property,  and  the  multiplied  restraints  imposed  by  an  unenlightened  govern- 
ment, appear  to  be  the  main  causes  which  have  paralyzed  all  branches  of  industry.  The 
furious  bigotry  of  its  monarchs,  in  particular,  led  to  the  most  suicidal  acts  against  the  public 
weal.  At  the  commencement  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  country  contained  a  numerous 
population  of  Jews  and  Moors,  who  formed  its  most  industrious  and  wealthy  inhabitants,  and 
rendered  it  the  most  flourishing  kingdom  in  Europe.  The  Jews,  unless  in  the  alternative  of 
feigned  conversion,  were  expelled  from  the  kingdom  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  the  Moors 
by  Philip  III.  Although  it  appears  to  be  upon  exaggerated  estimates  that  Spain  has  ever 
been  supposed  to  have  previously  contained  20,000,000  of  people,  yet  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  the  emigration  of  mercantile  communities,  with  their  capital  and  machinery,  must  have 
struck  deeply  at  the  root  of  the  national  prosperity. 

Spanish  agriculture,  it  must  be  confessed,  has  some  obstacles  to  struggle  against.  The 
territory,  as  we  have  had  occasion  to  observe,  is  traversed  in  every  direction  by  chains  of 
rugged,  and  often  barren,  mountains.  Yet  these  elevated  provinces  being  the  seats  of  com 
parative  liberty  and  industry,  are  on  the  whole  the  best  cultivated  and  the  most  populous. 
The  great  extent  and  continuity  of  these  chains  certainly  present  serious  difficulties  to  the 
transport  of  grain.  When  government  were  bringing  a  supply  from  Old  Castile  to  the  capital, 
it  was  found  that  30,000  beasts  ot  burden  were  necessary  to  carry  2000  quarters.  Another 
great  impediment  to  effective  agriculture  consists  in  the  habit,  partly  oriental,  partly  formed 
during  a  long  internal  warfare,  which  leads  the  farmers  to  crowd  into  towns,  and  thus  live 
often  at  many  miles'  distance  from  the  fields  which  they  cultivate.  In  many  cases  they 
merely  pitch  their  tents  during  seed-time  and  harvest,  and  at  other  seasons  pay  only  occa- 
sional visits.  They  are  also  very  poor,  destitute  of  capital,  and  oppressed  by  the  burden  of 
tithes  and  other  exactions. 

The  grain  produced  in  Spain  is  of  admirable  quality ;  the  wheat  of  Andalusia  bearing 
a  price  of  ten  or  fifteen  per  cent,  higher  than  that  of  any  foreign  wheat  brought  to  the  mar- 
kets of  Cadiz.  But  a  deplorable  defect  appears,  when  it  is  stated  that  Spain,  a  country 
purely  agricultural,  does  not  grow  corn  for  her  own  use,  but  makes  a  regular  importation. 
This,  however,  according  to  Bourgoing,  amounts  only  to  2,000,000  fanegas  or  400,000  quar- 
ters ;  a  small  proportion  of  the  entire  consumption,  which  may  be  estimated  at  12,000,000 
of  quarters.  The  agriculture  of  Spain,  however,  produces  three  valuable  articles ;  wool,  wine, 
and  barilla. 

The  \\ool  of  the  merino  is  of  almost  unrivalled  fineness,  though  dearly  purchased  by  the 
system  upon  which  it  is  produced.  Vast  flocks,  amounting  to  20,000,  30,000,  or  even  60,000, 
belong  to  the  grand-ees,  convents,  and  dignitaries  of  Spain.  After  being  pastured,  during 
summer,  on  the  sides  of  the  mountains  of  Leon  and  Old  Castile,  they  descend,  in  winter, 
chiefly  to  the  plains  of  Estremadura.  According  to  the  rules  of  the  powerful  society  of  the 
mesta,  composed  of  the  above  high  members,  they  must  pass  freely,  and  be  allowed,  on  pay- 


672  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

ment  of  a  very  inadequate  rent,  to  pasture  upon  all  the  unenclosed  lands,  whicli  form  the 
bulk  of  those  in  Spain.  The  entire  number  of  sheep  in  all  these  wandering  flocks  is  reckoned 
at  5,000,000;  and  there  are  a  great  number  whicli  remain  stationary,  and  enjoy  privileges 
nearly  similar.  The  annual  shearing  takes  place  on  a  great  scale,  and  with  inucli  celebra- 
tion ;  and  the  wool  is  carefully  sorted  into  three  kinds,  according  to  the  part  of  the  body 
from  which  it  is  taken. 

The  wines  of  Spain  are  produced  on  the  fine  plains  of  tlie  southern  provinces.  The 
most  important  is  the  Xeres  or  sherry,  which  has  come  into  such  general  use  with  the 
English  nation.  Mr.  Jacob  reckons  that  40,000  pipes  are  produced  in  the  plain  of  Xeres ; 
of  which  15,000  are  exported,  almost  the  whole  to  England.  Around  Malaga  is  made 
wine  still  more  valued,  though  not  in  such  quantity ;  which,  when  white,  is  called  moun- 
tain, when  red,  tent  (tinto).  The  northern  and  central  provinces  yield  wine  only  of 
inferior  value. 

Barilla,  the  finest  Itnown  species  of  ashes,  and  highly  nsefiil  in  glass-making,  bleaching, 
and  other  processes,  is  procured  by  burning  various  species  of  saline  and  aromatic  plants 
in  the  provinces  of  Murcia  and  Valencia,  and  is  one  of  the  few  articles  wliich  other  nations 
can  nowhere  else  procure  of  equally  good  quality.  Silk  and  oil,  in  the  Mediterranean  pro- 
vinces, are  only  limited  by  the  want  of  culture  or  demand. 

The  manufactures  of  Spain  have  been  of  little  importance  since  the  expulsion  of  the 
Moors.  That  industrious  people  introduced  the  silk  manufacture ;  a  branch  entirely  suited 
to  a  country  where  the  material  is  produced  in  the  greatest  perfection  ;  but  it  is  now  gene- 
rally decayed,  unless  in  Valencia,  where  it  was  supposed  lately  to  employ  rSOOO  people. 
The  blades  of  Toledo  were  once  famous  over  Europe,  and  the  city  has  still  a  royal  manu- 
factory of  swords,  though  of  little  importance.  The  Spanish  government  has  devoted  rather 
an  extraordinary  attention  to  manufactures,  but  unfortunately  seeks  to  promote  them  by  the 
king  becoming  himself  the  producer.  He  has  established  a  great  factory  of  broadcloth '  at 
Guadalaxara,  which,  having  fine  materials  at  hand,  is  rather  thriving.  Yet  Spain  does  not 
supply  herself  with  fine  cloth.  Other  royal  works  are  those  of  porcelain,  at  San  Ildefonso; 
paper,  in  Segovia ;  cards  and  tapestry  at  Madrid :  all  rather  for  show  than  use. 

Commerce,  for  which  Spain  seemed  to  have  monopolised  the  most  extensive  materials, 
has  long  been  in  a  state  at  least  as  low  and  depressed  as  any  other  branch.  It  has  suffered 
severely,  indeed,  from  the  immense  importance  attached  to  it  by  the  government,  which 
actually  crushed  it  to  pieces  in  the  attempt  to  prevent  any  portion  from  escaping.  To  ab- 
sorb within  their  own  circle  the  entire  treasures  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  was  the  first  policy 
of  the  Spanish  sovereigns.  The  gold  and  silver  of  those  regions  were  to  be  brought  exclu- 
sively to  Spain,  never  to  be  taken  out  of  it,  and  only  the  produce  and  manufactures  of  that 
country  to  be  sent  in  exchange.  By  a  sad  fatality,  the  commerce  of  the  coionies  was  car- 
ried on  almost  entirely  by  French  and  English  merchants ;  nearly  all  the  goods  exported 
thither  were  foreign;  and  Spain,  of  all  her  neighbours,  was  the  most  destitute  of  the  wealth 
accruing  from  this  trade.  These  colonies,  with  the  exception  of  Cuba  and  the  Philippines, 
are  now  gone,  and  with  them  the  greatness  of  Cadiz,  which,  by  the  absurd  monopoly  granted 
to  her,  became  one  of  the  principal  emporia  of  Europe.  The  trade  of  Spain  consists  now 
in  the  export  of  wines,  fruits,  brandies,  wool,  silk  raw  and  manufactured,  lead,  quicksilver, 
barilla,  and  a  few  other  articles,  which,  according  to  a  very  imperfect  document,  issued  by 
the  Spanish  government,  amounted  in  1826  to  about  l,584,000i.  Of  this,  241,000/.  was 
stated  to  be  to  the  colonies.  Her  imports  consist  of  sugar,  cocoa,  salt  fish,  spices,  wood, 
rice,  butter  and  cheese,  hides,  cotton  wool,  and  almost  every  species  of  manufactured  com- 
modity. They  are  stated  for  the  same  year  at  about  3,267,000?.,  of  which  724,000/.  was 
from  the  colonies. 

Internal  communication  is  a  particular  in  which  Spain  actually  labours  under  natural  dis- 
advantages, from  the  obstructed  navigation  of  its  rivers,  and  its  long  and  steep  chains  of 
mountains.  These  obstacles  the  government  has  endeavoured  to  surmount  by  vast  but  ill- 
executed  projects  of  improvement.  They  had  conceived  the  plan  of  a  grand  canal,  which, 
passing  through  Asturias,  Old  Castile,  and  Aragon,  miglit  join  the  Mediterranean  with  the 
Bay  of  Biscay.  Of  this  mighty  undertaking,  only  two  small  portions  exist ;  the  canal  of 
Aragon,  running  parallel  to  the  Ebro  from  Saragossa,  and  that  of  Old  Castile  along  the 
Pisuerga  and  Carrion  by  Placencia ;  but  as  neither  of  them  makes  any  approach  to  the  sea, 
their  benefit  is  very  limited.  The  main  roads  maintained  by  government  between  Madrid 
and  the  other  great  cities  are  good,  and  the  mails  well  conducted ;  but  most  of  the  otlier 
communications  are  mere  tracks  worn  by  the  feet  of  mules,  which  are  chiefly  employed  in 
the  conveyance  of  goods. 

Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State. 

The  population  of  Spain,  according  to  a  census  made  in  1798,  amounted  to  10,351,000. 
It  was  generally  understood,  however,  that  the  jealousy  of  the  people,  and  all  the  obstacles 
usually  encountered  in  such  undertakings,  operated  to  a  peculiar  extent  in  diminishing  the 


Book  I.  SPAIN.  573 

amount.  The  census,  in  1787-8,  gave  only  10,268,000,  of  which  188,600  were  church- 
men ;  and  among  these,  61,000  were  monks,  and  32,500  nuns.  There  were  480,000  hi- 
dalgos ;  34,000  merchants;  40,000  manufacturers;  271,000  artisans;  907,000  peasants; 
960,000  day-labourers ;  280,000  domestic  male  servants.  A  census  was  undertaken  in  1826, 
which  was  not  fully  completed,  but  carried  so  far  as  to  prove  tliat  the  number  of  inhabitants 
must  be  considerably  greater  than  the  above  :  it  is  estimated  by  Minano  at  13,732,000  ;  by 
Hassel  at  13,953,000. 

The  national  character  of  the  Spaniard  is  marked  by  striking  features.  The  genuine 
Spaniard  is  grave,  proud,  adventurous,  romantic,  honourable,  and  generous.  It  has  been 
insinuated  that  this  is  the  Spaniard  of  the  sixteenth  century,  of  whom  the  Spaniard  of  the 
present  day  is  only,  as  it  were,  the  shadow.  But  though  the  higher  ranks  have  certainly 
lost  the  original  stamp,  and  become  frivolous  and  dissipated,  the  body  of  the  people,  and 
especially  the  peasantry,  form  a  very  fine  race.  Even  among  the  former,  the  late  troubles 
brought  forward  signal  displays  of  heroism,  though,  as  too  often  happens  in  such  cases, 
equally  base  examples  of  treachery.  In  the  virtue  and  wisdom  of  the  best  Spaniards,  there 
is  apt  to  be  something  speculative  and  theoretical,  not  applicable  to  tlie  practical  purposes 
of  life  ;  a  want  of  the  wisdom  of  action.  In  prosperous  circumstances  they  readily  give 
way  to  supineness  and  false  confidence  ;  but  in  sudden  and  overwhelming  vicissitudes, 
which  sink  the  spirit  of  others,  their  latent  energies  are  roused,  and  tliey  display  unexpected 
and  surprising  resources.  Although  assassination,  which  was  once  the  reproach  of  Spain, 
is  greatly  diminished,  yet  a  promptitude  to  fight  and  to  shed  blood,  characteristic  of  all  na- 
tions imperfectly  civilized,  is  still  prevalent"!  It  is  accompanied  with  a  readiness  to  rise  in 
tumultuary  insurrections,  and  an  unwillingness  to  submit  to  the  restraints  of  discipline. 
The  jealousy  which  was  wont  to  dwell  so  deep  and  dark  in  the  mind  of  the  Spanish  hus- 
band, has  been  superseded  by  a  general  laxity  of  morals.  The  custom  is  said  to  prevail,  that 
every  married  lady  should  have  a  cortejo  or  gallant,  corresponding  to  the  Italian  cicisbeo  ; 
and  though  the  ussge  may  not  be  so  decidedly  criminal  as  it  appears  to  strangers,  it  is  cer- 
tainly inconsistent  with  those  habits  and  feelings  which  form  the  felicity  of  the  matrimonial 
state.  In  this  singular  relation,  fixed  rules  are  observed,  and  a  certain  fidelity  is  exacted  ; 
the  jealousy  of  the  husband  is  assumed  by  the  cortejo ;  and  the  lady  who  changes,  at  least 
with  any  frequency,  this  object  of  attachment,  loses  ca^te  in  the  eyes  of  the  public. 

The  religious  state  of  Spain  need  only  be  mentioned  to  suggest  the  dark  and  gloomy  fea- 
tures by  which  it  is  marked.  That  bigotry  and  superstition  which  the  Romish  faith  con- 
tracted during  ages  of  darkness,  and  which  in  all  other  countries  is  so  much  abated,  retains 
nearly  its  fiiU  force  in  Spain.  The  Inquisition,  that  frightfiil  tribunal,  the  disgrace  of  modem 
Europe,  which  here  held  its  central  seat,  kept  alive  its  fires  against  all  who  exercised  their 
reason  on  a  subject  connected  with  the  national  faith.  Tlie  order  of  Jesuits,  who  have  been 
calh.'d  the  militia  of  the  Romish  church,  originated  also  in  this  counfrj\  The  Inquisition 
perished  in  the  late  struggle;  yet  a  numerous  body  still  call  aloud  for  its  re-establishment; 
and  the  most  liberal  rulers,  whom  the  revolution  raised  to  power,  durst  not  attempt  any  ap- 
proach to  toleration,  or  to  trench  upon  the  "  Catholic  religion  one  and  indivisible."  This 
spirit  of  bigotry  and  superstition  is  deeply  difl!used  through  the  nation,  who,  if  they  no  longer 
demand  that  heretics  shall  be  committed  to  the  flames,  never  doubt  at  least  of  the  fixture 
tortures  to  which  they  are  destined.  All  the  childish  and  absurd  customs  which  marked  its 
prevalence  during  the  dark  ages,  are  preserved  nearly  unaltered  ;  the  processions  and  ex- 
hibitions, in  which  the  events  of  sacred  history  are  represented,  often  in  a  familiar  and  ludi- 
crous manner ;  the  endless  festivals,  which  impoverish  the  nation,  and  favour  its  natural 
indolence ;  and  the  zeal  of  multitudes,  who  are  induced  by  mistaken  piety  to  withdraw 
themselves  from  their  families  and  the  world.  Mr.  Blanco  White  has  given  a  striking 
account  of  the  artifices  by  which  the  young  female  is  led  to  make  the  irrevocable  sacrifice ; 
the  respect  and  importance  attaclied  to  her  during  the  period  of  noviciate ;  the  ceremonies, 
which  resemble  those  of  marriage,  even  the  name  of  bride  being  given  to  her ;  and  the  dis- 
grace attached  to  a  retractation.  Yet  it  appears  evident,  from  the  same  author,  that  this 
profession  is  otlen  deeply  sincere ;  that  it  aids  in  producing  that  strong  moral  feeling  which 
prevails  throughout  the  nation;  that  many  are  even  tormented  by  minute  conscientious 
scruples ;  and  that,  with  such  persons,  absolution,  founded  on  false  pretensions  to  penitence, 
is  considered  as  aggravating  the  guilt.  At  the  same  time,  there  is  a  combination  of  deep 
devotion  and  dissolute  conduct,  which  not  only  rapidly  succeed  each  other,  but  actually  co- 
exist, in  a  manner  never  seen  in  any  Protestant  society.  It  may  be  observed,  that  amid  this 
thick  darkness  which  covers  the  nation,  a  body  of  men  has  lately  arisen,  of  active  and  en- 
quiring minds,  who  have  discerned  the  errors  of  the  national  creed,  and  have  passed  to  the 
opposite  extreme.  They  are  comparatively  few  in  number,  however ;  and,  as  already  ob- 
served, even  in  their  greatest  triumph,  although  they  considerably  reduced  the  conventual 
establishments  of  Spain,  they  never  durst  attempt  to  introduce  the  toleration  of  any  form  of 
worship  different  from  the  Catholic. 

Spanish  literature,  during  the  era  of  the  national  glory,  supported  itself  at  least  on  a 


574  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  P.vkt  III. 

level  with  that  of  any  other  nation  in  Europe.     Spain  had,  as  it  were,  a  literature  to  itself, 
scarcely  any  of  the  productions  of  which,  if  we  except  the  inimitable  satire  of  Cervantes, 
became  familiar  to  the  rest  of  Europe.     During  the  middle  age,  she  was  rich  in  chivalric 
romance,  the  taste  for  which,  however,  was  banished  by  the  appearance  of  Don  Quixote,  a 
change  which  some  lament,  as  having  led  to  the  decline  of  the  national  spirit.     The  poetry 
of  Spain,  roused  by  so  many  vicissitudes  of  internal  revolution  and  transmarine   triumph, 
took  a  somewhat  lofty  flight.     The  Araucana  of  Ercilla,  celebrating  her  conquests  in  the 
New  World,  is  named  together,  though  not  on  a  level,  with  the  best  modern  epics.     Gar- 
cilasso  de  la  Vega,  Villegas,  IMendoza,  and  others,  chiefly  officers  in  the  army  of  Charles  V., 
introduced  a  style  formed  on  the  Italian  model ;  and,  having  the  advantage  of  a  noble  and 
sonorous  language,  worked  up  their  verses  to  the  highest  polish.     But  it  is  in  the  drama, 
that  the  Spaniards  have  been  chiefly  distinguished.     Lope  de  Vega  and  Calderon,  indeed, 
construct  their  plots  with  an  entire  disregard  of  the  unities,  filled  with  extravagant  incidents, 
and  strained  and  artificial  sentiments.     But  they  display  an  inexhaustible  fertility  of  inven-  . 
tion,  and  often  strong  traits  of  character ;  so  that,  though  they  never  could  be  transferred 
entire  to  any  other  stage,  they  furnished  useful  hints  both  to  the  French  and  English  dra- 
matists.    Mariana's  History  of  Spain  ranks  among  classical  productions ;  while  Herrera  and 
Solis,  though  of  inferior  merit,  have  produced  valuable  histories  of  the  Spanish  transactions 
in  the  New  World.     To  Don  Antonio  de  Solis,  the  Spaniards  are  willing  to  ascribe  that  in- 
imitable satire  on  human  character  and  manners,  Gil  Bias,  which  must,  they  say,  have  been 
written  by  a  Spaniard  and  a  courtier.     As  such,  he  might  rejoice  that  it  had  amply  fulfilled 
his  intentions  without  compromising  his  security,  and  could  very  well  afford  to  dispense  with 
the  fame  which  redounded  to  its  reputed  author,  Le  Sage.     These  writers  belong  to  the 
classic  age  of  Spain,  which  nearly  expired  with  the  seventeenth  century ;  but  of  late,  the 
intellectual  spirit  which  has  spread  so  actively  throughout  Europe,  has  penetrated  into 
Spain,  and  made  vigorous  struggles  against  the  night  of  ignorance  and  prejudice  in  which 
that  country  was  mvolved.     Campomanes,  Ustariz,  Jovellanos,  and  Arguelles,  have  endea- 
voured to  trace  the  causes  which  have  paralysed  Spanish  industry,  and  to  discover  the  means 
of  reviving  it ;  Feyjoo  has  done  much  to  rouse  a  spirit  of  reflection  ;  Yriarte,  Isla,  and  Me- 
lendez  Valdez,  have  produced  agreeable  miscellaneous  writings ;  and  Moratin  has  adopted  a 
more  regular  drama,  formed  on  the  French  model.     There  are  extensive  public   libraries  ; 
one,  the  royal  library  in  Madrid,  consisting  of  130,000  volumes,  with  valuable  manuscripts, 
and  a  rich  collection  of  medals ;  and  others  in  the  great  provincial  towns  ;  but  the  preva- 
lence of  monkish  legends,  and  the  prohibition  of  many  of  the  most  important  standard  works, 
greatly  limit  their  value.     The  universities  are  numerous,  and  that  of  Salamanca  once  per- 
haps the  most  celebrated  in  Europe  ;  but  education  being  conducted  upon  obsolete  and  scho- 
lastic principles,  and  impregnated  with  the  national  bigotry,  they  have  long  ceased  to  attract 
students  from  any  place  out  of  Spain.     Some  of  the  younger  members  were  supposed  to 
have  embraced  novel  ideas  in  regard  to  religion  and  government ;  whence  they  have  become 
objects  of  jealousy  to  the  government,  which  will  probably  be  little  anxious  to  rescue  them 
from  that  decay  into  which  they  were  thrown  by  the  events  of  the  revolution. 

The  fine  arts,  especially  painting,  could  boast  in  Spain  of  a  dis- 
tinguished school,  marked  by  features  strikingly  national  and 
original.  It  is  characterised  by  depth,  force,  great  truth  of  nature, 
and  a  warm  expression  of  devotional  feeling.  Murillo,  Ribeira 
(self-named  Spagnoletto),  and  Velasquez,  are  those  alone  whose 
works  are  diffused  throughout  Europe ;  but  by  those  who  have 
visited  Spain,  Cano,  Juanes,  Ribalta,  and  Jlorales  are  mentioned 
in  terms  of  equal  praise.  The  Escurial  and  other  royal  palaces 
are  likewise  adorned  by  some  of  the  finest  pieces  of  Raphael, 
Titian,  and  Rubens.  This  taste  seems  to  have  declined  with 
that  of  literature;  and  Townshend  observed  that  the  nobles  set 
little  value  on  the  magnificent  collections  with  which  their 
palaces  were  adorned.  Of  late  the  efforts  to  revive  painting 
have  been  considerable,  but  without  producing  any  artists  of  much 
celebrity.  The  Spaniards  are  fond  of  music,  but  delight  rather 
in  detached  airs  for  the  serenade  and  ball,  than  in  that  higher 
class  in  which  the  Italians  and  Germans  excel.  The  guitar  {fig.  308.)  as  an  accompaniment 
for  song,  and  the  castanets  for  the  national  dance,  are  characteristic  Spanish  instruments. 

The  Spaniards  have  favourite  and  peculiar  diversions.  They  are  most  passionately 
attached  to  the  bull-fight :  a  large  space  is  enclosed,  sometimes  the  great  square  of  the  city, 
around  which  the  people  sit  as  in  an  amphitheatre.  The  bull,  being  introduced,  is  first 
attacked  by  the  pwadores,  or  horsemen  armed  with  spears ;  a  desperate  conflict  ensues ;  the 
horse  is  frequently  killed  or  overturned  with  his  rider,  when  persons  on  foot  run  in,  and 
distract  the  animal,  by  holding  up  different  kinds  of  coloured  stuffs.  He  is  next  attacked  by 
bander iller OS,  or  footmen  armed  with  arrows ;  and  not  only  their  skill,  but  their  dexterity  in 


Book  I. 


SPAIN. 


575 


escape,  are  the  subjects  of  admiration :  at  last,  when  the  animal  is  completely  covered  with 
309  ^  wounds,  the  matador  or  skyer  appears,  and  closes 

the  scene.  Tumultuous  applause  or  hissing  from  the 
populace  accompanies  every  part  of  this  savage  per- 
formance, according-  to  the  respective  merits  of  the 
bull  or  his  assailants.  The  comparative  excellence 
of  different  matadores  becomes  often  a  party  question, 
and  the  subject  of  keenly  agitated  discussion  in  the 
circles  of  Madrid.  Wounds  frequently,  and  death 
sometimes,  are  the  result  to  the  actors  in  this  exhi- 
bition, for  whose  benefit  a  priest  witii  holy  water  is 
in  regular  attendance.  Not  less  is  the  fondness  for 
the  dance,  particularly  under  its  national  forms  of 
the  fandango  {fig.  309.),  tlie  bolero,  and  the  giuin- 
acho,  performed  with  the  Castanet  in  tiic  hands ;  and 
The  Fandango.  jj^g  t_^^,Q  foj-^^gj.  especially  Consisting  chiefly  in  move- 

ments expressive  of  passion,  but  so  little  consonant  to  the  rules  of  decorum,  that  tlie  indul  ■ 
gence  shown  to  these  amusements  by  the  church  cannot  but  be  regarded  as  a  matter  of  sur- 
prise. 

The  dress  of  the  Spaniards  is  antique,  and  varies  much  according  to  the  diflbrent  provinces; 
that  of  the  ladies  consists  chiefly  of  a  petticoat  and  a  large  mantilla  or  veil,  covering  the 
upper  part  of  the  person.  The  grandees,  and  the  opulent  in  general,  display  a  profusion  of 
jewels ;  the  dress  of  the  men  is  slight,  and  closely  fitted  to  the  body,  with  the  exception  of 
a  loose  cloak  thrown  over  the  whole.  The  minister,  Squillace,  under  Charles  III.,  having 
conceived  that  these  cloaks,  by  concealing  the  person,  served  as  a  cover  to  deeds  of  violence, 
stationed  persons  at  the  corners  of  the  streets,  who  seized  the  passengers,  and  forcibly  cut 
down  this  part  of  their  dress  to  the  legal  dimensions ;  but  this  measure  raised  so  violent  and 
general  a  clamour,  that  the  king  was  forced  to  appease  it  by  the  sacrifice  of  the  minister 
who  had  attempted  such  an  obnoxious  curtailment. 

Both  in  eating  and  drinking  the  Spaniards  are  temperate ;  the  only  noted  national  dish  is 
the  olla  podrida,  in  which  various  meats,  vegetables,  and  herbs  are  mi.xed  together  in  a 
manner  which  even  foreigners  admit  to  be  palatable.  The  pleasures  of  society  are  chiefly 
sought  at  tertulias  or  evening  parties,  where  only  slight  refresliment  is  presented  ;  but 
refrescos  or  dinner  parties  are  given  on  a  large  scale  upon  very  special  occasions. 

Sect.  VII. — Local  Geography. 

Of  the  divisions  of  Spain,  the  most  prominent  is  into  kingdoms  or  principalities,  each  of 
which,  at  some  period  of  its  eventful  history,  enjoyed  an  independent  existence,  tliough  they 
are  now  merged  into  one  monarchy.  More  recently  the  country  has  been  split  into  a  number 
of  smaller  departments  or  jurisdictions ;  but  the  original  distinction  into  kingdoms,  being 
founded  upon  natural  limits,  and  maintained  by  feelings  and  impressions  derived  from  former 
independence,  is  still  the  most  interesting.  The  kingdoms  are  New  Castile,  Estremadura, 
Old  Castile,  Leon,  Galicia,  Asturias,  Biscay,  Navarre,  Catalonia,  Aragon,  Valencia,  Murcia, 
Granada,  and  Andalusia. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  divisions  and  subdivisions  of  Spain,  with  the  extent  and 
population  of  each,  according  to  Hassel : — 


(  Madrid 

Toledo 

New  Castile-;  Guadalaxara 

1  Cuenca 

[La  Mancha  . 
Estremadura 

(  Burgos 

Old  Castile  ]ietovia'::;: 

f  Avila  ....... 

f Leon  

I  Palencia  . .  •■ 

T  J  Tnro 

Leon Walladolid  .. 

Zamora 

(  Salamanca. 


Square 
Leagues. 


Population. 


no 

208,000 

734 

485,000 

1G3 

153,000 

045 

302,000 

031 

257,000 

1199 

55(i,000 

C42 

012,000 

341 

2()7.000 

290 

221,000 

215 

153,000 

403 

311,000 

145 

1.53,000 

165 

12li,000 

271 

243,000 

133 

03,000 

471 

273,000 

Asturias 
Galicia 
Catalonia 
Navarre 

Riscay 
Biscay ^  Guipuscoa 

Alava 
Aragon 
Valencia 
Murcia 
Granada 

Andalusia 


With  New  Castile,  the  central  and  metropolitan  province,  we  commence  our  survey :  it 
consists  chiefly  of  an  extensive  plain  enclosed  between  two  of  the  long  parallel  mountain 
rano-es,  the  Sierra  de  Guadarrama  and  the  Sierra  de  Toledo.  Along  this  plain,  and  parallel 
to  both  ranges,  the  Tagus  flows  in  a  deep  rocky  bed.  Beyond  the  Sierra  de  Toledo,  the 
district  of  La  Mancha,  which  we  include  also  in  New  Castile,  extends  to  a  third  paralle 
mountain  rano-e,  the  Sierra  Morena,  dividing  it  from  Andalusia  and  the  southern  provinces 


576  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY  P.^t  III. 

The  plain  of  Castile  Proper  is  elevated  and  naked ;  and  being  thus  exposed  to  the  sun's 
direct  rays,  presents  a  bare  and  parched  appearance.  It  includes,  however,  fertile  valleys, 
producing  wine,  oil,  grain,  and  fruits  of  various  kinds;  but  the  inhabitants  are  extremely 
deficient  in  every  species  of  industry. 

]\Iadrid  (Jig.  310.),  the  capital  of  Castile,  and  of  "  all  the  Spains,"  stands  on  several  low 
hills  on  the  immense  Castilian  plain,  which  on  the  north  appears  bounded  by  the  high  distant 
range  of  tlie  Guadarrama,  but  on  every  other  side  has  no  visible  termination.  A  small  rivulet, 
the  Manzanares,  flows  past  the  city,  and  falls  into  the  Tagus.    Madrid  is  a  superb  but  some- 

310 


what  gloomy  capital ;  the  houses  are  high,  well  built  of  good  stone,  not  defaced  by  smoke ; 
the  streets  are  well  paved,  and  have  broad  footpaths.  The  main  street  of  Alcala,  long, 
spacious,  and  bordered  on  each  side  by  a  row  of  princely  houses,  attracts  particular  admira- 
tion. The  Prado,  a  wide  public  walk,  bordered  by  trees,  and  connected  with  gardens  all  open 
to  the  public,  is  equally  conducive  to  ornament  and  pleasure.  There  are  many  public  foun- 
tains, supplied  with  pure,  light,  and  salubrious  water,  filtered  through  beds  of  gravel  and 
sand,  from  a  distance  of  seven  or  eight  leagues.  The  gates  built  by  Charles  III.  are  uncom- 
monly beautiful,  particularly  that  of  Alcala;  but  in  a  miserable  wall  which  might  be  battered 
down  b}^  a  three-pounder  in  half  an  hour.  The  royal  palace,  built  by  Philip  V.,  is  a  spacious 
and  magnificent  structure,  though  the  taste  displayed  in  it  is  a  subject  of  controversy.  It 
contains  numerous  fine  paintings,  which  do  not  equal,  however,  those  of  the  Escurial.  The 
Retire,  with  its  fine  gardens,  was  defaced  by  the  French,  who  made  it  a  military  post;  an 
extensive  and  costly  menagerie  is  now  forming  within  its  precincts.  The  museum  of  sta- 
tuary and  painting,  a  new  and  elegant  building,  has  recently  been  enriched  with  some  of  the 
finest  pictures  from  the  royal  palaces.  The  cabinet  of  natural  history,  supported  by  the 
government,  is  also  a  handsome  structure,  and  its  contents  valuable.  The  environs  of  IMadrid 
are  not  remarkable  for  beauty ;  they  are  much  broken  into  hills  and  hollows ;  so  that,  of  the 
200  villages  situated  in  them,  only  three  or  four  can  be  seen  at  once.   Population,  201,000. 

Toledo,  even  in  its  present  decay,  excites  an  interest  equal  or  superior  to  INIadrid.  Once 
the  proud  capital  of  Spain,  it  has  a  commanding  site  on  a  lofty  rock,  almost  insulated  by  the 
Tagus.  A  position  so  strong  rendered  it  a  grand  national  bulwark  during  the  long  a^es  of 
internal  warfare,  but  occasioned  its  desertion  during  peace,  when  it  was  felt  as  extremely 
inconvenient,  the  streets  being  so.  steep  that  a  carriage  can  scarcely  drive  safely  through 
them.  Its  manufactures  of  wool  and  silk,  which  are  said  once  to  have  employed  nearly 
40,000  men,  have  disappeared ;  and  government  has  in  vain  attempted  to  revive  that  of 
swords,  of  which  those  formerly  manufactured  at  Toledo  were  valued  above  all  otliers.  Its 
population  of  200,000  has  been  reduced  to  25,000  ;  and  it  presents  a  mere  mass  of  narrow, 
deserted,  winding,  and  dirty  streets.  Toledo,  however,  still  exhibits  two  grand  monuments; 
the  Alcazar  or  palace,  and  the  cathedral.  The  former  is  a  noble  and  extensive  pile,  in  a 
pure  style  of  architecture,  and  the  granite  columns  of  the  Corinthian  order  which  adorn  the 
inner  court  are  particularly  admired.  The  grand  staircase  and  spacious  gallery,  no  longer 
crowded  with  guards  and  courtiers,  are  now  dirty,  deserted,  and  silent.  The  edifice,  though 
neglected  and  decaying,  still  wears  a  stately  and  imposing  aspect;  "and  its  handsome  front, 
immense  quadrangle,  and  elegant  colonnade,  declare  it  to  have  been  the  pride  and  ornament 
of  a  happier  period."  The  cathedral  is  also  one  of  the  grandest  edifices  in  the  Peninsula. 
It  was  originally  a  mosque,  built  in  a  grand  style  ;  but  its  simplicity  has  been  much  impaired 
by  tasteless  additions,  and  by  the  profusion  of  gilding,  relics,  and  statues,  with  which  its 
interior  has  been  filled.  It  retained  its  wealth  and  splendour,  however,  till  the  late  war, 
when  its  treasures  became  the  prey  of  the  invader,  and  its  six  hundred  ecclesiastics  were 
dispersed,  leaving  only  a  few  to  perform  the  sacred  functions. 

Two  other  considerable  towns  in  New  Castile  are  Guadalaxara,  to  the  east  of  Madrid, 
where  the  government  has  established  a  manufacture  of  fine  cloth  on  a  great  scale ;  it  is  of 
course  an  ill-conducted  and  unprofitable  concern ;  yet  it  supports  the  population  of  12,000 


Book  I.  SPAIN.  577 

or  14,000  in  a  degree  of  comfort  not  usual  in  Spanish  towns :  and  further  east,  Cuen^a,  the 
capital  of  a  mountain  district  of  the  same  name,  interposed  between  Valencia  and  the 
plain  of  Castile.  It  is  a  small  ancient  city,  distinguished  by  a  cathedral  and  some  other 
monuments. 

La  Mancha,  sometimes  reckoned  a  separate  province,  is  the  most  southern  part  of  Castile, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Sierra  de  Toledo.  It  is  an  immense  table-plain,  inter- 
sected by  different  ridges  of  low  hills  and  rocks,  without  a  tree  except  a  few  dwarf  evei- 
green  oaks ;  or  an  enclosure,  except  mud  walls  round  the  villages.  AH  this  vast  tract  of 
open  country  is  cultivated,  and  produces  corn  or  vines :  its  wine,  especially  that  of  Val  de 
Peiias,  enjoys  a  high  repute.  Its  name,  however,  is  chiefly  familiar  to  the  public  as  having 
given  an  appellation  to  the  celebrated  hero  of  Cervantes.  The  names  of  Don  Quixote  and 
Sancho  Panza  are  familiar  to  the  district;  and  the  dress  of  the  peasantry  presents  still  an 
exact  model  of  that  of  the  doughty  squire.  There  are  a  number  of  large  villages ;  and  Ciu- 
dad  Real,  the  capital,  is  well  built  in  a  fine  plain,  though  it  has  lost  much  of  its  former  pros- 
perity.    Almagro  and  Ocana  are  also  pretty  considerable  towns. 

Estremadura  forms  a  continuation  to  the  west  of  tiie  same  plain  as  New  Castile,  traversed 
like  it  by  the  Tagus,  and  bounded  by  the  same  ranges  of  mountains.  It  is  a  fine,  wide, 
wild  province,  diversified  by  rugged  mountains,  deep  valleys,  and  almost  boundless  plains. 
The  depopulation  generally  complained  of  in  Spain  seems  more  remarkable  here  than  in  any 
other  province ;  and  vast  tracts  may  be  passed  without  seeing  a  human  habitation.  This 
seems  cliiefly  owmg  to  the  pernicious  laws  of  the  Mesta,  which  assign  it  almost  entirely  for 
the  occupation  of  the  merino  flocks,  wlien  they  descend  from  the  mountains  of  Leon.  Estre- 
madura, therefore,  forms  a  vast  pastoral  district ;  only  a  small  proportion  of  its  surface  bemg 
necessary  to  furnish  grain  for  its  scattered  population.  Yet  the  Romans  made  it  one  of  the 
chief  seats  of  their  dominion ;  and  no  part  of  the  Peninsula  exhibits  more  striking  works 
and  monuments  of  that  great  people.  The  Estremenos  also  retain  much  of  the  antique 
Spanish  aspect  and  character ;  and  no  province,  during  the  late  crisis,  made  more  strikmg  dis- 
plays of  patriotic  energy. 

The  cities  are  no  longer  considerable.  Badajos,  the  capital,  a  strange  corruption  of  the 
Roman  name  Pax  Augusta,  is  a  considerable  and  strong  town,  but  much  shattered  by  the 
successive  sieges  it  sustained  in  the  late  war  from  Soult  and  Wellington.  Merida,  the 
ancient  capital  of  Lusitania,  excites  more  interest,  from  the  striking  remains  which  it  pre- 
sents of  Roman  magnificence.  The  amphitheatre,  baths,  a  lofty  triumphal  arch,  three  votive 
altars,  and  a  handsome  stone  bridge,  are  all  magnificent  monuments,  and  in  wonderful  pre- 
servation. Truxillo,  an  old  city,  of  small  extent,  was  the  birth-place  of  Pizarro,  whose 
splendid  mansion  is  still  to  be  seen,  adorned  with  barbarous  trophies  of  his  conquest.  Alma- 
raz  is  distinguished  chiefly  by  the  very  noble  modern  bridge  adjoining  to  it.  Talavera  de 
la  Reyna,  once  splendid  but  now  decayed,  has  acquired  recent  lustre  from  being  the  theatre 
of  one  of  the  greatest  battles  fought  during  the  peninsular  war.  In  the  extensive  plain 
north  of  the  Tagus  are  tlie  two  pleasant  little  cities  of  Coria  and  Placencia;  the  latter  of 
which  was  the  scene  of  the  singular  monastic  retirement  of  Charles  V.  In  the  mountains 
separating  this  part  of  the  province  from  Leon  is  a  rocky  region,  of  the  most  savage  and 
desolate  character,  called  Batuecas. 

Old  Castile  is  situated  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  chain  of  mountains  which  forms  the 
northern  boundary  of  New  Castile.  It  presents  a  high  variegated  table-land,  separated  on 
the  north  by  the  Cantabrian  chain  from  Asturias.  Some  parts  are  rugged ;  but  it  is,  upon 
the  whole,  a  fertile  well-watered  region,  traversed  by  the  Duero  in  its  early  course. 
There  are  many  tracts  of  rich  pasturage,  and  others  equally  fitted  for  the  growth  of  corn. 
It  is,  however,  one  of  the  provinces  in  which  the  marks  of  decay  are  most  striking.  The 
capitals  are  neglected  and  ruinous;  large  portions  are  left  uncultivated;  and  of  the  fine 
manufactures  of  cloth  from  tlie  merino  wool,  only  a  remnant  is  now  supported  by  the  aid  of 
government.  Castilian  pride  and  indolence  have  fixed  here  their  old  and  central  seat:  the 
hidalgos  belonging  to  Old  Castile  amount  to  146,000,  a  much  larger  proportion  than  in  any 
other  province.  *  .  .        .  ,     „ 

Burgos,  the  once  magnificent  capital  of  the  kings  of  Castile,  and  the  highest  m  rank  of 
any  city  in  the  kingdom,  is  dwindled  into  a  poor  place,  not  containing  above  10,0(M)  inhabit- 
ants. Amid  its  gloomy  and  decayed  streets,  however,  towers  the  cathedral,  one  of  the  finest 
specimens  of  Gothic  architecture  existing  in  Europe,  and  the  form  of  wliich  bears  a  con- 
siderable resemblance  to  that  of  York  minster.  The  strong  ancient  castle,  which  had  fallen' 
into  decay,  was  so  far  re-established  by  the  French,  that  it  successfully  stood  a  long  siege 
from  tlie  Duke  of  Wellington. 

Of  the  other  towns  of  Old  Castile,  Segovia  presents  some  interesting  monuments  ot 
Roman  and  Moorish  grandeur.  Its  aqueduct  {fig.  311.),  of  159  arches,  nearly  half  a  mile 
lono-,  and  in  one  place  94  feet  high,  is  a  stupendous  Roman  work,  ranked  by  Swinburne 
above  the  Pont  du  Gard.  The  Alcazar,  or  royal  castle,  was  erected  by  the  Moors  on  a 
rock  overlooking  a  wide  range  of  country.    After  it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Cluris- 

VoL.  L  49  i^ 


578 


DESCRIPl'IVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


tians,  it  was  employed  as  a  state  prison,  and  is  now  a  military  school.     Five  centuries  ago, 
Seo-ovia  had  very  extensive  manufactures  of  fine  cloth;  but  these,  notwithstanding  the 

honour  of  having  tlie  king  for  a  part- 
"^11  A^     nor,  liave  dwindled  to  a  very  small 

amount.  Population  15,000.  Avila, 
capital  of  a  small  province  of  the 
same  name,  is  a  city  of  ancient  dis- 
tinction; and  its  massy  walls,  its 
towers,  its  Alcazar,  and  the  dome  of 
the  old  cathedral,  render  it  imposing 
at  a  distance ;  but  it  is  in  a  state  of 
wretched  desertion.  The  attempt  to 
establish  manufactures  of  cloth  and 
cotton  has  not  been  successflil.  Soria, 
near  the  site  of  the  ancient  Numantia, 

Aqueduct  of  Segovia.  ^^  ^j^^  ^.j^j^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^■^^^   p^g^Q^  ^Car 

its  source,  is  a  tolerable  country  town,  capital  of  one  of  the  smaller  provinces  into  which 
Old  Castile  has  been  subdivided. 

Tlie  palaces  of  the  Escurial  {Jig.  312.)  and  San  Ildefonso  are  striking  objects  in  Old  Cas- 
tile.    The   "  royal  monastery "    of  the 
312  Escurial  was  founded  by  Philip  11.  on  a 

plan  entirely  congenial  to  his  gloomy 
mind.  It  unites  the  characters  of  a 
palace  and  a  convent ;  and  has  the  form 
of  a  gridiron,  the  instrument  of  the 
martyrdom  of  St.  Lorenzo,  to  whom  it 
is  dedicated.  Attached  to  it  is  the  Pan- 
theon, a  classic  and  somewhat  profane 
structure,  in  which,  however,  are  in- 
terred all  the  crowned  kings  and  queens 
of  Spain  since  Charles  V.  The  wealth 
*'^""^'-  of  the  Spanish  monarchs  has  been  con- 

tinually employed  in  adding  new  ornaments  to  this  favourite  residence,  which  is  considered 
by  the  nation  as  the  eighth  wonder  of  the  world ;  and  large  volumes  have  been  filled  with 
descriptions  of  it.  The  church  and  the  great  altar  have  scarcely  a  rival  for  magnificence 
and  grandeur  of  effect.  The  library  is  not  extensive,  but  contains  manuscripts,  especially 
Arabic,  that  are  of  great  value.  The  collection  of  paintings,  it  is  probable,  yields  only  to 
that  which  covers  the  walls  of  the  Vatican.  Besides  select  productions  of  IMurillo  and 
other  masters  of  the  Spanish  school,  it  contains  several  of  the  greatest  works  of  Rapliael, 
Titian,  and  others  of  the  first  Italian  masters.  The  environs  are  wild  and  naked  in  the 
extreme,  witliout  shelter  from  the  cold  blasts  of  winter,  or  the  intense  heats  of  summer. 
On  the  opposite  declivity  of  the  same  mountains,  looking  towards  the  north,  San  Ildefonso, 
without  any  pretensions  to  equal  magnificence,  is  finely  surrounded  by  woods,  gardens,  and 
beautiful  jets  d'eau.  Aranjuez  stands  in  quite  a  different  situation,  on  the  lowest  plain  of 
Castile,  at  the  junction  of  the  Tagus  and  the  Xarama.  It  is  chiefly  admired  for  its  mag- 
nificent woods  and  gardens ;  the  former  carried  in  long  and  spacious  avenues,  the  latter  con- 
taining in  profusion  the  finest  native  and  exotic  plants. 

Leon  forms  a  continuation  of  the  plain  of  Old  Castile,  along  the  lower  course  of  tlie 
Duero,  and  bounded  by  the  same  ranges  of  mountains.  For  several  centuries  it  was  the 
seat  of  a  kingdom,  comprising  the  chief  Christian  power  in  Spain,  until  it  was  united  to  that 
of  Castile,  'it  is  almost  entirely  within  the  domain  of  the  jnesta,  and  thus  devoted  princi- 
pally to  pasturage.  The  consequent  depopulation  has  been  very  great;  insomuch  that, 
according  to  Townshend,  the  bishopric  of  Salamanca,  which  once  contained  748  townships, 
is  now  reduced  to  333.  The  vast  extent  of  open  plain  whicii  forms  the  centre  of  tiiis  pro- 
vince has  been  found  liighly  favourable  to  an  invader  who  possessed  superior  cavalry  ;  such 
as  the  floors  once,  and  more  latterly  the  French. 

The  cities  of  Leon  are  almost  solely  interesting  from  the  traces  which  they  present  of 
ancient  orandeur.  Leon  itself,  by  its  higlfly  ornamented  cathedral,  its  nine  convents,  and 
its  ancient  palace,  testifies  the  remote  period  when  it  was  the  seat  of  royalty ;  but  a  hetero- 
geneous assemblage  of  dirty  streets  filled  with  beggars,  splendid  churches,  and  half-ruined 
family  mansions,  are  all  that  it  now  presents.  Salamanca,  by  its  university,  has  acquired  a 
much  greater  fame.  This  seminary,  one  of  the  first  in  Europe,  was  founded  in  1200, -and 
extended  during  the  same  century  by  Alfonso  the  Wise,  celebrated  for  tlie  progress  which 
astronomy  made  under  his  auspices.  From  the  medical  knowledge  of  A  vicenna,  A  ven-oes, 
and  other  Arabian  sages,  it  derived  a  character  superior  to  those  of  the  other  monkish  univer- 
sities during  the  middle  ages.  Salamanca,  however,  remained  stationary  in  the  fourteenth 
century;  and,  while  sound  science  was  spreading  through  the  rest  of  Europe,  continued  to 


Boor  I.  SPAIN.  579 

occupy  its  students  with  dogmatic  theolo^,  and  witii  the  worship  of  Aristotle  and  Aquinas. 
Its  students,  once  reckoned  at  16,000,  have  been  reduced  to  less  than  2000.  Salamanca  is 
crowded  with  sacred  edifices,  to  enrich  which,  all  the  four  corners  of  the  world  have  been 
made  to  contribute  ;  and  on  days  of  hioli  festival  the  display  of  silver  and  precious  stones 
was  altog-ether  dazzling.  The  cathedral  and  principal  square  are  very  magnificent,  but  the 
streets  are  narrow  and  gloomy.  Captain  Sherer,  in  1813,  found  Salamanca  quite  a  deserted 
city ;  only  a  few  of  the  old  professors  and  youthful  students  still  lingered  in  the  colleges,  or 
paced  the  spacious  aisles  of  the  elegant  cathedral.  Of  the  latter,  some,  as  appears  from 
Mr.  White,  notwithstanding  the  antiquated  course  of  instruction,  had  adopted  modern  ana 
liberal  ideas,  and  in  the  late  crisis  obeyed  the  call  of  their  country  and  of  liberty.  The 
French  having  made  Salamanca  a  military  position,  a  great  part  of  the  place  was  levelled 
or  battered  down  ;  and  subsequent  events  have  not  been  favourable  to  its  restoration.  We 
must  not,  however,  dismiss  Salamanca  without  noticing  the  new  lustre  it  has  derived  from 
giving  name  to  one  of  the  most  splendid  of  Wellington's  victories. 

Valladolid  has  a  great  name  in  history.  Charles  V.  made  it  his  capital,  and  it  continued 
to  be  the  residence  of  the  Spanish  court  until  Philip  IV.  removed  it  to  Madrid.  In  these 
splendid  days  Valladolid  was  supposed,  perhaps  with  some  exaggeration,  to  contain  200,000 
inhabitants,  now  reduced  to  a  tenth  of  that  number.  Yet  it  covers  a  very  large  space  of 
ground ;  and  the  numberless  spires,  domes,  and  turrets  of  its  sacred  edifices  give  it  still  the 
appearance  of  a  large  metropolis.  Its  university  is  attended  by  2000  students,  and  taught 
by  forty-two  professors  and  fifty  doctors.  After  a  very  marked  period  of  decay,  Valladolid 
experienced  lately  a  considerable  revival.  Its  environs  are  particularly  healthy  and 
agreeable. 

Several  other  large  decayed  towns  attest  the  former  grandeur  of  Leon.  Zamora  and  Tore, 
both  on  the  Duero,  are  capitals  of  two  of  the  small  provinces.  Benavente  is  distinguished 
by  its  castle,  which  has  been  described  as  one  of  the  grandest  monuments  of  the  age  of 
chivalry ;  and  Tordesillas  was  a  royal  residence  in  the  reign  of  Charles  V.  Astorga,  once 
capita)  of  the  Asturias,  and  one  of  the  bulwarks  of  the  Peninsula,  has  lost  its  strength  and 
magnitude.  Palencia  is  also  a  small  capital,  pleasantly  situated  on  tlie  Carrion,  having  a 
little  inland  trade.  Ciudad  Rodrigo  is  a  national  barrier  on  the  Portuguese  frontier,  still 
kept  up  as  a  strong  fortress,  which  sustained  successive  sieges  during  the  peninsular  war. 

Galicia,  separated  by  its  mountain  boundary  from  Leon,  forms  tlie  north-western  comer 
of  theTeninsula.  It  is  entirely  a  highland  and  alpme  region,  broken  into  rugged  rocks  and 
narrow  passes,  though  with  valleys  of  great  fertility  and  of  peculiar  beauty  interspersed. 
The  Gallegos  are  industrious;  and  the  country  is  better  peopled  than  many  of  the  more 
favoured  regions  of  the  Peninsula.  Tliey  are  hardy  and  enterprising,  and  often  leave  this 
barren  territory  to  seek  employment  in  the  cities  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  where,  like  the 
Scottish  highlanders,  they  act  chiefly  as  porters  and  servants.  The  shores  and  ports  of  Ga- 
licia are  celebrated  in  naval  history,  forming  as  it  were  the  outer  coasts  of  Europe,  beaten 
by  the  waves  of  a  tempestuous  ocean,  and  where  fleets  from  the  distant  quarters  of  the 
globe  often  made  their  first  appearance  in  Europe,  and  met  with  hostile  fleets  on  the  watch 
for  them. 

The  interior  towns  of  Galicia  have  for  tlieir  capital,  St.  Jago  de  Compostella,  the  most 
celebrated  shrine  of  the  Peninsula,  supposed  to  contain  the  body  of  St.  James,  its  patron. 
In  the  chapel  dedicated  to  him  is  his  statue,  two  feet  higli,  of  pure  gold,  illuminated  eveiy 
night  by  2000  wax  tapers.  Twenty-two  other  chapels  have  been  enriched  by  the  ofli^rings 
of^'pilgrims  from  every  part  of  the  Peninsula,  whose  numbers  have  diminished.  Lugo  pre- 
sents the  poor  remains  of  an  ancient  city  surrounded  by  a  wall  and  towers,  once  of  great 
strength,  but  now  mouldering  into  ruin.  Orense,  a  little  city,  formerly  celebrated  for  its  hot 
springs,  and  Tuy,  a  strongly  situated  fortress,  are  on  the  Portuguese  frontier. 

Of'' the  seaports  of  Galicia,  Vigo  had  the  greatest  reputation,  several  great  naval  actions 
having  been  fought  near  it ;  particularly  that  of  1702,  when  the  whole  fleet  of  Spanish 
galleons  was  sunk  or  taken  by  the  English.  It  has  one  of  the  finest  harbours  in  Spain ; 
which,  however,  since  Ferrol  became  the  chief  naval  station,  is  only  employed  for  a  limited 
coasting  trade.  Corunna  on  the  Groyne  is  now  the  most  trading  place  in  the  province,  and 
packets  sail  from  it  to  England  and  America.  It  is  a  steep,  dirty,  but  well-paved  town,  of 
no  streno-th,  being  commanded  by  the  neighbouring  heights.  Population  23,000.  Ferrol, 
since  1752,  has  been  made  the  chief  naval  station  of  Spain.  Its  harbour,  besides  being  one 
of  the  safest  and  most  spacious  in  Europe,  has  the  advantage  of  being  accessible  only  by  a 
narrow  winding  passage  which  can  be  rendered  almost  impassable  by  a  chain  of  forts.  A 
considerable  city  has  been  formed,  and  very  extensive  docks  and  arsenals  built ;  but  since 
the  extinction  of  the  Spanish  navy,  these  have  of  course  fallen  into  considerable  neglect. 
Population  13,000. 

Tiie  Asturias  form  a  long  narrow  strip  between  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  the  Cantabrian 
mountains,  which  extend  along  its  whole  length.  It  is  celebrated  in  history  as  the  sacred 
retreat  in  which  the  hero  Pelayo  raised  again  the  national  standard,  after  it  seemed  for  ever 
trampled  under  foot  by  the  Saracen  invaders.     Since  the  fourteenth  century  tlie  Astunaa 


580  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III. 

have  given  the  title  of  prince  to  the  heirs  of  the  Spanish  throne.  The  province  is  approached 
only  by  narrow  ravines  and  passes,  through  wliich  torrents  dash,  and  which  are  overhung  by 
steep  cliffs  and  luxuriant  woods.  Tliere  are,  however,  a  number  of  valleys,  and  the  whole 
plain  of  Oviedo  is  distinguished  both  for  fruitfuluess  and  beauty.  Instead  of  wine,  a  good 
deal  of  tolerable  cider  is  made  and  exported :  amber,  jet,  and  coal  abound,  but  tlie  last 
strongly  impregnated  with  sulphur.  The  Asturians  are  brave  and  proud,  boasting  that  their 
country  was  never  conquered,  even  by  the  Romans ;  and  more  than  a  third  part  of  the  popu- 
lation is  composed  of  hidalgos. 

Oviedo,  the  only  large  town,  has  more  magnificence  than  its  situation  might  lead  us  to 
expect:  the  catlicdral  in  particular,  long  the  only  shrine  secure  from  the  rage  of  the  invader, 
afforded  an  asylum  to  many  pious  treasures  scattered  through  the  Peninsula.  Tlieso,  how- 
ever, consist  chiefly  of  relics,  valuable  only  to  devout  and  believing  eyes.  Among  them  are 
the  rod  of  Moses,  the  mantle  of  Ellas,  the  olive-branch  borne  aloft  in  entering  Jerusalem ; 
thorns  from  the  sacred  crown ;  the  milk  of  the  blessed  Virgin,  &c.  Oviedo  is  still  a  con- 
siderable town,  with  a  rich  bishopric,  and  many  religious  houses,  of  which  the  principal  is  a 
convent  of  Benedictine  nuns.  Population  10,000.  Gijon,  though  with  a  costly  and  not  very 
complete  harbour,  carries  on  all  tlie  little  trade  of  the  province.  Avila  and  Santillana  are 
large  villages,  giving  their  name  to  districts.  Santander  and  Santona  are  sea-ports  of  some 
little  consequence,  in  the  district  of  JNIontana,  on  tlie  borders  of  Biscay. 

Biscay  is  a  small,  higli,  rugged  province,  on  tlie  western  slope  of  tlie  Pyrenees.  Streams 
descending  from  its  numerous  heiglits,  combine  in  forming  tlie  channel  of  the  Upper  Ebro. 
The  Basques  are  a  peculiar  race,  preserving  the  only  remnant  which  revolutions  liave  left 
in  the  Peninsula,  of  Celtic  language  and  aspect.  Under  the  name  of  Cantabria,  this  region 
presented  a  barrier  even  to  Roman  conquest ;  and  though  the  Saracens  penetrated  through 
it  into  the  plains  of  France,  it  is  still  boasted  that  they  never  could  reach  the  mountains  of 
High  Cantabria.  The  Basques,  amid  the  general  slavery  of  Spain,  have  still  preserved 
some  portion  of  their  original  rights.  They  have  a  cortes  of  their  own;  and  the  taxes,  levied 
by  provincial  authority,  are  presented  to  the  sovereign  in  the  form  of  a  free  frift.  Every 
native  Biscayan  is  an  hidalgo  or  noble,  scarcely  owning  a  superiority  of  birth  in  the  proudest 
Castilian.  With  all  this  they  are  excessively  industrious  ;  the  mountain  declivities  are  cul- 
tivated as  high  as  the  plough  can  reach ;  and  while  the  finest  plains  of  Castile  are  nearly  a 
desert,  Biscay's  rude  vales  are  covered  with  a  numerous  population. 

The  cities  in  such  a  district  cannot  be  large :  yet  Bilboa,  the  capital,  situated  on  the 
Ybaizabal,  which  admits  large  vessels  up  to  the  town,  is  one  of  the  most  commercial  places 
in  Spain,  with  15,000  inhabitants.  Most  of  the  merino  wool  from  tlie  plains  of  Castile  is 
brought  hither  for  exportation.  Biscay  Proper  contains  also  Orduna,  a  neat  little  city,  and 
numerous  villages.  Guipuscoa  is  another  district,  lying  more  to  the  east,  and  in  closer  con- 
tact with  France.  Its  capital  is  St.  Sebastian,  an  indifferent  port,  but  a  neat,  tolerably  large 
city,  and  so  strongly  fortified  as  to  be  considered  one  of  the  four  keys  of  the  kingdom ;  the 
others  being  Pamplona,  Barcelona,  and  Figueras.  Fontarabia,  close  to  the  frontier,  has  a 
great  name  in  history,  but  little  else  is  now  left.  The  small  village  of  Irun  stands  on  the 
immediate  bank  of  the  Bidassoa,  whose  broad  clear  stream,  descending  fi-om  the  Pyrenees, 
forms  the  boundary  between  two  rival  and  long  hostile  nations.  More  in  the  interior,  and 
on  a  lower  level,  is  the  district  of  Alava,  having  for  its  capital  Vittoria,  a  somewhat  well- 
built  modern  town,  and  celebrated  as  the  theatre  of  the  complete  victory  there  gained  by  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  over  the  French  army  under  Joseph  Bonaparte,  which  was  thence 
finally  expelled  from  the  Peninsula. 

Navarre  is  a  small  province  or  kingdom,  lying  immediately  beneath  the  highest  and 
steepest  Pyrenees.  Eight  very  diflicult  passes  penetrate  through  them  into  France,  but 
scarcely  any  one  passable  for  the  artillery  and  train  of  an  army.  The  principal  is  that  of 
St.  Jean  Pied  de  Port;  on  the  French  side  of  which  is  Roncesvalles,  or  Roncevaux,  cele- 
brated in  history,  and  still  more  in  romance,  for  tlie  disaster  which  there  befell  Cliarlemagne 
and  his  knights.  For  many  centuries  it  formed  a  separate  little  kingdom  connected  with 
France,  until  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  succeeded  in  annexing  to  Spain  all  the  part  south  of 
the  Pyrenees.  Navarre  retains,  however,  privileges  and  customs  peculiar  to  itself,  and  i»B 
governor  bears  the  title  of  viceroy.  The  population  is  active,  hardy,  and  brave.  The  banas 
of  guerrillas  under  Mina  proved  the  most  formidable  irregular  force  with  which  the  French 
had  to  contend  in  the  Peninsula.  Pamplona,  or  Pampeluna,  the  capital,  the  foundation  of 
which  is  ascribed  to  Pompey,  is  one  of  the  chief  bulwarks  of  the  Peninsula,  and  one  of  the 
strongest  fortresses  in  Europe.  It  was  reduced  by  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  and  by  the 
French,  in  their  last  invasion,  after  a  long  blockade.  There  are  also  Tudela  and  Calahorra, 
J.ttle  towns  on  the  Ebro.     Pampeluna  has  10,000  inhabitants. 

Aragon,  south  from  Navarre,  is  an  extensive  province,  extending  along  the  greater  part 
of  the'course  of  the  Ebro ;  whence  it  reaches  on  one  side  to  the  Pyrenees,  and  on  the  other 
to  the  chains  which  shut  in  the  Castiles  and  Valencia.  A  great  part  of  it  is  rugged  and 
barren ;  though  other  tracts  in  the  ceirtral  plains,  and  along  the  rivers,  are  very  susceptible 
of  culture.     Aragon,  during  the  middle  ages,  was  a  powerful  kmgdom,  comprising  Catalonia 


Book  T.  SPAIN.  581 

and  Valencia,  forming  the  half  of  Christian  Spain,  then  divided  between  it  and  Castile. 
Even  after  the  union  of  the  crowns  under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  it  still  enjoyed  its  consti- 
tution and  its  cortes,  which  exercised  higjlier  prerogatives,  and  kept  the  power  of  the  kings 
under  stricter  limitations,  than  any  similar  assembly  in  Europe.  Of  these  it  was  deprived 
by  the  unfortunate  issue  of  the  civil  war  under  Charles  V.,  and  more  completely  by  the 
Bourbon  succession,  after  Aragon  had  espoused  the  cause  of  CJiarlcs  of  Austria.  'I'he  pea- 
santry of  this  province  are  a  fine  body  of  men,  stout,  brave,  and  honest.  Culture  and  popu- 
lation are  generally  in  a  backward  state ;  yet  the  canal  of  Aragon,  conducted  parallel  to  the 
course  of  the  Ebro,  though  it  has  not  yet  reached  tiie  sea,  according  to  its  deslmation,  has 
given  a  considerable  impulse  to  tlie  agriculture  of  the  district  through  which  it  is  led. 

Saragossa,  or  Zaragoza,  the  capital  of  Arjfgon,  is  a  large  and  celebrated  city,  situated 
amid  a  fine  plain,  on  the  banks  of  the  Ebro  and  of  the  canal  of  Aragon.  PVom  Augustus, 
who  enlarged  and  improved  it,  tlie  city  was  called  Csesar-Augnsia,  corrupted  into  Saragossa. 
It  is  not  well  built,  the  streets  being  narrow  and  crooked  ;  but  there  are  several  open  market- 
places, and  some  very  splendid  religious  edifices.  The  principal  is  tliat  dedicated  to  the 
Virgin,  under  the  title  of  "  Our  I-ady  of  tiie  Pillar;"  an  object  of  the  most  profound  venera- 
tion to  the  citizens,  and  enriched  by  offerings  from  every  part  of  Spain.  Tlie  church  of  St. 
Engracia  is  also  filled  with  relics  and  gifts ;  and  each  of  the  forty  convents  of  Saragossa  has 
its  peculiar  boast.  A  stone  bridge,  and  the  finest  wooden  bridge  in  Europe,  are  thrown  over 
the  Ebro.  The  university  has  2()0(J  students,  but  not  much  literature.  Saragossa  has  earned 
an  immortal  name  by  her  heroic  resistance  against  the  unprincipled  invasion  of  iVajxjleon,  in 
1808.  Witiiout  walls,  except  an  old  one  of  earth,  which  could  not  resist  for  an  Iiour  an 
attack  conducted  on  modern  principles ;  without  army,  arms,  or  artillery,  it  maintained  a  long 
and  finally  successful  conflict  with  tlie  French,  in  their  first  invasion.  Afterwards,  when 
assailed  by  an  immense  and  overwhelming  forcA,  the  flower  of  the  Frcncli  armies,  without 
hope  of  relief,  it  made  a  mighty  resistance ;  and  it  was  only  by  mining  operations,  blowing 
up  successively  house  after  house,  that  the  French  finally  became  its  masters,  after  having 
reduced  it  to  a  heap  of  ruins.     Population  43,000. 

Aragon  has  some  other  small  ancient  towns,  ranking  even  as  cities;  Jaca  and  Huesca  on 
the  northern  frontier  among  the  Pyrenees,  both  episcopal  seats;  Daroca  and  Calatayud  ui 
the  plain  bordering  on  Castile ;  tlie  former  enclosed  witli  large  ruined  Ibrtifications,  the  latter 
industrious,  and  surrounded  by  a  smiling  country. 

Catalonia,  to  the  east  of  Aragon,  is  one  of  the  finest  and  most  extensive  provinces  of  Spain. 
It  presents  a  remarkable  variety  of  surface,  from  the  steep  and  rugged  heights  of  the  higher 
Pyrenees,  to  the  elevated  valleys  of  Upper  Catalonia,  and  the  luxuriant  though  not  very 
extensive  plains  that  border  on  the  Mediterranean.  The  Catalans  redeem  to  a  great  extent 
the  Spanish  national  character,  uniting  witii  its  loftiness  and  energy  a  spirit  and  an  activity 
which  are  elsewhere  wanting.  They  have  been  always  commercial,  industrious,  and  fond 
of  liberty.  After  bearing  successively  the  yoke  of  the  Romans,  the  Goths,  and  the  Sara- 
cens, Catalonia  was  long  ruled  by  counts  of  French  descent,  whose  posterity  extended  their 
sway  over  Aragon,  and  finally  over  the  whole  Penmsula,  in  which  this  principality  merged. 
'The  Catalans,  however,  bore  more  impatiently  than  other  Spaniards  the  loss  of  their  privi- 
leges ;  and  duruig  the  war  of  the  succession,  on  receiving  a  pledge  for  their  restitution, 
espoused  with  extraordinary  ardour  the  cause  of  the  ArcJiduke  Charles.  Even  after  its 
unfortunate  issue,  when  deserted  by  Britain  and  all  the  other  powers,  they  made  a  last  dread- 
ful struggle,  which  ended,  however,  in  the  loss  of  all  those  rights  for  wiiich  tiicy  had  so 
nobly  contended.  In  the  last  two  wars,  Catalonia  acted  a  most  conspicuous  part ;  maintaining 
an  unremitted  resistance  to  France,  notwithstanding  the  close  vicinity  of  that  kingdom,  and 
in  the  late  constitutional  struggle  making  efforts,  both  for  and  against  liberty,  much  greater 
than  any  other  province. 

Barcelona  is,  after  the  capital,  the  largest  city,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  industrious 
and  flourishing,  of  all  Spain,  containing  1.50,000  inhabitants.  It  is  situated  about  the  centre 
of  the  Catalonian  coast,  and  draws  its  subsistence  from  a  fertile  and  extensive  plain  behind. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  originally  a  Carthaginian  town,  founded  by  Ilamilcar  Barcas;  but  rose 
to  little  distinction  under  the  Romans,  who  made  Tarraco  the  capital  of  all  eastern  Spam. 
It  was  not  till  the  twelfth  century  that  Barcelona  began  to  he  distinguished  for  its  commer- 
cial spirit.  It  suffered  severely  during  successive  wars,  particularly  that  of  the  succession; 
but  in  the  course  of  the  last  century,  the  exertions  of  its  patriotic  governor,  the  Marquis  of 
Mina,  enabled  it  to  retrieve  all  its  losses,  and  become  more  prosperous  than  ever.  The  port 
is  artificial,  formed  by  solid  and  convenient  moles,  but  has  a  bar  at  its  entrance,  which 
excludes  vessels  drawing  more  than  twelve  feet  of  water.  It  carried  on  a  great  and  various 
traffic ;  had  woollen,  silk,  and  cotton  manufactories,  all  on  a  considerable  scale ;  about  a 
thousand  vessels  annually  entered  its  port ;  and  the  whole  amount  of  exports  was  reckoned 
by  Laborde  at  1,750,000Z.  According  to  the  latest  account,  however,  by  the  author  of  "A 
Year  in  Spain,"  the  late  disasters  and  misgovernment  have  caused  a  great  declension  in  tlie 
above  branches  of  manufacture ;  and  instead  of  the  ranges  of  tall  masts  assembled  within 

49* 


582  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  IU 

its  mole,  there  are  to  be  seen  only  a  paltry  assemblage  of  fishing-boats  and  feluccas.  The 
ecclesiastical  edifices  of  Barcelona  are  handsome,  particularly  the  cathedral,  though  not  of 
so  grand  a  character  as  those  in  some  other  parts  of  Spain.  The  convent  of  the  Dominicans 
has  a  singular  series  of  ornaments,  the  sentences  of  five  hundred  heretics  decreed  by  the 
Inquisition,  and  under  each  sentence  a  representation  of  the  suflferer,  whom  the  demons,  in 
various  shapes,  are  torturing  and  devouring.  The  walls  of  Barcelona  are  strong,  but  its 
chief  dependence  is  upon  the  citadel  of  Montjuicli,  which  commands  it,  and  is  considered 
almost  impregnable,  though  the  Earl  of  Peterborough  toolc  it  by  surprise.  At  the  close  of 
the  war  of  tiie  succession,  when  Barcelona  was  besieged  by  the  Duke  of  Berwick,  a  terrible 
and  almost  firantic  resistance  was  made  in  the  streets,  not  by  troops,  but  by  priests,  students, 
tradesmen,  and  even  women :  the  consequences  were  terrible.  Bonaparte,  in  1808,  obtained 
by  treachery  and  tlireats  the  cession  of  this  and  the  other  keys  of  the  kingdom ;  but  in  the 
late  invasion,  its  resistance  against  Moncey  was  most  gallant. 

There  are  several  other  large,  ancient,  and  strong  towns  in  Catalonia.  Tarragona,  the 
Roman  capital  of  tlie  east  of  Spain,  has  fallen  into  great  comparative  decay,  and  lias  but 
12,000  inhabitants.  It  is  situated  on  a  rocky  peninsula,  and  presents  many  traces  of  Roman 
antiquity,  as  of  the  palace  of  Augustus,  the  ampliitheatre,  and  an  extensive  aqueduct.  More 
recently,  the  liarbour  has  been  improved,  and  some  new  streets  built ;  and  in  the  war  of 
1808,  the  fortifications  were  restored,  and  the  city  made  a  brave  defence  against  Marshal 
Suchet,  who  at  lengtli  carried  it  by  storm,  with  circumstances  of  great  cruelty.  Tortosa  is 
also  a  considerable  and  ancient  city  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ebro,  which  is  there  broad  and 
navigable.  It  made  a  distinguished  figure  during  the  wars  with  the  Moors,  chiefly  through 
the  exploits  of  its  lieroines,  to  commemorate  whose  valour  a  military  order  was  instituted  by 
Raymond  Berenger.  Its  position  on  the  river  affords  scope  for  a  considerable  trade ;  and 
during  the  last  war  its  fortifications  were  restored  by  the  Spaniards.  It  contains  16,000 
inhabitants.  Between  the  two  last-mentioned  cities  has  arisen,  within  the  last  half  century, 
Reus,  a  large,  flourishing,  industrious  town,  carrying  on  various  manufactures,  particularly 
of  brandy  and  leather.  Population  25,000.  All  these  are  on  the  coast  west  of  Barcelona. 
To  the  east  the  chief  place  is  Gerona,  a  large  gloomy  town,  in  a  fine  situation.  It  is  well 
fortified ;  and  its  resistance,  protracted  for  more  than  half  a  year,  to  the  unremitted  efforts 
of  Bonaparte's  generals,  formed  one  of  the  most  glorious  events  of  the  peninsular  war. 
Rosas,  a  little  town,  prettily  situated  in  a  fine  bay,  exports  cork  and  other  timber.  In  the 
interior,  Lerida,  distinguished  as  a  Roman  station  under  the  name  of  Ilerda,  is  a  large  and 
strong  town,  situated  in  a  most  delightful  country  on  the  banks  of  the  Segre.  A  consider- 
able stand  was  made  hero  by  the  patriotic  armies  during  the  French  invasion.  Mequinenza, 
at  the  junction  of  the  Segre  with  the  Ebro,  is  also  an  important  military  post.  Cervera,  the 
seat  of  a  considerable  university,  and  Igualada,  are  pretty  large  interior  towns,  supported  by 
the  produce  of  the  rich  vales  in  which  they  are  situated.  But  the  mo§t  striking  feature  in 
all  Catalonia  is  the  single,  lofty,  and  precipitous  mountain  of  Montserrat  {fig.  313.).  It  con- 
„  „  sists  of  a  crowd  of  conical  hills  piled  over 

each  other,  broken  into  steep  walls  of  white 
and  variously  tinted  limestone  cliffs,  the 
interstices  of  which  are  filled  with  ever- 
green and  deciduous  trees  and  plants.  The 
Benedictine  monastery,  an  ancient  and  re- 
markable structure,  stands  on  a  cleft  at 
the  top  of  a  high  rock,  where  space  is 
scarcely  left  for  the  edifice,  while  far  be- 
neath roars  the  Llobregat.  Numerous  her- 
mitages pitched  on  the  top  of  precipices, 
,,  or  in  cavities  hewn  out  of  the  rock,  increase 

Montserrat.  j.\  ■         ^  i  j_-  o 

the  Singular  and  romantic  appearance  or 
the  scene.  This  mountain,  in  the  last  war,  was  converted  into  an  almost  impregnable  mili- 
tary position.  On  the  liighest  of  all  the  Catalonian  vales,  which  is  extensive,  and  rich  in 
grain,  stands  Urgcl,  a  small  episcopal  see,  and  a  strong  military  post,  the  roads  being  almost 
impassable  to  artillery. 

Valencia,  beginning  from  the  border  of  Catalonia  and  Aragon,  occupies  an  extensive  coast 
running  from  north  to  south,  and  is  the  first  of  the  soutiiern  provinces.  The  plain  ranks  as 
the  garden  of  Spain,  and  almost  of  Europe.  The  fields  of  corn ;  the  yellow  green  of  the 
mulberry  plantations,  the  pale  hue  of  the  olive ;  the  woods,  villages,  and  convents,  thickly 
scattered  over  this  great  expanse,  witli  numberless  slender  steeples,  present,  when  united, 
an  inimitable  landscape.  The  country  is  finely  watered  by  the  Xucar,  the  Guadalaviar,  and 
other  rivers,  numerous  though  not  of  long  course.  A  great  extent  of  artificial  navigation 
was  formed  by  the  Moors,  and  is  still  kept  up,  though ^lot  in  a  very  complete  state.  The 
province  yields,  in  abundance,  the  usual  products,  corn,  wine,  oil,  silk ;  with  rice  enough  to 
supply  the  greater  part  of  Spain,  and  barilla  for  exportation.  The  Valencians  are  very  Indus* 


Book  I.  SPAIN,  593 

trious,  and  of  a  gay  disposition.     Colonies  from  the  south  of  France,  introduced  by  the  first 
Christian  conqueror,  brought  with  them  a  portion  of  the  spirit  of  that  nation. 

Valencia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Guadalaviar,  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  flourishing  towns 
of  the  kingdom.  It  is  of  Roman  origin,  but  its  fame  dates  from  the  elcveiilh  centurv,  wlien 
it  was  conquered  by  the  Cid  from  the  Moors,  and  ruled  asa  fief  by  that  greatest  of  the  Spanish 
heroes.  It  was  the  scene,  however,  of  a  long-continued  contest ;  and  its  final  annexation  to 
Christian  Spain  did  not  take  place  until  a  century  and  a  half  later.  The  lofty  walls  and 
towers  of  Valencia  are  now  nearly  demolished,  and  in  the  war  of  liberty  neither  it  nor  the 
province^  made  any  very  conspicuous  figure.  The  silk  manufacture  is  one  of  tlie  most  exten- 
sive in  Spain,  though  checked  by  an  absurd  prohibition  against  the  e.xportation  of  its  produce. 
In  a  levy  during  the  late  war,  exemption  was  granted  to  upwards  of  3000  silk-weavers,  that 
the  trade  might  not  be  interrupted.  There  are  also  manufactures  of  woollens  and  paper. 
The  Grau,  or  port  of  Valencia,  is  only  an  indiflferent  roadstead,  and  the  commerce  not  nearly 
equal  to  that  of  Alicant.  The  city,  though  large  and  rich,  is  not  handsome ;  the  streets 
being  narrow  and  winding,  and  bordered  by  high  old  houses.  The  churclies  and  convents 
are  of  course  numerous,  and  many  of  them  richly  ornamented,  but  none  very  prominent  in 
architectural  beauty.  They  are  adorned,  however,  with  numerous  pictures  by  some  of  the 
most  eminent  Spanish  painters,  natives  of  Valencia ;  Juanes,  Ribalta,  and  others,  whose 
works  are  unknown  in  this  country,  but  are  admired  by  those  who  have  visited  Spain.  The 
religious  festivals  of  Valencia  are  celebrated  with  a  childish  pomp,  in  some  degree  disused 
in  other  parts  even  of  this  country.  On  these  occasions,  all  the  most  memorable  events  and 
most  illustrious  characters  in  scripture  history  are  represented  either  by  figures  in  wicker- 
work,  or  by  citizens  fantastically  attired.  The  exhibitions  of  this  kind,  amounting  annually 
to  a  hundred  and  fift;y,  give  great  occasion  to  idleness  and  dissipation ;  yet  the  attempts  to 
reduce  their  number  have  been  hitherto  unsuccessful.     Population  66,000. 

Alicant,  situated  at  the  bottom  of  a  bay  on  the  southern  frontier,  ranks  high  as  an  indus- 
trious and  commercial  town.  Its  prosperity  is  modern,  chiefly  owing  to  the  refuge  which 
its  lofty  castle  afl^orded  from  the  dreadful  irruptions  of  the  Barbary  corsairs.  Even  since  this 
danger  ceased,  Alicant  has  continued  to  be  a  fortified  town ;  and  none  of  the  invading  armies 
in  the  late  war  were  able  to  obtain  possession  of  it.  About  1000  vessels  annually  enter  its 
port,  and  are  laden  with  barilla,  raisins,  and  a  small  quantity  of  v/ine  and  brandy.  The 
import  from  England  consists  chiefly  of  salt-fish,  the  great  article  of  consumption  in  Catholic 
countries.  The  herring  and  other  fisheries  are  carried  on  with  considerable  activity  on  this 
coast.  They  are  encouraged  by  the  government,  but  with  an  absurd  limitation  to  a  body  of 
enrolled  fishermen,  amounting  to  about  16,000.     Population  25,000. 

Among  other  important  towns  may  be  mentioned  Elche  and  Orihuela,  large  and  flourishing 
places,  in  the  very  finest  part  of  the  plain  of  Valencia.  Segorbe  and  Liria  are  pleasant 
interior  towns  towards  the  frontier  of  Aragon.  San  Felipe,  under  the  name  of  Xativa,  made 
a  distinguished  figure  in  the  war  of  the  succession ;  when,  after  being  demolished,  it  was 
rebuilt  by  Philip  V.  under  its  present  name.  Denia  and  Gandia  in  the  soutli,  and  Peniscola 
in  the  north,  are  sea-ports  on  a  smaller  scale.  But  all  tliese  places  yield  in  ancient  fame  to 
Murviedro,  occupying  the  rocky  site  of  the  ancient  Saguntum,  the  siege  of  which  formed 
the  commencement  of  the  career  of  Hannibal.  The  long  resistance  of  this  powerful  and 
unfortunate  city  forms  the  first  of  the  many  remarkable  sieges  which  have  distinguished  the 
Spanish  annals,  ancient  or  modern.  The  Romans  restored  and  made  it  a  great  colony,  and 
the  Moors  erected  a  range  of  fortifications  on  the  summit  of  the  hill ;  so  that  its  mountain 
site  is  now  covered  with  ruins  of  various  dates  and  descriptions.  Half-way  up  the  eminence, 
the  outline  of  a  theatre  capable  of  containing  9000  persons  may  still  be  traced ;  and  a  few 
ropemakers  plying  their  trade  alone  break  the  silence  of  this  august  ruin.  Murviedro  is  a 
small  town  still  fortified,  though  the  resistance  made  by  it  in  the  last  w^ar  was  not  formidable. 

Murcia  is  a  small  province,  partly  bounded  on  the  soulli-east  by  the  coast,  which  lierc 
changes  its  direction  from  southerly  to  westerly.  Its  vale  is  almost  witliout  a  rival  for 
beauty  and  fertility,  even  in  southern  Europe.  Its  natural  fi-uitfulness  is  greatly  aided  by 
the  numerous  canals  of  irrigation  which  the  Moors  drew  from  the  river  Segura.  These 
advantages  are  little  improved  by  the  present  inhabitants,  wlio  are  noted  as  exhibiting,  in  a 
peculiar  degree,  all  the  blemishes  of  the  Spanish  character;  its  pride,  its  bigotry,  and  its 
laziness.  Even  the  song  and  the  dance  do  not  inspire  gaiety  in  its  vales,  as  in  all  the  rest 
of  Spain ;  almost  the  whole  time  of  the  people  being  spent  in  eating,  sleeping,  and  making 
cigars.  A  sullen  and  vindictive  spirit  is  said  to  lurk  under  this  outward  apathy.  Few 
Murcians  have  made  a  figure  in  literature,  in  the  arts,  or  in  public  lite. 

The  cities  of  Murcia,  if  we  except  its  port  of  Carth^gena,  do  not  merit  particular  notice 
The  capital,  bearing  its  name,  is  an  irregular,  ill-built,  ill-paved  large  town,  with  36,000 
inhabitants.  The  ecclesiastical  edifices,  however,  are  very  costly,  and  the  front  of  the 
cathedral,  according  to  Mr.  Townshend,  produces  a  splendid  effect  with  its  sixteen  Corintliian 
columns  of  marble,  and  thirty-two  images  as  large  as  life.  The  interior  does  not  possess 
equal  elegance,  but  is  chiefly  distinguished  by  the  proportion  of  gold,  silver,  and  jewels,  not 


584  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  Ul 

to  mention  the  relics,  which  are  accounted  by  the  faitliful  as  of  much  superior  value.    Lorca 
js  a  large  town,  built  with  some  elegance,  and  surrounded  by  fine  promenades.     Population 

314  40,000.     It  had  extensive  fabrics  of  silk  and 

saltpetre,  whicli  were  reviving,  when  a  sin- 
gular accident  arrested  their  progress.  A 
speculative  individual  had  collected  all  the 
waters  of  the  neighbourhood  into  an  immense 
reservoir,  whence  he  supplied  them  to  the 
cultivators  for  purposes  of  irrigation  ;  but  this 
receptacle,  not  being  fully  secured,  burst 
at  one  point,  destroyed  part  of  the  suburbs 
of  Lorca,  desolated  a  great  extent  of  country, 
and  reached  even  Murcia.  Totana,  a  popu- 
j^^^  village,  is  enriched  by  the  copious  pro- 
duction of  barilla  in  its  neighbourhood.  Tlie  castle  of  Almanza  {fig.  3i4.),  picturesquely 
seated  on  a  heigiit,  is  noted  as  the  spot  near  which,  in  1707,  was  fought  tlie  celebrated  battle 
which  decided  the  Spanish  succession  in  favour  of  the  house  of  Bourbon. 

Carthagena,  situated  in  Murcia,  thougli  scarcely  belongmg  to  it,  forms  one  of  the  few 
great  Spanish  euiporia,  and  contains  37,000  inhabitants.  This  celebrated  capital  of  ancient 
Spain  was  founded  by  Asdrubal;  and  wlien  captured  by  Scipio,  in  the  year  of  Rome  550, 
was  considered  one  of  the  most  opulent  cities  in  the  world.  It  was  nearly  destroyed  by  the 
Vandals,  but  was  restored  by  Philip  II.,  and  has  ever  since  continued  to  flourish.  It  enjoys 
one  of  the  finest  ports  in  Europe,  consisting  of  a  bay  sheltered  by  high  mountains  from  almost 
every  wind.  The  staples  are  the  same  as  at  Alicant.  The  revenue,  raised  by  a  small  though 
impolitic  duty  on  the  export  of  barilla,  amounts  to  25,000Z.  The  fishery  is  also  considerabTe. 
There  are  fewMurcian  residents,  and  tlie  trade  is  carried  on  chiefly  by  English,  French, 
and  Italian  houses.  The  streets  are  wide,  and  the  houses  agreeable,  witli  terraced  roofs, 
commanding  a  view  of  the  sea;  but  neither  here  nor  at  Alicant  are  there  any  structures, 
even  ecclesiastical,  at  all  worthy  of  noLice. 

Andalusia,  taken  in  its  most  comprehensive  sense,  is  the  largest  of  the  Spanish  provinces, 
and,  we  may  add,  the  finest  and  most  remarkable,  botii  as  to  nature  and  art.  Tlie  Guadal- 
quivir, with  numerous  and  large  tributaries,  waters  its  whole  extent.  Its  mountains,  covered 
in  many  places  witli  perpetual  snow,  are  tlie  loftiest,  its  valleys  the  most  fi-uitful,  in  Spain. 
Andalusia,  indeed,  comprises  tour  celebrated  kingdoms;  Granada,  Seville,  Cordova,  and 
Jaen,  and  contains  great  capitals  founded  by  the  conquering  Moors,  which  were  the  seats 
of  science  and  splendour,  wlien  the  greater  part  of  Europe  was  plunged  in  rudeness  and 
barbarism. 

Granada,  which  is  sometimes  called  Upper  Andalusia,  was  the  central  seat  of  Moorish 
power  and  magnificence.  Even  amid  the  general  decline  of  that  power  in  Spain,  Granada 
was  still  supported  by  the  multitudes  who  resorted  thither  from  the  subdued  provinces.  Its 
fall,  in  1492,  was  considered  the  most  deadly  blow  which  Islamism  ever  received ;  and  in 
all  the  mosques  prayers  are  put  up  every  Friday  for  its  restoration.  Granada  presents  a 
wonderful  combination  of  all  that  is  most  wild  and  sublime,  with  what  is  most  soft  and 
beautiful  in  natural  scenery.  South  from  the  capital  rises  the  Sierra  Nevada,  covered,  as 
its  name  imports,  with  perpetual  snow  to  a  great  depth.  Mulhacen,  the  most  elevated  peak, 
is  ll,(j60  feet  above  the  sea;  while  the  line  of  perpetual  snow  begins  at  about  10,000  feet. 
The  Alpujarras,  a  lower  range,  are  cultivated  with  considerable  diligence,  by  descendants 
of  the  Moors,  a  remnant  of  whom  found  refiig'e  here,  amid  the  general  proscription  of  their 
race  and  nation.  The  Vega  or  plain  of  Granada,  watered  by  numerous  streams  descending 
from  the  high  regions,  displays  nature  in  her  utmost  pomp  and  beauty. 

The  city  of  Granada  is  in  the  heart  of  the  Vega,  beneath  the  loftiest  heights  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada.  This  city  still  displays  ample  monuments  to  attest  the  period  when  it  was  the 
great  western  capital  of  the  Moslem  world.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  beauty  of  its  approach. 
"  The  rich  and  jwpulous  country  well  supplied  with  trees,  the  clear  rivulets  descending  from 
the  mountains,  and  artificially  contrived  to  intersect  it  in  every  part;  the  splendid  city 
extending  m  a  half-moon  from  the  river,  on  the  gradual  ascent  of  a  hill ;  the  streets  rising 
above  each  other;  the  profusion  of  turrets  and  gilded  cupolas;  the  summit  crowned  with  the 
Alhambra ;  the  background  composed  of  the  majestic  Sierra  Nevada,  with  its  summit  covered 
with  snow ;  complete  a  scene  to  which  no  description  can  do  justice."  Mr.  Jacob,  who  thus 
describes  the  scene,  considers  it  not  too  much  to  have  travelled  two  hundred  miles  of  bad 
road  to  see  it.  The  interior,  as  in  most  Spanish  and  especially  Mohammedan  cities,  does  not 
correspond  to  the  approach.  The  streets  are  narrow,  the  walls  high  and  gloomy ;  many 
quarters  are  now  deserted ;  and  marks  of  decay  and  splendid  poverty  are  everywhere  visible. 
Its  population,  once  comprising  400,000  souls,  is  now  reduced  to  80,000.     But  the  eye  of 


Book  I. 


SPAIN. 


585 


the  curious  traveller  is  soon  attracted  towards  the  Alhambra  (Jig.  315.),  the  ancient  palace 
315  and  fortress  of  the  kings  of  Granada.     It  is 

the  noblest  specimen  existing  of  Moorish 
architecture;  and  nothing  perhaps  in  Eu- 
rope, out  of  Italy  and  Greece,  can  come  into 
competition  with  it.  The  site  is  fine,  re- 
sembling that  of  Windsor,  on  a  hill  above 
the  river.  Its  exterior  structure,  however, 
is  the  reverse  of  beautiful :  a  huge  heap  of 
ugly  buildings  huddled  togetlier,  without 
the  least  seeming  intention  of  forming  one 
habitation;  the  walls  only  gravel  and  peb- 
bles daubed  over  with  plaster.  On  entering 
the  thresliold,  iiowever,  the  visiter  seems 
transported  into  a  fairy  scene.  He  passes 
through  a  range  of  apartments ;  the  baths, 

the  Court  of  the  Lions ;  the  Hall  of  the  Abencerrages  (Jig.  316.) ;  tiie  Golden  Saloon,  or 


The  Alhambra. 


31G 


Hall  of  the  .'Vbeiicerrages.  Gale  of  the  Sancluary  of  the  Koran. 

Hall  of  the  Ambassadors ;  the  Gate  of  tne  Sanctuary  of  the  Koran  (^Jig.  317.) ;  the  Tower 

318 


Mosaic  Pavement. 


Vol.  I. 


Z\ 


596 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


P.UIT  III. 


of  the  Two  Sisters ;  with  otliers,  in  wliich  the  various  resources  of  Oriental  pomp  are  dis- 
played, alono^  with  all  that  can  refresh  the  eye  or  the  sense  in  a  sultry  climate.  The  courts 
are  all  paved  witJi  marble,  and  surrounded  with  marble  pillars,  in  a  pure  and  beautiful  taste; 
and  the  walls  and  pavement  are  profusely  ornamented  with  gilded  arabesque  and  mosaic 
ijlg.  318.),  the  colours  of  which,  by  an  art  which  seems  to  have  been  lost  with  the  Moors, 
are  as  brilliant  as  when  they  were  first  laid  on,  five  hundred  years  ago.  Water  is  made  to 
spout  into  the  air,  or,  in  smooth  sheets  bordered  with  flowers,  refreshes  the  interior  of  the  apart- 
ments. After  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors,  Charles  V.  built  on  part  of  its  site  a  new  palace, 
the  external  architecture  of  which  was  much  superior ;  but  it  was  never  finished,  The 
Generalife  is  another  Moorish  palace,  in  a  more  elevated  and  finer  situation ;  but  its  interior 
splendour,  though  great,  is  quite  eclipsed  by  that  of  its  neighbour.  The  cathedral,  though 
it  must  yield  to  these  IMoorish  structures,  is  yet  of  considerable  extent  and  beauty.  Granada 
is  the  seat  of  one  of  tlie  two  high  courts  of  chancery,  and  of  other  tribunals  of  high  jurisdic- 
tion. It  retains  a  certain  proportion  of  its  former  immense  silk  manufactures,  with  some  of 
woollen  and  leather ;  and  a  considerable  number  of  persons  are  employed  in  extracting  the 
nitre  with  whicli  the  neighbouring  soil  is  copiously  impregnated. 

Malaga  has  in  modern  times  attained  a  greater  importance,  and  is  reckoned  the  third  port 
in  tiie  kingdom,  ranking  next  to  those  of  Cadiz  and  Barcelona.  The  chief  foundation  of  its 
trade  is  the  fine  wine  called  Malaga  or  mountain,  produced  in  the  numerous  hills  behind  it. 
It  is  raised  at  very  great  expense,  and  only  upon  tlie  declivities  which  have  an  e.xposure  to 
the  sun.  The  country  produces  also  very  fine  raisins  and  other  fruits ;  and  anchovies,  caught 
and  cured  on  the  coast,  have  been  sold  to  tlie  annual  extent  of  20,000  quintals.  Malaga  is 
the  only  great  Spanish  port  of  which  the  exports  have  always  exceeded  tiie  imports.  Malaga 
has  a  very  secure  though  not  extensive  harbour,  formed  by  artificial  moles.  It  lies  in  a  deep 
bay  on  a  little  plain  overhung  by  lofty  and  craggy  clifts,  which  at  a  distance  appear  quite 
naked,  but  on  approaching,  every  crevice  is  found  to  be  filled  with  vines.  This  situation 
renders  the  heat  very  severe,  and  has  aided  in  exposing  the  inhabitants  to  the  destructive 
ravages  of  pestilential  fever.  The  streets  are  close,  narrow,  and  dirty  ;  but  the  cathedral  is 
a  very  noble  pile,  and  contains  paintings  by  great  Spanish  masters.     Population  52,000. 

Other  very  considerable  towns  occur  in  Granada.  Five  leagues  to  the  east  of  Malaga  is 
Velez-Malaga,  most  delightfully  situated  in  a  plain  diversified  by  numerous  gentle  hills, 
clothed  to  the  summit  with  vines,  while  the  plains  below  wave  with  luxuriant  harvests  of 
grain.  Farther  east  are  the  small  ports  of  Motril  and  Almeria ;  the  latter  ancient,  and  cele- 
brated in  the  history  of  the  Moors,  under  whom  it  was  highly  prosperous  and  flourishing. 
Near  it  is  the  rock  of  Filabres,  2000  feet  iiigh,  composed  of  a  single  block  of  white  marble; 
and  beyond  it  stretches  into  the  sea  the  bold  and  huge  promontory  of  Cabo  de  Gata.  Guadix, 
Baza,  and  Purchena,  are  considerable  interior  towns,  in  the  eastern  part  of  this  province, 
seated  in  valleys  enclosed  by  the  numerous  ranges  of  hills  which  intersect  it.  Santa  Fe, 
two  leagues  west  of  Granada,  is  remarkably  exposed  to  earthquakes,  which  have  split  its 
cathedral  in  two,  and  laid  open  the  cells  of  one  of  the  convents ;  yet  the  citizens  still  inhabit 
and  keep  it  in  repair.  Alhama  is  strikingly  situated  amid  a  circuit  of  precipitous  rocks, 
through  which  dashes  a  rapid  stream.  It  is  frequented  for  the  salubrity  of  its  air,  and  for 
its  medicinal  springs  and  baths.  Antequera  is  very  ancient;  filled  with  Roman  and  Moorish 
monuments,  and  still  large;  the  adjacent  country  is  very  fertile,  and  distinguished  for  the 
variety  both  of  its  vegetable  and  mineral  productions.  Population  20,000.  Ronda,  {fii^.  319.) 


319 


capital  of  a  wide  mountain  district,  is  sin- 
gularly situated  on  a  rock  witli  perpendicu- 
lar cliffs  and  broken  crags,  tliiinigh  a  deep 
fissure  in  which  the  river  flows,  and  sur- 
rounds the  city  on  three  sides.  It  is  crossed 
by  a  stupendous  bridge  110  feet  in  diameter, 
and  280  feet  in  height.  Stairs  of  350  steps 
lead  down  to  the  river,  and  gardens  have 
been  formed  on  some  level  projecting  points 
of  the  precipice.  The  mountaineers  of 
'""  "•  Ronda  are  an  honest,  active,   hardy  race ; 

and  so  healthy  as  to  make  it  a  proverb,  tliat  "  at  Ronda  a  man  is  a  boy  at  eighty."  The 
vicinity  of  Gibraltar  gives  tlicm  great  opportunities  for  smuggling,  which  they  carry  on  in 
large  bands,  and  in  open  resistance  to  government,  without,  however,  incurring  any  impu- 
tation on  their  general  loyalty. 

The  kingdom  of  Seville,  west  of  Granada,  is  a  still  finer  region,  and  perhaps  superior  to 
any  other  in  the  Peninsula.  Its  plains  are  the  most  productive  in  wine,  oil,  and  fruits ;  the 
noble  river  Guadalquivir  conveys  its  products  to  the  sea;  and  Seville  and  Cadiz  are,  in  some 
respects,  superior  to  all  other  Spanish  cities. 


EoOK  I. 


SPAIN. 


587 


320 


Seville  (Jig.  320.)  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  and  delightful  plain,  and  near  the 

mouth  of  the  Guadalquivir,  which  for- 
merly admitted  vessels  of  large  size :  it 
was  a  great  city  from  the  earliest  period. 
By  the  Romans  it  was  celebrated  under 
the  appellation  of  Hispalis :  its  founda- 
tion was  ascribed  to  Hercules ;  and,  with 
the  neighbouring  colony  of  Italica,  it 
formed  the  capital  of  Baitica.  Under  the 
Moors  it  became  an  independent  king- 
dom ;  and  if  it  be  true  that,  on  its  cap- 
ture by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  400,000 
Moors  marched  out  at  one  of  its  gates, 
it  must  indeed  have  been  an  immense  city.  Notwithstanding  the  depopulation  thus  occa- 
sioned by  bigotry  and  treachery,  it  soon  became  more  splendid  than  ever,  in  consequence  ot 
becoming  the  emporium  of  the  wealth  wliich  flowed  in  from  the  western  hemisphere.  Its 
manufacturing  industry  was  then  also  very  flourishing.  By  a  return  made  to  government  in 
1601,  Seville  was  said  to  contain  16,000  silk  looms,  giving  employment  to  130,000  work- 
men. It  frequently  received  an  increase  of  splendour  by  becoming  a  royal  residence.  Since 
the  above  period,  Seville  has  not  only  declined  with  the  gradual  decline  of  Spain,  but  iias 
sufierod  by  the  filling  up  of  the  channel  of  the  Guadalquivir,  which  has  rendered  it  naviga- 
ble only  for  small  ships,  and  has  transferred  to  Cadiz  the  commerce  of  America.  Seville  is 
now  a  solemn,  inert,  gloomy  city,  with  91,000  inhabitants.  Like  other  Spanish  places,  par- 
ticularly those  of  Moorish  origin,  its  streets  are  narrow,  winding,  and  dirty;  but  it  contains 
some  splendid  public  edifices.  Foremost  stands  the  cathedral,  the  largest  ecclesiastical 
structure  in  the  Peninsula,  420  feet  long  within,  and  373  broad ;  but  the  most  striking  fea- 
ture is  its  tower,  originally  erected  by  the  learned  Geber  or  Guevcr,  and  used  as  an  observa- 
tory, but  raised  by  the  Christians  to  the  height  of  350  feet.  Many  of  the  convents  also  are 
very  splendid,  and  previous  to  the  late  invasion  by  the  French  contained  numerous  works  of 
the  greatest  Spanish  artists,  of  whom  Seville  was  the  chief  nurse.  There  was,  above  all,  a 
splendid  collection  of  the  works  of  Murillo,  the  prince  of  these  artists,  and  a  native  of 
Seville.  Of  these  treasures  the  city  has  been  in  a  great  measure  despoiled  by  the  ravages 
of  the  invader;  Marshal  Soult,  in  particular,  had  in  his  collection  numerous  masterpieces 
of  Murillo,  by  which  the  convents  of  Seville  were  formerly  adorned.  Seville  has  still  2500 
silk  looms ;  and  government  maintains  a  cannon  foundery  and  a  tobacco  manufactory.  The 
Exchange  and  the  Marine  Academy  are  also  handsome  edifices. 

Cadiz  {Jig.  321.)  is,  in  an  equal  degree  with  Seville,  the  boast  of  Spain.  In  the  commer- 
cial annals  of  the  world  no  city  is  of 
higher  antiquity.  Tartessus,  occu- 
pying a  site  in  its  vicinity,  was  one 
of  the  earliest  and  most  flourishing 
Phoenician  colonies.  Afterwards  Ga- 
deira,  or  Gades,  was  recognised  by 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  as  one  of  the 
chief  European  emporia.  In  modern 
times,  when  commerce  did  not  form 
part  of  the  European  system,  Cadiz 
declined  into  a  secondary  rank ;  and 
the  intercourse  with  America  was  at  first  nearly  monopolised  by  Seville.  The  circumstances 
which  transferred  it  from  that  city  to  Cadiz  took  place  early  in  the  last  century,  when  the 
latter  rose  to  be  the  chief  theatre  of  Spanish  commerce.  It  enjoyed  for  some  time  the  entire 
monopoly  of  the  American  trade ;  and  even  when,  in  1778,  it  was  thrown  open  to  tbe  whole 
kingdom,  it  had  taken  such  deep  root  in  Cadiz  as  to  frustrate  all  competition.  In  1784,  when 
the  entire  imports  from  America  were  12,630,000/.  that  city,  for  its  share,  had  11,280,000/. ; 
and  of  the  whole  exports,  amounting  to  4,300,000/.,  it  had  3,600,000/.  Notwithstanding 
severe  shocks,  in  consequence  of  political  revolutions,  and  the  war  with  England,  it  always 
revived,  and  derived  a  temporary  greatness  from  becoming  the  capital  of  tiie  constitutional 
government.  It  received,  however,  its  mortal  blow  by  the  separation  of  the  colonies.  The 
merchants,  deprived  thus  of  almost  their  only  employment,  have  been  reduced  to  the  funds 
already  accumulated,  and  have  in  a  great  measure  retired  from  the  confined  situation  of 
Cadiz  to  the  pleasant  sites  and  villages  which  are  scattered  round  the  bay.  The  city  is 
situated  on  a  small  neck  of  land,  at  the  point  of  the  long  Isle  of  Leon.  It  does  not  boast  any 
remarkable  structures,  but  the  whole  is  elegantly  built  in  regular  squares,  and  streets  witli  a 
square  court  in  the  centre  and  an  awning  over  it     Population  53,000. 


321 


,ivl?3!;^^s|-^-/^ps:v^-^  ^.  ^  ^-t^ 


588 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGrwVPIIY. 


Part  IU. 


322 


Gibraltar  (^fig.  322.)»  though  no  longer  Spanish,  forms  also  a  striking  and  important  fea- 
ture  in   this   province.     This   rock   is 
celebrated  from  the  earliest  antiquity  as 
one  of  the  two  "  Pillars  of  Hercules," 
,  which   guarded  the  entrance   into  the 

J^ .    .v»  ^  Mediterranean ;  though    Mount   Calpe, 

l-^.j-^  )\-'^t  %^^dL^^'.  ~  v^jlb^-     on   the   opposite   side,    is   considerably 

loftier.  In  1704,  Sir  George  Rooke  and 
Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel  carried  this  for- 
tress hy  Vi  coitp  de  main;  since  wincli 
time  Spain  has  vainly  attempted  to  re- 
gain possession  of  it.  Her  grand  effort 
'^''^'■'i""-  was  towards  the  close  of  the  American 

war,  when  the  fleets  of  France  and  Spain  rode  masters  of  the  sea.  A  combined  attack  was 
made  on  the  13th  of  September,  1782,  by  the  two  powers,  with  fifty  sail  of  the  line,  30,0(X) 
troops,  and  ten  mighty  floating  batteries,  which  were  expected  to  demolish  all  opposed  to 
them.  They  kept  up  a  tremendous  fire  from  ten  in  the  morning  till  midnight,  at  which  time 
smoke  and  fire  were  seen  rising  from  the  batteries  whicli  before  next  morning  were  reduced 
.to  ashes,  with  a  dreadful  destruction  of  the  assailants.  No  subsequent  attempt  has  been 
made;  nature,  in  fact,  has  rendered  Gibraltar  almost  impregnable.  Tlie  rock  is  precipitous 
on  all  sides,  and  is  connected  with  the  continent  only  by  a  narrow  neck  of  marshy  ground. 
The  western  front  alone  towards  the  sea  is  in  any  degree  accessible ;  and  this  is  defended 
by  batteries  cut  in  the  solid  rock,  and  by  other  works  so  extensive  and  so  well  planned  as  to 
bid  defiance  to  any  future  effort.  Gibraltar  has  one  handsome  street,  the  houses  of  which 
are  built  in  the  Eiiglisli  style,  with  trees  and  flowers  skilfully  planted  in  scanty  fragments  of 
soil.  The  rest  of  the  town  is  close,  crowded,  and  dirty,  inhabited  by  about  20,000  people, 
chiefly  Moors  and  Jews,  the  latter  of  whom  have  sought  refuge  here  in  great  numbers  from 
Spanish  bigotry,  and  have  four  synagogues.  The  expense  of  maintaining  Gibraltar  is  con- 
siderable :  "but It  forms  an  important  naval  station,  a  depot  for  the  commerce  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  a  channel  for  introducing  into  Spain  great  quantities  of  goods,  declared  contra- 
band by  the  jealous  policy  of  that  country. 

Among  other  places  of  some  importance  is  Tarifa,  the  most  southern  point  of  Spain,  and 
even  of  Europe,  and  the  probable  place  of  the  landing  of  Tarik,  with  the  Saracen  army  destined 
for  the  conquest  of  tliat  country.  Seated  on  an  almost  insulated  rock,  it  is  still  a  fortress  of 
some  strength.  Algesiras,  on  the  opposite  side  of  tlie  bay,  has  grown  up  as  a  small  rival  to 
Gibraltar ;  "its  population  consists  chiefly  of  smugglers  and  adventurers.  In  the  interior  is 
the  flourishing  and  populous  town  of  Xeres,  situated  in  a  wide  region  of  vineyards,  producing 
the  wine  called  Sherry,  tlie  consumption  of  which  is  so  general  in  this  country.  Mr.  Jacob 
supposes  the  entire  produce  to  be  40,000  pipes,  of  wliicJi  15,000  are  exported,  one  half  to 
Britain.  Ecija,  a  large  town,  was  famous  as  a  scene  of  contest  between  tlie  Christians  and 
Saracens,  and  afterwards  as  the  head  quarters  of  a  most  formidable  band  of  robbers;  but  its 
walls  are  now  in  ruin.  Lebrija  and  Carmona  are  ancient  towns,  containing  Roman  monu- 
ments of  considerable  grandeur.  The  districts  to  the  nortli  and  west  of  the  Guadalquivir 
are  mountainous  and  rugged ;  though  Huelva  and  Moguer,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tinto,  and 
Ayamonte,  at  tlie  mouth  "of  the  Guadiana,  derive  some  importance  from  their  situation,  and 
carry  on  a  little  fishery. 

Cordova  {fg.  323.),  on  tJie  upper  part  of  the  course  of  tlic  Guadalquivir,  is  another  king- 
dom   of  Andalusia,     deriving    its 
323  chief  interest  from  the  celebrated 

capital  of  the  same  name.  Cor- 
duba,  founded  by  the  Romans,  was 
not  only  a  provincial  capital,  but 
the  seat  of  an  university,  which 
could  boast  the  great  names  of  Se- 
neca and  Lucan.  It  displayed, 
however,  a  far  higher  pomp,  when, 
after  the  Saracen  conquest,  it  be- 
came the  first  capital  of  the  Mo- 
hammedan empire  in  Spain.  Under  Ahdelrahman  and  Almansor,  it  is  represented  as  con- 
taining 1600  mosques,  and  nearly  1,000,000  people.  Admitting  a  certain  exaggeration,  its 
past  greatness  is  clearly  attested  by  the  vast  and  now  almost  empty  circuit  enclosed  by  its 
walls,  in  a  great  measure  filled  with  palm  trees  and  gardens,  and  by  the  astonishing  remains 
of  its  mosque.  This  vast  edifice  presents  nothing  very  striking  in  its  exterior,  which  is  in  a 
great  measure  hid  by  the  surrounding  streets.  But  when  the  stranger  enters  any  one  of  its 
nineteen  gates,  he  is  astonished  and  bewildered  by  the  endless  labyrinth  of  columns  which 
stretch  before  him  in  every  direction  (Jig.  324.).  These  columns  have  almost  defied  the  at- 
tempts to  number  them ;  by  one  WTiter  they  have  been  estimated  at  1400,  but  are  generally 


Cordova. 


Book  I. 


SPAIN. 


589 


stated  as  exceeding  400,  dividing  the  mosque  into  nineteen  aisles,  and  producing  a  perpetual 
and  surprisuig  change  of  scene  to  the  visiter.     The  edifice,  however,  though  it  astonishes  by  its 


324 


Interior  of  Mosque  at  Cordova. 


immensity,  does  not  equal  in  elegance  those  erected  during 
that  more  refined  age  when  Granada  became  the  capital. 
The  Christians  have  converted  it  into  a  church,  and  erected 
m  the  centre  a  choir  of  great  beauty,  but  quite  out  of  har- 
mony with  the  Saracenic  part  of  the  structure.  Cordova, 
though  its  days  of  splendour  are  long  departed,  still  enjoys 
delightful  environs,  producing  a  breed  of  horses  tlie  finest  in 
Spain,  of  which  a  splendid  stud  was  lately  kept  by  the  go- 
vernment. There  is  also  some  remnant  of  its  once  e.xten- 
sive  manufactures,  particularly  of  that  fine  species  of  leather 
called  from  it  Cordovan.     The  population  is  .57,000. 

Jaen  ranks  as  a  fourth  kingdom,  though  it  cannot  enter 
into  any  rivalry  with  those  already  described.  Its  capital,  of 
the  same  name,  however,  though  little  known,  fi-om  its  dc 
tached  situation,  is  still  a  large  city,  the  see  of  a  bishop. 
Andujar  is  a  considerable  place,  with  a  very  ancient  castle, 
at  the  entrance  of  the  defiles  of  the  Sierra  Morena ;  and  to 
the  north  of  it  is  Baylen,  where  the  Spaniards  gained  that 
signal  victory  which  caused  the  surrender  of  Dupont  and  his 
army.  In  the  upper  part  of  this  tract  are  the  settlements  of 
La  Carolina,  where  an  expanse  of  rude  mountain  waste  has, 
by  German  and  other  colonists,  been  converted  into  a  pro- 
ductive territory. 

The  Balearic  Islands,  Majorca,  Minorca,  and  Ivi^a,  with  the  minor  ones  of  Cabrera  and 
Formcntera,  form  an  appendage  to  Spain  of  some  importance  and  celebrity.  The  Balearian 
slingers  are  celebrated  in  the  military  annals  of  antiquity ;  but  the  islands  in  general  fol- 
lowed the  political  fate  of  Spain.  Majorca,  the  largest,  about  forty  miles  in  length,  and 
thirty  in  breadth,  possesses  very  considerable  natural  advantages.  Several  mountain  chains, 
varying  from  1500  to  4500  feet  high,  penetrate  its  centre,  and  defend  it  both  from  the  excess 
of  the  heat  and  the  violent  action  of  the  sea-breezes.  Its  summits  are  somewhat  arid,  but 
the  intervening  valleys  are  thickly  clothed  with  olive  trees ;  and  corn  and  the  vine  grow 
luxuriantly,  tliough  with  imperfect  culture,  on  the  plains  below.  Orfinges  and  citrons 
flourish  so  abundantly  in  the  northern  district,  that  20,000  mule-loads  of  them  are  exported 
to  France  and  Catalonia.  M.  Cambassedes  values  the  entire  produce  of  the  isle,  in  1820,  at 
53,000,000  reals,  about  -f  3,000,000.  Of  this,  about  34,000,000  are  in  grain  and  pulse, 
5,000,000  in  oil,  and  2,-500,000  in  wine,  1,-500,000  in  fruits,  3,000,000  in  hops,  and  2,000,000 
in  sheep.  Palma,  the  capital  of  Majorca,  is  a  considerable  town,  slightly  fortified,  inhabited 
chiefly  by  the  nobles,  who  possess  the  greater  part  of  the  isle,  and  have  rarely  sufficient 
activity  or  curiosity  to  visit  their  estates.  In  no  Spanish  city  are  indolence  and  superstition 
more  prevalent.  There  are  thirty  convents,  some  of  which  enjoy  a  revenue  of  .$10,000  a 
year.  Processions  and  religious  festivals,  celebrated  often  with  great  tumult,  form  the  chief 
amusements.  In  tliese  it  is  customary  to  deck  up  figures  of  Judas,  with  tablets  containing 
the  enumeration  of  his  crimes,  among  which  that  of  being  "chief  of  the  liberals"  was 
lately  included  !    Population  34,000. 

Minorca  is  a  much  smaller  island,  more  barren,  covered  with  bare  and  rocky  mountains, 
and  destitute  of  any  trees  at  all  lofty,  the  growth  being  prevented  by  the  violent  winds  from 
the  sea.  But  it  is  distinguished  for  one  of  the  finest  harbours  in  Europe,  Port  Mahon,  which 
being  strongly  fortified,  has  been  a  subject  of  eager  contest  to  the  maritime  nations.  Having 
been  taken  by  England  in  the  Succession  War,  it  was  recovered  by  the  French  in  1756, 
notwitlistanding  Byng's  attempt  to  relieve  it.  After  several  other  vicissitudes,  it  remained 
with  Spain.  The  harbour  is  extensive,  possesses  deep  water,  and  is  sheltered  by  hills  on 
each  side  from  every  wind.  The  town  has  nothing  of  a  Spanish  aspect ;  the  streets  being 
broad,  the  houses  small  but  neat,  the  people  a  stirring  and  active  race,  who  scarcely  allow 
themselves  to  be  called  Spaniards.  During  the  late  French  war,  being  protected  by  the 
English  navy,  they  made  considerable  wealth  by  privateering.  Ciuidadella,  though  of  smaller 
extent,  is  the  nominal  capital,  and  the  residence  of  the  nobility.  Ivi^a,  or  Iviza,  is  a  small 
isle,  of  rugged  surface,  which  forms  one  immense  mountain,  shooting  up  into  a  variety  of 
summits.  The  island  is  thus  refreshed  by  cool  breezes  and  numerous  streams,  and  yields 
readily  all  the  productions  of  this  climate,  particularly  figs.  In  the  quarter  called  Las  Sa- 
linas, salt  is  evaporated  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  exported  to  the  extent  of  15,000  tons. 

[Sect.  VIII. — Rcpuhlic  of  Andorra. 

This  little  republic,  with  a  territory  of  hardly  200  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  about 
15,000  souls,  has  been  overlooked  by  the  author  of  this  work.  It  occupies  a  valley  on  Uie 
southern  side  of  the  Pyrenees,  situated  between  the  Maladetta  and  the  Moncal,  and  lying 

Vol.  I.  50 


590  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  P,vrt  III 

between  Foix  in  France  and  Urgel  in  Spain.  Beside  Andorra,  the  capital,  a  town  of  2,000 
inhabitants,  it  contains  five  villages,  which  export  iron  and  timber.  It  is  governed  by  a 
Syndic,  who  presides  over  the  council  of  the  valley,  and  by  two  Viguiers,  appointed  the  one 
by  the  king  of  France,  and  the  other  by  the  bishop  of  Urgel. — Am.  Ed.] 


CHAPTER  X. 


PORTUGAL. 


PoRTiTGAi  has  by  political  causes  alone  been  separated  from  Spain.  There  is  no  physical 
peculiarity  by  which  the  two  kingdoms  are  disthiguished.  On  the  contrary,  all  the  grand 
natural  features  of  Spain  are  prolonged  into  Portugal,  and  become  Portuguese. 

Sect.  I. — General  Outline  and  Aspect. 

The  boundaries  of  Portugal  are  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  west  throughout  its  whole 
extent,  and  also  on  the  south ;  on  the  north  the  Spanish  kingdom  of  Galicia ;  and  on  the 
east  those  of  Estremadura  and  Leon.  The  greatest  dimension  is  from  north  to  south,  or 
from  37°  to  42=  10'  north  latitude,  and  it  extends  from  6=  15'  to  9°  30'  west  longitude.  Its 
surface  is  38,800  square  miles. 

The  mountains  of  Portugal  may  be  considered  as  prolongations  of  those  of  Spain,  chiefly 
of  the  chains  of  Gundarraraa  and  Toledo,  and  those  in  the  north  of  Galicia.  Those  ranges, 
seldom  rising  to  the  first  magnitude,  cover  almost  the  whole  country,  leaving  between  them 
many  picturesque  and  fertile  valleys.  There  are  only  two  extensive  plains,  one  on  the  south 
of  the  Tagus,  and  the  other  between  the  Mondego  and  the  Douro. 

The  rivers  of  Portugal  consist  chiefly  of  the  spacious  terminations  of  the  greatest  streams 
Df  Spain  in  their  progress  to  the  ocean.  The  Douro  forms  the  great  maritime  emporium  of 
Oporto,  and  the  Tagus  that  of  Lisbon.  The  Guadiana,  also,  in  its  lower  course,  flows 
along  the  eastern  frontier  of  Portugal.  The  jNIinho,  a  much  smaller  stream,  comes  down 
from  Galicia ;  and  the  Mondego,  alone,  is  entirely  Portuguese,  flowing  nearly  across  the 
breadth  of  the  kingdom. 

Sect.  II. — Natural  Geography. 

SuBSECT.  1. —  Geology. 

This  kingdom  has  the  same  general  geognostical  structure  and  composition  as  Spain.  The 
mountainous  parts  of  the  country  are  generally  of  gneiss,  mica  slate,  and  other  Neptunian 
primitive  strata,  occasionally  intermingled  with  Plutonian  rocks  of  granite  and  porphyry. 
Secondary  formations  of  limestone  occur  in  the  Sierra  d'Estrella,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Cape 
St.  Vincent,  and  all  around  Lisbon  and  at  Cape  St.  Vincent  the  strata  are  of  rocks  of  the 
tertiary  class,  more  or  less  intermingled  with  trap  rocks. 

Mines.  It  appears  that  the  Carthaginians  wrought  tin  mines  in  this  part  of  the  Penin- 
sula. It  is  asserted  that  there  were  formerly  mines  of  tin  stone  in  the  granitic  mountains 
of  the  neighbourhood  of  Viseu,  in  the  province  of  Beira,  at  the  place  called  Burraco  de  Stanno. 
Lead  ores  were  worked  in  the  last  century,  not  far  from  Mogadouro,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Sabour,  in  the  province  of  Tras  os  Montes,  and  near  Longroiva,  on  the  banks  of  the  Rio 
Prisco.  Near  Mogadouro,  mines  of  graphite  or  plumbago  occur.  Iron  mines  also  occur  in 
the  same  country,  near  Felguiera  and  Torre  de  Moncorvo.  They  supply  the  iron  forge  of 
Chapacunha.  Two  very  old  establishments  of  the  same  kind  occur  in  Portuguese  Estre- 
madura, one  in  the  district  of  Tliomar,  the  other  in  that  of  Figuero  dos  Vinhos.  They  are 
supplied  by  mines  of  red  oxide  of  iron,  situated  in  the  frontier  of  that  province  and  of  the 
province  of  Beira.  There  is  a  deposit  of  cinnabar  at  Couna.  The  mountains  of  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Oporto  everywhere  present  indications  of  copper  and  of  other  ores.  In  Portu- 
gal, as  in  Spain,  the  sands  of  rivers  were  washed  for  the  gold  they  contain;  and  it  is  said  in 
this  way  large  quantities  of  the  precious  metal  were  collected.  At  present  there  is  but  one 
gold  mine  in  Portugal,  at  a  place  called  Adissa,  in  the  district  of  St.Ubes.  Its  annual  pro- 
duce is  trifling :  in  the  year  1815  it  was  41  lbs.  of  pure  gold  ;  1816,  18  lbs. ;  1817,  11  lbs. ; 
1818, 12  lbs. :  1819, 13  lbs. ;  1820, 12  lbs. ;  and  in  1821, 18  lbs.  Beds  of  coal  occur  at  Vialonga, 
to  the  N.  N.  E.  of  Oporto ;  and  there  is  a  mine  of  coal  at  Cabo  de  Buarcos  in  the  province 
of  Beira. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Botany. 

The  botany  of  Portugal  is  included  under  that  of  Spain. 

SuBSECT.  3. — Zoology. 
The  zoology  cannot  be  very  different  from  that  of  Spain;  but  no  documents  have  appeared 
to  illustrate  either  the  one  or  the  other.     The  horses  are  rather  small,  and  altogether  infe- 


Book  1.  PORTUGAL.  501 

rior ;  but  the  mules  are  fine,  and  nearly  equal  to  those  of  Spain.  Improvement,  however, 
is  neglected ;  nor  have  the  indolent  Portuguese  profited  by  crossing  their  sheep  fi-om  the 
merinos  of  Spain.  A  long-legged  race  of  swine  is  common  to  both  kingdoms,  and  furnishes 
excellent  hams. 

Sect.  III. — Historical  Geography 

The  Carthaginians  and  Romans  who  occupied  the  Peninsula,  did  not  recognise  Portugal 
as  a  distinct  country.  Their  Lusitania  included  a  part  of  Spain,  and  did  not  comprise  the 
whole  of  Portugal:  Merida,  in  Estremadura,  was  its  capital.  Portugal,  like  Spain,  submitted 
successively  to  the  formidable  irruptions  of  the  Goths  and  of  the  Moors. 

The  e.xistence  of  Portugal  as  a  distinct  kingdom  dates  from  the  commencement  of  the 
twelfth  century.  At  that  time,  Henry,  duke  of  Burgundy,  having  married  the  daughter  of 
the  duke  of  Castile,  obtained  as  lier  dowry  the  northern  part  of  Portugal,  which  liad  been 
rescued  from  tlie  Moors.  The  capital,  at  that  time,  was  Porto  or  Oporto,  whence  the  modem 
name  of  the  kingdom  appears  to  be  derived.  His  successors  gained  a  series  of  conquests, 
and  obtained  possession  of  Lisbon  and  tlie  southern  provinces,  carrying  their  conquests  to  the 
frontier  of  Seville. 

The  fifteenth  century,  and  the  reigns  of  John  and  Emanuel,  formed  the  true  era  of  the 
greatness  of  Portugal,  when  it  outshone  all  the  other  kingdoms  of  Europe.  Confined  on 
the  land  side  within  narrow  limits,  it  opened  for  itself  a  vast  career  of  maritime  discovery 
and  conquest.  Spain,  indeed,  shared  this  pursuit ;  but  her  first  acquisitions  were  made  by 
private  individuals,  partly  foreign,  with  only  faint  assistance  from  the  government;  while 
the  Portuguese  expeditions  were  planned,  fitted  out,  and  all  the  resources  for  them  sup- 
plied by  the  government.  Their  flag,  at  one  time,  floated  victorious  over  all  the  eastern 
seas ;  while  in  the  west,  by  the  possession  of  Brazil,  they  came  into  some  competition  with 
Spain. 

A  disastrous  eclipse  of  the  Portuguese  monarchy  took  place  in  the  sixteenth  century,  in 
consequence  of  the  rash  and  romantic  expedition  undertaken  by  king  Sebastian  into  Morocco, 
where  he  himself  and  the  flower  of  his  troops  were  cut  off".  Hereupon  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
a  powerfiii  and  ambitious  prince,  raised  a  claim  to  the  succession,  which  the  superiority  of 
his  arms  enabled  him  to  secure.  Portugal,  with  all  her  eastern  and  western  possessions, 
then  became  an  appanage  to  the  crown  of  Spain.  The  connection  was  every  way 
unfortunate.  Not  only  did  she  lose  her  political  and  civil  liberty,  but  many  of  her  finest 
foreign  possessions  were  wrested  from  her  by  the  Dutch,  the  spirited  and  active  enemies  of 
Philip. 

The  restoration  of  the  monarchy,  in  1640,  was  still  more  sudden  than  its  fall.  The  deep- 
rooted  indignation  of  tlie  people  was  combined  into  an  extensive  conspiracy,  which,  having 
been  concealed  to  the  last  moment,  burst  forth  at  once :  the  Spaniards  were  driven  out,  and 
the  duke  of  Braganza  raised  to  the  throne,  under  the  title  of  John  IV.  Yet  Portugal  did  not 
thus  achieve  any  revival  of  her  ancient  glory.  The  new  monarch  soon  re-established  absolute 
power:  a  sluggish  and  indolent  character  pervaded  all  the  departments  of  government:  its 
foreign  possessions  were  lost  or  neglected ;  and  Portugal  continued  a  stranger  to  all  the 
improvements  and  energies  which  raised  Britain  and  France  to  the  first  place  in  the  system 
of  Europe.  Yet,  during  this  period,  the  elevation  of  the  Bourbons  to  the  Spanish  throne,  led 
to  a  very  intimate  alliance  between  England  and  Portugal,  the  natural  foe  of  Spain.  It  was 
cemented  in  1803,  by  a  commercial  treaty,  in  wiiich  Portugal  secured  an  exclusive  market 
for  her  wines,  while  Britain  obtained  a  market  for  her  woollens,  and  an  arrangement  by  which 
the  gold  of  Brazil  miglit  find  its  way  into  lier  ports. 

The  recent  convulsions  of  the  Peninsula  have  been  very  amply  shared  by  Portugal. 
Regardless  of  the  neutrality  which  she  had  strictly  maintained,  Bonaparte,  by  a  most  unpro- 
voked aggression,  sent  Jun'  o,  in  1807,  to  take  possession  of  Lisbon.  The  king  did  not 
attempt  a  vain  resistance,  but  sailed  for  Brazil,  and  established  his  court  at  Rio  de  Janeiro. 
The  British  arms,  and  the  glorious  acliievements  of  Wellington,  drove  the  French  outof  tliis 
part  of  the  Peninsula,  and  finally  outof  the  whole.  Afterwards  Portugal  imitated  the  example 
of  Spain  in  compelling  her  monarch  to  grant  a  representative  constitution ;  but  again,  by  a 
counter-revolution,  she  re-established  an  absolute  monarchy.  More  recently,  on  the  death 
of  the  late  king,  Don  Pedro  proclaimed  the  separation  of  Brazil  from  Portugal,  reserving  the 
former  to  himself,  but  granting  to  the  latter  a  charter,  the  observance  of  which  was  made  the 
condition  of  holding  the  throne. 

Sect.  IV. — Political  Orography. 

Portugal,  after  the  downfall  of  the  feudal  system,  v.nd  especially  after  her  subjection  to 
Pliilip  li.  became  one  of  the  most  absolute  of  European  governments.  The  Marquis  of  Pom- 
bal  and  one  or  two  more  enlightened  men  found  their  way  into  the  ministry  ;  but,  in  general, 
measures  were  as  ill  conducted  as  possible,  and  corruption  prevailed  in  every  department  of 
the  state.  The  course  of  justice  was  equally  polluted ;  and,  no  adequate  salaries  being 
allowed  to  the  judges,  they  were  under  an  almost  irresistible  temptation  to  accept  bribes. 


592  DESORIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  III 

The  pride  of  the  nobles  was  nearly  as  great  as  in  Spain,  without  being  accompanied  by  the 
Banie  lofty  sentiments.  They  are  divided  into  two  branches,  the  titulados  and  the /itrfa/gos, 
and  have  held  the  peasantry  in  a  subjection  little  short  of  slavery. 

The  army  of  Portugal,  prior  to  the  revolution,  though  composed  nominally  of  30,000  men, 
was  in  a  most  inefficient  state,  not  through  want  of  physical  courage  or  discipline  in  the 
men,  but  from  the  incapacity  of  the  officers,  and  the  general  defects  of  the  military  system. 
When  the  French,  however,  had  been  driven  out  of  Portugal,  an  army  of  40,000  men  was 
levied,  and  disciplined  by  British  officers,  under  the  superintendence  of  Lord  Beresford ;  and 
thus  prepared,  the  Portuguese  acted,  during  the  eventful  war  which  followed,  in  a  manner 
that  would  not  have  disgraced  any  troops  in  Europe.  Tlie  army  is  still  maintained  ;  and 
though  the  new  government  will  not  brook  British  command,  yet,  under  its  influence,  Por- 
tuguese officers  of  merit  have  been  formed. 

The  navy,  which  was  never  considerable,  was  carried  out  with  the  royal  family  to  Brazil, 
and  has  never  been  restored. 

Sect.  V. — Productive  Industry. 

The  industry  and  commerce  of  Portugal,  which  presented  so  brilliant  an  aspect  during  her 
era  of  prosperity,  have  sunk  lower  than  those  of  almost  any  other  European  nation. 

Agriculture  did  not,  until  very  lately,  experience  any  of  the  improvements  which  have  be- 
come general  in  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  plough  is  composed  of  three  pieces  of  wood 
awkwardly  put  together,  and  imperfectly  aided  by  the  clumsy  machinery  of  wheels.  Though 
generally  very  fertile,  this  country  did  not  produce  a  third  of  the  grain  necessary  for  the 
supply  of  its  inhabitants.  Of  late  some  improvement  has  taken  place,  especially  by  the  in- 
troduction of  potatoes ;  and  the  dependence  upon  foreign  supply  has  been  considerably 
diminished.  The  chief  object  of  attention  is  the  vine,  which,  with  the  olive  and  other  fruit 
trees,  is  cultivated  with  the  utmost  diligence  in  the  valleys  and  on  the  sides  of  the  hills,  in 
the  elevated  province  of  Entre  Douro  e  Minho.  Here  is  produced  abundantly  the  port 
wine,  which  forms  the  main  basis  of  Portuguese  trade,  and  finds  so  copious  a  market  in 
Britain.  The  entire  produce  is  estimated  at  80,000  pipes.  Of  white  wine  Portugal  produces 
about  60,000  pipes ;  but  this  is  of  inferior  quality,  and  chiefly  consumed  at  home.  Sheep 
are  bred  on  the  hills,  to  a  pretty  large  extent ;  but  not  so  abundantly  as  in  Spain,  neither 
is  their  wool  so  fine. 

The  manufactures  of  Portugal  scarcely  deserve  to  be  named.  Little  is  known  beyond  the 
working  of  their  wool  for  domestic  use  by  each  family  or  neighbourhood ;  all  their  finer 
fabrics  are  imported.  According  to  a  late  observant  traveller,  ignorance,  or  at  least  an  im- 
perfect knowledge  of  the  commonest  arts,  is  conspicuous  among  the  Portuguese.  Their 
carpenters  are  the  most  awkward  and  clumsy  artisans  that  can  be  imagined,  spoiling  every 
thing  they  attempt ;  the  wood-work  even  of  good  houses  being  finislied  in  a  manner  that 
would  scarcely  be  tolerated  in  the  rudest  ages.  Their  carriages  of  all  kinds,  their  agricul- 
tural implements,  locks,  keys,  &c.  are  ludicrously  bad.  Workmg  in  gold  and  silver  plate 
forms  almost  the  only  exception ;  cambrics  also  are  well  made  in  some  places ;  and  a  few 
other  local  objects  might  be  enumerated. 

Of  mines  and  fisheries,  the  former  is  not  at  all  cultivated,  though  great  materials  for  it 
are  said  to  exist ;  but  in  tne  absence  of  trial  this  may  be  only  conjecture.  Fish  of  the  finest 
kinds,  particularly  tunny  and  sardinias,  are  caught  in  considerable  quantity  for  immediate 
consumption ;  but  the  salt  which  the  kingdom  so  abundantly  produces  is  not  used  for  pre- 
serving them ;  and  a  large  import  of  salted  fish  is  still  necessary  to  meet  the  wants  of  a 
copulation  so  rigidly  Catholic. 

The  commerce,  which  formed  the  greatness  of  Portugal,  when  her  ports  interchanged  the 
products  of  the  East  and  the  West,  is  now  a  mere  shadow.  The  loss  of  her  Indian  posses- 
sions, and  the  separation  of  Brazil,  have  reduced  her  to  the  common  routine  of  export  and 
import.  The  staple  of  the  former  is  port  wine,  for  which  the  market  of  England  was 
secured  first  by  favouring  duties,  and  now  seemingly  by  an  established  predilection.  The 
wine  is  raised  almost  solely  for  the  English  market,  and  all  of  the  best  quality  is  bought  up 
by  English  merchants  residing  at  Oporto. 

Another  staple  export  of  Portugal  is  salt,  evaporated  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  in  the  bay 
of  St.  Ubes,  or  Setubal,  which  seems  as  if  expressly  formed  for  that  purpose.  It  is  carried 
off" chiefly  by  the  English, to  be  employed  in  curing  fish  destined  for  the  Portuguese  market: 
the  annual  amount  is  estimated  at  lOO,000  tons.  There  is  also  a  considerable  surplus  of 
wool,  of  which  1,000,000  lbs.  weight  have  been  imported  into  England  in  one  year;  but  as 
it  is  not  so  fine  as  that  of  Spain,  the  duty  imposed  by  the  British  landholders  has  greatly 
checked  the  importation.  In  return,  Portugal  takes  grain,  salt-fish,  and  a  variety  of  manu- 
factures, chiefly  from  Britain ;  but  as  her  imports  cannot  much  exceed  the  exports,  she  can- 
not aflbrd  a  very  copious  market. 

The  internal  communications  of  Portugal  consist  of  the  several  noble  rivers  which  tra- 
verse her  territory,  and  which  are  navigable  throughout.  The  intercourse  by  land  is  ren- 
dered very  difficult  by  chains  of  mountains  extending  in  the  same  direction.     Nothing  has 


Book  L 


PORTUGAL. 


593 


been  attempted  on  any  important  scale,  either  to  improve  these  advantages,  Or  to  amend  the 
defects ;  so  that  travelling  is  worse  in  Portugal  than  in  any  other  European  country. 

Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State. 

The  population  of  Portugal,  according  to  the  last  census,  which  was  taken  in  1798,  amounts 
to  3,683,000  ;  calculating  at  the  somewhat  higli  estimate  of  five  to  a  family.  According  to 
more  probable  estimates  it  now  amounts  to  3,530,000.  Upon  a  surface  of  38,800  square 
miles,  this  gives  a  density  of  about  ninety-one  to  the  square  mile,  which  is  remarkable,  as 
exceeding  that  of  Spain  nearly  in  the  proportion  of  three  to  two.  The  exemption  from  the 
mesta,  and  the  high  cultivation  of  the  province  of  Entre  Douro  e  Minho,  appear  to  be  the 
redeeming  circumstances  in  her  case. 

No  nation,  as  to  character,  owes  less  to  the  opinion  of  the  world,  than  the  Portuguese. 
They  are  described  as  indolent,  dissembling,  cowardly,  destitute  of  public  spirit,  and  at  the 
same  time  fierce  and  deeply  revengeful.     In  Spain  it  is  said,  strip  a  Spaniard  of  his  virtues, 
and  he  becomes  a  good  Portuguese.    From  a  late  minute  inspection,  however,  the  peasantry 
325  i.fia-  325.)  have  been  pronounced  to  be  a  fine  peo- 

ple ;  and,  on  repeated  occasions  during  the  late  war, 
they  displayed  energies  not  unworthy  of  their  an- 
cestors, in  an  age  when  their  glory  resounded 
throughout  both  hemispheres.  Almost  all,  however, 
that  floats  on  the  surface  is  base  and  degenerate. 
There  cannot  be  a  doubt  that  this  may  be  greatly 
ascribed  to  priestcraft,  to  the  stupifying  influence  of  a 
sluggish  and  tyrannical  government,  and  to  the 
general  corruption  which  has  pervaded  all  the 
branches  of  administration. 

The  established  and  exclusive  religion  is  the 
Catholic,  in  its  extreme  and  most  degrading  excess ; 
and  the  body  of  the  people  are  almost  entirely  under  the  thraldom  of  the  priesthood.  The 
burning  of  Jews  continued  till  within  the  last  half-century.  The  physiognomy  of  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  people  shows  their  descent  from  this  hated  race,  whose  tenets  many,  it  is  pro- 


Portuguese  Peasantry. 


326 


Friar  and  Nun. 


bable,  still  cherish  in  secret.  There  are,  in  Portugal, 
about  550  religious  houses,  of  which  150  are  nunneries* 
(Jiff.  326.).  The  number  of  two  archbishops  and  thir- 
teen bishops  is  not  so  disproportionate. 

The  literature  of  Portugal,  during  the  period  of  its 
glory,  was  by  no  means  contemptible.  The  genius  and 
fate  of  Camoens  spread  his  name  throughout  Europe,  and 
entitled  him  to  rank  among  the  few  modern  epic  poets. 
By  the  students  of  Portuguese  literature,  however,  Saa 
Miranda  and  Antonio  Ferreyra  are  reckoned  scarcely 
second  to  him ;  and  Rodriguez  Lobo  held  the  nation  long 
enchanted  by  the  sweetness  of  his  pastorals.  At  the 
same  time  Di  Barros,  Castanheda,  and  Faria  y  Sousa, 
recorded,  in  magnificent  though  somewhat  mflated  historical  narrative,  the  mighty  exploits 
of  their  countrymen  in  the  Afi-ican  and  Indian  seas.  The  subjection  to  Spain  gradually 
divested  Portuguese  literature  of  its  manly  and  energetic  character.  The  muse  of  history 
was  silent ;  poetry  assumed  the  form  only  of  the  sonnet,  and  Gongora  infected  it  wholly  with 
a  strain  of  false  and  meretricious  ornament.  The  house  of  Braganza  for  some  time  did 
little  for  knowledge ;  but  in  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  the  Conde  de  Ericeyra  intro- 
duced the  French  literature,  and  founded  a  royal  academy.  In  the  course  of  the  century, 
Barros  Pereyra,  Antonio  da  Lima,  Manuel  da  Costa,  a  Brazilian,  Correa  Garcas,  and  Paulino 
Cabral,  a  bishop,  made  not  unsuccessfiil  efforts  to  revive  the  "ancient  Portuguese  poetry,  and 
to  introduce  that  of  Italy.  Portugal  has  two  universities.  That  of  Coimbra,  founded  at 
Lisbon  in  1290,  was  transferred  to  Coimbra  in  1308.  It  enjoys  some  celebrity,  is  divided 
into  eighteen  colleges,  and  is  still  attended  by  several  hundred  students;  but  the  course  of 
study  is  of  that  obsolete  description  which  prevailed  during  the  middle  ages,  A  smaller 
university  was  founded  at  Evora  in  1578. 

For  the  minor  particulars  of  amusement,  dress,  food,  &c.,  reference  may  be  made  to  Spain, 
as  Portugal  has  no  peculiarities  that  are  more  than  provincial. 

Sect.  VII. — Local  Geography. 

Portugal  is  divided  into  the  following  six  provinces,  several  of  which,  like  those  of  Spain, 
in  reference  to  events  in  their  past  history,  are  sometimes  called  kingdoms : — 


*  [The  religious  houses,  monasteries,  and  nunneries,  were  suppressed  in  1834.— Am.  Ed.] 

Vol.  L  50*  3Z 


594  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  m. 

Eitent  In  ' 

Provlncet.  English  Acres.  Popubtioa.  Frincipa)  Towns,  with  their  Pnpulation. 

Estremadura 5,450,8^0 826,860 Lisbon,  200,000;  Setubal,  15,000 ;  Santarem,  8,000 

Alemtejo 5,8J8,3-20 360.480 Elvas,10,000  ;  Evora,  9,000 

Algarve 1,530,000 127,613 Faro,  8,000  ;  Tavira,  !p,000. 

Beira 4,i>!i4,l)00 1,121,505 Coirabra,  15.000 ;  Laiiieeo,  9,000 ;  Viseii,  9,000. 

EntreDoiiroeMinho  1,927  040 907,905 Oporto,  70,000;  Braga,  14,000;  Vi  an  a,  8,000. 

Tras  on  Monies  . . .  .3,007,700 318,665 Braganza,  4,000. 

Estremadura  occupies  a  ^eat  extent  of  coast,  both  to  the  north  and  south  of  the  Tagus, 
without  ever  penetrating  very  deep  into  the  interior.  It  presents  a  rocky,  varied,  and  pic- 
turesque surface.    It  is  chiefly  important,  however,  as  contaming  Lisbon,  the  capital. 

Lisbon  {fig.  327.)  is  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Tagus,  which  may  here  be  ahnost 
g.^y  considered  an  arm  of  the  sea,  since  not 

only  the  tide  ilows  up,  but  the  water  is 
salt,  and  the  swell  often  tempestuous. 
The  approach  to  it  presents  a  more 
magnificent  spectacle  than  that  of  per- 
haps any  other  city  of  Europe.  Lisbon 
rises  direct  from  the  water,  crowning 
the  sides  and  summits  of  several  hills  ; 

which,  according  to  the  Portuguese,  are 

Lisbon.  seven  in  number,  like  those  of  Rome. 

The  palaces,  convents,  and  churches, 
which  crown  this  amphitheatre  of  buildings;  the  dazzling  whiteness  of  the  houses;  the 
light  appearance  of  the  windows  and  balconies ;  the  tasteful  arrangement  of  plants,  shrubs, 
and  flowers  on  their  roofs  and  terraces  ;  tlie  golden  orange  groves  which  adorn  the  suburbs, 
and  the  stately  specimens  of  Indian  or  American  botany  -which  are  scattered  through  the 
scene,  produce  an  effect  that  cannot  be  described.  The  noble  harbour,  also,  crowded  with 
vessels ;  the  numerous  pilot  and  fishing-boats,  with  their  large,  handsome  lateen  sails,  as- 
cending or  descending  the  river ;  and,  nearer  the  shore,  hundreds  of  small  neat  boats,  with 
white  or  painted  a^\^lings,  finely  vary  the  scene.  The  moment,  however,  that  the  stranger 
lands,  and  enters  the  place,  he  finds  that  he  has  been  imposed  upon  by  a  brilliant  illusion ; 
and  the  gay  and  glittering  city  is  found  to  resemble  a  painted  sepulchre.  The  streets  are 
narrow  and  ill  paved ;  the  houses  gloomy,  with  here  and  there  a  latticed  window ;  filth  and 
nuisances  assault  him  at  every  turn.  Lisbon  does,  indeed,  appear  to  be  the  dirtiest  and  most 
noisome  city  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  In  passing  through  the  streets,  a  stranger  encounters 
at  every  turn  the  most  disgusting  effluvia.  Every  species  of  vermin  destined  to  punish  in- 
dolence and  slovenliness,  the  mosquito,  the  scolopendra,  and  a  species  of  red  ant,  multiply 
to  an  e.xtraordinary  degree.  Nor  is  Lisbon  found,  on  inspection,  to  exhibit  that  architectural 
beauty  which  it  promises  on  a  distant  view.  It  might  have  been  expected,  among  forty 
churches  and  seventy-five  convents,  built  by  a  superstitious  people,  that  there  svould  have 
been  some  signal  display  of  this  kind ;  but  this  is  not  found  even  in  the  cathedral.  The 
defect  seems  partly  owing  to  the  mean  taste  of  the  Marquis  of  Pombal,  who  ordered  them 
to  be  all  built  on  a  line  wdth  the  street,  to  preserve  a  dull  uniformity.  Two  handsome 
squares,  however,  have  been  formed,  the  Commercial  and  the  Roscio,  which  are  connected 
by  well-built  streets;  but  the  absence  of  trees,  or  even  shrubs,  and  the  blinding  sand  that 
drifts  through  them,  combine  to  produce  a  disagreeable  effect.  Lisbon  derives  an  awful 
interest  from  the  ruins  still  left  of  the  great  earthquake  of  1755,  the  most  dreadfiil  catas- 
trophe which  ever  befell  a  modem  European  city.  Six  thousand  houses  were  thrown  down, 
30,000  inhabitants  killed ;  and  a  conflagration  kindled  which  spread  a  still  wider  destruction. 
The  ruins  are  the  more  dismal,  as  they  portend  similar  disasters,  Mhich  the  earth,  still 
heaving  from  time  to  time,  perpetually  threatens.  Meantime,  Lisbon  displays  one  very  grand 
feature  ;  the  aqueduct,  to  the  construction  of  which,  though  it  conveys  the  water  only  half  a 
mile,  peculiar  obstacles- were  presented.  It  is  carried  in  one  place  through  a  tunnel,  and  in 
another  over  a  defile  230  feet  deep,  by  arches,  which  are  said  to  be  the  highest  in  the  world. 
The  width  of  the  centre  arch  is  107  feet.  It  was  built  in  1738,  by  Manuel  de  Maya ;  and 
is  of  such  solidity  that  it  withstood  the  shock  of  the  great  earthquake,  which  only  caused  the 
keystone  to  sink  a  few  inches. 

The  vicinity  of  Lisbon  presents  some  beautiftil  sites  and  palaces.  Cintra  is  the  most 
striking,  consisting  of  an  immense  mountain,  partly  covered  with  scanty  herbage,  partly 
with  broken,  huge,  and  varied  piles  of  rock,  elsewhere  presenting  thick  groves  of  cork,  elm, 
oak,  hazel,  and  other  trees.  It  includes  many  lovely  and  fantastic  spots  ;  but  the  view  from 
it  is  naked  and  dreary.  The  town,  at  the  bottom,  with  its  old  palace,  has  nothing  remark- 
able ;  but  the  sides  are  covered  with  delightfiil  villas,  one  of  which  is  notorious  for  the  sig- 
nature of  the  unhappy  convention  of  Cintra.  Mafra  is  a  royal  convent  built  by  John  V.,  in 
emulation  of  the  Escurial ;  but  though  a  stupendous  pile,  700  feet  square,  and  containing 
numberless  suites  of  ill-ftimished  apartments,  it  ranks  far  below  its  model.  Only  five  miles 
below  Lisbon,  of  which  it  is  considered  a  suburb,  is  Belem,  the  site  of  a  palace  and  a  very 


Book  1. 


PORTUGAL. 


595 


magnificent  monastery,  founded  by  Emanuel,  and  in  which  many  of  the  royal  family  have 
been  interred. 

^  There  are  several  other  towns  of  some  note  in  Portuguese  Estremadura.  St.  Ubes  or 
Setubal  lies  sixteen  miles  from  Lisbon,  on  the  coast  south  of  the  Tagus,  on  a  long  interior 
bay,  the  waters  of  which,  evaporated  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  leave  llie  excellent°bay-salt, 
one  of  the  national  staples.  The  town  is  considerable,  having  been  well  rebuilt  since  the 
earthquake  of  1755,  when  it  was  almost  totally  overthrown.  The  mountain  of  Ursabida, 
here  extending  into  the  sea,  forms  a  bold  and  striking  promontory,  covered  with  trees  and 
various  vegetation.  Ascending  the  Tagus,  we  come  to  Santarem,  a  considerable  and  ancient 
town,  the  Prssidium  Julium  of  the  Romans.  It  has  an  academy  of  history,  established  in 
1747.  Here  the  great  French  army,  under  Massena,  remained  long  posted,  unable  to  pene- 
trate to  Lisbon.  Abrantes,  higher  up,  is  an  important  military  position,  situated  on  a  height 
whence  it  commands  the  passage  of  the  Tagus.  Leiria,  to  the  north,  is  an  ancient  town,  in 
a  most  productive  territory,  and  where  a  great  annual  fair  is  held  for  the  supply  of  the 
peasantry  of  the  neighbouring  country  round.  At  Batalha,  is  a  church  {fig.  328.),  and 
monastery,  which,  united,  form  the  finest  structures  in  all  Portugal.  It  is  541  feet  by  416, 
and  is  considered  by  Mr.  Murphy  to  be  one  of  tlie  noblest  existing  specimens  of  the  Norman 


328 


Church  of  Batalha. 


Slausoleum  of  King  John. 


Gothic.  It  is  constructed  entirely  of  marble,  and  the  front  appeared  to  him  almost  unri- 
valled in  chaste  and  delicate  ornament.  Among  the  different  parts,  the  mausoleum  erected 
in  honour  of  King  John,  is  pre-emmently  beautiful  {fig.  329.).  Vimiero  is  only  a  village, 
but  celebrated  for  the  signal  victory  gained  by  the  British  over  the  army  of  Junot.  Three 
miles  distant  is  Torres  Vedras,  a  tolerable  old  town,  but  chiefly  noted  as  the  centre  of  the 
grand  fortified  lines  formed  by  Wellington  in  1810,  which  so  completely  baffled  all  the  ma- 
noeuvres by  which  the  French  had  hoped  to  reconquer  Portugal. 

Alemtejo  is  an  extensive  province,  comprising  the  greater  part  of  Portugal  south  of  the 
Tagus.  The  interior  presents  an  extensive  plain ;  but  the  frontier  towards  Spain  is  finely 
diversified  with  hills,  wooded  mountains,  and  deep  valleys  extremely  well  watered,  and  very 
fertile.  It  contains  some  large  towns.  Evora  is  situated  on  an  eminence  in  a  fine  country, 
and  is  of  great  antiquity.  Its  origin  has  even  been  dated  seven  centuries  before  the  Chris- 
tian era.  It  is  more  clearly  ascertained  that  the  Romans  made  it  a  municipal  town,  and 
adorned  it  with  some  of  their  finest  structures.  There  is  a  noble  aqueduct,  of  which  the 
piers  are  nine  feet  broad,  and  suppoited  by  buttresses ;  also  a  Temple  ot  ^iana  built  by 
Sertorius,  in  which  great  elegance  is  displayed.  Elvas,  on  the  Spanish  frontier,  imme- 
diately facing  Badajos,  is  the  strongest  fortress  in  Portugal,  and  designed  as  the  barrier  of 
the  kingdom.  The  works  were  constructed  under  the  directions  of  the  celebrated  Count 
Schaumburg-Lippe  ;  and  the  fort,  bearing  his  name,  is  considered  a  masterpiece  of  the  art. 
In  this  neighbourhood  are  also  Villa  Viciosa,  a  pleasan'  town,  and  a  favourite  country  resi- 
dence of  the  Portuguese  monarchs,  who  have  here  a  handsome  hunting-park  ;  and  Porta- 
legre,  a  handsome  little  town  in  a  delightful  country,  with  a  good  cathedral.  Southward, 
in  the  interior,  is  Beja,  a  Roman  colony,  and  subsequently  a  strong  Moorish  fortress.  After 
being  nearly  demolished,  it  was  rebuilt  by  Alfonso  III.,  and  foitified  by  King  Diniz,  and  is 
still  a  considerable  town. 

Algarve  forms  the  extreme  south  of  Portugal ;  and  is  a  maritime  province,  bearing  in  an 
especial  sense,  tlie  appellation  of  kingdom,  since  it  long  remained  independent,  and  was  a 
celebrated  tlieatre  of  war  between  the  Moors  and  the  Christians.  It  is  tolerably  lertile  in 
wine,  fruits,  and  oil.     Faro,  the  largest  town,  is  also  the  principal  seat  of  trade,  and  has  a 


596 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  IIL 


regnlat  packet  to  Gibraltar.  Lajjos  and  Silves  are  also  old  little  towns,  the  former  on  the 
sea-coast,  with  some  sliippingf.  Cape  St.  Vincent,  the  extreme  point  of  Algarve,  and  the 
most  south-westerly  of  the  Peninsula,  is  celebrated  for  tlie  signal  victory  gained  by  the 
British  fleet  over  the  Spanisli,  on  the  14th  of  February,  1797. 

Boira  is  a  very  extensive  province  or  kingdom,  tilling  nearly  the  whole  centre  of  Portu- 
gal, between  the  Tagus  and  the  Douro.  Its  surface  presents  considerable  variety ;  the  in- 
terior part  has  the  usual  mountainous  character  of  Portugal,  being  traversed  by  the  great 
chain  called  the  Sierra  d'Estrella.  On  the  sea-coast,  however,  there  are  plains  of  consider- 
able extent.  The  province  produces  plenty  of  wine,  oil,  and  chestnuts,  and  has  extensive 
pastures ;  but  the  grain  is  not  sufficient  for  its  consumption. 

Coimbra  {fig.  330.),  the  capital,  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  declivity  of  a  hill,  which 
goA  -ji^jv.-.  ^'^6^  above   the  Mondego;    but  the 

"  ''^'"  streets,  as  in  other  old  Portuguese 

towns,  are  crowded,  dirty,  and  very 
steep.  In  former  times  a  residence 
of  the  kings  of  Portugal,  it  was 
strongly  fortified,  and  has  stood  ob- 
stinate sieges ;  but  the  remains  of 
its  walls  and  towers  are  no  longer 
sufficient  to  constitute  it  a  fortress. 
It  has  been  called  the  Athens  of  Por- 
tugal, fi-om  its  extensive  university, 
containing  eighteen  colleges,  with 
forty  professors,  and  about  eight  hun- 
dred students.  Attached  to  it  is  a  library  of  nearly  40,000  volumes,  including  numerous 
MSS. ;  but  the  actual  value  both  of  these  and  tlie  printed  works  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
fully  investigated. 

Beira  has  other  towais  of  some  importance.  Among  these  is  Almeida,  the  northern  barrier 
of  the  kingdom  and  a  fortress  of  consequence,  though  not  possessing  the  great  strength  of 
Elvas.  It  was  twice  taken  in  the  last  war,  first  by  the  French  under  Massena,  and  then  by 
the  British  under  Wellington.  Castello  Branco,  on  tlie  southern  frontier,  notwithstanding 
its  commanding  situation,  retains  little  importance.  Lamego,  near  the  southern  bank  of  the 
Douro,  is  an  ancient  city,  and  the  cradle  of  the  Portuguese  monarchy.  Here,  in  1143,  the 
states-general  for  the  first  time  met,  recognised  tjic  fundamental  laws,  and  acknowledged 
the  sovereignty  of  Alfonso.  Viseu,  in  the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  is,  like  Lamego,  an  epis- 
copal see,  and  has  the  greatest  annual  fair  in  Portugal. 

Entre  Douro  e  ]\Iinho  forms  the  maritime  part  of  Portugal,  north  of  the  Douro.  Though 
the  smallest,  it  is  considered  the  most  valuable,  populous,  and  productive  of  all  the  provinces. 
Its  peasantry  have  done  much  to  redeem  the  reproach  of  torpor  and  sluggishness  generally 
urged  against  their  countrymen.  This  district  is  entirely  covered  with  mountains,  partly 
rugged  and  barren,  but  generally  separated  by  fertile  and"  well-watered  valleys,  cultivated 
to  the  utmost  possible  extent ;  and  which,  besides  oil,  fruit,  and  flax,  are  made  to  produce 
most  copiously  the  wine  called  port,  for  which  so  ample  a  market  exists  in  England. 

Oporto,  or  Porto  {fig.  331.),  the  ancient  capital,  and  still  the  second  city  of  the  kingdom, 
is  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Douro  on  the  northern  bank,  though  on  the  southern  are 
two  extensive  suburbs,  supposed  to  have  constituted  the  ancient  city.     The  modern  town  is 


Coimbra. 


well  built,  especially  when  compared  with  most  others  in  the  peninsula.  The  river  afl'ords 
a  tolerably  secure  harbour,  without  any  artificial  aid,  except  an  elevated  and  walled  quay,  to 
which  the  ships'  cables  may  be  fastened  during  the  floods.  These  often  come  down  with 
6uch  force,  tliat,  without  such  a  support,  the  vessels  would  be  inevitably  carried  out  into  tlie 


Book  I.  PORTUGAL.  5OT 

sea.  The  chief  dependence  of  Oporto  is  its  trade  with  England,  which  remains  unimpaired 
amid  the  general  diminution  of  that  with  America.  There  are  about  thirty  English  houses 
regularly  settled  here,  besides  a  number  of  merchants  who  pay  frequent  visits  to  the  place. 
The  exportation  of  port  wine,  however,  on  which  its  trade  rests,  is  generally  cramped  by 
the  absurd  policy  of  placing  it  entirely  in  the  hands  of  an  exclusive  company,*  who  have 
adopted  the  pernicious  practice  of  diluting  the  produce  of  the  best  vineyards  with  wine  of 
those  of  an  inferior  quality,  by  which  the  character  of  the  genuine  port  grievously  suffers. 

Braga,  farther  north,  ranks  as  the  capital  of  the  province ;  and,  though  now  far  outstripped 
by  Oporto,  is  of  much  more  ancient  fame.  Under  the  Romans  it  was  the  metropolis  of  an 
extensive  district,  and  its  former  greatness  is  still  attested  by  numerous  antiquit>es.  It  has 
made  a  distinguished  figure  in  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  Portugal,  and  is  tlie  see  of  an 
archbisliop,  wlio  is  primate  of  the  kingdom.  Braga  is  a  handsome  town ;  well  built,  well 
paved,  the  streets  spacious  and  clean.  There  is  some  industry,  particularly  a  manufacture 
of  small  beaver  hats,  which  supplies  a  great  part  of  the  kingdom.  Tiie  adjacent  country  is 
hilly,  but  populous  and  pleasant.  Valen9a  is  a  small  town,  agreeably  situated  on  the  Minho, 
which  separates  it  from  Galicia. 

Tras  OS  Montes,  or  the  province  beyond  the  mountains,  is  of  great  extent,  occupying  the 
whole  interior  of  Portugal  north  of  the  Douro.  The  Cantabrian  cliain,  after  traversing 
Asturias  and  Galicia,  throws  out  branches  which  not  only  separate  the  territory  from  the 
rest  of  Portugal,  but  cover  almost  its  whole  surface.  They  leave  only  deep  valleys,  through 
which  considerable  rivers,  too  rapid  however  to  be  navigable,  pour  down  into  the  Douro. 
It  is  much  inferior  to  Entre  Douro  e  Minho,  both  in  populousness  and  cultivation ;  yet  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  the  port  wine  produced  grows  on  the  sides  of  its  hills.  The  inhabitants 
are  a  race  of  active,  hardy,  and  brave  mountaineers.  They  rose  in  great  force  against  the 
French,  and  have  since  somewhat  less  happily  distinguished  themselves  by  the  ardour  with 
which  they  fought  in  the  cause  of  absolute  power,  and  in  resistance  to  every  form  of  consti- 
tutional government. 

The  towns  are  small,  and  not  regularly  fortified ;  though,  fi-om  the  nature  of  the  country, 
they  form  defensible  military  positions.  Braganza  is  a  city  of  ancient  note,  and  gave  the 
title  of  Duke  to  the  first  nobleman  in  the  kingdom,  even  before  he  was  raised  to  the  throne, 
by  the  appellation  of  John  IV.  The  kings  of  Portugal  still  retain  the  title  of  Dukes  of 
Braganza.  Chaves,  the  Aquse  Fla,viEe  of  the  Romans,  still  exhibits  two  baths  and  a  magni- 
ficent bridge  constructed  by  that  people.  Chaves  gives  the  title  of  Marquis  to  a  family,  one 
of  whom  was  the  most  active  opponent  of  the  Frencli  during  their  invasion ;  while  another 
has  lately  been  at  the  head  of  the  anti-constitutional  army,  of  which  the  head-quarters  weye 
ahvays  in  Tras  os  Montes. 

•  [The  Oporto  wine  company,  which  enjoyed  this  monopoly,  was  abolished  in  1834.— Am.  Ed.] 


END  OF  THE  FIRST  VOLUME 


._  Angeles 


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